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I 


Mr*.  Rolund  1?oodfaw 


A 
A 


THE 


AMEKICAN    CYCLOPAEDIA 


VOL  VII. 
EVESHAM-GLASCOCK. 


808 


THE 


AMEKICM  CYCLOEEDU: 


opttto  §xttxioimxj^ 


OF 


G-BHBEAL   KNOWLEDGE. 


EDITED  BY 

GEORGE  RIPLEY  and  CHARLES  A.  DAlf A. 


WITJI  SUPPLEMENT. 


YOLUME  m 
EVESHAM-GLASCOCK. 


NEW    YORK: 
D.    APPLETON    AND    COMPANY, 

1,   8,   ARD  6    BOND    STBEET. 

LONDON:    16   LITTLE   BRITAIN. 

1883. 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1869,  by  0.  APPLETON  AND  COMPANY,  in  tho 
Clerk*B  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States  for  the  Southern  District  of  New  Yoik. 

Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1874,  by  D.  APPLETON  AND  COMPANY,  in  tho 
Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington. 

Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1880,  by  D.  APPLETON  AND  COMPANY,  in  tho 
Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington. 

« 

Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  tho  year  1888,  by  D.  APPLETON  AND  COMPANY,  in  the 
Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington. 


•       t 

-       « 


^•i-,.' 


7-/ 


/■{.'    .-*    -w 


Among  the  ContAhutora  of  New  A7i>icles  to  the  Seventh  Volume  of  the  Hevieed 

Edition  are  the  foUowinff : 


V 

c 

"4^ 


^ 


Prof.  Clbyeland  Abb£,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Foo. 

FlOST. 

WnxABD  Bartlett. 

Oavoss. 
OAkaow  Hills. 

OlLOLO. 

Prof.  C.  W.  Bennett,  D.  D.,  Syracuse  Uni- 
versity. 

FnK,  WlLBUB. 
FUBTOnKK,  JOUK  WlLUAM. 

FoOTKB,  Bandolph  8.,  D.  D. 

JULITTS    BiNO. 

Fatbs,  Jules  Clauds  Oabbixl, 
FuAD  Pabha, 
Gjucbbtta,  L£ox, 

and  other  articles  in  biography,  geography,  and 
histoiy. 

Del  A  VAN  Bloodoood,  M.  D.,  U.  8.  N. 

Faskaout,  David  Glasoob. 

Fbancis  0.  Bowman. 

FnLD,  John. 

FoKifxs,  Kael. 

FosTxa,  Stsphem  Colldis. 

Edwabd  L.  Bublingame,  Ph.  D. 

FmAiroB, 

and  articles  in  biography  and  history. 

John  D.  Ghampun,  Jr. 
F1.A0, 

Oallst, 
Obtsess. 

QlBBALTAS, 

and  articles  in  biography  and  geography. 

Pfof.  E.  H.  Clabke,  M.  D.,  Harvard  University. 

Oallio  Acid, 
Qalls, 

and  other  articles  in  materia  medics. 

Hon.  T.  M.  CooLEY,  LL.  D.,  Ann  Arhor,  Mich. 

Excise, 

£xTRADrnoir, 

S^omvE, 

and  other  legal  articles. 

Prof.  J.  0.  Dalton,  M.  D, 

£xcEBnox, 
Flint,  A,  Jr., 

and  medical  and  physiological  articles. 

Eaton  S.  Dbone. 

Florida, 

FUB, 

and  various  articles  in  American  geography. 

Capt.  0.  E.  Button,  U.  S.  A. 

FOWLnVO  PXBCB. 

Kobebt  T.  Edes,  M.  D.,  Harvard  University. 

Articles  in  materia  medlcB. 

W.  M.  Febbiss. 

Fribitds. 

Oboxetet. 

OiKGUEirfi,  PiBBBB  Loms. 

Prof.  Austin  Flint,  M.  D. 

Fevbb,  and  Fbvbbs. 

Alfred  H.  Guebnset. 

Febdebicksbubo,  Baitlb  or. 
Gbittsbubo,  Battlb  or. 

J,  W.  Ha  WES. 

Fish  Gultubb, 

FiSHEBlBS, 
GALVBSTOMf 

Oboboia, 

and  articles  in  American  geography. 

Chableb  L.  Hooeboom,  M.  D. 

Fabadat,  Michabl. 

Febxentaixoii. 

Flahb. 

FUBBAOB. 

Galvabisic. 
Gas. 


Prof.  T.  Steeby  Hunt,  LL.  D.,  Mass.  Inst,  of 

Technology,  Boston. 
Fossil  Footpbintb. 
Gboloot. 

Rossiteb  Johnson. 

£x mouth,  Edwabd  Pbllsw,  Viscoont, 
KosTBB,  John  Wells, 
Gaines,  Mtba  Clabk, 

and  other  biographical  articles. 

Prof.  S.   Kneeland,  M.  D.,  Mass.  Inst,  of 
Technology,  Boston. 

Fltino  Lbxub, 
fobaxinifbba, 
Fulmae, 
Gibbon, 

and  other  articles  in  natural  histoiy. 

Rev.  Fbanklin  Noble, 
ezzblino  da  bobako. 
Faubiel,  Claude  Ghablbs. 
Fbano. 
Geobob  I. 
Gilbebt,  Sir  John. 

Rev.  Bebnabd  O'Reilly,  D.  D. 

ExOOMJiUNICATIOK. 
EXOBCISM. 
EXTBBMB   nNCnON. 

Flobbmcb,  Council  or. 

Count  L.  F.  de  PouBTALis,  Musenm  of  Com- 
parative Zoology,  Cambridge,  Mass. 
Galapagos. 

RiCHABD  A.  Pboctob,  A.  M.,  London. 

Galaxy. 

Prof.  Rossiteb  ^.  Raymond,  Ph.  D. 

Explosives. 

Philip  Ripley. 

Fechteb,  Chablbb  Albbbt. 
Garibaldi,  Giuseppe. 
Gatlikg,  Kicuabd  Jobdan. 

Prof.  A.  J.  Sohem. 

Galatiakb,  Epistlb  to  the. 
Gbbmant  (geographical  part). 

J.  G.  Shea,  LL.  D. 

Foxxs, 

Froktknao,  Louis  db  Buade,  Connt  de, 
Galvbz,  Bernardo,  Count  do, 
and  articles  on  American  Indians. 

Prof.  Geoboe  Thubbeb. 

Fib, 

Fuchsia, 
Gbbanium, 
Gilliplowbb, 

GiNOKO, 

Gladiolus, 

and  other  botanical  articles. 

Prof.  G.  A.  F.  Van  Rhyn,  Ph.  D. 

Faieies, 

Fbrjeb  Islands, 

Finds, 

Gboboian  Lanouagb, 

Gbbmanic  Baces  and  Languages, 

and  other  archaeological,  oriental,  and  philological 
articles. 

I.  DE  YeITELLE. 
Gaucbos, 

and  other  Bonth  American  articles. 

0.  8.  Weyman. 

France,  Wines  of. 
Fbbbgo  Painting. 
Gbbmant,  Wines  or. 

Prof.  Junius  B.  'Wheeleb,  U.  S.  M.  A.,  West 
Point. 

FORTinCATION. 

Prof.  J.  H.  WOBMAN. 
Flibdneb,  Thbodob. 

Prof.  E.  L.  Y0UMAN8. 

Evolution. 


THE 


AMERICAN   CYCLOPEDIA. 


EVESHAM 

EVESHAM,  a  parliamentary  borongh  and  mar- 
I    ket  town  of  Worcestershire,  Endand, 
nearly  encircled  by  tbe  Avon,  18  m.  S.  E.  of 
Wokroester ;  pop.  abont  5,000.    It  is  well  built, 
and  contains  three  churches,  a  mechanics'  in- 
stitute, reading  rooms,  and  a  library.    The  re- 
maining tower  of  the  once  famous  abbey  of 
Eresham  is  one  of  the  finest  architectural  spe- 
cimens of  the  time  of  Henry  YIIL    The  chief 
occupation  is  gardening,  but  gloves,  hosiery, 
and  parchment  are  manufactured,  and  there 
is  on  active  trade  in  malt  and  hops. 

ETIDENCE.  Judicial  evidence  differs  from 
the  proofs  by  which  human  judgment  is  or- 
dinarily determined  in  non-judicial  matters, 
chiefly  in  certain  rules  established  for  the  sake 
of  facility  in  disposing  of  complicated  questions 
of  fact,  or  on  grounds  of  public  policy.  These 
rnles  may  be  reduced  under  the  following 
heads :  1,  cases  in  which  a  rule  is  prescribed 
for  the  purpose  of  getting  at  a  certain  conclu- 
sion, though  arbitrary,  when  the  subject  is  in- 
trinsically liable  to  doubt  from  the  remoteness, 
discrepancy,  or  actual  defect  of  proofs ;  2,  cases 
in  which  evidence  is  excluded  on  the  ground 
of  being  untrustworthy  and  tending  to  un- 
necessary prolixity,  or  from  its  very  nature 
likely  to  be  untrue ;  8,  cases  in  which  a  legal 
presumption  is  substituted  for  actual  proof^  or 
in  place  of  what  could  be  proved,  being  sup- 
posed to  be  more  consistent  with  the  real  rights 
of  the  parties  than  any  result  which  could  be 
expected  from  positive  testimony ;  4,  the  grad- 
uation of  the  weight  of  evidence,  which  will 
be  found  in  some  instances  to  be  arbitrary  in 
its  origin,  and  perhaps  not  altogether  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  ordinary  process  of  judg- 
ment.— Under  the  first  class  will  be  included 
various  rules  which  have  been  adopted,  not 
from  exact  uniformity  per  m,  but  for  the  sake 
of  baviuff  some  rule  of  general  application, 
among  which  may  be  specified  the  following : 
a.  That  after  seven  years'  absence  without 


EVIDENCE 

having  been  heard  from,  a  man  shall  be  pre- 
sumed to  be  dead.  It  is  obvious  in  this  case 
that  the  period  fixed  upon  is  no  more  certain 
than  any  other,  but  it  was  necessary,  for  tlie 
protection  of  the  rights  of  parties  who  were 
compelled  to  act  upon  some  presumption,  that 
a  legal  rule  shoula  be  established.  If  a  man 
therefore  has  been  absent  seven  years  with- 
out anything  being  heard  of  him,  his  wife  may 
marry  again  without  incurring  a  penalty  for 
bigamy,  though  it  has  not  been  provided  that 
the  second  marriage  shall  be  absolutely  valid 
in  case  the  husband  should*  afterward  return ; 
and  his  heir,  or  the  person  entitled  to  his  es- 
tate by  succession,  becomes  vested  with  pre- 
sumptive ownership,  the  same  as  if  his  decease 
was  actually  proved,  l.  That  after  the  ex- 
clusive possession  of  land  or  of  an  incorporeal 
hereditament  for  a  certain  period  of  time,  a 
grant  shall  be  presumed,  and  the  title  of  the 
occupant  will  be  sustained  against  all  claimants. 
In  England  this  period  was  formerly  express- 
ed with  some  vagueness,  as  being  beyond  the 
memory  of  man,  and  the  rule  applied  there 
only  to  incorporeal  estates ;  but  by  a  statute 
(2  and  8  Wuliam  IV.)  the  period  has  been 
limited  to  20  years  in  cases  of  aquatic  rights, 
ways,  and  other  easements,  and  to  80  years 
in  respect  to  right  of  common  and  other  uses 
arising  out  of  lands,  except  tithes  and  rents. 
In  the  United  States  the  presumption  is  gen- 
erally the  same  both  in  respect  to  corporeal 
and  incorporeal  estates.  In  a  large  number  of 
the  states  20  years'  exclusive,  undisturbed,  and 
uninterrupted  possession,  under  claim  of  right, 
is  sufficient  to  establish  title  to  lands  or  ease- 
ments. In  some  states  a  shorter  period  is  pre- 
scribed, either  generally  or  for  particular  classes 
of  cases,  as  for  example  those  in  which  the 
claim  of  right  is  under  purchase  at  a  tax  or  ju- 
dicial sale.  c.  That  deeds  more  than  80  years 
old  may  be  used  as  evidence  without  proof  of 
their  execution;  in  other  words,  that  they 


6 


EVIDENCE 


prove  themselves.  The  presamption  in  sach 
cases  is  that  the  subscribing  witnesses  or  others 
by  whom  proof  of  execution  is  ordinarily  made 
may  be  dead,  but  the  rule  is  the  same  even  if 
such  witnesses  are  actually  living.  In  offering 
such  a  deed  in  evidence,  however,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  give  some  account  of  the  custody  of  it, 
and  to  show  that  possession  has  been  consis- 
tent with  its  provisions,  so  as  to  rebut  any  sus- 
picion in  respect  to  its  genuineness,  d.  An 
infant  under  the  age  of  seven  years  is  conclu- 
sively presumed  to  be  without  discretion.  Be- 
yond that  age  it  will  be  a  subject  of  proof 
whether  he  is  dolt  eapax^  but  prior  to  that  time 
no  inquiry  is  permitted.  So  an  infant  under 
the  age  of  14  is  presumed  incapable  of  com- 
mitting a  rape,  tnough  in  fact  there  are  in- 
stances of  sexual  capacity  before  that  age.  So 
when  husband  and  wife  are  living  together 
and  impotency  is  not  proved,  the  issue  will  be 
presumed  legitimate,  although  it  should  be 
proved  that  the  wife  has  during  that  time  com- 
mited  adultery,  e.  By  the  common  law,  if  a 
wife  do  any  act  in  the  presence  of  her  husband 
amounting  to  felony,  other  than  treason  or 
murder,  she  is  presumed  to  have  been  under 
coercion,  and  therefore  not  criminally  liable. 
This  presumption,  however,  is  allowed  but 
limited  force  in  the  United  States. — The  second 
class  of  cases  includes  two  rules  which  were 
formerly  of  very  frequent  application,  a.  What 
is  called  hearsay  evidence  is  inadmissible.  By 
this  is  meant  that  a  witness  should  not  be  per- 
mitted to  testify  what  he  has  heard  another 
person  say,  but  only  what  he  knows  himself. 
To  this  rule  there  are  some  qualifications  ra- 
ther than  exceptions.  Thus  it  is  sometimes 
proper  to  prove  what  was  said  by  a  person  at 
the  time  of  performing  a  certain  act,  as  having 
some  tendency  to  explain  the  intent,  and  there- 
fore admissible  as  a  part  of  the  res  gestm^  ac- 
cording to  legal  phraseology.  In  such  a  case, 
however,  what  was  said  does  not  strictly  come 
nnder  the  designation  of  hearsay,  but  is  itself 
a  principal  fact.  So  also  it  is  admissible  to 
prove  what  has  been  said  by  a  party  to  an 
action.  This  again  is  a  principal  fact,  or  at  all 
events  comes  under  the  designation  of  declara- 
tions or  admissions,  and  as  such  is  admissible. 
So  it  is  permitted  in  cases  of  homicide  to  prove 
dying  declarations,  that  is,  what  is  said  by  the 
murdered  person  shortly  before  and  in  expec- 
tation of  death.  This  is  not  unusual  in  trials 
for  murder,  and  is  competent  evidence,  both 
to  show  the  manner  of  the  death  and  who  was 
the  murderer;  but  it  must  be  strictly  con- 
fined to  the  homicide,  and  to  facts  which  it 
would  have  been  competent  for  the  party  to 
have  testified  to  had  he  survived.  The  tes- 
timony of  a  witness  on  a  former  trial  may  also 
be  proved  on  a  second  trial,  in  case  of  his  de- 
cease prior  thereto.  Again,  witnesses  are  al- 
lowed to  testify  to  matters  of  tradition  in 
respect  to  old  boundaries  of  estates.  The  rule 
in  England  is  limited  to  coses  in  which  some 
pnblio  right  is  involved,  as  when  a  right  of 


common  is  in  question ;  but  in  the  United 
States  it  has  been  allowed  in  many  cases  where 
the  lines  of  large  tracts  of  land  became  mate- 
rial in  determining  the  limits  of  smaller  estates. 
The  traditional  evidence,  as  it  is  called  in  such 
cases,  consists  of  proof  of  what  has  been  said 
long  since  by  persons  who  may  be  supposed  to 
have  had  some  personal  knowledge,  or  to  have 
heard  trom  others  who  had  such  knowledge. 
Pedigree,  including  the  facts  relating  to  birth, 
marriage,  and  death,  may  also  be  shown  by 
proof  of  what  has  been  said  by  members  of  the 
family  or  relatives  of  the  person  whose  paren- 
tage or  relationship  is  in  question.  Many  other 
illustrations  could  be  cited,  but  these  will  suffice. 
It  should  be  remarked  that  upon  the  same 
principle  by  which  the  kind  of  evidence  last 
referred  to  is  admissible,  other  modes  of  proof, 
which  are  ordinarily  classed  under  hearsay, 
though  they  in  fact  belong  to  that  species  of 
evidence  in  no  other  sense  than  as  above  ex- 
plained in  respect  to  oral  testimony,  are  admit- 
ted, such  as  a  family  register,  inscriptions  on 
monuments,  and  the  like.  But  with  the  ex- 
ceptions, if  they  may  be  so  called,  which  we 
have  specified,  hearsay  evidence  is  wholly  and 
absolutely  excluded  by  the  English  law.  The 
reasons  usually  given  for  this  exclusion  are  its 
uncertain  and  untrustworthy  character,  the 
endless  prolixity  to  which  it  would  lead  in  the 
attempt  to  sift  facts  in  judicial  proceedings,  the 
ease  with  which  it  might  be  manufactured  for 
the  occasion,  and  the  probability  that  better 
evidence  is  attainable,  h.  Another  rule  relates 
to  the  competency  of  witnesses,  and  it  has 
been  more  prolific  of  subtle  distinctions  and 
perplexing  questions  than  any  other  rule  in 
the  law  of  evidence.  A  chief  ground  of  ex- 
clusion was  formerly  interest  in  the  subject 
of  the  action.  The  theory  was  that  there  is 
an  inevitable  tendency  to  suppress  or  pervert 
the  facts  under  the  influence  of  a  supposed 
interest  in  the  result.  This  of  course  con- 
stituted a  proper  exception  so  far  as  respects 
credibility ;  but  instead  of  receiving  the  testi- 
mony subject  to  a  proper  discrimination  as  to 
its  effects,  courts  relieved  themselves  of  all  em- 
barrassment in  determining  its  relative  weight, 
by  wholly  excluding  the  testimony  of  an  inter- 
ested witness.  Under  this  rule  not  only  the 
parties  to  the  action,  but  all  persons  having  an 
interest  in  the  result,  were,  as  a  general  rule, 
adjudged  incompetent  to  testify.  In  determin- 
ing, however,  the  nature  of  the  interest  which 
should  constitute  a  disqualification,  it  was  found 
exceedingly  diflicult  to  fix  precise  rules  of  gen- 
er^  application,  and  much  confliction  was  in- 
volved in  the  decisions.  Finally  it  was  settled 
that  the  interest  must  be  a  direct  gain  or  loss 
by  the  operation  of  the  judgment  in  the  action, 
or  that  the  record  would  be  evidence  for  or 
against  the  witness  in  some  other  action.  But 
no  interest  other  than  pecuniary  was  sufficient 
to  exclude,  and  therefore  near  relatives  might 
testify  for  each  other  even  in  the  most  serious 
cases,  and  where  the  temptations  to  shield  them 


EVIDENCE 


by  nntmthfnl  statements  might  be  the  strong- 
est possible.  Bat  husband  and  wife  were  not 
admitted  to  testify  for  or  against  each  other, 
for  which  two  reasons  were  principally  as- 
signed:  1,  that  it  wonld  tend  to  destroy  the 
domestic  harmony ;  and  2,  that  the  wife  was 
under  snch  coercion  of  the  husband  as  would 
be  likely  to  lead  her  to  distort  or  suppress  the 
truth.  An  exception,  from  the  necessity  of 
the  case,  was  made  of  prosecutions  for  injuries 
done  or  threatened  by  one  against  the  other. 
The  conviction  at  length  became  general  that 
the  ezclosion  of  witnesses  on  account  of  inter- 
est worked  ii^jnriously,  and  accordingly,  both 
in  England  and  the  United  States,  the  system 
has  been  virtually  abrogated.  By  statute  8  and 
4  William  IV.,  c.  42,  it  was  provided  that  no 
person  offered  as  a  witness  should  be  excluded 
on  the  ground  that  the  verdict  or  judgment  in 
the  action  could  be  used  for  or  against  him. 
The  act  6  and  7  Victoria,  c.  85  (1843),  provided 
tliat  no  one,  except  a  party,  or  the  husband  or 
wife  of  a  p^rty,  should  be  excluded  from  testi- 
fying on  the  ground  of  interest  in  the  subject 
of  the  action  or  event  of  the  trial.  The  act  14 
and  15  Victoria,  c.  99  (1851),  enacted  that  par- 
ties and  persons  on  whose  behalf  a  suit  is 
broagfat  or  defended  shall  be  competent  and 
compellable  to  testify  as  witnesses  for  either 
p^jy  except  that  in  criminal  proceedings  for 
an  indictable' offence  neither  the  party  charged 
nor  the  husband  or  wife  of  such  party  could  be 
a  witness  ;  and  except  also  that  the  provision 
should  not  apply  to  actions  founded  upon  adul- 
tery, or  for  a  breach  of  promise  of  marriage. 
By  a  subsequent  act,  16  and  17  Victoria,  c.  83 
(1853),  the  husband  or  wife  of  a  party  in  a 
ci?il  action  was  made  competent  as  a  witness 
except  in  cases  of  adultery,  but  with  the  quali- 
fication that  such  witness  should  not  be  bound 
to  disclose  any  confidential  communication 
made  by  either  to  the  other  during  marriage. 
In  the  United  States  similar  provisions  have 
very  generally  been  adopted ;  and  as  a  rule  all 
persons  having  knowledge  of  material  facts  are 
competent  and  compellable  to  testify,  except 
husband  and  wife  against  each  other,  and  the 
defendants  in  criminal  proceedings.  The  for- 
mer, however,  are  allowed  to  be  witnesses  for 
each  other,  and  by  consent  may  be  called  by 
the  opposite  party.  In  a  number  of  the  states 
the  defendants  in  criminal  crises  are  allowed 
either  to  testify  in  their  own  behalf  under 
oath,  or  to  make  a  statement  without  oath 
which  the  jury  may  receive  as  evidence ;  but 
constitutional  provisions  forbid  their  being  com- 
pelled to  testify  against  themselves. — The  third 
of  the  classes  into  which  we  have  divided  the 
roles  of  evidence  consists  of  presumptions  of 
law  in  lieu  of  actual  proof,  or  of  what  could 
be  proved,  under  which  may  be  specified  the 
following :  a.  The  statutes  of  limitation,  by 
which  a  period  of  time  is  fixed  when  a  debt 
shall  be  presumed  to  have  been  paid,  or  satis- 
faction to  have  been  received.  This  sort  of 
presumption  is  made  not  for  want  of  actual 


proof,  as  the  period  is  usually  short,  but  to 
put  an  end  to  controversy  within  a  reasonable 
period.  The  current  business  of  life  has  enough 
to  employ  our  attention  without  our  being  bur- 
dened with  the  memory  of  all  former  transac- 
tions. (See  Limitation,  Statutes  of.)  h.  Es- 
toppels. A  man  is  said  to  be  estopped  when  it 
would  be  inconsistent  with  good  faith  or  with 
the  policy  of  the  law  to  allow  him  to  deny  a 
certain  fact  or  legal  conclusion.  Thus,  if  he 
claims  under  a  deed  or  will,  he  is  bound  by  all 
that  is  contained  in  it,  and  is  estopped  either 
from  denying  any  recital  therein,  or  from  set- 
ting up  any  claim  of  title  adverse  to  or  incon- 
sistent with  such  deed  or  will.  An  estoppel  in 
paisy  as  it  is  called  in  the  old  cases,  is  when  a 
man  is  precluded  by  his  own  act  or  admission 
from  proving  anything  contrary  thereto.  An 
instance  of  this  is  when  a  man  has  by  some 
statement  or  admission  induced  another  with 
whom  he  was  dealing  to  enter  into  a  contract ; 
he  will  not  afterward  be  permitted  to  deny  the 
truth  of  such  statement  or  admission  if  the  ef- 
fect would  be  to  work  an  injury  to  such  thu'd 
party.  So  a  tacit  admission,  as  when  the 
owner  of  a  chattel  stands  by  while  another 
sells  it  as  his  own,  and  neglects  to  give  notice 
of  his  right ;  this  will  operate  as  an  estoppel  to 
his  setting  up  his  claim  against  the  innocent 
purchaser.  To  this  head  also  belongs  what  is 
called  res  jttdieata^  that  is  to  say,  the  rule  that 
when  a  fact  necessarily  involved  in  an  action  is 
once  determined  it  shidl  not  afterward  be  called 
in  question  as  between  the  same  parties  or  per- 
sons claiming  under  them.  A  judgment  or  de- 
cree of  a  competent  court  is  final  not  only  as  to 
what  was  actually  determined,  but  as  to  every 
matter  which  was  involved  in  the  issue,  and 
which  could  have  been  decided.  The  record 
of  the  judgment  is  the  only  proper  evidence 
of  what  was  in  issue,  and  it  cannot  be  proved 
aliunde  that  some  matter  was  in  fact  involved 
and  taken  into  consideration  which  does  not 
appear  by  the  record  to  have  been  involved  in 
the  issue.  This  is  the  rule  as  to  decisions  of 
tribunals  in  our  own  country.  In  respect  to 
foreign  judgments  and  decrees,  the  effect  is  the 
same  when  the  court  had  jurisdiction  of  the 
case,  and  no  fraud  has  been  practised.  The 
record  itself  which  must  be  produced,  is  not 
conclusive  as  to  facts  necessary  to  ^ve  juris- 
diction, and  a  defendant  will  be  permitted  to 
prove  that  he  was  not  personally  served  with 
process;  so  any  fraud  on  the  part  of  the  court 
or  its  officers  may  be  shown.  But  the  regu- 
larity of  the  judgment  having  been  established, 
it  is  conclusive  upon  all  matters  embraced  in  the 
issue. — ^Tlie  fourth  class  in  the  arrangement  we 
have  made  of  our  subject,  viz.,  the  comparative 
weight  of  evidence,  is  of  a  twofold  character. 
Judicial  discrimination  may  lead  to  the  rejec- 
tion of  testimony  as  being  entitled  to  no  weight 
at  all,  or  it  may  determine  the  relative  influ- 
ence which  it  should  have  if  admissible  in  the 
decision  of  a  question  of  fact.  The  former 
we  have  already  considered,  so  far  as  respects 


8 


EVIDENCE 


the  incompetency  of  witnesses  and  the  exclu- 
sion of  hearsay  testimony.  But  evidence  is 
sometimes  excluded  for  reaBons  of  more  limited 
application.  Thus,  inferior  testimony  is  not 
admitted  when  a  party  has  it  in  his  power  to 
produce  what  is  of  a  higher  order ;  as  if  the 
question  be  as  to  the  title  to  real  estate  derived 
from  a  deed,  the  best  proof  will  of  course  be 
the  production  of  the  deed  itself,  and  no  other 
proof  will  be  admitted  as  a  substitute,  unless  a 
satisfactory  reason  is  given  for  its  non-produc- 
tion, as  where  it  has  been  lost  or  destroyed. 
But  in  this  case,  the  substituted  evidence  must 
be  exclusively  as  to  the  contents  of  the  deed. 
But  where  under  statutes  providing  therefor 
conveyances  of  real  estate  are  recorded,  the 
record  or  a  certified  copy  is  allowed  to  be  read 
in  evidence  with  the  same  effect  as  the  original. 
So  when  a  contract  is  in  writing,  it  is  necessary 
to  produce  the  writing  itself,  and  no  other  evi- 
dence can  be  given  of  the  terms  of  such  con- 
tract, without  showing  first  the  loss  of  the 
writing,  or  that  for  some  other  satisfactory 
reason  it  is  impracticable  to  produce  it ;  upon 
making  which  proof,  parol  evidence  may  be 
given  as  to  the  contents.  And  whenever,  in 
the  course  of  a  trial,  a  fact  comes  in  question, 
the  evidence  of  which  is  in  writing,  the  same 
rule  is  applied,  viz.,  that  no  other  evidence  can 
be  admitted  than  the  writing  itself  if  in  ex- 
istence, and  if  not,  then  only  the  substituted 
proof  of  its  contents.  It  may  however  happen 
that  nothing  more  than  the  purport  can  be 
shown,  and  not  the  exact  phraseology;  and 
some  latitude  will  be  allowed  in  such  case,  as 
by  admitting  proof  of  the  acts  of  parties,  and 
other  circumstances,  but  still  having  in  view  to 
get  at  what  was  expressed  by  the  writing.  It 
does  not  follow,  however,  that  when  the  best 
or  what  is  called  primary  evidence  cannot  be 
produced,  inferior  or  what  is  called  secondary 
evidence  will  in  all  oases  be  admitted.  Thus, 
hearsay  evidence  is  in  general  excluded,  even 
if  none  better  can  be  procured.  Upon  the 
same  principle,  when  a  writing  is  put  in  evi- 
dence^ it  nmst  have  effect  according  to  its 
terms,  and  parol  evidence  is  not  admissible  to 
give  it  a  different  construction,  or  to  defeat  its 
operation  according  to  the  import  thereof;  or 
even  if  the  writing  is  ambiguous,  it  cannot  be 
explained  by  other  evidence,  if  the  ambiguity 
is  intrinsic,  that  is,  if  the  phraseology  \aper  se 
doubtful.  But  if  the  ambiguity  arises  from 
something  referred  to  but  not  fully  expressed 
in  the  writing,  explanation  by  other  evidence 
is  admissible.  The  latter  is  designated  in  law 
as  a  latent  ambiguity,  by  which  is  meant  that 
it  does  not  appear  upon  the  face  of  the  instru- 
ment, but  arises  from  something  extrinsic.  So 
also,  when  parties  to  a  contract  have  under- 
taken to  express  it  in  writing,  it  will  be  as- 
sumed that  they  have  expressed  the  whole,  and 
nothing  can  be  added  by  parol  evidence,  so  far 
as  relates  to  what  the  parties  had  in  view  at 
the  time  the  contract  was  made.  This  is  in 
effect  saying  that  the  written  contract  must 


speak  for  itself,  and  will  be  presumed  to  con- 
tain all  that  was  intended  at  the  time,  though 
this  contract  may  be  varied  by  a  subsequent 
parol  agreement  for  good  consideration.  To 
the  general  rule  as  above  stated  there  are, 
however,  some  qualifications.  1.  It  is  admis- 
sible to  explain  the  subject  of  the  contract  and 
all  the  circumstances  which  may  properly  be 
supposed  to  have  been  had  in  view  by  both 
parties,  for  the  purpose  of  understanding  the 
phraseology  which  they  may  have  used.  2. 
Terms  peculiar  to  a  science,  profession,  art,  or 
trade  may  be  explained  by  witnesses  conver- 
sant therewith.  8.  Parol  evidence  is  admissible 
to  impeach  a  written  instrument,  by  showing 
fraud,  illegality  of  the  subject  matter,  or  what- 
ever would  operate  in  law  to  avoid  it. — The 
admissibility  of  evidence  is  in  judicial  proceed- 
ings a  matter  of  law,  and  in  jury  trials  is  deter- 
mined by  the  court.  But  it  is  not  alone  for 
this  purpose  that  discrimination  is  required. 
A  question  of  fact  usually  involves  testimony 
on  both  sides,  which  must  be  collated,  and  the 
relative  weight  of  which  must  be  determined 
in  order  to  reach  a  correct  conclusion.  Usually 
the  court  arranges  and  sifts  the  evidence  in  the 
instructions  given  to  the  jury,  and  it  is  obvious 
that  without  this  aid  the  jury  would  be  incom- 
petent to  analyze  the  evidence  in  a  complicated 
case.  Since  the  disqualification  to  testify  by 
reason  of  interest  has  been  abolished,  the  rea- 
sons which  formerly  were  insisted  upon  as 
grounds  of  such  disqualification  are  still  proper 
to  be  considered  with  reference  to  the  credit 
of  the  witness.  It  would  be  out  of  place  to 
discuss  these  reasons  at  large  in  the  brief  sum- 
mary of  principles  to  which  this  article  is  neces- 
sarily limited.  A  single  case  may  however  be 
appropriately  referred  to,  viz.,  the  impeach- 
ment of  a  witness  by  direct  testimony  of  other 
witnesses,  showing  that  he  is  unworthy  of 
credit.  This  kind  of  testimony  is  peculiar. 
The  inquiry  is  limited  to  the  general  reputation 
of  the  witness  whose  veracity  is  in  question, 
and  the  impeaching  witness  is  not  allowed  to 
testify  to  particular  facts.  The  usual  course 
of  examination  is  to  inquire  what  is  the  gen- 
eral reputation  of  the  witness  as  to  veracity, 
and  formerly  it  was  permitted  then  to  ask  the 
impeaching  witness  whether  he  would  believe 
the  other  under  oath,  but  the  authorities  are 
in  this  country  not  altogether  uniform  as  to  the 
latter  practice.  It  may  not  be  improper  h  ere  to 
say  that  the  rule  as  to  impeachment  of  a  wit- 
ness is  seldom  of  use,  except  where  he  is  no- 
toriously destitute  of  principle.  A  witness  is 
also  dlowed  to  be  impeached  by  showing  that 
he  has  made  out  of  court  statements  contra- 
dictory to  his  evidence  in  court ;  but  before 
these  are  pennitted  to  be  shown  his  attention 
is  called  to  them,  that  he  may  have  opportunity 
for  explanation. — We  have  thus  briefly  analyzed 
the  general  principles  of  the  law  of  evidence. 
Our  subject  would  however  be  imperfectly 
treated  if  we  should  not  refer  to  some  of  the 
rules  which  have  more  particular  relation  to 


EVIDENCE 


9 


the  practice  of  the  courts.  One  is  that  the 
best  evidence  must  always  be  produced ;  or  in 
other  words,  that  inferior  evidence  will  not  be 
received  when  a  party  has  it  ii^  his  power  to 
produce  better.  But  it  does  not  follow,  as  be- 
fore remarked,  that  when  a  party  has  not  the 
power  to  produce  the  best,  any  other  without 
restriction  is  admissible.  The  secondary  proof 
must  still  be  such  as  is  held  competent  under 
other  rules,  or  it  will  be  rejected.  The  mean- 
ing of  the  rule  is  that  inferior  evidence,  al- 
though otherwise  competent,  shall  not  be  ad- 
mitted when  better  can  be  had.  We  have 
before  adverted  to  the  distinction  between 
writings  or  documentary  proof,  and  oral  or,  as 
it  is  usually  called,  parol  evidence.  The  dis- 
tinction is  founded  upon  the  uncertainty  of 
memory.  Whatever  has  been  put  in  writing 
can  never  be  proved  by  mere  recollection  with 
perfect  exactness ;  the  writing  itself  is  of  course 
the  most  trustworthy,  and  according  to  the 
rale  above  mentioned  it  must  be  produced  or 
its  loss  proved  before  its  contents  can  be  shown 
by  other  evidence ;  and  this  is  true  whether 
the  writing  relates  to  the  principal  fact  or 
subject  of  the  action,  or  is  merely  incidental. 
Again,  when  the  question  is  as  to  a  fact  re- 
specting which  there  is  evidence  in  writing, 
bat  an  offer  is  made  to  prove  the  fact  by  evi- 
dence aliunde  without  producing  the  writing 
or  proving  its  contents,  the  rule  is  that  if  the 
writing  was  the  concurrent  act  of  both  parties, 
as  if  it  was  signed  by  them  or  was  prepared 
with  the  privity  of  both  as  an  expression  of 
their  mutual  understanding,  it  is  thereby  con- 
stituted the  primary  evidence  of  the  fact  to 
which  it  relates,  and  must  be  produced.  This 
includes  not  merely  a  written  contract  which 
is  the  subject  of  the  action  or  defence,  but  any 
other  writing  which  the  parties  have  agreed 
upon  as  the  expression  of  any  fact  incidentally 
involved  in  the  action.  There  is  this  difference, 
however,  between  the  two  cases :  that  in  the 
former  no  other  proof  can  be  received  but  the 
instrument  itself,  or  if  lost,  proof  of  its  con- 
tents; whereas  in  the  latter  there  may  be 
other  evidence  bearing  upon  the  same  point 
which  is  admissible,  together  with  the  writing, 
and  in  some  instances  without  it,  where  it  is 
not  intentionally  withheld.  Thus  a  written 
correspondence  between  the  parties  may  be 
material  to  show  their  understanding  in  re- 
spect to  some  transaction,  but  this  would  not 
preclude  proof  of  conversations  or  other  acts. 
If^  however,  the  correspondence  contains  a 
contract,  then,  according  to  another  rule,  no 
other  evidence  can  be  received  except  what  is 
necessary  for  the  proper  explanation  of  the 
meaning  of  the  parties  in  the  language  used  by 
them.  .  It  is  not  material  which  party  has  pos- 
session of  the  writing ;  the  rule  is  the  same  in 
either  case.  If  wanted  by  one  party,  and  the 
other  has  possession  of  it,  upon  notice  by  him 
to  the  other  to  produce  it,  and  its  non-produc- 
tion, he  may  ^ve  parol  evidence  of  its  con- 
tents.   It  is  to  be  understood  that  the  rule 


above  mentioned  applies  only  to  a  writing  in 
which  both  parties  have  concurred.  When  it 
is  a  memorandum  by  one  without  the  privity 
of  the  other,  it  cannot  be  evidence  at  all,  ex- 
cept under  the  recent  modification  of  the  law 
of  evidence  allowing  parties  to  be  witnesses, 
and  is  subject  to  the  same  rule  that  applies  to 
any  other  witness.  The  rule  as  to  a  memoran- 
dum made  by  a  witness  at  the  time  of  the  trans- 
action referred  to  in  it  is,  that  he  may  refer  to 
it  for  the  purpose  of  refreshing  his  memory ; 
but  having  done  so,  he  is  to  testify  what  with 
this  aid  he  is  able  to  recollect.  But  if  he  has 
no  recollection  independent  of  the  memoran- 
dum, the  later  doctrine  is  that  on  proving  that 
it  was  made  at  the  time  of  the  transaction  re- 
ferred to,  and  that  he  then  had  knowledge  of 
the  subject,  the  memorandum  itself  may  be  put 
in  evidence.  The  mode  of  proving  a  writing 
which  is  attested  by  a  subscribing  witness  is 
peculiar.  In  such  a  case  the  subscribing  wit- 
ness must  be  called  if  living  and  within  the  ju- 
risdiction of  the  court ;  but  if  dead  or  absent 
from  the  country,  proof  of  his  handwriting  or 
that  of  the  party  will  be  sufficient  to  make  the 
instrument  evidence.  The  exclusion  of  proof 
of  execution  by  any  other  person  than  the  sub- 
scribing witness  has  often  been  the  occasion  of 
inconvenience ;  and  the  reason  usually  assigned 
for  it,  viz.,  that  the  subscribing  witness  is  sup- 
posed to  have  some  knowledge  of  the  subject 
which  another  would  not  have,  is  certainly 
very  singular,  as  if  he  had  such  knowledge  he 
would  not  be  allowed  to  testify  to  it,  if  it  would 
at  all  vary  the  effect  of  the  instrument.  In 
England,  by  acts  17  and  18  Victoria,  c.  125 
(1854),  a  subscribing  witness  to  an  instrument 
which  is  not  required  by  law  to  be  attested 
need  not  be  called,  but  the  instrument  may  be 
proved  in  the  same  manner  as  if  there  was  no 
such  witness.  The  rule  that  parol  evidence  is 
not  admissible  to  contradict,  vary,  or  explain  a 
written  instrument  has  been  before  referred  to, 
and  certain  exceptions  or  qualifications  were 
mentioned ;  but  it  should  be  added  that  in  a 
proper  proceediug  instituted  to  reform  the  in- 
strument, it  may  always  be  shown  that,  through 
accident,  mistake,  or  fraud,  it  was  not  made 
to  express  the  real  intent  and  contract  of  the 
party.  Such  a  proceeding  must  be  in  chancery, 
except  where  the  common-law  courts  are  vest* 
ed  with  equity  jurisdiction. — In  the  examina- 
tion of  witnesses,  a  very  different  mode  is  pre^ 
scribed  to  the  party  calling  a  witness  from  what 
is  allowed  to  the  opposite  party.  The  counsel 
of  the  former  must  not  put  leading  questions, 
and  if  the  witness  should  make  adverse  or  un- 
satisfactory answers,  still  he  was  deemed  the 
witness  of  the  party  and  could  be  examined 
only  in  accordance  with  that  theory  ;  that  is  to 
say,  he  could  not  be  cross-examined  by  such 
party.  This  at  least  was  formerly  the  rule,  but 
it  has  recentiy  been  relaxed  so  far  as  to  allow 
him  to  be  treated  to  some  extent  as  an  adverse 
witness,  when  it  is  apparent  that  he  is  so.  On 
the  other  hand,  cross-examination  by  the  other- 


10 


EVOLUTION 


party  is  allowed  to  an  almoBt  imlimited  extent, 
and  the  privilege  is  often  used  to  pervert  ra- 
ther than  elicit  the  truth.  It  would  be  difficult 
to  fix  a  precise  limit  of  restriction,  as  it  neces- 
sarily rests  very  much  in  the  discretion  of  the 
court ;  but  the  prevailing  practice  seems  to 
be  suited  rather  to  a  remote  period,  when 
from  the  disorders  of  society  and  consequent 
laxity  of  moral  principle  there  was  little  reli- 
ance to  be  placed  on  the  oath  of  witnesses,  than 
to  the  present  advanced  state  of  social  order. 

E¥OLUnON,  the  term  n6w  generally  applied 
to  the  doctrine  that  the  existing  universe  has 
been  gradually  unfolded  by  the  action  of  natu- 
ral causes  in  the  immeasurable  course  of  past 
time.  The  question  how  the  present  order  of 
things  originated  seems  natural  to  the  hyman 
mind,  and  has  been  put  by  all  the  races  of 
men.  The  answer  given  in  their  cosmogonies, 
that  it  was  created  as  we  now  see  it  by  super- 
natural power,  has  been  generally  accepted  as 
a  matter  of  religious  faith.  The  early  Greek 
philosophers  first  brought  the  question  into  the 
field  of  speculation,  and  taught  that  all  natural 
things  have  sprung  from  certain  primal  ele- 
ments, such  as  air,  water,  or  fire.  As  regards 
the  origin  of  life,  Anaximander  is  said  to  have 
held  that  animals  were  begotten  from  earth  by 
means  of  moisture  and  heat,  and  that  man  did 
not  originate  in  a  perfectly  developed  state, 
but  was  engendered  from  beings  of  a  different 
form.  Empedocles  taught  that  the  various 
parts  of  animals,  arms,  feet,  eyes,  &c.,  existed 
separately  at  first ;  that  they  combined  grad- 
ually, and  that  these  combinations,  capable 
of  subsisting,  survived  and  propagated  them- 
selves. Anaxagoras  believed  that  plants  and 
animals  owe  their  origin  to  the  fecundation  of 
the  earth  whence  they  sprung  by  germs  con- 
tained in  the  air.  Aristotle,  the  father  of  natu- 
ral history,  entertained  much  more  rational 
views  upon  the  subject,  and  it  is  maintained 
that  he  held  opinions  as  to  the  causes  of  di- 
versity in  living  beings  similar  to  those  that  are 
entertained  by  the  latest  zoologists.  It  has 
been  asserted  that  some  of  the  earlv  theolo- 
gians,  including  St.  Augustine  and  St.  Thomas 
Aquinas,  announced  doctrines  that  harmonize 
apparently  with  the  modem  views  of  evolu- 
tion. We  however  find  no  development  of  the 
ideas  thus  shadowed  forth.  LinnsBUS  and  Buf- 
fon  seem  to  have  been  the  first  among  modern 
naturalists  who  formed  definite  conceptions  of 
a  progressive  organic  development,  but  they 
did  little  to  elucidate  the  idea.  Immanuel 
Kant  announced  in  1755  his  theory  of  the  me- 
chanical origin  of  the  universe,  and  supposed 
that  the  different  classes  of  organisms  are  re- 
lated to  each  other  through  generation  from  a 
common  original  germ.  Dr.  Erasmus  Darwin, 
grandfather  of  Charles  Darwin,  in  his  Zoono- 
mia  (1794),  maintained  the  natural  genesis  of 
organic  beings.  But  the  first  to  frame  a  dis- 
tinct liypothesis  of  development  was  Lamarck, 
who  published  his  PhUoBophie  zoohgique  in 
1809,  and  developed  his  views  still  furtner  in 


1815  in  his  Euioire  naturelle  desaniinaux  sans 
vertibres.    He  held  that  all  organic  forms,  from 
the  lowest  to  the  highest,  have  been  developed 
progressively  from  living  microscopic  particles. 
Similar  conclusions  were  arrived  at  by  Goethe 
in  Germany,  and  by  Geoffroy  Saint-Hilaire  in 
France  in  his  work  Sur  le  principe  de  P unite 
de  composition  organique^  published  in  1828. 
The  views  thus  far  were  of  a  general  and  high- 
ly speculative  nature,  and  without  firm  scien- 
tific ground- work.    It  was  only  when  the  ques- 
tion was  narrowed  down  to  tbat  of  the  muta- 
bility or  immutability  of  species,  and  to  the 
causes  and  extent  of  variation  as  determined 
by  observation  and  experiment,  that  the  real 
difficulties  of  the  case  were  grappled  with,  and 
the  inquiry  assumed  a  strictly  scientific  char' 
acter.    In  1813  Dr.  W.  0.  Wells  read  a  paper 
before  the  London  royal  society,  in  which  he 
recognized  distinctly  the  principle  of  natural  se- 
lection as  applied  to  certain  races  of  mankind. 
In  1822  the  Rev.  William  Herbert,  afterward 
dean  of  Manchester,  declared  his  conviction 
that  *^  botanical  species  are  only  a  higher  and 
more  permanent  class  of  varieties;^*   and  he 
extended  this  opinion  to  animals.    Leopold 
von  Buch,  in  his  Physikalisehe  Beschreihu-aig  def 
Canarischen  Ineeln  (1825),  expresses  the  opin- 
ion that  varieties  change  gradually  into  perma- 
nent  species,  which  are  no  longer  capable  of 
intercrossing.    In  1826  Prof.  Grant  of  Edin- 
burgh published  a  paper  on  the  spongilla  in 
the  "  Philosophical  Journal,"  in  which  he  held 
that  species  are  descended  from  other  species, 
and  that  they  become  improved  in  the  course 
of  modification.     Karl  Ernst  von  Baer,  in  his 
Ueber    Entwickelungsgeschichte    der     Thiere 
Q823),  maintains  similar  views  as  to  animals. 
Oken,  in  his  Katurphilosophie  (1848),  published 
his  belief  in  the  development  of  species ;  and 
in  1846  J.  d'Omalius  d'Halloy  of  Brussels  ex- 
pressed his  opinion  that  probability  favors  this 
theory  rather  than  that  of  separate  creations. 
Isidore  Geoffroy  Saint-Hilaire,  in  his  lectures 
published  in  1860,  gives  reasons  for  his  belief  in 
the  modification  of  species  by  circumstances, 
and  in  the  transmission    of   differences  thus 
produced.     In  1852  Herbert  Spencer  argued 
that   species    have    undergone    modification 
through  change  of  circumstances.    M.  Nau- 
din  in  the  same  year  published  a  paper  on 
the  origin  of  species  in  the  Revue  horticole^  in 
which  he  averred  his  belief  that  botanical 
species  are  formed  in  a  manner  analogous  to 
varieties  under  cultivation ;  and  Franz  Unger, 
also  in  1852,  expressed  similar  opinions  in  his 
Versuch   einer  Gesehichte   der  Fflamentjoelt, 
In  1853  Dr.  Schaffliausen,  in  a  paper  published 
in  the  Verhandlungen  des  Naturhistorischen 
Vereins  despreussischen  Rheinlands^  &c.,  main- 
tained the  doctrine  of  progressive  development 
of  organic  forms.     On  July  1, 1858,  two  essays 
were  read  before  the  Linna^an  society,  one  by 
Charles   Robert  Darwin,   entitled    "On  the 
Tendency  of  Species  to  form  Varieties,  and  on 
the  Perpetuation  of  Species  and  Varieties  by 


•i 


\ 


EVOLUTION 


11 


means  of  Natural  Seleetion;^'  the  other  hy 
Alfred  Bussel  Wallace,  entitled  ''  On  the  Ten- 
dency of  Varieties  to  depart  indefinitely  from 
the  Original  Type.'^  These  papers  showed 
that  these  two  natnralists  had  arrived  at  almost 
exactly  the  same  general  conclusions ;  hut  the 
priority  may  safely  be  assigned  to  Darwin, 
who,  although  he  had  not  previously  made 
public  his  views,  had  submitted  a  sketch  of 
them  as  early  as  1844  to  Sir  Charles  Lyell,  Dr. 
Hooker,  and  others.  In  1859  he  published  the 
treatise  entitled  '^  On  the  Origin  of  Species  by 
means  of  Natural  Selection,"  which  was  the 
means  of  diffusing  so  widely  the  theory,  elab- 
orated by  him  through  years  of  patient  and 
careful  investigation,  that  it  is  commonly  des- 
ignated by  his  name.  In  this  work  he  did 
not  apply  the  doctrine  of  evolution  to  the  hu- 
man race,  although  he  had  long  held  the  opin- 
ion that  man  must  be  included  with  other  or- 
ganic beings ;  and  it  was  not  until  after  Hux- 
ley, Spencer,  Lyell,  Lubbock,  Gegenbaur, 
Vogt,  Kolle,  Haeckel,  Oanestrini,  Francesco, 
and  others,  had  accepted  the  extreme  conclu- 
sion, that  he  published  *'  The  Descent  of  Man, 
and  Selection  in  Relation  to  Sex  "  (1871).  In 
1872  Haeckel,  who  previously  had  discussed 
th«  genealogy  of  man  in  Naturliehe  Schop- 
fmgsgeschiehte  (1868),  published  his  Mono- 
graphU  der  Salhtehwdmme,  in  which  he  claims 
togi^e  an  analytical  demonstration  of  the  prob- 
lem of  the  development  of  species. — The  the- 
ory as  now  generally  held  is  thus  stated  by 
Prof.  Huxley:  "Those  who  hold  the  the- 
ory of  evolution  (and  I  am  one  of  them) 
conceive  that  there  are  grounds  for  believing 
that  the  world,  with  all  that  is  in  it,  did  not 
come  into  existence  in  the  condition  in  which 
we  now  see  it,  nor  in  anything  approaching 
that  condition.  On  the  contrary,  they  hold  that 
the  present  conformation  and  composition  of 
the  earth's  crust,  the  distribution  of  land  and 
water,  and  the  infinitely  diversified  forms  of 
animds  and  plants  which  constitute  its  present 
popnlation,  are  merely  the  final  terms  in  an 
immense  series  of  changes  which  have  been 
brought  about,  in  the  course  of  immeasurable 
time,  by  the  operation  of  causes  more  or  less 
similar  to  those  which  are  at  work  at  the  pres- 
ent day."  The  idea  expressed  by  the  term 
development  involves  the  same  principle,  but 
it  is  usually  restricted  to  the  evolution  of  or- 
ganic beings.  We  will  first  consider  the  doc- 
trine as  applied  to  the  development  of  the 
various  forms  of  life,  and  then  in  its  broader 
aspects  as  a  theory  of  universal  evolution. — 
It  has  been  proved  by  geology  that  the  earth 
and  its  life,  instead  of  being  called  suddenly 
into  existence  a  few  thousand  years  ago,  have 
existed  for  millions  of  years ;  and  as  the  moun- 
tains and  continents  are  known  to  have  at- 
tained their  present  iform  by  the  action  of 
natural  agencies,  it  is  thought  probable  that 
other  objects  of  nature  have  been  produced  in 
a  simiUr  way.  The  earth  has  teemed  with  liv- 
mg  beings  through  incalculable  periods  of  time, 


and  fossil  remains  of  them  are  found  distributed 
through  the  rocky  layers  that  have  been  suc- 
cessively formed,  until  they  are  several  miles  in 
thickness.  But  not  all  kinds  of  animals  and 
plants  existed  from  the  beginning,  leaving  their 
mingled  remains  in  the  lowest  strata;  the  low- 
est types  of  life,  vegetable  and  animal,  appeared 
first.  The  successive  phases  of  life  are  so 
definite  that  they  have  been  held  as  mark- 
ing off  the  earth's  history  into  a  series  of 
ages.  The  invertebrates  (radiates,  mollusks, 
and  articulates)  are  found  in  the  Silurian  or 
oldest  stratified  rocks ;  and  from  the  predomi- 
nance of  the  mollusks  the  period  has  been 
called  the  age  of  mollusks.  Fishes,  which  are 
higher  in  the  scale,  begin  to  appear  in  the 
Silurian,  but  become  so  abundant  in  the  later 
Devonian  period  that  it  is  called  the  age  of 
fishes.  Amphibious  animals,  as  an  advance  on 
the  fishes,  appear  in  the  carboniferous  age, 
which  again  is  followed  by  the  age  of  reptiles. 
To  this  succeeds  the  age  of  manunals,  and  last- 
ly comes  the  age  of  man,  the  series,  which  be- 
gan with  the  lowest  forms  of  life,  terminating 
with  the  highest.  That  the  order  has  been 
progressive,  and  that  its  lower  terms  have 
been  more  general  in  character,  while  the 
later  terms  have  been  more  specialized  and 
perfect,  is  admitted  by  all  naturalists.  Prof. 
Owen  says :  "  In  regard  to  animal  life  and  its 
assigned  work  on  this  planet,  there  has  plainly 
been  an  ascent  and  a  progress  in  the  main ;'' 
and  he  has  "  never  omitted  a  proper  opportu- 
nity for  impressing  the  results  of  observation 
showing  the  more  generalized  structure  of  ex- 
tinct as  compared  with  the  more  specialized 
forms  of  recent  animals.''  Prof.  Agassiz  holds 
that  "  the  more  ancient  animals  resemble  the 
embryonic  forms  of  existing  species ;"  that  is, 
are  lower  in  the  scale  of  development  than  the 
later  forms.  Mr.  Wallace  remarks:  ^*Aswe 
go  back  into  past  time  and  meet  with  the  fossil 
remains  of  more  and  more  ancient  races  of  ex- 
tinct animals,  we  find  that  many  of  them  are 
actually  intermediate  between  distinct  groups 
of  existing  animals;"  the  ancient  fishes,  for 
example,  present  unmistakable  reptilian  traits, 
while  the  early  reptilians  combined  also  the 
characters  of  birds  which  had  not  yet  appeared. 
As  regards  the  continuity  of  the  course  of  life, 
Prof.  Dana  remarks:  ^* Geological  history  is 
like  human  history  in  this  respect ;  time  is  one 
in  its  course,  and  all  progress  one  in  plan.  .  .  . 
The  germ  of  the  period  was  long  working  on- 
ward in  preceding  time,  before  it  finally  came 
to  its  full  development  and  stood  forth  as  a 
characteristic  of  a  new  era  of  progress.  .  .  . 
The  beginning  of  an  age  will  be  in  the  midst 
of  a  preceding  age ;  and  the  marks  of  the  fu- 
ture, coming  out  to  view,  are  to  be  regarded  as 
prophetic  of  that  future.  The  age  of  mammals 
was  foreshadowed  by  the  appearance  of  mam- 
mals long  before  in  the  course  of  the  reptilian 
age,  and  the  age  of  reptiles  was  prophesied 
in  the  types  that  lived  in  the  earlier  carbonif- 
erous age."    The  animal  kingdom  displays  a 


12 


EVOLUTION 


unity  of  plan  or  a  correlation  of  parts  by 
which  common  principles  are  traced  through 
the  most  disguising  diversities  of  form,  so  that 
in  aspect,  structure,  and  functions  the  various 
tribes  of  animals  pass  into  each  other  by  slight 
and  gradual  transitions.  The  arm  of  a  man,  the 
fore  limb  of  a  quadruped,  the  wing  of  a  bird,  and 
the  fin  of  a  fish  are  homologous ;  that  is,  they 
contain  the  same  essential  parts  modified  in  cor- 
respondence with  the  difierent  circumstances 
of  t]pe  animal ;  and  so  with  the  other  organs. 
Prof.  Cope  says :  "  Every  individual  of  every 
species  of  a  given  branch  of  the  animal  king- 
dom is  composed  of  elements  common  to  all, 
and  the  difierences  which  are  so  radical  in  the 
higher  grades  are  but  the  modifications  of  the 
same  elemental  parts.''  There  are  many  cases 
of  rudimentary  and  useless  organs  in  animals 
and  plants.  During  the  development  of  em- 
bryos organs  often  develop  to  certain  points, 
and  are  then  reabsorbed  without  performing 
any  function,  although  generally  the  partially 
developed  organs  are  retained  through  life. 
Certain  snakes  have  rudimentary  hind  legs 
hidden  beneath  the  skiu ;  the  paddle  of  the 
seal  has  toes  that  still  bear  external  nails; 
some  of  the  smooth-skinned  amphibia  have 
scales  buried  under  the  dermal  surface ;  rudi- 
mental  teeth  have  been  traced  even  in  birds ; 
and  there  are  rudimentary  eyes  in  cave  fishes 
and  rudimentary  mammro  in  men.  Classifica- 
tion is  an  arrangement  of  living  beings  by  re- 
lated characters.  In  the  earliest  attempts  the 
organic  tribes  were  arranged  in  a  serial  order 
or  a  chain  from  the  bottom  to  the  top  of  the 
scale;  but  this  has  been  abandoned,  as  also 
have  those  symmetrical  systems  which  as- 
sumed that  the  characters  of  different  groups 
are  equivalents  of  each  other.  The  endeavor 
to  thrust  animals  and  plants  into  these  arti- 
ficial partitions  is  of  the  same  nature  as  the 
endeavor  to  arrange  them  in  a  linear  series ; 
and  it  assumes  a  regularity  which  does  not 
exist  in  nature.  Classification  now  represents 
the  animal  kingdom  as  consisting  of  certain 
great  sub-kingdoms  very  widely  divergent,  each 
made  up  of  classes  much  less  widely  divergent, 
severally  containing  orders  still  less  divergent, 
and  so  on  with  genera  and  species,  like  the 
branches  of  a  growing  tree ;  and  the  old  meth- 
od of  classification,  as  Mr.  Spencer  remarks, 
involves  exactly  the  difficulty  "  which  would 
meet  the  endeavor  to  classify  the  branches  of 
a  tree  as  branches  of  the  first,  second,  third, 
fourth,  and  fifth  orders ;  the  difficulty,  namely, 
that  branches  of  intermediate  degrees  of  com- 
position exist.''  There  is  a  remarkable  analogy 
between  the  present  distribution  of  animals  in 
space  over  the  earth  and  their  past  distribution 
in  time  as  we  trace  their  fossils  in  the  succes- 
sive geological  formations.  The  larger  groups, 
such  as  classes  and  orders,  are  generally  spread 
over  the  whole  earth,  while  smaller  groups, 
such  as  families  and  genera,  are  commonly  con- 
fined to  limited  districts;  but  when  a  group 
is  restricted  to  one  region,  and  is  rich  in  the 


minor  groups  called  species,  it  is  almost  in- 
variably the  case  that  the  most  closely  allied 
species  are  found  in  the  same  locality  or  in 
closely  adjoining  localities.  The  same  fact  is 
seen  in  geological  distribution.  Mr.  Wallace 
observes :  "  Most  of  the  larger  and  some 
smaller  groups  extend  through  several  geologi- 
cal periods.  In  each  period,  however,  there 
are  peculiar  groups,  found  nowhere  else,  and 
extending  through  one  or  several  formations. 
As  generally  in  geography  no  species  or  genus 
occurs  in  two  very  distant  localities  without 
being  also  found  in  intermediate  places,  so  in 
geology  the  life  of  a  species  or  genus  has  not 
been  interrupted.  In  other  words,  no  group  or 
species  has  come  into  existence  twice."  From 
these  facts  Mr.  Wallace  deduces  the  following 
important  law :  "  Every  species  has  come  into 
existence  coincident  both  in  space  and  time 
with  a  preexisting  closely  allied  species."  The 
adherents  of  development  maintain  that  these 
facts,  and  many  others  of  kindred  signifi  cance, 
are  only  to  be  explained  by  the  continuous 
operation  of  a  great  natural  law  of  descent  and 
divergence  by  which  the  present  life  of  the 
earth  has  been  derived  from  its  preexisting 
life.  That  the  numberless  forms  of  life  should 
have  been  held  as  independently  created,  so 
long  as  the  earth  was  regarded  as  having  been 
recently  and  suddenly  called  into  existence, 
was  inevitable;  but  now,  when  it  is  known 
that  the  order  of  nature  is  extended  backward 
into  immeasurable  time,  the  supposition  that 
species  were  called  into  existence  by  hundreds 
of  thousands  of  separate  and  special  creations, 
running  through  the  geological  ages,  and  as 
we  approach  our  own  epoch  suddenly  and  un- 
accountably ceasing,  is  held  to  be  an  unwar- 
ranted assumption  which  science  can  no  longer 
accept.  As  remarked  by  the  Rev.  Baden 
Powell :  "  The  introduction  of  a  new  species 
is  part  of  a  series.  But  a  series  indicates  a 
principle  of  regularity  and  law,  as  much  in 
organic  as  in  inorganic  changes.  Tlie  event  is 
part  of  a  regularly  ordained  mechanism  of  the 
evolution  of  the  existing  world  out  of  former 
conditions,  and  as  much  subject  to  regular  laws 
as  any  changes  now  taking  place.  If  the  series 
be  regular,  its  subordinate  links  must  each  be 
so ;  the  part  cannot  be  less  subject  to  law  than 
the  whole.  That  species  should  be  subject  to 
exactly  the  same  general  laws  of  structure, 
growth,  nutrition,  and  all  other  functions  of 
organic  life,  and  yet  in  the  single  instance  of 
their  mode  of  birth  or  origin  should  constitute 
exceptions  to  all  physical  law,  is  an  incon- 
gruity so  preposterous  that  no  inductive  mind 
can  for  a  moment  entertain  it."  This  is  the 
ground  taken  by  the  great  minority  of  contem- 
porary naturalists.  They  believe  in  evolution 
in  some  form  as  a  great  fact  of  nature ;  but 
many  think  that  we  know  nothing  as  to  how 
it  has  been  brought  about,  while  others  hold 
that  the  problem  of  the  modes  and  causes  of 
evolution,  although  obscure,  is  no  more  barred 
from  successful  investigation  than  are  the  other 


EVOLUTION 


13 


phenomena  of  natnre.  —  The  following  facts 
have  been  offered  as  throwing  light  npon  the 
wajr  in  which  the  diversities  of  life  have  ori- 
ginated. Organic  beings  differ  from  inorganic 
in  their  modifiability.  Thej  are  capable  in 
various  degrees  of  adaptation  to  new  condi- 
tions. Plants  taken  from  their  native  situa- 
tions and  cultivated  in  gardens  undergo  changes 
so  great  as  often  to  render  them  no  longer  rec- 
ognizable as  the  same  plants.  The  muscles  are 
strengthened  by  exercise  and  the  skin  thick- 
ened and  hardened  by  pressure,  while  the 
bones  of  men  who  put  forth  great  physical 
exertion  are  more  massive  than  the  bones  of 
those  who  do  not  labor.  In  the  words  of 
Mr.  Spencer :  "  There  is  in  living  organisms  a 
margin  of  functional  oscillations  on  all  sides 
of  a  mean  state,  and  a  consequent  margin 
of  structural  variation."  These  variations 
may  become  fixed  through  the  law  of  he- 
reditary descent.  It  is  the  law  of  trans- 
mission of  characters  which  preserves  species 
and  varieties  from  generation  to  generation, 
oaks  being  always  derived  from  oaks  and  dogs 
&ora  ancestral  dogs.  It  is  not  only  the  normal 
qualities  that  are  perpetuated,  but  malforma- 
tioos^  diseases,  and  Individual  peculiarities  are 
&lai)  transmitted.  While  offspring  tend  to  grow 
in  the  likeness  of  parents,  they  also  tend  to 
grow  in  nnlikeness ;  while  moulded  npon  the 
IMrental  type,  the  resemblance  is  usually  im- 
perfect. Nor  are  variations  confined  to  any 
particular  organs  or  characters,  but  they  may 
be  manifested  by  every  part,  quality,  or  in- 
stinct of  the  creature.  These  divergences  may 
be  selected  and  fixed  by  breeding  so  as  to  give 
rise  to  new  kinds  or  varieties.  Nature  begins 
the  variation,  art  secures  its  perpetuation  and 
increase.  How  profound  are  the  modifications 
that  may  be  thus  produced  is  shown  in  the 
numerous  breeds  of  dogs,  all  of  which  belong 
to  the  same  species.  Not  only  have  they 
reached  extreme  diversities  in  size  (the  largest 
being,  according  to  Ouvier,  100  times  larger 
than  the  snfaliest),  but  in  muscular,  bony,  and 
nervous  development,  in  form,  strength,  fleet- 
ness,  and  variety  of  instinct  and  intelligence, 
their  divergences  are  almost  equally  remark- 
able. Domestic  pigeons  afford  another  ex- 
ample of  the  great  plasticity  of  the  living  or- 
ganism, by  which  it  can  be  moulded  into  the 
extremest  diversities.  Naturalists  believe  that 
from  a  sngle  species,  the  wild  rock  pigeon, 
there  have  arisen  no  fewer  than  150  kinds  that 
breed  true  or  hold  to  the  variety ;  and  how 
deep  have  become  the  differences  among  them 
is  thus  stated  by  Prof.  Huxley:  **In  the 
first  place,  the  back  of  the  skull  may  differ  a 
good  deal,  and  the  development  of  the  bones 
of  the  face  may  vary  a  good  deal ;  the  beak 
varies  a  good  deal ;  the  shape  of  the  lower  jaw 
varies;  the  tongue  varies  very  greatly,  not 
only  in  correlation  to  the  length  and  size  of 
the  beak,  but  it  seems  also  to  have  a  kind  of 
independent  variation  of  its  own.  Then  the 
amount  of  naked  skin  round  the  eyes  and  at 


the  base  of  the  beak  may  vary  enormously ;  bo 
may  the  length  of  the  eyelids,  the  shape  of  the 
nostrils,  and  the  length  of  the  neck.  I  have 
already  noticed  the  habit  of  blowing  out  the 
gullet,  so  remarkable  in  the  pouter,  and  com- 
paratively so  in  the  others.  There  are  great 
differences,  too,  in  the  size  of  the  female  and 
the  male,  the  shape  of  the  body,  the  number 
and  width  of  the  processes  of  the  ribs,  the 
development  of  the  ribs,  and  the  size,  shape, 
and  development  of  the  breast  bone.  We  may 
notice,  too  (and  I  mention  the  fact  because  it 
has  been  disputed  by  what  is  assumed  to  be 
high  authority),  the  variation  in  number  of 
the  sacral  vertebreB.  The  number  of  these 
varies  from  11  to  14,  and  that  without  any 
diminution  in  the  number  of  the  vertebrsB  of 
the  back  or  of  the  tail.  Then  the  number  and 
position  of  the  tail  feathers  may  vary  enor- 
mously, and  so  may  the  number  of  the  primary 
and  secondary  feathers  of  the  wings.  Again, 
the  length  of  Uie  feet  and  of  the  beak,  although 
they  have  no  relation  to  each  other,  yet  ap- 
pear to  go  together ;  that  is,  you  have  a  long 
beak  wherever  you  have  long  feet.  There  are 
differences,  also,  in  the  periods  of  the  acquire- 
ment of  the  perfect  plumage,  the  size  and  shape 
of  the  eggs,  the  nature  of  flight,  and  the  powers 
of  flight,  so-called  ^  homing  ^  birds  having  enor- 
mous flying  powers ;  while  on  the  other  hand, 
the  little  tumbler  is  so  called  because  of  its 
extraordinary  faculty  of  turning  head-over- 
heels  in  the  air,  instead  of  pursuing  a  distinct 
course.  And  lastly,  the  dispositions  and  voices 
of  the  birds  may  vary.  Thus  the  case  of  l^e 
pigeons  shows  you  that  there  is  hardly  a  single 
particular,  whether  of  instinct  or  habit,  or  bony 
structure,  or  of  plumage,  of  either  the  internid 
economy  or  the  external  shape,  in  which  some 
variation  or  change  may  not  tidce  place,  which 
by  selective  bree<Sng  may  become  perpetuated 
and  form  the  foundation  of  and  give  rise  to  a 
new  race."  Nor  is  this  variation  confined  to 
domestic  animals.  Wild  species  both  of  plants 
and  animals  vary,  become  diversified,  and  give 
rise  to  new  varieties.  As  many  as  26  varieties 
of  oak  have  been  made  out  within  the  limits 
of  a  single  species.  The  wolf  species  exhibits 
some  15  varieties,  and  lions,  tigers,  bears,  hyse- 
nas,  foxes,  birds,  reptiles,  and  fishes  all  exhibit 
marked  varieties,  which  show  that  wild  species 
undergo  modification  in  a  state  of  nature. 
What  was  needed  to  make  out  the  analogy  of 
variation  between  wild  and  domesticated  ani- 
mals was  to  discover  some  process  in  nature 
which  is  the  equivalent  of  human  agency  in 
breeding.  Mr.  Darwin  believes  that  he  has 
discovered  this  process,  and  calls  it  the  princi- 
ple of  ^^  natural  selection."  He  says  that  Uving 
beings  in  a  state  of  nature  are  subject  to  cer- 
tain external  conditions,  such  as  climate,  situa- 
tion, character  of  soil,  and  exposure  to  enemies, 
by  which  they  are  surrounded  and  limited. 
They  are  endowed  with  enormous  powers  of 
increase,  so  that  any  one  of  the  hundreds  of 
thousands  of  species  of  plants  or  animals,  if  all 


14 


EVOLUTION 


its  progeny  were  preserved,  would  go  on  multi- 
plying until  it  covered  the  earth  or  filled  the 
sea.  Space  is  fixed  and  food  limited,  and  the 
consequence  is  a  universal  conflict,  the  war 
of  races ;  and  in  the  ^^  struggle  for  existence  *' 
multitudes  perish  and  comparatively  few  sur- 
vive. This  survival  is  not  a  matter  of  chance. 
Mr.  Darwin  maintains  that  it  is  regulated  by 
law,  and  that  those  only  survive  which  are  in 
some  way  best  adapted  to  the  conditions  of 
life.  The  strongest,  the  fleetest,  the  most 
cunning,  and  the .  best  adapted  to  the  condi- 
tions will  live  and  multiply,  while  the  less  fit 
will  disappear.  The  introduction  of  European 
plants  and  animals  into  New  Zealand  aflbrds 
an  instructive  example  of  how  races  encroach 
on  each  other's  areas,  the  weaker  being  extir- 
pated by  the  stronger  in  the  competition  for 
existence.  Br.  Hooker  says :  "  The  cow  grass 
has  taken  possession  of  the  roadsides;  dock 
and  water  cress  choke  the  rivers;  the  sow 
thistle  is  spread  over  all  the  country,  growing 
luxuriantly  up  to  6,000  feet;  white  clover  in 
the  mountain  districts  displaces  the  native 
grasses ;  and  the  native  (Maori)  saying  is : 
'As  the  white  man's  rat  has  driven  away  the 
native  rat,  as  the  European  fly  drives  away  our 
own,  and  the  clover  kills  our  fern,  so  will  the 
Maoris  disappear  before  the  white  man  him- 
self.' "  Mr.  Darwin  in  his  works  gives  a  great 
number  of  facts  showing  how  apparently  trifling 
variations  give  advantages  to  their  possessors, 
which  determine  their  survival  and  become 
perpetuated  in  the  race.  The  principle  of 
natural  selection,  or,  as  it  is  termed  by  Her- 
bert Spencer,  the  "  survival  of  the  fittest,"  is 
now  generally  recognized  as  a  genuine  agency 
or  wra  ecm»a^  and  the  opponents  of  develop- 
ment admit  that  it  may  give  rise  to  varieties, 
although  they  deny  that  it  is  competent  to 
produce  the  deeper  diversities  of  species.  The 
extent  of  its  operation  remains  yet  to  be  de- 
termined, but  many  naturalists  agree  with 
Prof.  Helmholtz  that  Mr.  Darwin  has  contrib- 
uted to  science  an  *^  essentially  new  creative 
idea."  Mr.  Darwin,  however,  does  not  as- 
sume to  be  the  discoverer  of  the  principle 
of  natural  selection,  and  he  points  out  that 
others  before  him  have  recognized  the  action 
of  the  process,  though  without  seeing  its  fall 
significance.  What  he  claims  is  to  have  first 
shown  the  efficacy  of  the  principle  in  producing 
divergency  of  types  under  the  laws  of  variation 
and  heredity.  But  having  discovered  a  new 
factor  in  organic  development,  and  published 
his  work  on  the  "  Origin  of  Species "  at  the 
fortunate  moment  when  naturalists  had  be- 
come widely  dissatisfied  with  the  old  views,  he 
became  prominently  identified  with  the  devel- 
opment doctrine,  and  this  has  led  many  into 
the  error  of  regarding  Darwinism  as  the  equiva- 
lent of  evolution,  of  which,  as  we  are  now  to 
see,  it  is  but  a  minor  part. — The  advance  of 
civilization  in  the  historical  period  gave  rise 
to  the  modem  idea  of  progress,  which  was 
strengthened  by  the  discoveries  made  early  in 


the  present  century  concerning  the  past  course 
of  terrestrial  life.  The  process  was  crudely 
conceived,  in  the  one  case  as  the  successive 
development  of  all  living  creatures  in  a  graded 
and  linear  series,  and  in  the  other  case  as  the 
continuous  movement  of  humanity  toward  a 
state  of  final  perfection.  About  the  year  1850 
Mr.  Herbert  Spencer  entered  upon  the  system- 
atic study  of  the  subject.  The  problem  was 
strictly  a  scientific  one,  and  he  had  a  wide  and 
accurate  preparation  for  it  by  a  mastery  of 
scientific  knowledge  which  Mr.  Mill  has  pro- 
nounced "  encycloptedic."  Mr.  Spencer  was 
also  remarkable  for  his  power  of  analysis,  his 
grasp  of  wide-reaching  principles,  and  his  in- 
dependence of  opinion.  The  essence  of  pro- 
gress is  change.  Mr.  Spencer  asked  what, 
then,  are  the  laws  of  change  by  which  it  is 
eflected?  Complyiug  with  the  Newtonian 
canon  that  the  fewest  causes  possible  are  to  be 
assumed  in  the  explanation  of  phenomena,  he 
took  up  the  question  as  resolvable  in  terms  of 
matter,  motion,  and  force.  Progress  being  a 
theory  of  the  successive  changes  by  which  things 
are  produced,  his  task  was  to  ascertain  the 
dynamical  conditions  or  laws  under  which  the 
forms  of  nature  rise,  continue,  and  disappear. 
The  objects  of  nature  coexist  and  are  maintained 
in  a  certain  order  in  space.  Newton  discov- 
ered that  this  is  eflected  by  the  operation  of  a 
simple  and  universal  law.  The  objects  of  na- 
ture undergo  changes  in  time,  emerging  and 
vanishing,  some  quickly  and  others  slowly :  is 
there  a  universal  law  by  which  these  changes 
also  are  governed  ?  Tliis  was  the  aim  of  the  re- 
search. Mr.  Spencer  early  found  that  the  con- 
ception of  progress  which  implies  movement  in 
one  direction  only  is  erroneous.  There  is  no 
unbroken  march  of  events ;  breaks  and  regres- 
sions alternate  with  advancement,  and  de- 
scending as  well  as  ascending  changes  have  to 
be  accounted  for.  He  therefore  rejected  the 
term  progress  as  having  erroneous  implica- 
tions, and  adopted  the  term  evolution,  as  more 
fully  indicating  the  scope  of  the  inquiry  aaid 
better  expressing  the  strictiy  scientific  natwre 
of  his  theory.  The  naturalist  Von  Baer  had 
already  attempted  to  define  and  generalize  tljo 
changes  of  organic  growth,  and  had  formulated 
them  as  from  the  homogeneous  germ  state  to 
the  heterogeneous  adult  state  by  a  process  of 
difiTerentiation.  Mr.  Spencer  soon  found  that 
this  formula  gave  but  a  very  partial  account 
of  what  taJces  place  in  organic  development. 
The  change  was  shown  to  be  not  only  from 
uniformity  to  unlikeness,  or  a  diflferencing  of 
parts,  but  from  the  indefinite  to  the  definite, 
from  the  incoherent  to  the  coherent,  producing 
the  integration  of  parts,  or  increasing  unity 
with  increasing  complexity.  The  conditions 
and  course  of  changes  in  which  organic  evolu- 
tion consists  being  ascertained,  the  question 
arose  as  to  their  extent,  and  Mr.  Spencer  be- 
came convinced  that  the  law  of  organic  move- 
ment is  not  an  isolated  fact  in  nature,  but 
*^  that  the  process  of  change  gone  tiirough  by 


EVOLUTION" 


15 


each  erolving  organism  is  a  process  gone 
through  hj  all  things."  Bcience  had  shown 
that  the  nniverse,  past  and  present,  is  subject 
to  orderl J  changes ;  he  discovered  that  funda- 
mentally this  order  is  one.  The  nebular  hy- 
pothesis proposed  by  Kant,  confirmed  by  Her- 
schel  and  L^lace,  and  accepted  by  astrono- 
mers, explained  the  origin  and  motions  of  suns 
and  planets  by  slow  condensation  from  a  nebu- 
lous mist  difiVised  through  space.  The  geolo- 
gical history  of  our  earth  shows  that  it  has  un- 
dergone a  vast  series  of  progressive  changes, 
and,  as  Prof.  Dana  says,  ^^  was  first  a  feature- 
less globe  of  fire,  then  had  its  oceans  and  dry 
land,  in  course  of  time  received  mountains  and 
rivers,  and  finally  all  those  diversities  of  sur- 
face which  now  characterize  it."  The  course 
of  organic  life,  as  we  have  seen,  was  a  pro- 
gressive unfolding  into  greater  diversity  and 
specialty.  Mind  is  developed  with  the  body, 
and  therefore  mental  phenomena  obey  a  law 
of  unfolding.  As  human  society  is  made  up 
of  units  that  are  capable  of  these  changes,  it 
presents  in  the  past  a  gradual  development  of 
iDtelligence,  arts,  and  institutiona,  as  now  em- 
bodied in  our  diverse  and  compl^  civilization. 
By  a  carefiil  analysis  of  the  phenomena  in  these 
widely  separated  cases,  Mr.  Spencer  showed 
that  they  all  conform  to  a  great  general  law, 
of  which  individual  life  is  but  a  special  case. 
£()ua]ly  in  the  inorganic,  the  organic,  and  the 
super-organic  spheres,  the  progressive  changes 
are  from  the  homo^neous  to  the  heteroge- 
neous by  differentiation.  But  with  increasing 
divergences  there  is  also  increasing  definite- 
ness,  coherence,  complexity,  and  integration. 
Evolution  is  thus  a  universal  law,  while  the 
development  of  the  individual  and  the  career 
of  the  race,  so  far  from  being  exceptional  phe- 
nomena, are  but  parts  of  the  great  system  of 
change  to  which  the  whole  cosmos  conforms. 
Evolution  being  thus  disclosed  as  a  universal 
dynamical  law,  the  question  next  arises,  how 
is  it  to  be  inteipreted  ?  Is  it  an  ultimate  law 
like  gravitation,  or  is  it  a  derivative  principle 
deducible  as  a  necessity  from  the  established 
laws  of  matter,  motion,  and  force?  Mr.  Spen- 
cer proves  that  evolution  is  a  resultant  of  dy- 
namical agencies,  and  that,  given  matter  as  a 
vehicle  of  change,  motion  as  the  result  of 
change,  and  force  as  the  cause  of  change,  such 
are  their  established  laws  of  interaction  that 
evolution  follows  as  an  inevitable  consequence. 
We  can  here  only  touch  upon  the  leading  ele- 
ments of  the  elucidation,  and  must  refer  the 
reader  to  Mr.  Spencer's  "System  of  Philoso- 

Shy''  for  the  full  elaboration  of  the  subject, 
lodem  science  has  established  the  great  prin- 
ciples of  the  indestructibility  of  matter  and  the 
conservation  of  force.  (See  Gobbklation  of 
FoBCBs.)  Mr.  Spencer  maintains  that  these 
resolve  themselves  into  the  single  law  of  the 
persistence  of  force,  and  that  this  is  the  funda- 
mental postulate  of  evolution.  "Whatever  in- 
terpretation is  given  to  the  principle,  it  cer- 
tainly becomes  a  fundamental  condition  of  the 

809  VOL.  TIL— 2 


changes  taking  place  in  nature.  If  matter  and 
force  throughout  the  universe  are  neither  cre- 
ated nor  destroyed,  all  changes  must  be  changes 
of  transformation.  The  stock  of  material  and 
energy  being  limited,  each  new  efifect  must  be 
at  the  expense  of  something  preexisting;  and 
hence  in  the  ongoings  of  nature  one  thing  is 
necessarily  derived  from  another,  while  the 
problem  of  advance  becomes  one  of  trans- 
mutation. Mr.  Spencer  traces  out  the  several 
causes  of  transformation  or  factors  of  evolu- 
tion, and  shows  that  they  are  all  coroUaries 
from  the  supreme  law  of  the  persistence  of 
force.  Briefly  indicated,  these  are  as  follows: 
1.  The  principle  of  the  rhythm  of  motion. 
Under  the  law  of  the  persistence  of  forces 
and  the  diversity  of  their  forms,  there  arise 
constant  conflicts  of  efiect,  so  that  motions 
are  not  uniform  but  varying.  Action  is  met 
by  counteraction,  and  the  result  is  that  move- 
ments take  a  rhythmical  form.  Boughs,  for 
example,  sway  in  the  wind,  water  is  thrown 
into  waves,  sound  arises  in  vibrations,  earth- 
quakes are  propagated  in  shocks,  planets  swing 
through  eccentric  orbits,  breathing  is  recur- 
rent, the  heart  beats,  scarcity  alternates  with 
abundance,  and  prices  rise  and  fall.  From 
the  minutest  organism  throughout  the  whole 
frame  of  things  to  the  most  distant  systems, 
from  momentary  pulses  to  geological  cycles, 
the  agitations  of  things  take  tlie  form  of  thrills 
and  surges,  which  produce  incessant  and  uni- 
versal redistributions  of  matter  and  force. 
How  are  these  redistributions  directed?  2. 
They  are  controlled  first  by  the  law  of  the  in- 
stability of  the  homogeneous.  The  relatively 
homogeneous  is  the  commencing  stage  of  all 
evolution,  and  Mr.  Spencer  has  shown  that 
this  is  an  unstable  condition,  and  under  rhyth- 
mic disturbance  tends  constantly  to  rearrange- 
ment and  greater  complexity.  No  object  can 
exist  without  being  acted  upon  and  altered  by 
forces,  and  no  mass  can  be  thus  acted  upon  in 
all  parts  alike ;  unequal  action  therefore  tends 
to  destroy  homogeneity  and  produce  ever  in- 
creasing diversity.  For  this  cause  the  nebu- 
lous condition  could  not  continue ;  the  homo- 
geneous germ  divides  into  unlike  parts ;  a  class 
of  animals  or  plants  distilbuted  over  a  geo- 
graphical area,  being  unequally  acted  upon  by 
environing  conditions,  would  fedl  into  diversity; 
and  for  the  same  reason  a  uniform  social  con- 
dition would  be  resolved  into  heterogeneous 
societies.  8.  The  transformations  of  evolu- 
tion are  farther  explained  by  the  dynamical 
principle  of  the  multiplication  of  effects. 
Throughout  all  nature  simple  agencies  produce 
diverse  consequences,  every  impulse  of  force 
yielding  a  multiplicity  of  results.  A  simple 
mechanical  collision  of  two  bodies  may  pro- 
duce efieots  of  sound,  heat,  light,  electricity, 
and  various  chemical  and  structural  changes ; 
an  accident  to  the  foot  may  entail  a  train  of 
consequences  affecting  the  whole  constitution ; 
the  upheaval  of  a  continent  may  produce  the 
most  extensive  alterations  in  the  life  of  races ; 


16 


EVOLUTION 


while  an  inyention  like  that  of  the  steam  en- 
^e  works  its  multiform  effects  throughout 
civilization.  By  this  law  the  principle  of  the 
instability  of  the  homogeneous  is  powerfully 
reinforced,  and  the  cause  of  universal  move- 
ment toward  greater  diversity  is  rationally  ex- 
plained. But  these  modes  of  action  alone 
could  only  result  in  a  vague  chaotic  hetero- 
geneity, and  could  not  account  for  that  orderly 
heterogeneity  in  which  evolution  essentially 
consists.  4.  This  finds  explanation  in  the 
principle  of  segregation.  When  a  mass  is 
acted  upon  by  forces  which  promote  the  re- 
distribution of  its  parts,  its  units  are  not  only 
differentiated  and  regrouped,  but  there  is  a  se- 
gregation of  like  units  which  become  separated 
from  the  neighboring  groups.  A  familiar  ex- 
ample of  this  is  seen  in  the  winnowing  pro- 
cesSf  by  which  a  force  applied  to  a  mixed  mass 
brings  all  the  grain  together  in  one  place 
and  the  chaff  in  another.  The  same  thing  is 
seen  when  several  salts  are  dissolved  in  a 
liquid,  and  each  crystallizes  out  by  the  combi- 
nation of  like  chemical  molecules.  The  or- 
ganism conforms  to  this  principle  from  its  ear- 
liest stage  of  growth,  the  special  elements  of 
the  bony,  muscular,  and  nervous  systems  being 
withdrawn  from  the  nourishing  fluids  and  se- 
gregated in  the  distinctive  parts.  We  have 
already  seen  that  natural  selection  is  a  win- 
nowing process,  by  which  the  unfit  are  ex- 
cluded, and  the  better  adapted  are  separated 
and  preserved.  In  social  development  the 
same  thing  is  seen.  Not  only  are  there  con- 
tinual differentiations  of  groups  and  classes 
by  which  society  becomes  heterogeneous,  but 
these  groups  are  unified  by  similarity  of  oc- 
cupation, character,  taste,  and  race.  Stock 
brokers  cluster  in  Wall  street,  and  the  Mor- 
mons segregate  in  Utah.  Thus  in  all  the 
spheres  of  change  redistribution  leads  to 
unification.  5.  This  end  is  further  promoted 
by  the  important  dynamical  law  that  mo- 
tion takes  place  along  lines  of  least  resis- 
tance. The  operation  of  this  principle  in  in- 
organic nature  is  self-evident.  Water  forms 
its  channels  in  the  direction  of  least  obstacles. 
Mr.  James  Hinton  has  shown  that  organic 
growth  takes  plac^in  obedience  to  this  law, 
and  Mr.  Spencer  proves  that  it  governs  both 
mental  and  social  changes.  This  law,  in  con- 
nection with  the  principle  that  movement  set 
up  in  any  direction  is  a  ciiuse  of  further  move- 
ment in  that  direction,  by  which  lines  of  con- 
nection become  established,  goes  far  to  account 
for  that  integration  of  structures  and  functions 
which  is  disclosed  in  all  phases  of  evolution. 
But  can  evolution  go  on  for  ever,  or  is  it  lim- 
ited? This  brings  us  to  the  process  by  which 
it  is  constantly  antagonized  and  always  finally 
terminated,  the  counter-agency  of  dissolution. 
All  redistributions  of  matter  and  motion  are 
either  evolution  or  dissolution,  but  neither  of 
these  processes  ever  goes  on  absolutely  unquali- 
fied by  the  other,  and  the  change  in  either  di- 
rection is  but  a  differential  result  of  the  con- 


flict   Mr.  Spencer^s  formula,  to  be  complete, 
must  embrace  both  sets  of  correlative  changes, 
and  its  determination  led  him  to  the  following 
universal  law:  6.  Every  change  wrought  in  an 
object  milst  be  either  a  transposition  of  its 
mass,  or  a  variation  of  its  internal  or  molecu- 
lar motion.    As  it  loses  this  contained  or  in- 
sensible motion,  there  follows  a  concentration 
of  the  parts  and  increasing  integration ;  if  it 
acquires  insensible  motion,  there  is  dispersion 
of  the  particles,  or  disintegration ;  that  is,  with 
concentration  of  matter  there  is  dispersion  of 
motion,  and  with  absorption  of  motion  there 
is  diiflusion  of  matter.    These  are  the  two  as- 
pects of  the  universal  metamorphosis,  and  when 
approximately  balanced  there  is  equilibration. 
Evolution  is  integration;  dissolution  is  disin- 
tegration.   We  have  here  confined  ourselves 
to  the  most  abstract  statement  of  Mr.  Spen- 
cer's theory ;  its  concrete  applications  will  he 
found  extensively  worked  out  in  his  "First 
Principles''  and  in  the  biological,  psycholo- 
gical, and  sociological  divisions  of  his  ^^  Philo- 
sophical System."    As  a  method  of  philoso- 
phy it  aims  only  to  explain  phenomena;    all 
phenomena  being  regained  as  manifestations 
of  the  unknotvn  power  which  transcends  the 
reach   of  thought     Philosophy  is  regarded 
as  the  highest  explanation  of  things,  and  as 
each  science  is  unified  by  its  largest  induc- 
tions, tlie  family  of  sciences  is  brought  into  a 
completer  unity  by  a  law  that  comprehends 
them  all. — Whatever  ultimate  form  the  the- 
ory of  evolution  may  take,  its  infiuence  must 
be  powerfully  felt  in  the  direction  of  future 
inquiries ;  for  many  who  withhold  their  assent 
from  it  as  an  established  truth  of  nature  never- 
theless recognize  it  as  an  invaluable  working 
hypothesis.     As  remarked  by  Prof.  Grove: 
"  The  first  question  is,  does  the  newly  proposed 
view  remove  more  difficulties,  require  fewer 
assumptions,   and    present  more  consistency 
with  observed  facts  than  that  which  it  seeks 
to  supersede  f    If  so,  the  philosopher  will  adopt 
it,  and  the  world  will  follow  the  philosopher, 
after  many  days."    Mr.  Spencer's  theory  has 
been  clearly  summed  up  by  himself  in  the  fol- 
lowing propositions:  "1.  Throughout  the  uni- 
verse, in  general  and  in  detail,  there  is  an  un- 
ceasing redistribution  of  matter  and  motion. 
2.   This    redistribution  constitutes    evolution 
where  there  is  a  predominant  integration  of 
matter  and  dissipation  of  motion,  and  consti- 
stutes  dissolution  where  there  is  a  predominant 
absorption  of  motion  and  disintegration  of  mat- 
ter.   8.  Evolution  is  simple  when  the  process 
of  integration,  or  the  formation  of  a  coherent 
aggregate,  proceeds  uncomplicated  by  other 
processes.    4.  Evolution  is  compound  when, 
along  with  this  primary  change  from  an  inco- 
herent to  a  coherent  state,  there  go  on  secon- 
dary changes  due  to  differences  in  the  circum- 
stances of  the  different  parts  of  the  aggregate. 
5.  These  secondary  changes  constitute  a  trans- 
formation of  the  homogeneous  into  the  hetero- 
geneous— a  transformation  which,  like  the  first, 


EVOLUTION 


fiVREUX 


17 


h  exhibited  in  the  nniverse  as  a  whole  and  in 
ftll  (or  nearly  all)  its  details :  in  the  aggregate 
of  stars  and  nebulie ;  in  the  planetary  system ; 
in  the  earth  as  an  inorganic  mass.;  in  each  or- 
ganism, vegetal  or  animal  (Von  Baer^s  law); 
in  the  aggregate  of  organisms  throughout  geo- 
logic time;  in  the  mind;  in  society;  in  all 
prodacts  of  social  activity.  6.  The  process  of 
integratioii,  acting  locally  as  well  as  generally, 
combines  with  that  of  ditferentiation  to  render 
this  change  not  simply  from  homogeneity  to 
heterogeneity,  bnt  from  an  indefinite  homoge- 
neity to  a  definite  heterogeneity;  and  this  trait 
of  mcreasing  definiteness,  which  accompanies 
the  trait  of  increasing  heterogeneity,  is  like  it 
exhibited  in  the  totality  of  things,  and  in  all 
its  divisions  and  subdivisions  down  to  the  mi- 
natest  7.  Along  with  this  redistribution  of 
the  matter  comi)08ing  any  evolving  aggregate, 
there  goes  on  a  redistribution  of  the  retained 
motion  of  its  components  in  relation  to  one 
another;  this  also  becomes  step  by  step  more 
definitely  heterogeneous.  8.  In  the  absence 
of  a  homogeneity  that  is  infinite  and  absolute, 
this  redistribution  of  which  evolution  is  one 
phase  is  inevitable:  The  causes  which  neces- 
sitate it  are :  9.  The  instability  of  the  homo- 
geneous; which  is  consequent  upon  the  dift*er- 
eot  exposures  of  the  different  parts  of  any  lim- 
ited aggregate  to  incident  forces.  10.  The  trans- 
formations hence  resulting  are  complicated  by 
the  multiplication  of  effects :  every  mass  and 
part  of  a  mass  on  which  a  force  falls  subdi- 
vides and  differentiates  that  force,  which  there- 
upon proceeds  to  work  a  variety  of  changes, 
Bod  each  of  these  becomes  the  parent  of  simi- 
larly DDoltipIying  changes;  the  multiplication 
of  the9«  becoming  greater  in  proportion  as  the 
aggregate  becomes  more  heterogeneous.  11. 
"These  two  causes  of  increasing  differentia- 
tions are  furthered  by  segregation,  which  is  a 
process  tending  ever  to  separate  unlike  units 
And  to  bring  together  like  units ;  so  serving 
oontinnally  to  sharpen,  or  make  definite,  dif- 
ferentiations otherwise  caused.  12.  Equilibra- 
tion is  the  final  result  of  these  transformations 
which  an  evolvmg  aggr^ate  undergoes.  The 
changes  go  on  until  liiere  is  reached  an  equill- 
hrinm  between  the  forces  which  all  parts  of  the 
B^egate  are  exposed  to,  and  the  forces  these 
parts  oppose  to  them.  Equilibration  may  pass 
through  a  transition  stage  of  balanced  motions 
(m  in  a  planetary  system)  or  of  balanced  func- 
tions (as  in  a  living  body)  on  to  the  ultimate 
^nilibrium ;  but  the  state  of  rest  in  inorganic 
bodies,  or  death  in  organic  bodies,  is  the  neces- 
^Ty  limit  of  the  changes  constituting  evolution. 
13-  Dissolution  is  the  counter  change  which 
^nerar  later  every  evolved  aggregate  under- 
^^  Remaining  exposed  to  surrounding  forces 
that  are  unequilibrated,  each  aggregate  is  ever 
liable  to  be  dissipated  by  the  increase,  gradual 
^f  sndden,  of  its  contained  motions;  and  its 
disipation,  quickly  undergone  by  bodies  lately 
animate  and  slowly  undergone  by  inanimate 
^Mses,  remains  to  be  undergone  at  an  indefi- 


nitely remote  period  by  each  planetary  and  stel- 
lar mass,  which  since  an  indefinitely  remote 
period  in  the  past  has  been  slowly  evolving; 
the  cycle  of  its  transformations  being  thus 
completed.  14.  This  rhythm  of  evolution  and 
dissolution,  completing  itself  during  short  pe- 
riods in  small  aggregates,  and  in  the  vast  ag- 
gregates distributed  throughout  space,  comple- 
ting itself  in  periods  which  are  immeasurable 
l)y  human  thought,  is  as  far  as  we  can  see  uni- 
versal and  eternal ;  each  alternating  phase  of 
the  process  predominating  now  in  this  region 
of  space  and  now  in  that,  as  local  conditions 
determine.  15.  All  these  phenomena,  from  their 
great  features  down  to  their  minutest  details, 
are  necessary  results  of  the  persistence  offeree, 
under  its  forms  of  matter  and  motion.  Given 
these  in  their  known  distributions  through 
space,  and  their  quantities  being  unchangeable 
either  by  increase  or  decrease,  there  inevitably 
result  the  continuous  redistributions  distinguish- 
able as  evolution  and  dissolution,  as  well  as  all 
those  special  traits  above  enumerated.  1 6.  That 
which  persists  unchanging  in  quantity  but  ever- 
changing  in  form,  under  these  sensible  appear- 
ances which  the  universe  presents  to  us,  trans- 
cends human  knowledge  and  conception — is 
an  unknown  and  unknowable  power,  which  we 
are  obliged  to  recognize  as  without  limit  in 
space  and  without  beginning  or  end  in  time." 
— Besides  the  works  already  mentioned,  the 
following  are  important :  Spencer's  "  First 
Principles,"  "  Principles  of  Biology,"  "  Princi- 
ples of  Psychology,"  "  Principles  of  Sociology," 
and  "  Descriptive  Sociology  "(1860-'73);  Dar- 
win's "  Variation  of  Animals  and  Plants  under 
Domestication"  (1868);  St.  George  Mivart's 
"The  Genesis  of  Species"  (1871);  Huxley's 
"Man'«  Place  in  Nature"  (1864),  "Lay  Ser- 
mons" (1870),  and  "Critiques  and  Addresses" 
(1878).  The  relation  of  the  doctrine  of  evo- 
lution to  Christianity  is  discussed  in  "The 
Bible  and  the  Doctrine  of  Evolution,"  by  W. 
W.  Smyth  (1873) ;  "The  Theory  of  Evolution," 
by  the  Rev.  E.  Henslow  (1878) ;  "  What  is 
Darwinism? "  by  Oharies  Hodge,  D.  D.  (1874) ; 
and  "  The  Doctrine  of  Evolution,"  by  Alexan- 
der Winchell,  LL.  D.  (1874). 

EVORA,  a  city  of  Portugal,  capital  of  the  prov- 
ince of  Alemtejo,  75  m.  £.  8.  E.  of  LisDon ; 
pop.  about  12,000.  It  is  surrounded  by  a  wall, 
and  has  remains  of  two  ancient  forts.  It  is 
the  seat  of  an  archbishop,  and  has  a  splendid 
Gothic  cathedral,  a  number  of  convents,  hos- 
pitals, a  house  of  charity,  a  diocesan  school, 
barracks,  a  museum,  and  some  manufactures 
of  hardware  and  leather.  A  university,  estab- 
lished in  1650,  and  placed  under  the  direction 
of  the  Jesuits,  was  suppressed  at  the  time  of 
the  exile  of  that  order  (1767).  Among  the  nu- 
merous monuments  of  antiquity  are  a  mined 
temple  of  Diana,  and  an  aqueduct  by  which 
the  city  is  still  supplied. 

fi¥REUX  (anc.  Mediolanvm,  or  Civitas  Ehu- 
rovieum),  a  city  of  Normandy,  France,  capital 
of  the  department  of  Eure,  55  m.  W.  by  N.  of 


18 


EWALD 


Psria,  in  a  pleasant  valley  on  the  Iton,  which 
flowB  through  the  city  in  three  bratiches ;  pop. 
In  lS6fl,  13,820.  It  is  eorroimded  b;  gardens, 
vineyards,  end  highly  cultivated  fields.  It  is 
the  seat  of  a  bisliop  and  of  several  coarts  and 
schools,  has  a  botanical  garden,  a  public  li- 
brary, a  rnusontQ  of  antiquities,  a  large  bospi- 
tal,  tm  insane  asylam,  and  cotton  and  woollen 
mills,  and  is  the  centre  of  a  large  trade  in  gro-^ 
ceries  and  grain.  Among  the  notable  bnildings 
are  the  abbey  church  of  St.  Taurin,  dating 
from  the  Tth,  and  the  cathedral,  from  the  11th 
centnry.  At  a  little  distance  from  the  town 
was  the  fine  old  chit«au  of  Navarre,  founded 
in  the  14th  century,  which  was  the  residence 
of  Charles  Edward  Stnart  from  1746  to  1?48, 
and  of  the  empress  Josephine  for  some  time  af- 


EWBANE 

ter  her  divoroe,  and  was  destroyed  in  IBSS.^ 
The  town  was  taken  from  the  HomaiiB  by  Clo- 
tIs,  and    in  892  the  Normans  captured  and 

sacked  it.  Id  989  it  became  the  capital  of  a 
county  of  its  name  erected  in  favor  of  a  son  of 
Kichard  I.,  duke  of  Normandy.  It  passed  into 
the  possession  of  England  witii  the  rest  of  Nor- 
mandy, and  the  name  of  the  Deverenz,  earls 
of  Essex,  was  probably  derived  from  it.  King 
John  ceded  it  to  Philip  Augnstns  in  1200.  In 
1298  the  county  was  given  to  Louis,  son  of 
Philip  the  Bold  of  France ;  and  in  1928  bis  son 
Count  Philip  became  by  marriage  king  of  Na- 
varre, Tlie  county  was  confiscated  from  the 
son  of  the  latter,  Oharies  the  Bold  of  Navarre, 
in  1878.  In  the  vicinity,  at  Vieil  fivreut,  ex- 
have  lad  to  the  discovery  of  the  re- 


mains of  a  theatre,  baths,  Ac,  which  are  sup- 
posed to  mark  the  site  of  Hediolanum ;  and 
manymedols  and  household  ntenails  found  here 
have  been  deposited  in  the  museum  of  £vreuz. 
EWiLD,  Georg  HriniM  Ingut  t«b,  a  German 
orientalist,  theologian,  and  historian,  bom  in 
Qottingen,  Nov.  16, 1808.  In  1031  he  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  chair  of  philosophy,  and  after- 
ward to  those  of  oriental  languages  and  theol- 
ogy, at  Gottingen.  Ha  was  one  of  the  st  "" 
professors  who  were  dismissed  in  1637  on 
connt  of  their  remonstrance  against  the 
constitutional  proceedings  of  King  Ernest  Au- 
gnstns  of  Hanover.  He  spent  some  time  '~ 
England,  and  was  professor  of  theology 
TObingcD  from  1838  to  1848,  when,  he  was 
reinstated  in  his  chair  at  GOttingen.  Among 
his  linguistic  works  ore :  Orammatiea  Cri- 
tUa  Lingua  Arabiem  (2  vols.  8vo,  Leipsic, 
1881-8);  Ueher  diu  itthitntUche  Bueh  nenoeh 
(18B4);  Aiafuhrliehu  LehrbnchierhebraUch- 
en  Spraehe  de*  alten  BunAa  (Bth  and  enlarged 
ed.,  1B6& ;  also  abridged,  Hebrdiiehe  Spraeh- 
lehre  /Ur  Aa/anger.  3d  ed.,  18fl2).  His  critical 
writings  are  verv  nnmerons,  embracing  works 
on  Canticles,  "The  Poetical  Books  of  the  Old 
Testament,"  "The  Prophets  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment," "Th^  Three  First  Gospels,"  St.  Panl, 


John,  Ac.    His  great  historical  work  is  his  Oe- 

tehiekU  dt»  Volke»  Irratl  hit  Chrigttu  (8d  ed., 
7  vols.,  Gottingen,  1684  et  teq. ;  translated 
by  J,  Estlin  Carpenter,  "History  of  Israel," 
vols.  i.-v.,  London.  1668-'73).  He  was  the 
projector  of  the  ZeiUohrift  fWr  dU  Kutvi* 
da  Morgenlandi,  and  edited  the  Jahrbvehtr 
der  MhlUehen  Wutaacht^,  in  which  he  pro- 
pounded his  theological  views.  His  leanlngto- 
ward  Banr  and  other  adherents  of  the  Tubin- 
gen school,  with  whom  he  became  acquainted 
during  his  residence  in  that  city,  involved  him 
in  many  controversies.  In  1841  he  was  enno- 
bled by  the  king  of  WDrtemberg.  When  Pnis- 
sia  took  possession  of  Hanorerln  October,  1866, 
Ewald's  fidelity  to  the  eitingnished  dynasty 
subjected  him  to  a  trial  for  treason  ;  but  he  was 
acquitted,  and  in  May,  1869,  he  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  North  German  parliament  His 
latest  published  works  are  Bat  Sendtehrtiben 
an  die  ffehrder  vnd  Jacohot'  Rundiehrtihm 
(1871 ),  and  SUhen  8end»ehreiben  des  neuen  5ti«- 
det  (1S71). 

EWILD,  JtkuBM.    See  Evald. 

EWBUTK,  TtMas,  an  American  writer  on 

B-actical  mechanics,  bom  at  Bamard  Castle, 
urham,  England,  March  11, 1792,  died  in  New 
York,  Sept.  16,  1870.     At  the  age  of  13  Q" 


EWELL 


EWING 


19 


was  apprenticed  to  a  tin  and  copper  smith,  and 
about  1819  emigrated  to  New  York.  In  1820 
he  commenced  the  mannfiacture  of  metallic 
tubing  in  that  city,  and  retired  in  1886  to  de- 
vote himself  to  literary  and  scientific  pursuits. 
In  1842  appeared  his  "  Descriptive  and  Histor- 
ical Account  of  Hydraulic  and  other  Machines, 
Ancient  and  Modem ;  including  the  Progres- 
sive Development  of  the  Steam  Engine/'  of 
which  the  loth  edition  was  published  in  1870. 
In  1845-'6  he  made  a  visit  to  Brazil,  recording 
his  observations  in  a  work  entitled  "  Life  in 
Brazil,"  with  an  appendix  descriptive  of  a  col- 
lection of  American  antiquities,  New  York 
(1856).  From  1849  to  1852  he  was  United 
States  commissioner  of  patents.  He  also  wrote 
"The  World  a  Workshop,  or  the  Phvsical 
Relation  of  Man  to  the  Earth''  (1855); 
"Thoughts  on  Matter  and  Force"  (1858); 
"Reminiscences  in  the  Patent  Office"  (1859); 
and  a  variety  of  miscellaneous  essays  on  the 
philosophy  and  history  of  inventions,  which 
appeared  chiefly  in  the  ^^  Transactions  of  the 
Franklin  Institute."  His  "Experiments  on 
Marine  Propulsion,  or  the  Virtue  of  Form  in 
Propelling  Blades,"  was  reprinted  in  Europe. 
Ab  a  member  of  the  commission  to  examine 
and  report  upon  the  strength  of  the  marbles 
ofi^red  for  the  extension  of  the  national  capi- 
tol,  he  made  some  suggestions  which  led  to  the 
discovery  of  a  means  of  greatly  increasing  the 
power  of  resistance  to  pressure  in  building 
stones.  He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
American  ethnological  society. 

SmELL,  Bichard  Stoddard^  a  general  of  the 
Confederate  States  of  America,  bom  in  the 
District  of  Columbia  in  1820,  died  at  Spring 
Hill,  Tenn.,  Jan.  25,  1872.  He  graduated  at 
West  Point  in  1840,  and  became  lieutenant  of 
dragoons.  He  served  in  the  Mexican  war  ft*om 
1846  to  1848,  and  was  breveted  as  captain 
for  gallant  and  meritorious  conduct  in  the  bat- 
tles of  Contreras  and  Ohurubusco.  In  1859  he 
was  wounded  in  a  skirmish  with  the  Apaches. 
In  May,  1861,  he  entered  the  confederate  ser- 
vice, and  commanded  a  brigade  at  the  battle 
of  Bull  Run.  Early  in  1862  he  was  promoted 
to  m^or  general,  and  commanded  a  division  in 
Jackson^B  campaign  in  the  Shenandoah  valley. 
He  was  conspicuous  in  the  battles  of  Gaines's 
Mill,  Malvern  Hill,  and  Cedar  Mountain,  was 
worsted  by  Hooker  at  Bristoe  Station,  and  lost 
a  leg  at  the  second  battle  of  Bull  Run.  He 
was  made  a  lieutenant  general  in  May,  1863, 
aud  succeeded  to  the  command  of  Jackson's 
corps,  with  which  he  was  present  at  Gettys- 
burg, the  Wilderness,  and  Spottsylvania  Court 
House.  During  the  siege  of  Petersburg,  be- 
ing disabled  ft'om  active  service  in  the  field, 
he  had  command  of  the  garrison  of  Rich- 
mond. At  Sailor's  creek,  during  the  con- 
federate retreat,  he  was  cut  ofif  by  Sheridan, 
and  surrendered,  with  6,000  or  7,000  men, 
three  days  before  the  surrender  of  Lee  at 
Appomattox.  Toward  the  close  of  the  war  he 
baa  married  a  daughter  of  Judge  Campbell 


of  Tennessee,  and  subsequently  took  up  his 
residence  in  that  state,  and  engaged  in  stock 
raising,  in  which  he  was  very  successful. 

EWINC)  Joba,  an  American  clergyman,  born 
in  Nottingham,  Md.,  June  22,  1732,  died  in 
Philadelphia,  Sept.  8,  1802.  He  was  educated 
in  the  college  of  New  Jersey,  was  tutor  in  that 
college  and  instructor  of  the  philosophical 
classes  in  the  college  of  Philadelphia,  and  in 
1759  became  pastor  of  the  first  Presbyterian 
church  in  Philadelphia.  In  1773  he  visited 
England,  and  had  interviews  with  Dr.  Robert- 
son, Lord  North,  and  Dr.  Johnson ;  the  last  of 
whom,  aflSrming  that  the  Americans  were  as 
ignorant  as  rebellious,  said  to  Dr.  Ewing,  *^  You 
never  read.  Youhavenobooksthere."  "Par- 
don me,"  was  the  reply,  "  we  have  read  the 
*  Rambler.'"  When  the  college  of  Philadel- 
phia was  changed  in  1779  to  the  university  of 
Pennsylvania,  Dr.  Ewing  was  placed  at  its 
head  as  provost,  and  remained  in  this  station 
together  with  his  pastorate  till  his  death.  He 
was  vice  president  of  the  American  philosoph- 
ical society,  and  made  several  contributions  to 
its  "  Transactions."  His  collegiate  lectures  on 
natural  philosophy  (2  vols.,  1809)  and  a  volume 
of  sermons  were  published  after  his  death. 

EWIMG)  TlioBUU)  an  American  statesman, 
bom  in  Ohio  co.,  Va.,  Dec.  28,  1789,  died  at 
Lancaster,  Ohio,  Oct.  26,  1871.  In  his  20th 
year  he  left  home  and  worked  in  the  Kanawha 
salt  establishments,  nntil  he  had  laid  up  money 
enough  to  pay  for  the  farm  which  his  father 
had  purchased  in  1792,  in  what  is  now  Athens 
CO.,  Ohio,  and  enabled  himself  to  enter  the 
Ohio  university  at  Athens,  where  he  graduated 
in  1815.  He  studied  law  in  Lancaster,  Ohio, 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1816,  and  practised 
with  great  success  in  the  state  courts  and  the 
supreme  court  of  the  United  States.  In  March, 
1831,  he  took  his  seat  in  the  United  States 
senate.  He  spoke  against  confirming  the  nom- 
ination of  Van  Buren  as  minister  to  Great 
Britain,  supported  the  protective  tariff  sys- 
tem of  Clay,  and  advocated  a  reduction  of  the 
rates  of  postage,  a  recharter  of  the  United 
States  bank,  and  the  revenue  collection  bill 
known  as  the  **  force  bill."  In  1834,  and  again 
in  1835,  as  a  member  of  the  committee  on  post 
offices  and  post  roads,  he  presented  a  minority 
report  on  abuses  in  the  post  office  which  re- 
sulted in  the  reorganization  of  that  depart- 
ment. He  opposed  the  removal  of  the  depos- 
its from-  the  United  States  bank,  and  on  Deo. 
21,  1885,  introduced  a  bill  for  the  settlement 
of  the  Ohio  boundary  question,  which  was 
passed  March  11  and  June  15,  1836.  During 
the  same  session  he  brought  forward  a  bill, 
which  became  a  law,  for  the  reorganization  of 
the  general  land  office ;  and  on  several  occa- 
sions he  opposed  the  policy  of  granting  pre- 
emption rights  to  settlers  on  the  public  lands. 
He  spoke  against  tKl  admission  of  Michigan, 
and  presented  a  memorial  for  the  abolition  of 
slavery  and  the  slave  trade  in  the  District  of 
Columbia,  which  he  insisted  ought  to  be  re- 


20 


EWING 


EXCHANGE 


ferred,  thongh  he  was  opposed  to  granting  the 
prayer  of  the  memorialists.  Iix  July,  1886, 
the  secretary  of  the  treasury  issued  what  was 
known  as  the  "  specie  circular,"  directing  re- 
ceivers in  land  offices  to  accept  payments  only 
in  gold,  silver,  or  treasury  certificates,  except 
from  certain  classes  of  persons  for  a  limited 
time.  In  December  Mr.  Swing  brought  in  a 
bill  to  annul  this  circular,  and  another  declar- 
ing it  unlawful  for  the  secretary  to  make  such 
discrimination,  but  the  bills  were  not  carried. 
His  term  expired  in  March,  1837,  and  he  re- 
sumed the  practice  of  his  profession.  In  1841 
he  was  appointed  secretary  of  the  treasury  by 
President  Harrison,  and  retained  that  office 
under  President  Tyler.  His  first  official  report 
proposed  the  imposition  of  20  per  cent,  ad  to- 
lorem  duties  on  certain  articles  for  the  relief 
of  the  national  debt,  disapproved  the  indepen- 
dent treasury  act  passed  the  preceding  year, 
and  urged  the  establishment  of  a  nationid  bank. 
He  was  requested  to  prepare  a  bill  for  the 
last  purpose,  which  was  passed  with  some  al- 
teration, but  was  vetoed  by  the  president.  Mr. 
Tyler  thereupon  indicated  a  plan  for  a  bank 
of  moderate  capital  for  the  regulation  of  ex- 
changes, and  at  his  request  Mr.  Ewing  helped 
to  frame  a  charter,  which  was  immediately 
passed  and  in  turn  vetoed.  Mr.  Ewing,  with 
all  the  other  members  of  the  cabinet  except 
Mr.  Webster,  consequently  resigned  (Septem- 
ber, 1841).  On  the  accession  of  Gen.  Taylor 
to  the  presidency  in  1849,  he  took  office  as 
secretary  of  the  newly  created  department 
of  the  interior,  which  he  organized.  Among 
the  measures  recommended  in  his  first  report, 
Dec.  8,  1849,  were  the  extension  of  the  public 
land  laws  to  California,  New  Mexico,  and  Ore- 
gon, the  establishment  of  a  mint  near  the  Cal- 
ifornia gold  mines,  and  the  construction  of  a 
road  to  the  Pacific.  On  the  death  of  Taylor 
and  the  accession  of  FiUmore,  in  1860,  Mr. 
Oorwin  became  secretary  of  the  treasury,  and 
Mr.  Ewing  was  appointed  by  the  governor  of 
Ohio  to  serve  during  Corwin*s  unexpired  term 
in  the  senate.  In  this  body  he  refused  to 
vote  for  the  fugitive  slave  law,  opposed  Clay's 
compromise  biU,  reported  from  the  commit- 
tee on  finance  a  bill  for  the  establishment 
of  a  branch  mint  in  California,  and  advo- 
cated a  reduction  of  postage,  river  and  harbor 
appropriations,  and  the  abolition  of  slavery  in 
the  District  of  Columbia.  In  1851  he  retired 
from  public  life.  Among  the  most  elaborate 
of  his  written  professional  arguments  are  those 
in  the  cases  of  Oliver  v.  Piatt  et  aL,  involving 
the  title  to  a  large  part  of  Toledo,  Ohio ;  the 
Methodist  church  division ;  the  Mclntire  poor 
school  V,  Zanesville ;  and  the  McMicken  will, 
involving  large  bequests  for  education.  In 
February,  1861,  he  was  a  delegate  from  Ohio 
to  the  peace  conference  in  Washington. — 
Thomas,  his  son,  born  at  Lancaster,  Ohio, 
Aug.  7,  1829,  was  chief  justice  of  Kansas  in 
1861,  served  in  the  civil  war,  and  received  the 
brevet  of  major  general  of  volunteers  in  1864. 


ElARCH  (Or.  l^apxoc,  leader),  in  the  eastern 
Roman  empire,  an  ecclesiastical  or  civil  dig- 
nitary invested  with  extraordinary  authority. 
At  first  exarchs  were  officers  delegated  by  the 
patriarch  or  synod  to  visit  a  diocese  for  the 
purpose  of  restoring  discipline.  The  exarch 
was  also  the  superior  of  several  monasteries, 
in  distinction  from  the  archimandrite,  who 
was  the  superior  of  one,  and  was  of  a  rank 
inferior  to  that  of  patriarch  and  superior  to 
that  of  metropolitan.  In  the  modem  Greek 
church  the  exarch  is  a  legate  a  latere  of  the 
patriarch.  He  visits  the  provinces  to  investi- 
gate ecclesiastical  cases,  the  difierences  be- 
tween prelates  and  people,  the  monastic  dis- 
cipline, the  administration  of  the  sacraments, 
and  the  observance  of  the  canons ;  and  he  usu- 
ally succeeds  to  the  patriarchate. — As  a  civil 
officer,  the  exarch  was  a  viceroy  intrusted  with 
the  administration  of  one  or  more  provinces. 
This  title  was  given  to  the  prefects  who  from 
the  middle  of  the  6th  century  to  the  middle 
of  the  8th  governed  that  part  of  Italy  which 
was  subject  to  the  Byzantine  empire.  They 
were  instituted  after  the  reconquest  of  Italy 
from  the  Ostrogoths  by  Narses,  to  oppose  the 
progress  of  the  Lombards,  then  threatening  to 
occupy  that  country.  They  held  their  court  at 
Ravenna,  and  combined  civil,  military,  judicial, 
and  often  ecclesiastical  authority.  They  ap- 
pointed dukes  as  vice  governors  for  several 
parts  of  Italy.  The  exarchate  was  destroyed 
by  the  Lombards  in  752.  When  Pepin  of 
France  conquered  Ravenna,  it  was  ceded  to 
the  pope.  The  title  of  exarch  for  high  civil 
and  military  officera  remained  in  the  West  till 
the  12th  century. 

EXdXLEBrCY,  a  title  borne  originally  by  the 
Lomhard  kings,  and  then  by  the  emperors  of 
the  West  from  Charlemagne  to  Henry  VII.  It 
was  adopted  in  the  15th  century  by  the  Italian 
princes,  who  exchanged  it  for  that  of  highness 
(altezza)  after  the  French  and  other  ambas- 
sadors had  been  permitted  to  assume  it.  In 
France  it  became  about  the  middle  of  the  17th 
century  a  common  title  for  the  highest  civil 
and  military  officers ;  and  in  Germany  it  was 
given  also  to  doctors  and  professors  in  univer- 
sities. It  is  the  title  of  every  nobleman  in 
Italy;  in  France,  a  duke  is  addressed  as  ex- 
eellence,  and  a  prince  as  altesse.  It  is  the  usual 
address  of  foreign  ministers  and  of  the  govern- 
ors of  British  colonies.  The  president  of  the 
United  States  is  sometimes  called  his  excel- 
lency the  president,  but  there  is  no  legal  sanc- 
tion for  this,  the  founders  of  the  government 
having  decided  after  discussion  to  bestow  no 
title  upon  the  president.  A  committee  of  the 
senate  reported  in  favor  of  the  style  "  his  high- 
ness," but  the  house  opposed  any  title  besides 
those  expressed  in  the  constitution.  Massa- 
chusetts is  the  only  state  whose  constitution 
grants  the  title  of  excellency  to  its  governor. 

EXCELHiNS.    See  Exelmans. 

EXCHANGE,  a  gathering  place  for  the  transac- 
tion of  business.    In  Venice,  Genoa,  and  other 


EXCHANGE 


EXCHANGE  (Eell  or) 


21 


Italian  cities,  regular  commercial  gathering 
places  existed  at  an  early  day.  The  modern 
institation  of  exchanges,  however,  dates  more 
pardcalarly  from  the  16th  century.  In  conti- 
nental Europe  the  name  Bihve  in  German,  bourse 
in  French,  and  hirzha  in  Russian,  originated 
from  tbe  belief  that  the  first  gathering  of  the 
kind  took  place  in  the  early  part  of  the  16th  cen- 
tury at  Bruges,  in  Flanders,  in  the  house  of  a 
famUy  of  the  name  of  Van  der  Be  urge.  Accord- 
ing to  another  tradition,  the  first  exchange  was 
held  at  Amsterdam  in  a  house  which  had  three 
parses  hewn  in  stone  over  the  gates,  thus  ac- 
conndng  for  the  use  of  the  word  bonne.  Pre- 
vious to  the  latter  part  of  the  16th  century  the 
London  merchants  used  to  meet  without  shelter 
in  Lombard  street.  Sir  Richard  Gresham,  hav- 
ing seen  the  covered  walks  used  for  exchanges 
abroad,  contemplated  erecting  a  similar  build- 
ing in  London.  The  scheme  was  carried  into 
effect  by  his  son  Sir  Thomas  Gresham,  who 
offered  to  erect  a  building  if  the  citizens  would 
provide  a  plot  of  ground.  The  site  north  of 
Corohill,  in  the  city  of  London,  was  accordingly 
purchased  in  1566  for  about  £8,600.  On  Jan. 
23, 1570,  Queen  Elizabeth  caused  it  to  be  pro- 
eUimedthe  **  Royal  Exchange. ^^  This  structure 
was  destroyed  in  the  great  fire  of  1666.  The 
sew  exchange  was  commenced  at  the  end  of 
Ml,  and  publicly  opened  for  business  Sept. 
SS,  1669.  This  building,  which  was  210  ft.  by 
175,  cost  nearly  £60,000,  and  was  destroyed 
bj  fire  Jan.  10, 1838.  The  comer  stone  of  the 
present  royal  exchange  was  laid  in  1842,  and 
the  building  was  opened  Oct.  28,  1844,  by 
Queen  Y ictoria.  It  is  an  imposing  edifice,  em- 
bellished with  many  statues,  and  cost  £180,000. 
The  area  appropriated  to  the  meetings  of  the 
merchants  is  170  ft.  by  112,  of  which  111  ft. 
by  53  is  uncovered.  Here  the  English,  Ger- 
man, Greek,  Mediterranean,  and  other  foreign 
merchants,  all  have  their  appropriate  places 
and  corners,  and  meet  daily  for  the  transaction 
of  basiness.  The  busiest  hour  is  from  8f  to  4^ 
P.  M.  The  two  great  days  on  Vhange  are  Tues- 
day and  Friday,  when  an  extra  meeting  for 
transactions  in  foreign  bills  of  exchange  takes 
place  previous  to  the  regular  meeting,  which 
is  attended  by  the  principal  bankers  and  mer- 
chants of  London,  and  which  derives  great  im- 
portance from  the  immense  business  transacted 
vithin  about  half  an  hour.  The  whole  foreign 
commerce  which  centres  in  Londdh  is  here 
concentrated  in  a  handful  of  bills  of  exchange. 
There  is  much  less  excitement  than  at  the  gen- 
eral exchange.  A  few  brokers  pass  between 
the  bankers  and  merchants,  and  the  bills  are 
bought  and  sold  almost  in  a  whisper. — ^The  most 
celebrated  continental  exchange  is  the  bourse 
of  Paris,  which  .was  inaugurated  in  1824.  The 
building  has  the  shape  of  an  ancient  peripteral 
temple,  and  is  calculated  to  hold  more  than 
2,000  persons.  The  Paris  exchange  is  a  com- 
bination of  a  stock  and  bill  exchange,  and  con- 
fines itself  chiefiy  to  these  branches  of  business. 
The  St  Petersburg  exchange,  built  between 


1804  and  1810,  approaches  the  Paris  bourse  in 
splendor.  The  Hamburg  exchange  resembles 
it  both  in  shape  and  grandeur.  The  exchange 
of  Amsterdam  was  finished  in  1618,  and  is  an 
edifice  of  great  magnitude.  The  bourse  of 
Antwerp,  one  of  the  oldest  and  most  remark- 
able of  Europe,  which  was  chosen  by  Sir 
Thomas  Gresham  as  a  model  for  the  first  royal 
exchange  in  London,  was  totally  destroyed  by 
fire,  Aug.  2,  1858,  and  has  since  been  rebuilt 
in  the  rue  de  la  Bourse.  A  large  portion  of  the 
commerce  of  the  world  was  transacted  in  it 
for  a  considerable  time.  At  Amsterdam,  Ham- 
burg, Vienna,  Constantinople,  St.  Petersburg, 
Berlin,  Frankfort,  &c.,  the  exchanges  are  nu- 
merously attended,  but  the  exchange  of  London 
stands  unrivalled  in  Europe  for  the  magnitude 
of  its  transactions. — The  merchants*  exchange 
in  New  York  was  founded  in  1817.  Its  first 
building,  in  Wall  street,  between  William  and 
Pearl  streets,  was  built  of  Westchester  marble, 
three  stories  in  height,  with  the  city  post  ofiSce 
in  the  basement,  and  insurance  and  other  ofiSces 
on  the  third  floor.  It  was  opened  in  1827,  and 
was  destroyed  by  the  great  fire  of  Deo.  16, 
1885.  The  second  exchange,  on  the  same  site, 
was  built  of  Quincy  granite,  at  a  cost,  including 
the  value  of  the  ground,  of  $1,800,000.  It  was 
subsequently  sold  to  the  general  government 
to  be  used  as  a  custom  house.  The  present 
exchange  has  an  imposing  marble  front  in 
Broad  street,  near  Wall  street,  with  entrances 
also  in  Wfdl  and  New  streets.  Buildings  for 
similar  purposes,  and  generally  of  large  size 
and  great  cost,  exist  in  all  the  principal  cities 
of  the  United  States. 

EXCHANGE,  Bill  of,  in  commercial  transactions, 
a  written  instrument  designed  to  secure  the 
payment  of  a  distant  debt  without  the  trans- 
mission of  money,  being  in  effect  a  setting  off 
or  exchange  of  one  debt  against  another.  This 
important  instrument  is  of  modem  origin.  It 
was  not  because  its  use  was  not  perceived  that 
it  was  unemployed  in  ancient  commerce,  but 
because  its  basis  is  mercantile  integrity,  which 
never  existed  till  a  recent  period  in  trading 
cotnTnunities  to  a  sufficient  extent  to  warrant 
putting  money  or  other  valuable  commodities 
at  risk  upon  so  f^ail  a  security.  Thus  we 
have  evidence  in  the  case  of  the  Athenian 
banker,  which  is  the  subject  of  one  of  the  dis- 
courses of  Isocrates,  that  the  convenience  of 
such  an  exchange  as  is  now  usual  among  mer- 
chants was  well  enough  understood  then,  but 
it  was  deemed  necessary  to  take  security  for 
the  payment  of  the  bill.  Transactions  of  the 
same  kind  have  doubtless  occurred  at  all  pe- 
riods where  parties  have  had  sufiScient  con- 
fidence in  each  other ;  but  that  they  were  un- 
frequent  is  manifest  from  the  silence  of  the 
Roman  law  in  respect  thereto.  It  is  said  that 
the  Jews  of  the  middle  ages  first  introduced 
bills  of  exchange  into  ordinary  use,  and  this  is 
entitled  to  credit,  inasmuch  as  the  frequent 
migrations  and  spoliations  to  which  they  were 
suQected  in  those  times  of  persecution  made 


22 


EXCHANGE  (Bill  of) 


an  easf  transmission  of  wealth  and  its  safe 
keeping  in  foreign  countries  almost  a  necessity. 
Of  conrse  the  bills  drawn  bj  them  were  upon 
persons  of  their  own  race.  The  negotiation  of 
bills  of  exchange  by  law  can  be  traced  back 
about  ^  centuries,  the  earliest  being  an  or- 
dinance of  the  city  of  Barcelona  in  1894  re- 
specting the  acceptance  of  bills  of  exchange. 
An  edict  of  Louis  XI.  in  1462  is  the  first  notice 
of  the  subject  in  the  laws  of  France.  (See 
Kent's  ^^  Commentaries,'^  vol.  iii.,  p.  72,  note.) 
— In  form,  a  bill  of  exchange  is  an  order  or  re- 
quest addressed  by  one  person  to  another  di- 
recting the  payment  of  money  to  a  third  person. 
The  first  is  called  the  drawer ;  the  second  is 
the  drawee  until  the  bill  has  been  presented 
and  accepted,  and  then  he  is  called  the  ac- 
ceptor; the  third  is  the  payee.  But  some- 
times the  bill  passes  through  several  hands, 
which  may  be  either  by  successive  indorse- 
ments specifying  to  whom  payment  is  to  be 
made,  or  by  what  is  called  an  indorsement  in 
blank,  by  which  is  meant  that  the  payee,  or  the 
subsequent  holder  to  whom  the  bill  has  been 
indorsed,  merely  writes  his  own  name  on  the 
biU,  which  is  equivalent  to  making  it  payable 
to  bearer.  The  most  important  incident  of  a 
bill  of  exchange  is  its  negotiability,  that  is  to 
say,  facility  of  transfer  from  one  person  to 
another.  For  this  purpose  it  is  essential  that 
the  engagement  of  the  several  parties,  whether 
drawer,  acceptor,  or  indorser,  should  be  dis- 
entangled irom  all  matters  not  appearing  upon 
the  face  of  the  bill.  This,  therefore,  is  the 
general  rule,  subject  to  some  exceptions  which 
will  be  presently  mentioned.  Equally  neces- 
sary is  it  that  the  bill  itself  should  by  its  terms 
involve  no  uncertain  contingency,  as  to  depend 
upon  an  event  that  may  not  happen,  or  upon 
some  condition  which  may  be  the  subject  of 
controversy.  Hence  it  has  been  uniformly 
held  that  it  must  be  payable  at  a  fixed  time, 
that  is  to  say,  at  some  period  which  is  certain ; 
but  it  may  be  so  far  contingent  as  to  depend 
upon  an  event  which  must  inevitably  happen, 
though  the  precise  time  cannot  be  specified. 
Thus  a  bill  may  be  payable  a  certain  time  after 
the  death  of  a  particular  person ;  but  it  would 
not  be  a  good  bill  if  made  payable  afber  the 
arrival  of  a  certain  vessel.  The  one  event  is 
certain  to  happen  at  some  period,  though  it 
may  be  remote ;  the  other  may  not  happen  at 
all.  Again,  a  bill  of  exchange  must  be  ex- 
pressed to  be  for  the  payment  of  money  only, 
and  would  not  be  good  if  payable  in  cattle  or 
other  species  of  property,  nor  even  if  made 
payable  in  bank  bills,  though  it  is  held  in  some 
oases  that  if  payable  in  currency  it  is  a  good 
bill,  as  this  implies  specie  or  its  equivalent. 
When  it  is  said  that  a  bill  is  not  good  if  sub- 
ject to  any  contingency  or  payable  otherwise 
than  in  money,  it  is  intended  merely  that  it  is 
not  negotiable  with  the  legal  effect  whid)  ap- 
pertains to  a  bill  drawn  in  the  prescribed  form. 
It  may  nevertheless  constitute  a  valid  contract 
between  the  original  parties,  and  may  even  be 


transferred  so  as  to  vest  in  the  assignee  the 
same  right  which  the  payee  would  have  had 
against  the  drawer  or  acceptor.  The  transfer 
in  such  case  will,  however,  be  subject  to  the 
same  rules  that  apply  to  other  personal  con- 
tracts usually  denominated  ehoMs  in  action. 
In  other  words,  the  transfer  is  itself  a  contract ; 
and  although  it  is  not  necessary  that  it  should 
be  in  writing,  yet  it  derives  no  aid  from  mer- 
cantile usage  respecting  the  indorsement  of 
bills.  The  delivery  of  a  note  not  negotiable 
may  give  an  ownership  if  so  designed,  and  this 
is  so  in  respect  to  a  bond  or  other  contract. 
But  by  the  common  law  there  was  this  limita- 
tion, that  the  right  of  the  holder  could  be  en- 
forced only  in  the  name  of  the  original  obligee, 
it  being  a  rule  that  a  chose  in  action  was  not 
assignable.  In  equity,  however,  the  right  of 
the  assignee  was  recognized,  and  so  to  a  certain 
extent  it  came  to  be  in  the  conunon  law  courts, 
the  formality  of  using  the  name  of  the  assignor 
in  a  suit  brought  upon  such  chose  in  action  he- 
ing  all  that  is  retained  of  the  old  strictness. 
In  most  of  the  states  even  this  has  been  abro- 
gated, and  the  real  party  in  interest,  by  which  is 
meant  whoever  has  the  actual  ownership,  may 
be  the  party  to  the  action.  Again,  such  trans- 
fer confers  no  greater  right  than  the  original 
payee  or  obligee  had,  and  is  subject  to  any  de- 
fence, legal  or  equitable,  which  the  other  par- 
ties had  against  such  payee  or  obligee  prior  to 
actual  notice  of  the  assignment,  or  what  in 
law  would  be  tantamount  thereto.  The  bill, 
or  rather  contract,  as  it  should  be  termed  in 
the  case  supposed,  is  itself  also  subject  to  one 
important  rule  distinguishing  it  from  a  proper 
bill  of  exchange,  viz.,  that  it  does  not  import  a 
consideration  unless  expressed.  If,  therefore,  no 
consideration  is  specified,  parol  evidence  there- 
of will  be  necessary,  as  the  rule  of  the  common 
law  is  that  a  consideration  is  an  essential  requi- 
site of  a  contract ;  but  parol  evidence  will  be 
inadmissible  in  all  those  cases  in  which  by 
statute  it  is  required  that  the  contract  should 
be  in  writing,  as  when  the  contract  is  not  to 
be  performed  within  one  year,  or  when  it  is  to 
answer  for  the  debt  of  another  person,  &c. 
It  will  now  be  understood  what  is  the  negotia- 
bility above  referred  to  as  being  the  peculiar 
incident  of  a  bill  of  exchange.  The  bill,  in 
the  first  place,  imports  per  se  to  have  been 
given  for  value,  even  if  it  does  not  contain  the 
usual  clause  **for  value  received,"  which, 
though  generally  inserted,  is  mere  surplusage ; 
and  every  successive  holder  who  has  received 
it  before  it  was  due,  in  the  regular  course  of 
business,  for  a  valuable  consideration,  is  enti- 
tled to  enforce  it  according  to  the  terms  of  the 
obligation  expressed  therein,  without  regard  to 
any  transactions  between  tbe  original  parties. 
To  this  rule  there  are  some  exceptions,  as 
when  the  bill  was  given  for  a  gaming  debt  or 
when  usury  is  mvolved,  in  which  cases  the 
bill  is  declared  to  be  absolutely  void  by  stat- 
utes in  England,  which  have  been  generally 
re^nacted  in  the  United  States.    When  there 


EXCISE 


23 


hAs  been  fraod  in  tbe  transaction  to  which  the 
bill  relates,  which  would  have  been  a  defence 
as  between  the  original  parties,  the  rnle  is  that 
a  honafde  holder  for  value  is  not  affected 
thereby ;  with  however  this  limitation,  that  the 
bill  has  been  received  not  only  without  knowl- 
edge of  the  fraud,  but  without  such  notice  of 
the  circumstances  as  should  have  induced  sus- 
picion and  inquiry.  If  the  bill  at  the  time  of 
trausfer  has  become  due,  this  is  in  law  deemed 
suSScien!;  to  call  for  inquiry,  and  the  indorsee 
in  such  case  takes  the  bill  subject  to  whatever 
defence  there  would  have  been  against  the 
party  from  whom  he  received  it.  When  a  bill 
has  been  stolen  or  lost,  and  has  been  put  into 
circulation  again,  a  bona  fide  purchaser  is  en- 
tided  to  enforce  it  against  all  previous  parties, 
provided  there  were  no  circumstances  that 
should  have  led  him  in  the  exercise  of  ordinary 
prodence  to  inquire  into  the  title  of  the  party 
from  whom  he  received  it  It  will  in  such  a 
case  be  a  question  of  fact  whether  due  dili- 
gence has  been  used  by  the  holder,  and  the 
burden  of  proof  is  imposed  upon  him,  upon  its 
being  shown  that  the  bill  had  been  stolen  or 
lost  The  question  in  such  case  would  be  be- 
tveen  the  person  who  had  lost  the  bill  or  from 
whom  it  had  been  stolen,  and  the  person  who 
hsd  received  it  after  the  theft  or  loss.  The 
Hability  of  the  original  parties  is  not  affected. 
—Bills  of  exchange  are  of  two  sorts,  foreign 
and  inland ;  the  former  being  drawn  by  a  mer- 
chant in  this  country  upon  another  residing 
abroad,  or  by  a  foreign  merchant  upon  one  re- 
siding here ;  the  latter  when  both  drawer  and 
drawee  reside  in  the  same  country.  The  prin- 
cipal rules  relating  to  bills  of  exchange  grow 
oat  of  mercantile  usage  respecting  foreign 
bills;  but  by  statute  in  England  and  the 
United  States  both  are  now  put  upon  the  same 
footing,  with  the  exception  only  that  damages 
are  allowed  upon  foreign  bills  which  come 
back  protested  for  non-acceptance  or  non-pay- 
ment By  statute  in  England  and  the  United 
8tatea,  promissory  notes  are  made  negotiable 
in  like  manner  as  inland  bills  of  exchange. 
The  same  principles  therefore,  in  respect  to 
negotiability  and  the  legal  incidents  thereof, 
apply  to  both. 

EXCISE,  a  term  employed  to  designate  a  par- 
ticular form  of  taxation.  Excise  taxes  or  du- 
ties are  distingnished  from  customs  in  being 
such  as  are  imp>osed  upon  domestic  commodi- 
ties, chiefly  manufactures,  such  as  glass,  paper, 
spirits,  &c.,  while  customs  are  duties  levied 
npon  merchandise  imported  or  exported.  Both 
kinds  are  included  under  the  common  term 
imposts.  Excise  duties  were  first  imposed  in 
Great  Britain  by  the  long  parliament  in  1643, 
but  a  number  of  articles  of  foreign  production 
were  included  in  the  act,  as  tobacco,  wine, 
sQgar,  Ajo.,  which  were  charged  with  a  duty  in 
the  hands  of  the  retailer  in  addition  to  what 
had  been  paid  on  importation.  Since  that 
time  they  have  heen  regularly  continued,  but 
with  modifications  from  time  to  time  as  to  the 


articles  subject  to  the  duty  and  the  rate  of 
charge.  The  articles  of  foreign  growth  and 
manufacture  are  now  transferred  to  the  de- 
partment of  customs.  At  the  present  time 
excise  duties  are  nearly  all  collected  on  fer- 
mented and  distilled  liquors  and  chiccory, 
though  license  duties  are  also  classed  with  the 
excise  taxes.  For  the  year  ending  Mai*ch  81, 
1872,  the  excise  duties  collected  in  the  United 
Kingdom  amounted  to  £28,886,064,  of  which 
£6,670,955  were  collected  on  malt,  £12,274,- 
596  on  spirits,  and  £8,781,979  for  licenses. — 
Excise  duties  have  not  been  generally  levied  in 
the  United  States,  but  the  national  government 
has  relied  upon  customs  as  its  principal  source 
of  revenue.  An  excise  duty  on  the  manufac- 
ture of  spirits  during  Washington's  administra- 
tion led  to  what  was  called  the  whiskey  insur- 
rection in  Pennsylvania,  which  was  soon  sup- 
pressed, but  the  tax  was  not  continued.  Oth- 
ers were  imposed  in  1818,  but  repealed  in 
1817.  After  the  breaking  out  of  the  civil  war 
in  1861  it  became  necessary  to  resort  to  every 
available  source  of  income,  and  an  elaborate 
system  of  excise  duties  was  established,  de- 
signed in  some  form  to  reach  nearly  every  spe- 
cies of  manufacture.  The  most  of  these  du- 
ties have  successively  been  abolished,  but  those 
on  spirits  and  tobacco  are  retained.  For  the 
purposes  of  comparison  with  the  excise  duties 
collected  in  Great  Britdn  in  1872,  the  follow- 
ing figures  are  given.  The  duties  collected 
on  the  manufacture  and  sale  of  distilled  spir- 
its for  the  year  ending  June  80,  1872,  were 
$49,475,516  86;  on  fermented  liquors,  $8,009,- 
969  72 ;  on  tobacco,  $18,674,569  26.— The  rela- 
tive advantage  of  excise  duties  and  customs  has 
been  much  debated.  The  latter  are  evaded  to 
a  large  extent  by  smugglers,  but  the  excise  du- 
ties are  also  evaded,  particularly  in  respect  to 
spirits.  This  was  strikingly  illustrated  in  the 
United  States,  where  it  was  found  that  a  tax 
of  $2  a  gallon  on  the  manufacture  of  whiskey 
produced  less  revenue  than  one  of  50  cents. 
Excise  duties  are  also  objected  to  on  the  same 
ground  with  an  income  tax,  namely,  that  they 
expose  the  manufacturer's  private  operations. 
Another  objection  that  has  tended  to  make 
them  more  obnoxious  than  any  other  is  the  ar- 
bitrary manner  of  enforcing  them,  which  is  felt 
to  be  an  interference  with  private  liberty  and 
independence,  which  the  common  law  has  sed- 
ulously protected.  It  is  supposed  that  in  this 
matter  of  collecting  its  revenue  the  government 
considers  itself  entitled  to  dispense  with  all  the 
ordinary  protections  to  individual  right  and 
liberty,  and  to  provide  the  most  uinust  and 
arbitrary  proceedings  at  discretion.  This  was 
illustrated  in  a  very  remarkable  manner  in  the 
recent  case  of  Henderson,  in  which  it  was  held 
by  the  msgority  of  the  United  States  supreme 
court  that  a  hana  fide  purchaser  of  liquors 
stored  in  a  government  warehouse,  who  had 
paid  in  full  all  dues,  might  afterward  have  the 
liquors  seized  in  his  hands  and  forfeited  to  the 
government  because  a  former  owner  had  at 


24 


EXCOMMUNICATION 


one  time  bad  a  design  to  evade  payment  of 
the  duties  upon  them  ;  a  purpose  of  which  the 
purchaser  was  wholly  ignorant.  (14  Wallace^s 
Reports,  44,  64.) 

EXCOHMUlflClTION  (Lat.  ex,  out  of,  and  cam- 
municatiOy  intercourse),  the  cutting  off*  a  mem- 
ber of  a  religious  society  from  intercourse 
with  the  other  members  in  things  spiritual. 
This  penalty  was  familiar  to  the  pagan  nations 
of  antiquity,  as  well  as  to  the  Jews ;  and  from 
them  it  passed  into  use  among  Christians.  In 
Greece,  persons  guilty  of  enormous  crimes  were 
given  over  to  the  Furies  with  certain  terrible 
forms  of  imprecation.  There  were  three  kinds 
of  excommunication  among  the  Greeks.  By 
the  first,  the  criminal  was  excluded  from  all 
intercourse  with  his  own  family ;  by  the  sec- 
ond, he  was  forbidden  to  approach  any  temple, 
or  to  assist  at  any  sacrifice  or  public  rite ;  by 
the  third,  it  was  forbidden  to  give  him  shelter, 
food,  or  drink.  The  Romans  borrowed  the 
rite  from  the  Greeks,  and  the  formulas  sacrU 
interdicerej  to  forbid  the  use  of  sacred  things, 
dirts  devovere,  to  devote  one  to  the  Furies, 
execrariy  to  curse,  &c.,  have  much  the  above 
meaning.  According  to  CsBsar,  the  highest 
punishment  inflicted  by  the  druids,  among  Cel- 
tic nations,  w^as  to  exclude  an  offender  from 
all  their  religious  rites.  Such  a  man  was  con- 
sidered by  all  as  wicked  and  an  enemy  of  the 
gods ;  he  was  shunned  even  by  his  own  kindred, 
denied  all  justice  and  hospitality,  and  lived  and 
died  in  infamy.  The  Semitic  races,  in  ancient 
and  modern  times,  have  practised  excommuni- 
cation, and  it  is  now  in  use  wherever  Moham- 
medanism extends.  We  have  the  testimony 
of  Josephus  that  excommunication  was  prac- 
tised among  the  Jews,  and  he  notes  the  ex- 
treme rigor  with  which  the  Essenes  applied  it. 
Among  them,  the  criminal  who  was  thus  put 
out  of  the  society  of  his  brethren  not  only 
could  hold  no  communication  with  them  even 
for  the  necessaries  of  life,  but  was  bound  by 
vow  not  to  ask  food  or  shelter  from  strangers. 
Thus  driven  to  subsist  on  herbs  and  hide  in 
caves,  they  eked  out  a  miserable  life,  which 
often  ended  in  a  tragic  death.  There  were 
three  kinds  of  excommunication  among  the 
Jews.  The  mildest  form  consisted  in  a  tempo- 
rary exclusion  from  reli^ous  and  social  inter- 
course for  80  days.  If  during  this  interval 
the  culprit  did  not  repent,  another  term  of  80 
days  was  added,  which  was  lengthened  to  90 
days  if  he  still  remained  obdurate.  If  he  per- 
sisted at  the  end  of  that  time,  he  was  visited 
with  the  more  severe  and  solemn  form  of  ex- 
communication, that  is,  publicly  cast  out  of  the 
synagogue,  with  awful  execrations  taken  from 
the  law  of  Moses.  When  this  penalty  and  all 
other  human  means  had  been  tried  in  vain,  he 
was  given  over  to  the  divine  judgment  as  an 
irreclaimable  sinner. — In  the  early  Christian 
church  we  find  excommunication  practised  by 
St.  Paul,  and  ei\joined  both  by  him  and  by  St. 
John.  In  the  post-apostolic  ages  it  was  the 
universal  custom  both  in  the  East  and  West, 


modified  only  from  the  Jewish  practice  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  requirements  of  Christian 
belief  and  worship.  The  lowest  degree  con- 
sisted in  the  reixisal  of  eucharistic  communion; 
the  next  in  exclusion  from  the  church  and  the 
liturgical  service ;  the  third  in  total  exclusion, 
by  solemn  denunciation,  from  membership  with 
the  church,  and  from  all  intercourse,  social  or 
religious,  with  Christians.  This  highest  degree 
of  exco^^nunication  was  accompanied  in  some 
instances  by  an  awful  form  w^hich  explains  the 
anathema  maranatha  of  St.  Paul.  When  the 
person  excommunicated  was  not  only  guilty  of 
apostasy  or  heresy,  but  one  who  sought  to  draw 
the  multitude  after  him,  a  prayer  was  made 
by  some  churches  that  God  should  come  down 
in  judgment  and  cut  the  seducer  off,  as  in  the 
cases  of  Julian  the  Apostate  and  Arius. — In 
the  Latin  church,  since  the  publication  of  Gra- 
tian^s  Decretumj  aiid  the  regular  adoption  of 
canon  law,  two  kinds  of  excommunications 
have  been  described  by  canonists,  the  minor 
and  the  migor.  The  former  excluded  the 
offender  from  the  use  of  the  sacrament  and 
the  benefit  of  certain  ecclesiastical  privileges 
and  immunities.  It  was  incurred  for  sins  that 
were  not  public,  or  for  communicating  with 
persons  under  the  solemn  ban.  The  m^gor  ex* 
conmiunication  out  tlie  offender  off  not  only 
from  church  membership,  but  from  social  inter- 
course with  Christians.  He  was  solemnly  and 
by  name  called  vitanduSj  **  to  be  shunned  by  all.'^ 
As  heresy,  public  apostasy,  and.  great  crimes 
by  which  excommunication  was  incurred,  came 
early  to  be  recognized  as  state  offences  and 
misdemeanors  punishable  by  the  laws  of  the 
empire,  so  it  was  soon  decreed  by  statute  that 
the  excommunicated  should  incur  privation  of 
office  and  rank,  loss  of  civil  rights,  and  forfeit- 
ure of  property.  These  dispositions  became 
more  or  less  a  part  of  the  common  law  of 
western  as  well  as  of  eastern  Christendom. 
When  the  Roman  empire  was  restored  in 
Charlemagne,  and  the  German  emperors  were 
wont  to  receive  the  imperial  crown  from  the 
pope,  public  excommunication  pronounced 
against  them  was  held  to  involve  a  forfeiture 
of  their  crown.  This  was  also  held  to  be  the 
case  with  sovereigns  whose  kingdoms  were 
fiefs  of  the  see  of  Rome.  It  was  against  such 
high  offenders  that  the  migor  excommunication 
was  fulminated,  with  the  awful  ceremonies 
mentioned  in  history.  In  the  present  discipline 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  church  the  excommuni- 
cation of  sovereigns  is  reserved  to  the  pope, 
and  has  been  very  rarely  practised  since  the 
16th  century.  In  1570  Pope  Pius  V.  excom- 
municated Queen  Elizabeth  of  England,  and 
formally  absolved  her  subjects  from  their  al- 
legiance. In  the  modem  Greek  church  ex- 
communication cuts  off  the  offender  not  only 
from  the  **  communion  of  saints,"  but  from  all 
intercourse,  religious  or  social,  and  consigns 
him,  living  and  dead,  to  the  evil  one. — The 
power  of  excommunication  w^as  maintained  by 
the  reformers,  who  claimed  it  as  a  prerogative 


EXCRETION 


EXECUTION 


25 


of  the  Christian  commnnity,  while  the  Roman 
Catholic  and  eastern  chnrohes  vested  it  in  the 
episcopal  order.  In  the  church  of  England 
the  vigorous  provisions  of  the  old  canon  law 
were  for  the  most  part  kept  in  force  after  the 
reformation,  and  were  a  part  of  the  law  of  the 
land  until  the  reign  of  George  III.,  when  (52 
(xeorge  III.,  c.  127)  excommnnioations  and  the 
consequent  civil  effects  were  done  away  with, 
except  for  certain  specified  cases.  When  the 
peraoD  excommunicated  for  the  offences  men- 
tioned in  the  act  allows  six  months  to  pass 
without  submitting  to  correction,  the  bisnop 
certifies  this  contumacy  to  the  court  of  chan- 
cery, which  issues  its  writ  to  the  sheriff.  The 
severest  penalty  enforced  is  six  months*  im- 
prisonment In  Scotland,  when  the  lesser 
excommunication  has  failed,  the  delinquent  is 
sabjected  to  the  greater,  and  the  faithful  are 
warned  to  avoid  all  unnecessary  intercourse 
with  him.  In  the  Protestant  Episcopal  church 
certain  offences  entail  the  privation  of  holy 
communion,  while  "great  heinousness  of  of- 
fence "  is  followed  by  loss  *^  of  all  privileges 
of  church  membership.**  The  Methodist  Epis- 
copal church  vests  the  power  of  exoommuni- 
i^n  in  the  minister,  after  a  trial  before  a 
jorr  of  peers  of  the  accused.  Excommnnica- 
im  is  intlioted  among  the  Presbyterians,  Con- 
gragationalista,  and  Baptists  by  the  church,  ac- 
cording to  the  view  of  the  early  reformers. 

EICKFriON  (Lat.  exeemere,  exeretum^  to 
pargeX  the  elimination  of  waste  or  effete 
matters  from  the  living  body.  There  is  evi- 
dence that  during  the  vital  processes  every 
exertion  of  activity  by  a  living  tissue  or  or- 
gan is  necessarily  accompanied  by  a  molecular 
change  in  its  chemical  constitution.  So  inti- 
mate is  this  connection  between  the  alteration 
of  sabstance  in  a  living  organ  and  its  physiolo- 
gical action,  that  it  is  impossible  to  say  with 
certainty  which  of  these  two  is  the  cause  and 
which  the  effect.  The  &ct  is  however  that, 
as  we  have  said  above,  every  manifestation  of 
vital  activity  involves  a  change  in  the  immedi- 
ate constitution  of  the  active  organ.  The  con- 
sequence of  this  is  that,  in  the  living  body, 
new  substances,  the  result  of  its  internal  dis- 
integration, are  constantly  makiqg  their  ap- 
l^earance.  These  substances,  termed  excre- 
mentitious  matters,  must  not  be  allowed  to  re- 
main and  accumnlate;  for  in  that  case  the 
constitution  of  the  organs  would  become  so 
changed  from  their  original  condition  that 
they  would  be  no  longer  capable  of  performing 
their  proper  functions.  These  matters  must 
therefore  be  gotten  rid  of,  or  eliminated  from 
the  body,  as  fast  as  they  are  produced;  and 
the  process  by  which  this  is  accomplished  is 
call^  excretion.  The  mechanism  of  this  pro- 
cess is  as  follows:  The  excrementitious  mat- 
ters produced  in  the  solid  tissues  are  absorbed 
from  them  by  the  blood,  carried  by  the  circu- 
lation to  some  organ  adapted  to  the  purpose, 
exhaled  or  exnded  in  the  gaseous,  fiuid,  or 
semi-fluid  form,  and  thus  discharged  from  the 


body.  The  two  principal  excretory  organs  are 
the  lungs  and  the  kidneys.  The  venous  blood 
in  passing  through  the  lungs  discharges  the 
carbonic  acid  which  it  has  absorbed  from  all 
the  vascular  parts  of  the  body,  and  returns  to 
the  left  side  of  the  heart  purified  and  renovated. 
The  blood  which  passes  through  the  circulation 
of  the  kidneys  exhales,  together  with  its  watery 
parts,  urea,  creatine,  creatinine,  and  the  com- 
pounds of  uric  acid ;  nitrogenous  crystallizable 
matters  produced  in  various  parts  of  the  sys- 
tem, and  which  form  the  important  ingredients 
of  the  urine.  Thus  the  blood  constantly  re- 
lieves the  solid  tissues  of  the  excrementitious 
matters  produced  in  their  substance,  and  i^  it- 
self relieved  of  them  by  passing  through  the 
excretory  organs.  Should  this  process  from 
any  cause  be  suspended  or  retarded,  the  ac- 
cumulation of  excrementitious  matters  in  the 
body  would  soon  make  itself  felt  by  a  derange- 
ment of  the  health,  and  especially  by  its  iivju- 
rious  effects  upon  the  nervous  system.  Pain, 
loss  of  appetite,  confusion  of  mind,  disturbance 
of  the  special  senses,  and  in  extreme  cases  con- 
vulsions, coma,  and  death,  result  from  the  ar- 
rest of  excretion,  which  is  therefore  no  less 
important  to  life  than  nutrition. 

EXECUTION,  in  law,  the  final  process  to  en- 
force the  Judgment  of  a  court,  according  to  the 
old  maxim,  exeeutio  est  fruetuM  et  JlnU  legU, 
In  its  larger  application  it  includes  the  process 
of  sequestration  formerly  used  by  the  court  of 
chancery  to  carry  into  effect  its  decrees,  at- 
tachments for  contempt  of  court,  and  process 
in  summary  proceedings,  as  upon  mandamus 
and  the  like;  but  in  its  ordinary  acceptation 
it  is  a  writ  issued  to  enforce  a  judgment  in  a 
suit  or  action  in  a  court  of  common  law.  It 
is  unnecessary  to  speak  of  the  execution  in 
the  various  real  actions  which  have  become 
obsolete.  In  England  the  actions  for  recovery 
of  real  estate,  whether  corporeal  or  incor- 
poreal, are,  by  statute  3  and  4  William  IV.,  c. 
27,  now  limited  to  ejectment,  ^uar^  impedit, 
and  actions  for  dower.  The  first  is  the  ordi- 
nary mode  of  trying  a  title  to  lands,  and  the 
execution  upon  a  judgment  of  recovery  is  a 
writ  of  possession,  which  in  form  is  directed 
to  the  sheriff,  commanding  him  to  deliver  to 
the  plaintiff  the  possession  of  the  lands  so  re-- 
covered. Quare  impedit  is  an  action  by  which 
the  right  to  a  benefice  is  determined,  and  takes 
\\»  name  from  a  clause  in  the  old  Lflitin  form 
of  the  writ  by  which  the  defendant  was  com- 
manded to  appear  in  court  and  show  the  reason 
why  he  hindered  the  plaintiff  from  presenting 
a  proper  person  to  a  vacant  office  in  a  church. 
Upon  judgment  in  favor  of  the  claim,  the  exe- 
cution is  a  writ  directed  to  the  bishop  com- 
manding him  to  admit  the  person  nominated 
by  the  prevailing  party.  The  action  also  lies 
for  an  ofSce  in  eleemosynary  institutions,  as 
hospitals  and  colleges,  which  are  endowed  for 
the  support  of  their  inmates ;  and  the  execu- 
tion in  such  cases  is  the  same,  except  that  it 
will  be  directed  to  the  corporate  officers  or 


26 


EXEOUTIOlf 


persons  who  have  the  control  of  the  institu- 
tion. In  respect  to  lay  officers,  as  they  are 
called  in  distinction  from  ecclesiastical  and 
eleemosynary,  the  mode  of  proceeding  is  by 
gu4>  warranto  or  mandamus.  The  former  was 
strictly  a  proceeding  in  behalf  of  the  crown 
against  any  one  who  had  intruded  into  an 
office,  but  is  now  allowed  by  statute  in  Eng- 
land (9  Anne,  c.  20)  to  determine  di8i)ute8  be- 
tween private  parties  claiming  an  office  ad- 
versely to  each  other.  The  proceeding  in  that 
case,  although  in  form  in  behalf  of  the  crown, 
yet  is  stated  to  be  on  the  relation  of  the  per- 
son prosecuting,  and  upon  judgment  in  his  fa- 
vor execution  issues  to  remove  the  intruder. 
Mandamus  is  a  remedy  where  there  is  a  re- 
fusal to  admit  the  claimant  to  an  office,  or 
where  he  has  been  wrongfully  removed.  If 
the  claim  be  established,  a  peremptory  man- 
damus issues,  directed  to  the  defendant,  com- 
manding him  to  admit  or  restore  the  claimant, 
who  is  in  this  case,  as  well  as  in  the  proceeding 
by  qito  toarrantOy  called  the  relator.  This  is, 
however,  not  strictly  an  execution,  as  if  not 
obeyed  it  must  be  enforced  by  another  process 
called  an  attachment.  In  other  actions,  where 
the  subject  is  an  injury  to  real  estate,  usually 
the  remedy  is  a  recovery  of  damages;  but 
in  some  instances  specific  relief  is  given,  as  in 
an  action  for  a  nuisance  there  may  be  a  judg- 
ment that  it  be  abated,  and  the  execution  in 
such  case  follows  the  judgment.  So  in  some 
personal  actions,  formerly,  there  might  be 
judgment  for  the  delivery  of  the  specific  thing, 
as  in  detinue,  which  was  brought  to  recover 
possession  of  chattels,  and  the  judgment  was 
enforced  by  an  execution  called  a  distringas, 
which  commanded  the  sheriff  to  make  distress 
of  any  goods  of  the  defendant  until  he  com- 
plied with  the  judgment ;  but  if  he  still  re- 
fused, there  could  only  be  an  assessment  of  the 
value  of  the  thing  recovered,  and  a  sale  of  de- 
fendant's property  to  pay  the  same.  In  the 
action  of  replevin,  which  was  originally  limited 
to  the  recovery  of  property  which  had  been 
wrongfully  distrained  for  rent,  the  writ  by 
which  the  action  was  conmienced  directed  the 
sheriff  to  replevy,  that  is,  take  the  property 
in  question,  and  deliver  it  to  the  plaintiff  upon 
pledges  to  prosecute.  If  the  defendant  suc- 
ceed in  the  action,  the  judgment  is  that  he 
have  return  of  the  property,  or  if  he  elects,  he 
may  have  an  assessment  of  the  value,  and  re- 
cover that  amount  as  damages.  In  the  former 
case  the  execution  is  for  redelivery  of  the 
property,  in  the  latter  merely  for  the  damages. 
— Before  proceeding  to  the  consideration  of 
other  actions,  it  will  be  proper  to  state  the 
modifications  which  have  been  made  in  the 
United  States  in  respect  to  those  already  no- 
ticed. All  the  common-law  real  actions  are 
generally  abolished  except  ejectment,  which, 
in  a  simplified  form,  is  used  for  the  trial  of 
title  to  land  in  all  cases.  Quare  impedit  is  not 
retained,  nor  is  there  any  action  for  the  re- 
covery of  an  office  except  the  proceedings  by 


quo  warranto  or  mandamus.  The  action  of 
detinue  has  been  generally  abolished,  and  the 
action  of  replevin  has  been  extended  to  all 
cases  of  the  wrongful  taking  or  wrongful  de- 
tention of  personal  property.  In  the  latter  ac- 
tion the  plaintifi^  instead  of  an  actual  replevy 
of  the  goods,  may  arrest  the  defendant  and 
compel  him  to  give  bail,  and  the  final  judgment 
in  such  case  wUl  be  for  damages ;  and  so  the 
defendant,  if  he  succeeds  in  a  case  where  the 
goods  have  been  replevied,  may  take  judgment 
for  the  value,  the  execution  being  in  either 
of  these  cases  merely  for  damages. — We  now 
come  to  the  ordinary  actions  in.  which  there  is 
judgment  for  a  money  demand.  At  common 
law  there  are  three  forms  of  execution  upon 
such  a  judgment :  1,  a  fieri  facias,  so  called 
from  the  terms  of  the  writ  by  which  the 
sheriff  is  commanded  that  of  the  goods  and 
chattels  of  defendant  he  cause  to  be  made  the 
amount  of  the  debt  or  damages  recovered ;  2, 
elegit,  which  is  a  writ  given  by  an  ancient 
statute  (18  Edward  I.,  c.  18),  whereby,  if  the 
plaintiff  elected,  possession  of  the  goods  and 
chattels  of  defendant  was  delivered  to  plaintiff 
under  an  appraisement  of  the  value  thereof, 
which  to  that  extent  was  to  be  a  satisfaction 
of  the  judgment;  but  if  not  sufficient,  then 
possession  of  one  half  of  the  freehold  lands  of 
defendant  was  also  to  be  delivered  until  from 
the  rents  and  profits  thereof  the  judgment 
should  be  paid ;  8,  a  capias  ad  satiqfaeiendum, 
which  is  a  writ  directed  to  the  sheriff  com- 
manding him  to  take  the  body  of  the  de- 
fendant, and  keep  the  same  until  satisfaction 
of  the  debt.  The  course  of  proceeding  upon 
this  writ  was  to  imprison  the  defendant  in  the 
debtors'  jail,  of  which  the  sheriff  had  in  law 
the  charge.  (See  Debtob  and  Cbeditor.) 
Having  traced  the  origin  of  the  terms  applied 
to  executions,  we  shall  limit  ourselves  to  a 
brief  explanation  of  the  legal  incidents  as  now 
prescribed  by  statute  in  the  United  States. 
The  two  forms  of  execution  are  the  Jieri  facias 
and  the  capias  ad  satisfaciendum,  which  have 
been  already  explained,  and  which  are  desig- 
nated by  the  abbreviated  terms ^.  fa.  and  ea. 
sa.  The  fl.  fa.  is  a  writ  directed  to  the  sheriff 
by  which  he  is  commanded  to  make  the 
amount  of  the  judgment  by  sale  of  the  defen- 
dant's goods  and  chattels,  or  if  these  should 
not  be  sufficient,  then  of  the  lands  of  which  he 
was  seized  on  the  day  when  the  judgment  was 
docketed.    An  exemption  is  made  of  certain 

Property  from  levy  under  execution,  viz.; 
ousehold  furniture,  necessary  provisions  and 
fuel  for  the  use  of  the  family  for  a  specified 
time,  stock  in  trade,  necessary  wearing  ap« 
parel,  bedding,  &c.,  tools  and  implements  to 
an  amount  named,  a  family  Bible,  family  pic- 
tures, school  books,  the  family  library,  &c., 
and  in  addition,  a  lot  and  building  occupied  as 
a  residence  by  the  debtor,  being  a  householder 
and  having  a  family,  to  a  value  named,  which 
in  most  states  is  $1,600  or  upward.  (See 
FiEBi  Facias.)    The  ea.  sa,  is  the  old  form  of 


EXECUTOR 


EXETER 


27 


execution  a^inst  the  person  of  the  defendant, 
and  since  the  abolition  of  imprisonment  for 
debt  can  be  issued  in  a  few  cases  only.  (See 
Bankbupt,  and  Debtob  and  Grsditor.) 

EXfiCrnWy  the  person  appointed  to  carry 
into  effect  the  directions  contained  in  a  last 
will  and  testament.  By  the  common  law  of 
England^  or  rather  by  the  law  as  administered 
in  Sie  ecclesiastical  courts,  an  infant  of  the  age 
of  17  was  qualified  to  act  as  executor.  Prior 
to  that  age,  letters  of  administration  were 
granted  to  some  other  person  durante  minore 
aUUs;  but  by  statute  38  George  III.,  c.  87, 
sach  administration  must  now  continue  until 
the  person  named  as  executor  has  reached  the 
age  of  21.  A  married  woman  cannot  act  as 
&D  executrix  without  the  assent  of  her  hus- 
band, inasmuch  as  he  is  responsible  for  her  acts. 
When  executors  are  not  named  in  a  will,  or 
are  incompetent,  or  refuse  to  act,  letters  of 
administrati(tt  with  the  will  annexed  may  be 
issued,  under  which  the  same  powers  may  be 
exercised  that  could  have  been  by  competent 
execntors  duly  appointed.  An  executor  de  son 
t&rt,  as  he  was  formerly  called,  i.  e.,  one  who 
intermeddled  with  the  estate  without  having 
lawful  authority,,  was  liable  to  the  extent  of 
U17  assets  which  he  might  have  appropriated 
to  be  sued  as  an  executor  of  his  own  wrong, 
kt  was  not  entitled  to  institute  a  suit  as  exe- 
eator.  The  doctrine  of  executor  de  9on  tart 
can  scarcely  be  said  to  be  recognized  in  Amer- 
ica, but  summary  remedies  are  given  against 
intermeddlers.    (See  Will.) 

ElELMANS,  or  Excduns,  Bcny  Jeseph  bidtre, 
connt,  a  French  general,  born  in  Bar-le-Duc, 
Nov.  18, 1775,  killed  by  a  fall  from  his  horse  in 
July,  1852.  He  served  first  in  Italy,  became  an 
aide-de-camp  of  Murat,  went  with  him  to  Ger- 
many, and  was  made  colonel  after  the  battle 
of  Ansterlitz,  and  brigadier  general  in  1807, 
after  that  of  Eylau.  He  accompanied  Murat 
in  1808  to  Spain,  where  he  was  made  prisoner 
and  carried  to  England.  He  made  his  escape 
in  1811  and  rejoined  Murat,  then  king  of 
Naples.  When  disagreement  arose  between 
Marttt  and  Napoleon,  Exelmans  returned  to 
France,  and  served  in  the  Rusaan  campaign 
with  the  rank  of  general  of  division.  He  re- 
tamed  his  position  in  the  military  service  after 
the  first  restoration,  but  resumed  his  duties  in 
the  army  of  Napoleon  upon  his  return  from 
Elba,  and  was  raised  to  the  peerage.  He  did 
not  take  part  in  the  battle  of  Waterloo,  being 
nnder  the  command  of  Grouchy.  Under  the 
second  restoration  he  was  in  exile  till  1819. 
He  was  restored  by  Louis  Philippe  to  the 
chamber  of  peers,  and  denounced  in  that  body 
the  execution  of  Ney  as  an  **  abominable  assas- 
sination." Under  the  presidency  of  Louis  Na- 
poleon he  was  made  grand  chancellor  of  the 
legion  of  honor,  marshd  of  France,  and  senator. 

EXEm,  a  town  and  one  of  the  county  seats 
of  Rockingham  co..  New  Hampshire,  situated 
on  Exeter  river,  a  branch  of  the  Piscataqua, 
and  on  the  Boston  and  Maine  railroad,  12  m. 


8.  W.  of  Portsmouth;  pop.  in  1870,  8,487. 
The  falls  at  this  point,  which  ftimish  good  wa- 
ter power,  are  the  head  of  tide  water  and  the 
limit  of  navigation  for  small  vessels.  The  prin- 
cipal village,  built  around  the  falls  on  both 
banks  of  the  river,  occupies  a  plain,  and  is  laid 
out  with  wide  streets  shaded  with  elms.  Be- 
sides the  state  courts  for  the  county,  sessions 
of  the  United  States  circuit  and  district  courts 
are  held  h ere.  The  Exeter  manufactu ring  com- 
pany, incorporated  in  1829,  has  more  than  10,000 
spindles  in  operation,  and  produces  about  2,000, - 
000  yards  of  sheetings  annually.  It  has  just 
erected  another, mill  of  equal  capacity.  The 
wool  business  is  one  of  the  principal  branches 
of  industry  and  trade  in  the  place,  bemg  carried 
on  by  several  large  establishments.  There  are 
also  several  manufactories  of  carriages,  1  of 
drain  pipe,  8  of  harnesses,  8  grist  mills,  1  iron 
foundery,  1  planing  mill,  1  saw  mill,  1  machine 
shop,  a  national  bank,  and  2  saving  institutions. 
The  town  is  chiefly  noted  as  the  seat  of  Phil- 
lips academy,  founded  in  1781  by  John  PhiUips, 
LL.  D.,  who  bequeathed  to  it  a  large  portion 
of  his  estate.  It  is  one  of  the  most  celebrated 
schools  for  preparing  boys  for  college  in  the 
country,  and  in  1872  had  4  instructors  and  162 
students.  The  original  building,  in  which  some 
of  the  most  famous  men  of  the  country  were 
educated,  was  burned  in  1870 ;  a  new  one  was 
completed  in  1872.  The  Robinson  female  sem- 
inary, organized  in  1869  with  an  endowment 
of  $300,000,  has  a  collegiate  department,  and 
in  1872  had  9  instructors  and  252  students. 
Exeter  contains  several  public  schools,  a  town 
library  of  8,428  volumes,  a  weekly  newspaper, 
and  7  churches.  It  was  settled  in  1638,  and 
suffered  severely  during  the  Indian  wars  from 
1690  to  about  1710.    During  the  revolutionary 

Eeriod  it  was  the  capital  of  the  state  and  the 
eadquarters  of  its  military  operations. 
EXtTTEB,  a  city,  port,  and  parliamentary 
borough  of  England,  capital  of  Devonshire,  and 
a  county  in  itself,  on  the  Exe,  10  m.  from  its 
mouth  in  the  English  channel,  and  159  m.  W. 
8.  W.  of  London;  pop.  in  1871,  84,646.  It 
is  194  m.  from  London  by  the  Great  Western 
railway,  and  is  the  point  at  which  railways 
centre  from  South  Devon,  North  Devon,  Salis- 
bury, and  Exmouth.  The  Exe  is  here  crossed 
by  a  handsome  stone  bridge  leading  to  the  sub- 
urb of  St.  Thomas.  The  city,  standing  on  a  steep 
acclivity,  has  two  wide  principal  streets,  which 
cross  each  other  at  right  angles  near  its  centre«> 
It  is  generally  well  built,  has  many  fine  squares 
and  terraces  and  ancient  houses,  and  in  its  sub- 
urbs and  environs  are  numerous  elegant  villas. 
It  was  formerly  strongly  fortified,  but  its  exte- 
rior wall  is  now  in  a  ruinous  state,  and  a  part 
of  the  rampart  has  been  converted  into  a  prom- 
enade. On  an  eminence  N.  E.  of  the  town  is 
Rougemont  castle,  anciently  the  residence  of 
the  West  Saxon  kings,  repaired  by  William  the 
Conqueror.  Exeter  is  the  seat  of  a  bishopric 
founded  about  1050.  Its  cathedral,  a  magnifi- 
cent building  of  cruciform  shape,  was  begun 


28  EXHADSTION 

ftbont  tbe  jear  1100.  Its  entire  length  ia  408  ft. ; 
it  ha«  two  Norman  towers  130  ft.  in  height,  tea 
chapels  or  uratories,  and  u  chapter  bouse.  Ona 
of  the  towers  contains  an  immense  bell  weigh- 
ing 12,G00  Iba.,  and  tbe  other  has  a  chime  of 
11  bells.  Among  the  nnmeroas  schools  is  a 
free  grammar  Bchool  founded  hy  the  citizens 
in  tbe  reign  of  Charles  I.,  in  which  tbe  sons 
of  freemen  are  instructed  gratuitonslj,  and 
wbicb  has  18  exhibitions  to  either  of  the  uni- 
versities. Eicter  has  a  theatre  and  various 
literary  and  charitable  institutions.  Ita  com- 
merce is  much  less  now  than  formerly,  bnt  it 
baa  Bome  internal  trade,  and  is  an  important 
corn  and  provision  market.  The  river  Exe  ia 
navigable  for  vessels  of  large  burden  to  Top- 
abam,  i  m.  below  Exeter;  and  hj  means  of  a 


EXMOUTH 

canal  built  in  1G68,  aabsequently  ranch  en- 
larged, and.  one  of  the  oldest  in  England,  ves- 
sels of  400  tons  burden  can  come  up  to  the 
quaj  near  tbe  walls  of  the  town.  Serges  and 
other  woollen  goods  were  formerly  manufac- 
tured in  this  city  and  the  neighboring  towDB 
to  a  large  extent,  and  shipped  to  the  continent 
and  the  East  Indies;  bat  the  introduction  of 
machinery  and  tbe  lower  price  of  fuel  in  the 
north  of  England  have  very  much  diminished 
this  trade,— This  city  is  of  nnknown  antitjuity, 
and  is  supposed  to  be  tbe  Caer-Isc  of  tbe  Brit- 
ons, and  the  Isca  Damnoniomm  of  the  Bomana. 
It  was  the  capital  of  the  West  Bazons,  sad  in 
the  reign  of  Alfred  in  876  it  was  surprised  by 
the  Danes.  It  was  besieged  and  taken  by  "Wil- 
liam tbe  Conqneror.    In  tbe  civil  war  it  es- 


ponsed  the  royal  cause,  was  taken  by  the  par- 
liamentarians, was  retaken  by  Prince  Maurice, 
became  the  headquarters  of  the  royalists  in 
tbe  west  and  the  residence  of  Charles's  queen, 
and  in  1646  surrendered  after  a  blockade  to 
Fairfax. 

EXHlDmOK  (Lat.  etkaurtrt,  to  draw  ont), 
amethod  of  tbe  ancient  geometry,  applied  with 
Buccesa  by  Archimedes  and  Eaclid,  by  which 
the  value  of  an  incommensnrable  quantity  was 
Bonght  by  obtaining  approximations  alternately 
greater  and  less  than  the  trnth,  until  two  ap- 
proximations differed  so  little  from  each  other 
that  either  might  be  taken  as  the  exact  state- 
ment. Thus  tlie  length  of  a  circumference  was 
sought  by  calculating  the  length  of  inscribed 
and  circumscribed  polygons,  and  increasing  the 
number  of  sides  until  the  lengths  of  the  outer 
and  inner  polygon  were  sensibly  the  same,  when 
that  of  the  circunifereuoe  could  cot  differ  sen- 
sibly from  either.  By  this  method  the  space 
between  tbe  polygons  and  tbe  curve  was  ex- 


hausted, as  it  were,  and  hence  tbe  term.  Ex- 
hanstion  is  now  interesting  chiefiy  because  it 
was  one  of  the  methods  which  led,  in  the  1 7th 
centnry,  to  tbe  invention  of  the  differential 
calculus. 

EXiniTH,  a  town  of  Devonshire,  England, 
10  m.  S.  E.  of  Exeter:  pop.  about  6,000.  Itis 
a  celebrated  sea-batbing  place,  and  is  beauti- 
fully wtuated  on  the  E.  side  of  the  entrance  to 
the  estuary  of  tbe  E  le,  in  an  opening  of  the  cliffs 
which  surround  the  shore.  The  modem  part; 
of  the  town  consista  of  detached  villa*  and  ter- 
races surmounted  by  neat  houses,  and  there 
are  many  pleasant  nronienades.  A  gradually 
sloping  sandy  beach  below  the  town  is  the 
principal  resort  of  bathers.  There  ia  a  hand- 
some parish  church  with  a  tower  more  than 
100  ft.  high.  Fisheries  constitute  the  princi- 
pal occupation  ;  and  many  of  the  women  are 
engaged  in  lace  making. 

EXHOCTB,  Edward  Pdltw,  viscount,  an  Eng- 
lish admiral,  bom  at  Dover,  April  19,  176T, 


EXODUS 


29 


died  at  Teignmouth,  Jan.  23,  1838.  He  en- 
tered the  navy  at  the  age  of  13,  and  first  dis- 
tinguished himself  in  the  battle  of  Lake  Cbam- 
piain,  Oct.  11, 1776.  In  1782  he  became  a  post 
captain,  and  from  1786  to  1789  he  was  stationed 
off  Newfoundland.  In  1793,  commanding  the 
frigate  Nymphe,  of  36  gnns,  he  captured  the 
French  frigate  La  Cl^op&tre,  of  equal  metal, 
after  a  desperate  battle.  Thi«i  was  the  first 
prize  taken  in  the  war,  and  Pellew  was 
knighted.  He  was  then  employed  in  block- 
ading the  French  coast.  At  Plymouth  in  1796, 
by  great  bravery  and  presence  of  mind,  he 
saved  the  lives  of  all  on  board  a  wrecked 
transport,  leaving  the  ship  himself  just  before 
it  went  to  pieces.  For  this  he  was  made  a 
baronet,  and  received  other  honors.  Mean- 
while, in  command  of  the  Arethusa,  44  guns, 
he  had  fought  a  number  of  engagements  with 
French  vessels,  being  always  victorious.  He 
also  commanded  successively  the  Indefatigable, 
49  guns,  and  the  Imp^tueuz,  78  guns.  In  1802 
he  was  elected  to  parliament,  but  in  1804  was 
agaia  called  to  the  naval  service,  promoted  to 
rear  admiral,  and  made  commander-in-chief  in 
the  East  Indies.  In  1808  he  was  made  vice 
admira],  and  in  1810  was  sent  to  command  in 
the  Mediterranean.  In  1814  he  was  created 
Baron  Ezmouth  of  Canonteign,  with  a  pension 
of  £2,000,  and  in  the  same  year  was  made  a 
foil  admiral.  During  his  command  in  the  Med- 
iterranean lie  concluded  treaties  with  Algiers, 
Tunis,  and  Tripoli,  for  the  abolition  of  Chris- 
tian slavery.  The  dey  of  Algiers  having  vio- 
lated his  treaty,  Exmouth  sailed  into  the  har- 
bor of  Algiers,  Aug.  26,  1816,  with  19  vessels, 
accompanied  by  a  Dutch  fleet  of  6,  and  en- 
gaged the  Algerine  fleet  and  batteries  at  close 
quarters.  After  an  action  of  seven  hours, 
every  Algerine  ship  and  the  arsenal  and  sev- 
eral other  buildings  were  on  fire.  The  dey 
conceded  everything  that  was  demanded,  and 
signed  a  new  treaty.  In  this  affair  Lord  Ex- 
month  received  two  alight  wounds  and  had  his 
clothes  torn  to  shreds  by  the  shot.  About 
1,200  Christian  slaves  were  liberated,  and  on 
his  return  the  admiral  was  made  a  viscount. 
He  retired  from  public  service  in  1821. 

ElODUS  (Gt,  i^odoc,  departure),  a  book  of 
the  Bible,  the  second  of  the  Pentateuch.  It 
derives  its  name  from  the  principal  event  re- 
corded in  it,  the  departure  of  the  Hebrews 
from  Egypt,  and  contains  the  history  of  that 
people  from  the  death  of  Joseph  until  the 
building  of  the  tabernacle.  The  researches 
of  modem  Egyptologists  have  thrown  much 
light  on  the  Biblical  narrative.  The  land 
of  Goshen,  where  the  Hebrews  had  been  p<?r- 
mitted  to  settle,  was  east  of  the  delta  of  the 
Nile,  on  the  borders  of  Syria,  and  the  places 
mentioned  in  connection  with  the  exodus  have 
b^n  identified  as  follows:  Rameses  as  the 
town  Nashuta,  in  the  E.  part  of  the  wady 
Tumilat ;  Succoth,  the  Thaubasium  of  the  Ro- 
mans, N.  E.  of  Lake  Timsah ;  Etham,  the  forti- 
fied wall  on  the  Syrian  frontier ;  Pi-hahiroth, 


the  modem  Kalat  Agmd,  N.  W.  of  Suez; 
Migdol,  Uie  place  formerly  called  Kambysu, 
where  the  Persian  monument  stands ;  and  Baal- 
zephon  as  the  Atakah  mountains.  The  hiero- 
glyphic inscriptions  render  it  probable  that  the 
oppressors  of  the  Hebrews  were  Seti  I.  and  his 
son  Rameses  II.,  and  that  Memeptah  was  the 
Pharaoh  of  the  exodus.  (See  Egypt,  vol.  vi., 
pp.  461-'2.)  They  show  also  that  the  He- 
Drews  had  been  employed  to  build  temples, 
fortresses,  and  granaries;  and  several  monu- 
ments depict  them  at  work  making  bricks, 
with  overseers  standing  by  and  sometimes 
beating  them  with  rods.  This  does  not  ne- 
cessarily lead  to  the  conclusion  that  the  Pha- 
raohs of  the  period  were  reckless  tyrants. 
They  were  severe  military  rulers,  who  fore- 
saw that  the  Hebrews  would  make  common 
cause  with  their  kindred  in  Syria  in  case  of 
an  invasion.  They  strengthened  accordingly 
the  fortified  wall  on  the  borders,  which  the 
Pharaohs  of  the  12th  dynasty  had  erected, 
and  built  new  fortresses  in  Goshen,  partly 
for  protection  against  invasion  and  partly  for 
keeping  watch  over  the  Hebrews.  According 
to  the  monuments,  the  troops  stationed  here 
were  chiefly  Libyans,  who  were  not  likely 
to  sympathize  with  the  Hebrews.  A  treaty 
made  by  Rameses  II.  with  the  chief  of  the 
Khitas  in  Syria,  found  on  a  stele  in  the  temple 
district  of  Karnak,  provides  for  the  extradition 
of  fugitives  escaping  over  the  border.  Mer- 
nept^'s  policy  was  to  prevent  the  Hebrews 
from  gathering  into  bodies  too  large  to  be  con- 
trolled, which  he  effected  by  compelling  them 
to  labor  in  small  detachments  on  the  public 
works.  His  refosal  to  allow  them  to  assemble 
for  the  purpose  of  worshipping  their  God  in 
the  wilderness  was  prompted  by  fear  of  some 
hostile  movement  on  their  part,  and  nothing 
but  the  dread  of  greater  disasters  than  those 
which  would  naturally  follow  their  departure 
induced  him  to  permit  Moses  to  lead  them 
away.  Nor  are  monumental  indications  want- 
ing for  establishing  the  historical  character 
of  Moses.  His  interview  with  Memeptah  is 
supposed  to  have  taken  place  at  Tanis,  the 
temporary  residence  of  the  last  three  Pharaohs. 
He  and  his  people  marched  first  to  Takusa,  a 
city  south  of  Tanis,  and  thence  to  Shekh  Mnsa, 
in  the  neighborhood  of  Pithom.  The  route 
touched  the  most  important  Hebrew  towns 
and  enabled  their  inhabitants  to  join  the  emi- 
grants. Moses  marched  them  in  an  easterly 
direction  through  the  wady  Tumilat,  whi<^ 
Hebrew  labor  had  supplied  with  a  canal.  The 
Hebrew  population  was  especially  dense  in 
this  fertile  oasis.  The  Hebrews  rendezvoused 
at  Rameses,  a  central  point  in  Goshen.  A 
journey  northeastward  of  about  150  m.  would 
have  taken  them  to  the  borders  of  Canaan,  but 
would  have  brought  them  into  conflict  with  the 
warlike  Philistines.  Moses  led  them  in  almost 
the  contrary  direction ;  "  For  God  said,  Lest 
perad venture  the  people  repent  when  they  see 
war,  and  they  return  to  Egypt.^'    The  general 


30 


EXODUS 


EXOGENS 


route  of  the  exodus  is  now  fairly  estabHshed. 
The  Hebrews  marched  S.  E.  for  three  days, 
then  turned  8.  W.,  and  finally  E.,  their  fourth 
encampment  being  at  Pi-hahiroth,  a  few  miles 
S.  of  the  present  Suez,  near  a  point  where  the 
gulf  of  Suez  suddenly  narrows  to  a  quarter  of 
its  former  width.  They  were  on  a  narrow  tri- 
angular plain  bounded  N.  by  a  range  of  clifb 
and  S.  E.  by  the  expansion  of  the  sea.  The 
Egyptian  king  had  meanwhile  gathered  a  con- 
siderable force,  especially  of  chariots,  the  cav- 
alry of  the  time,  and  was  following  hard  upon 
the  fugitives,  who,  hemmed  in  between  the 
clilfs  and  the  water,  had  no  apparent  way  of 
escape.  At  the  point  here  assumed  as  that  of 
the  passage  there  is  still  a  shallow,  stretchiug 
from  shore  to  shore,  almost  fordable  at  low 
tide.  "The  Lord  caused  the  sea  to  go  by  a 
strong  east  wind  all  that  night,  and  made  the 
sea  dry  land,  and  the  waters  were  divided." 
That  is,  the  east  (or  more  strictly  easterly) 
wind  piled  up  the  waters  toward  the  head  of 
the  gulf,  leaving  the  shallow  dry.  The  idea 
which  painters  have  popularized,  that  the 
waters  stood  up  as  a  solid  wall  on  each  side,  is 
whoUv  without  warrant  in  the  sacred  text :  all 
that  is  implied  is  that  there  was  deep  water  on 
each  side  of  the  passage.  The  crossing  was 
apparently  made  during  the  day.  At  night- 
fall the  Egyptians  came  up,  and  seeing  the  pas- 
sage still  dry  attempted  to  follow.  It  is  ap- 
parently implied  in  the  text,  though  not  directly 
stated,  that  the  wind  now  shifted ;  for  an  east- 
erly wind  would  have  carried  the  bodies  of 
the  Egyptians  to  the  west  side,  whereas  the 
Hebrews  beheld  them  thrown  on  the  eastern 
shore,  upon  which  they  were.  All  the  impli- 
cations of  the  narrative  are  that  the  refiux  of 
the  waters  was  gradual ;  for  we  are  told  that 
"the  Lord  took  off  For  rather  clogged  up]  their 
chariot  wheels,  and  made  them  go  heavily;" 
that  is,  probably,  the  returning  waters  slowly 
filtered  into  the  sand,  making  it  difficult  for 
the  chariots  to  move.  The  Egyptians,  seeing 
the  waters  rising,  endeavored  to  retreat;  but 
in  the  darkness,  their  returning  van  encounter- 
ing their  advancing  rear,  they  could  go  neither 
way,  and  were  swallowed  up  by  the  rising  tide. 
That  this  passage  was  really  miraculous  is 
everywhere  asserted  or  implied  by  all  the 
sacred  writers  who  speak  of  it.  Their  route 
at  first  lay  parallel  with  the  eastern  shore  of 
the  gulf  of  Suez,  which  they  apparently 
touched  at  one  point,  the  halting  places  being 
specified,  and  several  of  them  are  identified 
with  reasonable  certainty.  At  one  of  these, 
Rephidim,  they  were  attacked  by  a  body  of 
Amalekites,  who  were  defeated  by  the  Israel- 
ites under  the  command  of  Joshua.  After 
three  months  they  reached  the  region  of  Sinai, 
in  the  heart  of  the  Arabian  peninsula,  where 
they  remained  until  14  months  after  their  de- 
parture from  Egypt,  and  then  set  otf  upon  their 
long  wanderings  toward  the  promised  land. 
During  this  interval  the  law  was  given,  and 
those   religious   and    civil   institutions   were 


framed  which  in  the  course  of  a  generation 
transformed  the  Hebrews  into  a  military  peo- 
ple, able  to  cope  with  the  enemies  whom  they 
were  about  to  encounter.  The  history,  as  re* 
lated  in  the  book  of  Exodus,  properly  closes 
with  the  encampment  around  Sinai,  and  is  con- 
tinued in  the  book  of  Numbers.  (See  Sinai.) 
— The  best  works  on  the  historical  narrative  are 
Ebers^s  Aegypten  und  die  Bueher  Motels  (Leip- 
sic,  1868  et  seq,)  and  Dureh  Gosen  turn  Sinai 
(Leipsio,  1872),  and  Pahner's  "  The  Desert  of 
the  llxodus"  (London,  1872). 

EX0GEN8  (Gr.  I^u,  outward,  and  ^evi^v,  to 
generate),  a  class  of  plants  so  called  because 
their  woody  matter  is  increased  by  additions  to 
the  outside  of  that  which  first  surrounds  the 
central  pith.  As  there  are  no  specific  limits 
to  the  age  of  exogenous  trees,  their  diameter 
indefinitely  increases  by  this  annual  process,  a 
distinct  external  layer  being  added  by  each 
year's  growth.  The  stem  of  an  exogen  con- 
sists of  a  central  column  of  pith  or  medulla, 
woody  zones,  and  bark.  Processes  from  the 
central  medulla  called  medullary  rays  cross  the 
zones  transversely.  The  bark  of  an  exogen 
parts  readily  from  the  underlyiug  wood  at  a 
particular  season  of  the  year,  when  a  viscid 
secretion  called  camhivm  is  produced  between 
the  wood  and  the  inner  surface  of  the  bark. 
It  is  at  this  period  that  the  leaves  expand  and 
the  trunk  lengthens.  The  woody  fibres  in  the 
leaves  are  prolonged  into  tlie  stem  or  trunk, 
passing  down  among  the  cambium,  and  adher- 
ing partiy  to  the  wood  and  partly  to  the  bark 
of  the  previous  year.  By  this  means  new 
living  matter  is  continually  deposited  upon  the 
outer  portion  of  the  woody  stem  and  the  inner 
portions  of  the  bark.  It  is  in  this  part  of  the 
stem  that  the  intensest  vitality  exists,  the  outer 
and  older  layers  of  the  bark  and  the  inner  and 
older  concentric  rings  of  the  wood  becoming 
inert  and  falling  off  or  decaying  without  in- 
jury to  the  vegetative  parts.  The  office  of  the 
medullary  processes  is  very  important  as  means 
of  communication  between  the  centre  of  the 
stem  and  the  outside  layers  or  rings ;  and  they 
are  conduits,  so  to  speak,  by  which  the  fluid 
matter  passing  down  the  bark  can  reach  the 
wood  next  the  medulla  or  pith.  These  pro- 
cesses, which  resemble  thin  plates,  are  of  a 
spongy  nature  similar  to  that  of  the  pith  from 
which  they  originated.  They  sometimes  as- 
sume sinuosities  and  undergo  partial  oblitera- 
tion ;  and  sometimes  the  wood  itself  assumes 
an  excessive  irregularity.  As  these  circum- 
stances are  to  be  found  mostly  in  tropical  ex- 
ogenous trees,  vines,  and  climbers,  difficulty 
is  somethnes  experienced  in  perceiving  from 
transverse  sections  their  claims  to  be  consid- 
ered as  exogens.  This  natural  character  of 
an  outward  growth  in  the  exogens  is  asso- 
ciated with  other  peculiarities  of  development 
of  other  organs.  Thus,  the  leaves  have  veins 
ramifying  from  the  midrib  outwardly  to  the 
circumference;  or  if  there  are  several  ribs, 
the  veins  are  still  of  the  same  quality,  so  as  to 


EXORCISM 


EXOSTOSIS 


31 


form  an  irregular  network.  These  veins  never 
mn  parallel  to  each  other  without  ramifica- 
tionsy  and  even  some  which  appear  to  do  so 
will  be  found  to  possess  secondary  veins.  The 
leaves  also  fall  away  from  the  branches,  being 
disarticulated  from  their  places  of  insertion, 
leaving  a  clear  scar  behind.  Certain  foliolate 
organs,  called  stipules,  are  also  frequently  at- 
tached to  the  leaves,  which  is  very  unusual  in 
endogens.  The  flowers  are  mostly  quinary, 
that  is,  they  have  five  sepals,  five  petals,  and 
five  stiunens,  or  some  multiple  of  that  number. 
The  tall  and  feathery  outline  of  the  palms 'is 
never  seen  in  the  ezogens,  as  none  of  them  de- 
pend on  a  single  terminal  bud  for  their  develop- 
ing gro  w  th.  From  the  very  germination  of  the 
seed  the  difference  is  apparent  in  the  form  of 
the  embryo  and  in  the  dicotyledonous  char- 
acteristics of  the  young  plant. 

EXORdSM  (Gr.  kiopKio/i6cy  a^uration),  a  rite 
having  for  its  object  to  cast  out  evil  spirits,  or 
to  withdraw  irrational  things  from  their  influ- 
ence. As  the  natural  attendants  of  a  belief 
ia  demoniacal  possession,  exorcisms  have  been 
practised  in  every  age  and  country.  The  pa- 
gans of  old,  like  those  of  to-day,  were  firm 
believers  in  the  malignant  influence  of  spirits, 
genii,  or  demons.  Mysterious  diseases  and 
other  incomprehensible  calamities  were  at- 
tributed to  such  influences.  The  ^*  medicine 
dances  '*  in  use  among  the  American  Indians 
are  found  to  spring  from  the  same  belief  which 
gave  rise  to  the  fumigations  of  the  Greeks, 
Romans,  Arabs,  and  Persians.  Among  the 
Greeks  exorcising  was  a  profession,  ^schines 
and  Epicurus  were  the  sons  of  women  who 
lived  by  exorcism,  and  when  young  practised 
the  art  with  their  mothers.  Besides  incanta- 
tions, the  burning  of  certain  herbs  and  drugs, 
the  use  of  magic  ointments,  the  wearing  of 
amulets,  &c.,  human  sacriflces  were  exception- 
ally abo  resorted  to ;  and  they  are  still  in  use 
among  the  tribes  of  south  Africa.  The  Semitic 
nations,  who  kept  alive  the  belief  in  the  one 
God,  form  no  exception.  Among  the  Hebrews 
we  read  of  David  playing  on  a  harp  to  procure 
the  departure  of  the  evil  spirit  which  troubled 
Saul,  and  that  Tobit,  by  command  of  an  an- 
gel, burned  the  liver  of  a  fish  to  expel  the  evil 
spirit  which  followed  his  betrothed  wife ;  and 
Solomon,  according  to  Josephus,  was  a  mighty 
exorcist,  and  leffc  several  formulas  to  be  em- 
ployed in  the  rite.  Christ,  who  drove  out 
devils  himself,  bears  testimony  to  the  fact  that 
the  Jews  did  so  in  his  day.  This  power  he 
also  committed  to  his  70  disciples  when  he 
sent  them  on  their  first  mission,  and  promised 
that  it  should  be  exercised  in  the  church  atter 
him.  All  early  Christian  writers  bear  testi- 
mony to  the  fact  that  exorcisms  were  practised 
nniversally  in  the  churches.  This  was  done 
more  particularly  for  catechumens,  who  were 
adults  converted  from  paganism,  and  defiled 
by  the  unclean  initiations  and  practices  of 
demon  worship.  The  great  number  of  those 
considered  really  possessed  in  these  ages,  and 
810  VOL.  vu.— 8 


the  frequent  exorcisms  performed  on  catechu- 
mens during  their  long  probation,  caused  the 
creation  of  the  order  of  exorcists,  which  still 
exists  both  in  the  Greek  and  Roman  Catholic 
churches.  In  both  also  the  rituals  prescribe 
exorcisms  not  only  for  adult,  but  even  for  in- 
fant baptism,  on  the  ground  that  by  the  fall 
the  entire  human  race  has  come  under  the 
power  of  Satan.  And  as  the  power  of  th^ 
evil  one  extends  to  the  whole  inferior  creation, 
both  churches  exorcise  water,  salt,  oil,  &c., 
before  blessing  them  and  using  them  as  sym- 
bols and  instruments  of  Christ^s  redeeming 
grace.  As  the  earth  was  cursed  after  the  fall, 
so  now  the  church  extends  Christ^s  blessin^^  to 
it  and  all  it  contains.  Hence  the  prayers  and 
exorcisms  prescribed  in  the  ritual  for  allaying 
storms,  checking  the  ravages  of  hurtful  insects, 
and  putting  an  end  to  droughts.  From  the 
same  principle  proceeds  the  custom  of  blesnng 
habitations,  fields,  cattle,  food,  &c.  Extraor- 
dinary exorcisms,  in  the  present  discipline  of 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  are  such  as  are 
used  in  coses  of  attested  demoniacal  possession. 
These  are  only  performed  with  the  permissTon 
of  the  bishop,  in  rare  instances,  and  with  un- 
usual solemnity.  The  only  forms  of  exorcism 
recognized  by  that  church  are  those  contained 
in  the  Roman  ritual  and  missal. — Luther,  in  his 
Tau/buchleinj  preserved  partly  the  form  of 
renunciation  of  the  devil ;  he  considered  it  as 
useful  to  remind  the  people  of  the  power  of 
sin.  TIjese  views  were  adopted  in  the  Lu- 
theran parts  of  Germany.  In  the  Swedish 
church,  when  the  Augsburg  Confession  was 
again  proclaimed  at  the  council  of  Upsal  in 
1593,  exorcism  was  retained  as  a  free  cere- 
mony in  baptism,  and  on  account  of  its  utility. 
Calvin  and  Zwingli  rejected  it,  and  it  became  a 
sort  of  test  between  Calvinists  and  Lutherans. 
It  had  become  gradually  obsolete  among  the 
German  Lutherans  when  an  attempt  was  made 
in  1822  to  revive  its  use.  In  the  first  liturgy 
of  Edward  YI.  a  form  of  exorcism  at  baptism 
was  retained,  which  was  omitted  in  the  sub- 
sequent revision  of  the  prayer  book.  Canon  72 
of  the  church  of  England  reserves  to  the  bish- 
op the  power  of  granting  a  license  to  exorcise. 
The  only  remnant  of  the  old  baptismal  exor- 
cisms to  be  found  in  the  rituals  of  the  church 
of  England,  and  the  Protestant  Episcopal  and 
Methodist  Episcopal  churches,  is  the  question : 
^^Dost  thou  renounce  ^he  devil  and  all  his 
works  ? " — See  Bingham,  Origines  Ecolestasti" 
e<B  ;  StoUe,  De  Origine  ExorcUmi  in  Baptismo; 
Ferraris,  Prompta  Bihliotheca ;  and  Thesavr 
rus  Bxorcismorum  et  Conjurationum  (Cologne, 
1608). 

EXOSMOSE.    See  Endosmosb. 

EXOSTOSIS  (Gr.  ef,  out  of,  and  bareov,  bone), 
an  osseous  tumor  developed  on  the  surface  of 
a  bone,  originally  or  eventually  continuous  with 
its  substance,  circumscribed,  without  interior 
cavity,  having  the  same  structure  and  life  as 
the  bone  on  which  it  is  found.  There  are  two 
varieties  of  this  growth :  in  one  the  bone,  like 


82 


EXOSTOSIS 


EXPANSION 


all  otber  tissaes  of  the  system,  takes  on  a  mor- 
bid development,  an  eccentric  hypertrophy  of 
its  sabstance,  forming  a  well  defined  tamor  on 
its  snrface  by  the  mere  excess  of  interstitial 
osseoos  deposit ;  in  the  other  the  new  ossific 
matter  is  deposited  originally  on  the  surface, 
under  or  between  the  laminsB  of  the  periosteum, 
separated  from  the  bone  at  first  by  cartilage, 
but  afterward  becoming  consolidated  to  it  in 
the  usual  manner  of  bony  processes.  The  first 
variety  may  affect  the  greater  part  of  a  bone, 
and  deserves  rather  the  name  of  hyperotUms  ; 
and  the  second,  by  the  process  of  ossification, 
may  be  converted  into  the  first ;  this  distinc- 
tion is  of  considerable  importance  in  the  prog- 
nosis and  treatment  of  the  affection.  The 
muscles  and  soft  parts  over  an  exostosis  are 
generally  not  changed,  unless  the  tumor  be  of 
considerable  size  and  in  the  neighborhood  of 
large  nerves  and  vessels ;  but  the  periosteum 
is  almost  always  thickened,  and  less  adherent 
to  the  bone  than  usual.  In  the  first  variety  the 
form  is  regular,  and  the  bony  fibres  diverge 
frpm  the  natural  direction  to  enter  the  tumor, 
as  in  other  forms  (^  eccentric  hypertrophy ;  in 
the  second  variety  the  form  is  irregular,  of- 
ten fantastic  and  rough,  and  there  is  an  evi- 
dent base  by  which  it  is  as  it  were  immovably 
articulated  to  the  supporting  bone,  except  in 
very  old  growths ;  this  base  in  recent  cases  is 
cartilaginous  and  readily  separated,  and  shows 
that  this  kind  of  exostosis  originates  from  and 
is  nourished  by  the  investing  periosteum;  it 
indicates  also  a  method  of  treatment  which 
has  been  found  successful,  by  denuding  them 
of  their  periosteum  and  causing  their  necrosis 
and  separation  from  want  of  nutrition.  If 
the  cartilaginous  base  rests  upon  the  bone,  un- 
der the  periosteum,  the  removal  of  this  mem- 
brane will  cause  an  exfoliation  of  the  subjacent 
bone ;  but  if  between  the  laminsB  of  this  enve- 
lope, a  shnilar  operation  will  effect  the  fall  of 
the  tumor  without  ii^ury  to  the  surface  of  the 
bone;  the  cartilage  soon  becomes  ossified,  and 
the  exostosis  forms  one  body  with  the  bone, 
resembling  the  first  variety  in  having  no  basal 
line  of  separation.  In  course  of  time  the  ex- 
cessive deposit  of  phosphate  of  lime  in  these 
growths  may  convert  them  into  a  substance 
having  the  appearance,  consistence,  weight, 
and  polish  of  ivory. — Among  the  constitutional 
causes  of  exostosis  are  syphUitic  poisoning,  the 
scrofulous  diathesis,  and  the  gouty  and  rheu- 
matic conditions;  the  immediate  cause  is  in- 
flammation, produced  by  mechanical  or  other 
means,  leading  to  a  deposit  first  of  plastic  and 
then  of  osseous  matter,  the  development  being 
similar  to  that  of  normal  bone.  In  some  con- 
stitutions there  is  such  a  disposition  to  the  de- 
posit of  ossific  matter,  that  the  slightest  con- 
tusion is  sufiicient  to  cause  the  development 
of  these  bony  growths,  not  only  on  bones  but 
in  the  substance  of  tendons  and  ligaments ; 
and  the  affection  is  often  hereditary.  When 
the  growth  takes  place  in  the  cavity  of  a  bone, 
aa  in  the  cranial  cavity,  it  has  been  caUed  en- 


ostosis,  but  with  doubtful  propriety,  because  in 
this  case  the  growth  is  upon  the  bone  and  oat- 
side  of  its  structure.  The  prognosis  varies, 
principally  in  proportion  to  the  rapidity  of  the 
growth,  which  when  very  slow  may  not  be 
much  regarded,  except  when  interfering  with 
the  functions  of  some  important  organ,  as  a 
joint,  or  into  the  cranial  cavity.  The  treat- 
ment also  varies  with  the  prognosis.  Often 
the  removal  is  not  a  matter  of  moment,  as  ex- 
ostoses may  be  carried  through  life  without 
much  inconvenience ;  and  the  removal  may  be 
a  hazardous  undertaking,  as  when  the  tumor 
encroaches  upon  a  joint  whose  cavity  would 
become  opened  by  the  operation.  If  the  cir- 
culation in  an  important  artery  is  impeded,  re- 
moval becomes  desirable,  and  should  be  under- 
taken when  there  is  reasonable  hope  of  a  suc- 
cessful result.  Topical  applications  are  often 
beneficial,  and  in  the  earlier  stages,  in  the  form 
of  blisters  and  strong  counter-irritants,  often 
effect  the  removal  by  absorption.  A  strong 
tincture  of  iodine,  or  a  solution  of  iodine  in 
iodide  of  potassium,  is  often  very  serviceable. 
The  constitutional  treatment,  particularly  when 
syphilis  has  preceded  the  affection,  should  not 
be  neglected.  Preparations  of  mercury  may 
be  cautiously  administered,  particularly  the 
iodide,  and  iodine  may  be  given  in  combination 
with  potash  or  soda  salts.  When  much  pain  is 
experienced,  anodynes  may  be  administered, 
either  by  the  mouth  or  topically. 

EXPiifSION,  the  property  displayed  by  mat- 
ter of  enlarging  in  bulk  by  dimmution  of  pres- 
sure, increase  of  heat,  or  in  a  few  instances  by 
increase  of  cold,  and  also  of  moisture.     It  is 
seen  in  solids  in  the  common  operation  of  set- 
ting the  tire  of  a  wheel ;  the  iron  ring,  bemg 
heated  in  the  circle  of  burning  chips  and  coals, 
enlarges  in  bulk  so  as  easily  to  slip  over  the  fel- 
ly, which  it  compresses  tightly  as  it  grows  cool 
on  the  application  of  cold  water.     It  is  seen  in 
liquids  in  the  rise  of  mercury  in  the  thermome- 
ter ;  and  in  aeriform  bodies  in  the  ascending  cur- 
rents of  heated  air,  or  more  plainly  in  the  burst- 
ing of  a  tight  bladder  as  the  air  it  encloses 
swells  by  exposure  to  heat.    The  amount  of 
expansion  exhibited  by  different  bodies  by  any 
given  increase  of  heat  is  very  various.    Those 
only  which  exist  in  the  aeriform  state,  or  as 
vapors,  can  be  classed  together  in  this  respect 
They  all  expand  very  nearly  if  not  exactly  alike 
by  the  same  increase  of  temperature.    Like  air 
they  increase  in  bulk  from  the  freezing  to  the 
boiling  point,  so  that,  according  to  Gay-Lus- 
sac,  100  measures  at  the  lower  degree  fill  187i 
at  the  higher.    For  each  degree  of  Fahrenheit 
the  expansion  of  air,  according  to  the  accurate 
determinations  of  Regnault,  is,  under  a  con- 
stant volume,  ^-Jt7  of  its  volume ;  for  the  less 
condensable  gases   it   is    perceptibly  larger. 
Each  solid  body  has  its  own  rate  of  expansion, 
which  however  is  not  uniform  for  equal  incre- 
ments of  temperature,  but  increases  at  high 
degrees  in  a  faster  ratio.    This,  unless  special 
allowance  is  made  for  it  in  the  graduation,  in- 


EXPANSION 


33 


trodaoes  error  in  thermonietera,  those  marked 
off  in  equal  divisions  for  the  high  degrees  evi- 
dentlj  not  heing  oorrect.  Another  source  of 
error  in  these  instmments  is  the  unequal  ex- 
pansion of  the  different  materials.  The  mer- 
carj  from  the  freezing  to  the  hoiling  point  of 
water  expands,  according  to  Regnaolt,  in  vol- 
ume 1  part  in  55*08 ;  between  the  latter  and 
392°,  1  in  54*61;  and  between  this  and 
572°,  1  in  54*01.  Glass  expands  in  the  same 
nagp  of  temperature,  in  the  first  division, 

YfV  r  t  1^  ^®  second^  Jf\^ «  '^^  ^  ^®  third, 

Sfy.y.  In  a  mercurial  thermometer  it  is  the 
fference  of  expansion  between  the  mercury 
and  the  glass  that  is  indicated,  and  the  tem- 
peratnre  indicated  hj  586*  would  correspond 
to  667*  determined  by  the  expansion  of  glass 
alone,  or  to  572*  by  the  air  thermometer. 
Varioas  instruments  called  pyrometers  have 
been  devised  to  determine  high  degrees  of  tem- 
perature by  the  amount  of  expansion  of  bars 
of  different  metals.  They  are  all  approximate 
only  in  their  results,  unless  the  rate  of  expan- 
sion of  the  metal  bars  has  been  accurately  in- 
Testigated  by  the  help  of  the  air  thermometer ; 
and  the  labor  attending  such  a  study  has  rarely 
been  bestowed  upon  these  instruments,  which 
in  every  form  are  now  generally  superceded 
hj  the  air  thermometer  itself  or  by  the  electric 
pjrometer  of  Siemens.  (See  Ptbometeb,  and 
Thssmombtxb.)  The  expansions  of  various 
0olids  from  82*  to  212*  are  presented  in  the 
following  table : 


AnthMiilM. 


MAIRA. 

ExpMMlM 

BxpaaslOD 

in  length. 

la  balk. 

Zioceast 

lin   886 

1  In    112 

-    sheet.... 

1  •»    840 

1   -    118 

T.etd 

1-851 
1   »*    M6 

1   •*    W4 

1  -  117 
1  -  172 
1  -    176 

TiB 

?av«r 

Bnu 

1-586 
1-582 

1  -  179 
1  -    194 

^::::::: 

1-682 

1  "    227 

Blsorath. 

1  -    712 

1  »*^   289 

Iron 

1-846 
1   "    928 

1-282 
1-807 

intimoBy.... 

Cntempered 

itoet 

1-926 

1  "    809 

Pkihdium.... 

1   -1,000 

1  -    888 

Phttamn 

1   "1,181 

1  "    877 

GiiM  wtthoat 

leid 

1   "1,148 

1  -    882 

FHotglau.... 

1   -1,248 

1  -    416 

Daolell. 
Bmeatoa. 


LftTolsler   «ad    La- 
place. 


Smoaton. 
DnloDff  and  Petit 
Smeaton. 

Lavoisier  and  Laplace. 
WoUaaton. 

{-Dnlongr  and  Petit 

Lari^ierand  Laplaee. 


The  expansion  in  bulk  is  found  by  measurement 
to  be  about  three  times  the  linear  expansion, 
as  it  should  be  on  geometrical  principles  of  the 
relations  between  the  side  and  the  volume  of 
a  cabe.  When  metals  become  liquid  by  fusion, 
a  change  takes  place  in  their  density;  their 
specific  gravity  increases  in  the  cases  of  iron, 
biamath,  and  antimony,  as  is  shown  by  solid 
pieces  floating  upon  the  surface  of  a  melted 
maaa  of  the  same  metal.  Thus  it  is  that  in 
castings  the  mould  is  entirely  filled  in  its  mi- 
AQtest  parts.  On  the  other  hand,  phosphorus, 
mercury,  gold,  silver,  copper,  and  many  other 
sobstances  contract  as  they  become  solid  ; 
and  this  is  the  reason  why  coins  of  the  last 


three  metals  cannot  be  oast,  but  require  to  be 
stamped. — A  great  difference  is  shown  in  the 
amount  of  expansion  of  different  liquids ;  thus 
water  gains  \  in  bulk  when  its  temperature  is 
raised  from  82*  to  812*,  oil  of  turpentine  •^, 
and  mercury  in  a  glass  tube  ^.  A  remarka- 
ble exception  to  the  general  law  of  expansion 
of  liquids  in  proportion  as  they  are  heated  ts 
shown  in  the  case  of  pure  water.  When  this 
is  cooled  from  the  temperature  of  60*  it  con- 
tin  ues  to  contract  until  it  reaches  89  *2  *.  From 
this  point  it  expands  until  it  freezes  at  82*,  its 
rate  of  expausion  being  about  the  same  from 
89*  whether  it  is  heated  or  cooled;  but  if 
kept  perfectly  quiescent,  Despretz  found  that 
below  82*  water  retains  its  liquidity  and  con- 
tinues to  expand.  He  gives  the  following  de- 
termmationB: 


OnUgnds. 

1 

Dmlty.          1 

Owlignd*. 

JhotHj, 

-90 

6 
8 
0 

0-998^71 
0*990,062 
0-999  J^77 
0-999.S78 

+8* 
4 
5 
6 

0-999,999 
1-000,000 
0-999,999 
0-999,969 

An  important  beneficial  effect  of  this  peculiar- 
ity in  the  expansion  of  water  is  seen  in  the  pro- 
tection it  affords  to  the  natural  bodies  of  this 
fluid,  as  lakes  and  ponds,  against  being  frozen 
throughout.  For,  as  the  surface  of  the  water 
is  cooled  below  89*  by  the  cold  air  above,  this 
portion  by  its  expansion  becomes  specifically 
lighter  than  the  water  below,  and  consequently 
remains  at  the  top.  At  82*  a  covering  of  ice 
forms  over  the  water,  which  being  a  poor  con- 
ductor of  heat  preserves  the  great  body  of 
water  from  falling  to  a  lower  temperature  than 
89*,  the  point  of  its  greatest  density.  The  pas- 
sage from  the  liquid  to  the  solid  state  on  the 
abstraction  of  heat  is  determined  to  a  very  con- 
siderable extent  by  the  superficial  tension  of 
the  liquid  ;  thus  Despretz  finds  that  in  fine  ca- 
pillary tubes  water  may  be  cooled  to  — 20*  0. 
( — 4*  F.)  without  solidification. — So  great  a 
power  is  exerted  by  the  contraction  of  metals 
on  cooling  after  being  expanded  by  heating, 
that  this  has  been  applied  as  a  mechanical 
force,  as  in  the  bringing  together  of  heavy 
walls  of  buildings  which  had  separated  by  un- 
equal settling.  Strong  iron  bars  are  passed 
horizontally  through  the  opposite  walls,  and 
being  heated  throughout  their  length  are  close- 
ly keyed  up  and  then  allowed  to  cool ;  and  the 
process  is  repeated  until  the  desired  effect  is 
obtained.  This  suggests  the  danger  of  insert- 
ing bars  of  metal  closely  in  walls  of  masonry, 
as  the  force  exerted  by  their  expansion  tends 
to  thrust  portions  of  the  wall  out  of  place. 
The  expansion  of  water  has  been  practically 
applied  to  the  rending  of  rocks,  the  fiuid  being 
poured  into  the  fissures  and  allowed  to  freeze. 
This  is  one  of  the  most  efficient  agents  employed 
by  nature  for  the  disintegration  of  rocky  cliffs. 
The  expansion  by  access  of  moisture  is  exhib- 
ited in  the  swelling  of  the  fibre  of  wood  or  of 


84 


EXPLOSIVES 


ropes.  This,  too,  is  sometimes  employed  as  a 
powerful  mechanical  force,  as  by  inserting 
wedges  of  wood  into  cracks,  or  into  holes 
drilled  for  the  purpose  in  rocks,  and  then  cot- 
ering  the  wood  with  water.  As  this  is  absorbed, 
the  wood  slowly  expands,  exerting  a  steady 
pressure  of  surprising  force.  The  presence  of 
nfoisture  in  the  atmosphere  is  ascertained  by 
instruments  based  on  this  principle.  (See  Ht- 
OROifSTBT.)  For  the  effect  of  expansion  of 
steam,  see  Steam. 

EXPLOSITEBt  An  explosion  may  be  occasioned 
by  the  sudden  removal  of  resistance  to  an  ex- 
panding force,  as  in  the  case  of  steam  boilers ; 
but  it  is  more  frequently  the  result  of  a  sudden 
generation  of  energy  by  chemical  reactions. 
Most  explosions  of  this  kind  are  instances  of 
rapid  combustion ;  and  an  explosive  compound, 
as  distinguished  from  a  merely  inflammable 
one,  may  be  defined  as  one  which  contains  with- 
in itself  the  elements  of  combustion  or  other 
chemical  change,  liberating  mechanical  energy. 
Thus  the  fire  damp  of  coal  mines,  when  pure, 
is  inflammable ;  but  mixed  with  a  certain  pro- 
portion of  atmospheric  oxygen,  it  becomes  ex- 
plosive. The  ingredients  of  an  explosive  com- 
pound remain  inert  unless  the  condition  of 
chemical  reaction  is  supplied.  This  is  usually 
heat,  produced  by  the  direct  contact  of  a  heated 
body,  or  by  pressure  or  percussion.  In  some 
instances,  however,  the  introduction  of  a  new 
substance,  or  the  change  of  aggregate  condi- 
tion in  one  or  more  of  the  ingredients,  may 
occasion  explosion.  The  number  of  explosives 
known  to  chemists  is  considerable.  Chiefly 
those  which  are  employed  in  the  arts  will  be 
considered  in  this  article. — Gunpowder,  Of 
these,  gunpowder  is  the  most  widely  employed, 
partly  because  the  longest  known,  but  mainly 
because  it  is  not  liable  to  spontaneous  change, 
or  explosion  from  otiier  causes  than  a  very 
high  temperature  (that  of  a  spark  or  flame,  for 
example),  and  because  the  manufacture  can  be 
cheaply  carried  on  to  any  required  extent,  and 
can  be  so  varied  as  to  control  the  qualities  of 
the  product  according  to  the  proposed  use. 
Gunpowder  presents  to  the  eye  a  mass  of 
grains,  usually  angular  and  of  uniform  size, 
dark  color,  and  polished  surface.  The  different 
varieties  range  from  0*5  to  4*5  mm.  in  diameter 
of  grain.  Its  specific  gravity  is  1*8  to  2*0.  It 
explodes  when  rapidly  heated  above  800®  0. 
It  IS  composed  of  charcoal,  sulphur,  and  nitre, 
the  two  former  being  the  combustible  ingre- 
dients, and  the  latter,  by  the  surrender  of  its 
oxygen,  supporting  their  combustion.  Ac- 
cording to  the  theory  formerly  held,  the  nitre 
is  reduced  during  the  combustion  of  rifle 
powder  to  nitrogen  and  potassium,  the  latter 
forming  with  sulphur  potassium  sulphide,  while 
all  the  oxygen  combines  with  the  carbon  of 
the  charcoal  to  form  carbon  dioxide  (carbonic 
acid).  The  formula  expressing  this  reaction 
would  be  2KNOa+S  +  80=8CO4-K,8+2N; 
and  the  proportions  of  ingredients  in  100  parts 
would  be:  nitre,  74*84;  sulphur,  11*84;  char- 


coal, 18*82.  From  blasting  powder,  on  the 
other  hand,  carbonic  oxide  as  well  as  carbonic 
acid  is  formed,  and  the  theoretical  reaction  is 
shown  in  the  equation  EN0s+S-i-2C=KS-h 
N + C0«  +  CO,  requiring  the  proportions :  nitre, 
64*4;  sulphur,  20*4;  carbon,  15*2.  How  near- 
ly these  formulas  are  adhered  to  will  appear 
from  the  following  tables  of  analyses : 

I.  MlUTAXT  POWDBB. 


VARIETIES. 


Theoretical  proportloDa 
Aastrian 


English 

Frendi .. 
PnuaUn. 


ordnance . . 
amallarma 


Baaaian 

United  SUtea. 


Char* 

CIMl. 

Sal. 
pbnr. 

Nitre. 

18-82 

11-84 

74-64 

181 

11-8 

Tft-6 

lfi-0 

10*0 

760 

1842 

12-80 

78-78 

U-22 

8-68 

77-16 

18-7 

10-1 

762 

160 

10-0 

750 

12-6 

12-5 

760 

12-5 

12-5 

76-0 

18-5 

11-6 

75-0 

17-7 

11-7 

70-6 

14  (or 

100 

76  (or 

16) 

75) 

Aothorftjr. 


Linck. 

Lottoer. 

KArolyL 

Uro. 
Otto. 
CkMnbea. 
Magnaa. 
Gottlieb. 
Meyer. 

Ordnanee  Man- 
oaL 


II.  Bou  OR  Spoktimo  POWDXI. 


American 
Engliah  .. 


French. 


"B" 


Gennaa 
Italian.. 
Boaaian 


14-4 

9-9 

76-7 

12-5 

7-8 

79^ 

170 

8-0 

76-0 

14-0 

8-0 

78-0 

12-0 

10-0 

78-0 

18-6 

9-6 

76-9 

15-5 

10-5 

74-0 

11-27 

9-84 

78-99 

18-2 

8-6 

78-2 

12  0 

80 

80H) 

III.  BLAsniro  Powdbe. 


Theoretical  proportiona 

Anatrian 

iVench'' round  ^ 

French  **  ordinary  "... 

Freiberg  '*  doable  ** 

Harte,  coarae,  atrong... 

**■      mediom 

**      weak,  fine 

Italian 

Ifanafeld 

Buaaian 

Weetpbaltan 


16 
21 


2 
86 


1800 
]6'00 
18-00 
20-48 
21-87 
19-48 
12-00 
20-96 
16-70 
16-88 


20-4 

18-45 

20-00 

20-00 

18-'40 

26  44 

16-56 

16-24 

16-00 

11-76 

16-60 

16-88 


64-4 

60-19 

6200 

66-00 

78-60 

€8-12 

61-94 

64-82 

70-00 

67-20 

66-70 

€8-84 


Ott& 


Combea^ 

Otto. 

Berue  de  FAr* 

tUlerle. 
Bnnaen. 
Precha 


Bzlha. 

Gombea. 

Bzlha. 

Lottner. 


Dingier. 

Bzf^ 

u 


These  variations  are  due  partly  to  the  variable 
quality  of  the  ingredients,  particularly  the 
charcoal,  which  always  contains  water  and 
ash.  The  best  coal  (from  light  non-resinous 
wood,  like  poplar,  black  alder,  or  willow) 
rarely  contains  over  83  per  cent,  of  carbon. 
The  composition  of  powder  has  been  also 
varied  from  the  theoretical  formulas  to  ob- 
tiain  a  variety  in  its  effects,  and  the  researches 
of  Bunsen,  Shishkoff,  Karolyi,  Craig,  and  Fe- 
dorow  have  shown  that  the  simple  reactions 
upon  which  the  formulas  were  based  do  not 
take  place ;  that  the  products  of  combustion, 
which  vary  somewhat  with  the  pressure  under 
which  ignition  takes  place,  comprise,  among 
the  gases,  small  quantities  of  carbonic  oxide, 
hydrogen,  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  and  free  ox- 
ygen, and,  in  the  smoke  and  residue,  chiefly 
the  sulphate  and  carbonate,  not  the  sulphide, 
of  potassinm.  Bunsen  found  the  gases  from 
rifle  powder  to  be  but  81*4  per  cent  of  the 
weight.    The  pressure  generated  by  the  com- 


EXPLOSIVES 


35 


bDsdon  of  ganpowder  has  been  variouslj  esti- 
mated. Odtzschmann  gives  the  foliowing  ta- 
ble, compiled  from  different  aathorities : 

AuAuHj,  ErtlsMto  In  •tmiiplMm. 

Koblll 1.000 

Hotton 1,700  to  2,500 

Myer 8,800  to  4,000 

BriaOfOD. 4,000 

Prechtl 4,400 

Kaniuvsch  and  Heeren 5,000 

Gurtt 8,980  to   8,640 

Plobert 7,600 

Benoain 10,000 

Bomfiml 29,178  to  54,740 

The  nsoal  estimate  at  present  is  for  rifle  pow- 
der 4,000,  and  for  blasting  powder  2,000  at- 
mospheres. It  is  believed  that  in  practice 
half  these  fignres  are  realized.  The  latest  re- 
searches npon  the  heat  set  free  by  the  com- 
bojttion  of  powder,  those  of  Ronx  and  Sarran 
{Comptet  Rendui^  July,  1878),  give  the  fol- 
lowing resolts : 


VABBTDS. 


Ffne  sporting. 

Ctimon 

B  moflket. . . . 

Export 

Blasting 


OOMPOUTIOIf. 

OkloriM 
pwkllo- 
grunOM. 

KIti*. 

Sal- 
phar. 

Char- 
coal. 

78 
75 
74 
72 
62 

10 

12-5 

10-6 

18 

20 

12 

12-5 
15-5 
15 

18 

807-8 
762-9 
780-8 
694-2 
570-2 

Weigfatof 
KMiper 

kilo- 
gnuiuiM. 

0  897 
0-412 
0-414 
0-446 
0-499 


The  time  within  which  this  pressure  is  devel- 
oped is  an  important  element  in  the  practical 
effect.  The  particles  of  the  powder  are  suc- 
cessively ignited  and  combustion  becomes  gen- 
eral. The  rate  of  ignition  is  more  rapid,  and 
that  of  combustion  is  slower,  the  larger  the 
grain  of  the  powder.  The  fl  nest-grained  pow- 
der, when  pressed  closely  together,  behaves 
like  a  single  mass,  burning  with  comparative 
slowness,  and  hence  showing  less  explosive 
power.  It  is  employed  in  rockets  and  fire- 
works. For  rifled  guns,  a  coarse  grain  is  now 
preferred,  since  its  qaick  ignition  gives  the 
force  required  to  press  the  projectile  into  the 
grooves,  while  its  prolonged  combustion  aug- 
ments the  pressure  until  the  projectile  leaves  the 
gDQ  with  maximum  velocity.  Blasting  pow- 
der, which  is  required  to  lift  and  split,  rather 
than  to  throw,  is  usually  coarse-grained,  though 
modem  practice  is  tending  to  the  employment 
of  "  quicker  "  powders ;  a  change  due  to  the 
observed  effectiveness  of  the  nitro-glycerine 
compounds.  The  composition  of  ordinary 
blasting  powder,  as  above  shown,  effects  a 
slow  combustion. — A  blasting  powder  now 
used  to  a  considerable  extent  in  this  country ' 
contains  Chili  saltpetre  (nitrate  of  soda)  in- 
stead of  nitre.  It  is  unsuitable  for  sporting 
or  military  pnrposes.  Another  variation  from 
the  usual  formula  is  Oliver's  powder,  made  in 
Pennsylvania,  in  which  peat  is  substituted  for 
charcoal,  with  increased  safety  of  manufacture 
and  cheapnese  of  product.  The  West  Virginia 
mineral  grahamite,  a  hydrocarbon,  has  also 
been  experimented  npon  as  a  substitute  for 


charcoal,  with  favorable  results.  Oommon 
powder  soaked  at  the  moment  of  using  in 
nitro-glycerine  has  been  used  in  Swedish  quar- 
ries, with  trebled  effectiveness.  Dynamite  is 
safer  and  better.  Pyronene  is  a  cheap,  infe- 
rior blasting  powder,  made  of  52*5  parts  nitrate 
of  soda,  20  parts  sulphur,  and  27*5  parts  spent 
tan.  In  Davey's  powder  a  part  of  the  char- 
coal is  replaced  by  flour,  starch,  &c.,  for  safety 
in  preparation.  Slow-burning  powders  used 
in  Germany  (Neumeyer's,  Klip's,  &c.)  contam 
less  sulphur  and  more  coal  than  the  ordinary 
kind.  They  are  recommended  for  safety  and 
small  amount  of  smoke. — An  intimate  mixture 
of  8  parts  nitre,  2  parts  dry  carbonate  of 
potassa,  and  1  part  sulphur  will  when  slow- 
ly heated  (tf.^.,  in  an  iron  spoon)  first  melt,  and 
soon  after  explode  with  deafening  noise.  The 
sulphur  acts  upon  the  carbonate  of  potassa, 
producing  "  liver  of  sulphur,"  a  mixture  of  the 
sulphide  with  tbe  sulphate  of  potassa;  this  is 
suddenly  oxidized  by  the  decomposition  of 
the  nitric  acid,  and  nitrogen  gas  is  liberated. 
The  experiment  should  be  tried  with  a  small 
quantity  only,  say  as  much  as  will  cover 
the  tip  of  a  knife  blade.  (See  Gunpowdeh.) 
— Pyroxylins,  In  the  explosives  classed  above 
under  gunpowder,  the  sulphur  plays  the  part 
of  a  stimulant  of  chemical  action,  by  its  supe- 
rior readiness  to  ignite.  It  is  the  nitric  acid 
and  the  carbon  which,  forming  voluminous 
gases,  generate  the  explosive  force ;  and  these 
substances  can  be  brought  together  in  such 
ways  as  to  form  explosive  compounds  which 
have  the  advantage  of  leaving  no  solid  residues 
or  smoke.  Pyroxyline  is  the  name  given  to 
the  class  of  detonating  substances  produced  by 
the  action  of  concentrated  nitric  acid  upon  the 
cellulose  of  cotton,  hemp,  paper,  sawdust,  &c. 
Gun  cotton  was  discovered  in  1846  by  Schdn- 
bein,  and  also  by  Bdttger.  The  conversion  of 
cotton  into  gun  cotton  by  the  action  of  nitric 
acid  scarcely  changes  its  outward  appearance. 
Chemically,  it  contains  much  hyponitrlc  acid. 
It  will  ignite  at  50"*  to  ISO''  0.,  and  leaves  no 
residue  after  explosion.  Its  effectiveness  ia 
variously  estimated  at  from  two  to  six  (prob- 
ably four)  times  that  of  gunpowder.  Accord- 
ing to  the  best  modem  formula,  gun  cotton  is 
trinitro-cellulose,  0«H»(NO,)80s.  The  pro- 
ducts of  combination  are  entirely  gaseous. 
Karolyi  gives  the  following,  in  100  parts : 


OONSTJTUSNTS. 

By  TOlVBMa 

Bjr  wtlRhl. 

Onrhonlr!  ozldff ,  r, , t  - 

28-W 

19-11 

1117 

8-88 

8*fi6 

1-89 

SI -98 

28'9S 

iJarbonlc  acid 

80-48 

Ifanh  nu 

6-47 

Binoxide  of  nitromn 

9-69 

Nitrogen 

8-71 

Carbon 

1-60 

Aauaoofl  vsDor 

14-28 

10000 

10000 

When  burned  under  pressure,  the  nitric  oxide 
reacts  more  coinpletely  with  the  carburetted 
hydrogen,  and  the  result  of  this  and  other 


86 


EXPLOSIVES 


causes  is  a  greater  yolame  of  evolved  gases. 
The  actual  product  of  heat  units  as  compared 
with  the  combustion  of  gunpowder  is  propor- 
tional, according  to  Dr.  Craig,  to  the  respective 
amounts  of  oxygen  concerned  in  the  two  cases ; 
but  the  greater  volume  of  the  gases  from  gun 
cotton  renders  their  temperature  lower  and 
their  mechanical  effect  greater.  This  material 
bums  without  explosion  when  ignited  in  the 
open  air.  Ordinary  percussion  sometimes  ig- 
nites it — a  source  of  peril  in  packing  bore  holes. 
The  acid  and  aqueous  gases  which  it  evolves 
have  prevented  its  use  in  ordnance ;  moreover, 
it  is  very  hygroscopic  and  liable  to  spontaneous 
decomposition,  sometimes  leading  to  explosion, 
rendering  its  storage  perilous.  Many  of  these 
objections,  together  with  that  of  bulk,  have 
been  removed  by  AbePs  process  of  manufac- 
turing gun  cotton  in  compressed  solid  cylinders, 
which  bum  harmlessly,  can  be  stored  and  trans- 
ported with  safety,  and  explode  with  great 
power  when  ignited  under  confinement  by 
means  of  a  detonating  powder.  The  experi- 
ments of  Gen.  Lenk,  in  Austria,  led  to  this  im- 
provement. The  compressed  gun-cotton  is 
adopted  in  that  country  for  artillery.  Gun 
cotton  is  used  as  a  filter  for  strong  acids,  and 
also  (dissolved  in  ether)  as  a  varnish.  (See 
Collodion,  and  Gun  Cotton.) — Xyloidine  is 
the  white,  pulverulent,  and  very  explosive  sub- 
stance obtained  by  Braconnet  in  1888,  by 
treating  starch  with  concentrated  nitric  acid. 
Lithofracteur  is  the  name  originally  given  to  a 
white  blasting  powder,  consisting  of  coarsely 
ground  saltpetre  and  sulphur,  with  a  third 
substance,  supposed  to  be  sawdust  or  bran, 
treated  with  nitric  acid.  The  improved  litho- 
fracteur described  below  is  a  different  sub- 
stance.— Schnitzels  chemical  powder,  some- 
times called  wood  gunpowder  (introduced  in 
1864),  contains  no  sulphur;  and  the  charcoal 
is  replaced  with  wood  which  has  been  tritu- 
rated, deprived  of  its  acids,  soluble  salts,  pro- 
teine,  and  albumen,  and  treated  with  concen- 
trated sulphuric  and  nitric  acid.  These  grains 
of  wood  are  subsequently  saturated  with  nitrate 
of  potash  or  baryta,  or  both,  and  dried.  The 
powder  can  be  wet  and  dried  again  without 
weakening  it;  hence  it  may  be  kept  or  trans- 
ported in  a  damp  state  with  perfect  safety.  It 
18  about  one  third  as  dense  as  gunpowder,  is 
more  powerful,  and  leaves  but  a  trifling  residue. 
But  it  seems  to  have  been  superseded  by  nitro- 
glycerine compounds.  Some  inexplicable  ex- 
plosions have  occurred  with  it.  The  gases 
produced  from  it  in  mining  have  been  com- 
pliuned  of,  possibly  without  good  reason. — 
Haloxyline  is  a  powder  tried  in  Austria,  which 
contains  no  sulphur,  and  in  which  the  char- 
coal is  apparently  represented  by  woody  fibre. 
Like  tlie  slow-burning  Neumeyer  powder,  it 
gives  comparatively  little  noxious  gas,  is  hygro- 
scopic, and  works  better  in  solid  than  in  fis- 
sured rocks.  It  is  asserted  to  bum  harmlessly 
in  the  air;  but  like  many  other  ** harmless" 
powders,  it  has  given  rise  to  some  strange  and 


disastrous  explosions.  The  above  account  of 
its  composition  follows  the  Oesterreichuehe 
Zeitsehr\fl  (1866  and  1867);  Wagner's  ''  Tech- 
nology "  (1870)  says  it  contains  charcoal,  nitre, 
and  yellow  pmssiate  of  potassa. — Nitro-glyce- 
vine.  This  substance,  known  also  as  fnlmina- 
ting  oil,  nitroleum,  trinitrine,  glyceryl  nitrate, 
and  glonoine,  and  undoubtedly  the  most  impor- 
tant explosive  since  gunpowder,  was  discovered 
in  1847  by  Sombrero,  then  a  student  with  Pe- 
louze  in  Paqs.  It  is  formed  by  treating  gly- 
cerine with  concentrated  sulphuric  and  nitric 
acid.  (See  Gltcerinb.)  Until  1864  it  found 
no  practical  application,  except  as  a  homoeo- 
pathic remedy  for  headaches  similar  to  those 
which  it  causes.  In  that  year  Alfred  Nobel, 
a  Swede  of  Hamburg,  began  its  manufacture 
on  a  large  scale,  and,  though  he  sacrificed 
a  brother  to  the  terrible  agent  he  had  created, 
has  persevered  until  in  its  later  and  safer  forms 
nitro-glycerine  has  come  into  wide  use  and 
popularity.  It  is  a  clear,  oily,  colorless,  odor- 
less,  and  slightly  sweet  liquid,  heavier  than 
water  and  insoluble  in  it,  but  soluble  in  ether 
and  methyl  alcohol;  crystidlizes^in  long  needles 
at  4°  to  11*  0.  At  —15°  C.  it  becomes  after 
a  while  thick ;  prolonged  exposure  to  — 2°  O. 
solidifies  it.  It  detonates  in  the  open  air,  under 
a  strong  blow  or  shock ;  ignites  with  difficulty 
when  poured  out  in  a  thin  sheet,  and  even  then 
burns  incompletely  without  explosion.  It  can 
be  evaporated  at  100°  C,  if  boUing  is  avoided ; 
but  boiling,  or  the  temperature  of  180°  0., 
causes  an  explosion.  Confined  or  frozen,  so  as 
to  permit  the  instantaneous  transmission  of  an 
impulse  through  the  mass,  it  will  explode, 
sometimes  under  a  very  slight  shock.  It  is  usa- 
ally  exploded  with  a  detonating  fuse.  When 
badly  prepared  or  preserved,  it  is  liable  to  de- 
composition, yielding  ^es  which  exert  a  pres- 
sure within  the  contaming  vessel  and  create  a 
condition  of  perilous  sensitiveness  to  external 
shocks.    The  modem  formula  is  CiH^NsOb,  or 

(NO.).  I  ^' '  ^^"^®  ^*  ^*  glycerine,  ^^^*  |  O,, 
in  whicn  8  atoms  of  H  have  been  replaced  by 
8  atoms  of  NO..    Its  specific  gravity  is  1*6; 
and  100  parts  yield  on  combustion : 


CONSnTUKNTS. 

AqneooB  Twor 

Carbonic  ACJa 

Oxygen 

Kitrofen 


Bywitght. 

20 
63 
8-5 
18-5 

100*0 

60,400^ 

46l900 

8.000 

88,600 

1»«800 


According  to  L'H6te,  the  oxygen  is  united 
with  part  of  the  nitrogen  as  protoxide.  The 
heat  liberated  by  the  combustion  is  estimated 
to  be  twice  as  much  as  that  of  gunpowder; 
hence,  while  one  volume  of  the  latter  yields 
in  practice  200  volumes  of  cold  gases,  expanded 
by  heat  to  800  volumes,  an  equal  weight  of 
nitro-glyoerine  yields  1,298  volumes  of  gas,  ex- 
panded to  10,884  volumes,  giving  18  times  the 
force  of  gunpowder.    Bat  the  explosion  takes 


EXPLOSIVES 


37 


place  much  more  suddenly  than  that  of  gnnpow- 
der ;  hence  the  practical  gain  in  effect  is  greater 
than  the  above  figures  show.  The  saddenness 
with  which  the  forcd  is  developed  renders 
nitro-glycerine  nnsnitable  for  ordnance.  The 
verj  dangerons  character  of  this  material  has 
led  to  various  restrictions  npon  its  transporta- 
tion. It  continnes  to  be  nsed  in  many  places, 
and  is  prepared  on  the  spot  as  it  is  required. 
In  the  Uooeac  tunnel,  Massachusetts,  the  Uni- 
ted States  works  at  Uallett's  Point,  New  York, 
and  at  San  Francisco,  it  was  employed.  Its 
insolubility  in  water  and  its  liquid  form  and 
high  gravity  render  it  very  convenient  for  sub- 
marine operations  and  blasting  in  wet  ground. 
But  its  form  brings  a  danger  that  portions  of 
it,  unexploded  even  in  bore  holes,  may  be  scat- 
tered in  rock  fissures,  or  portions  may  be  split 
accidentally,  or  may  remain  in  vessels  once 
filled,  and  afterward  be  exploded  by  accident. 
The  proper  way  to  get  rid  of  it  is  to  pour  it 
into  a  running  stream.  To  remove  the  great 
dangers  connected  with  the  preparation  and 
traitfportation  of  this  material,  many  proposi- 
tions have  been  made,  principally  for  mixing 
the  oil  with  some  substance  (wood  spirit,  sul- 
phate of  zinc,  lime  or  magnesia,  &o.)  which 
would  render  it  inexplosive,  and  which  could 
afterward  be  removed  by  simple  means  (e,  g,^ 
bj  water)  when  the  oil  was  to  be  used.  None 
of  these  have  come  into  use.  When  congealed 
it  has  been  thought  more  dangerons  than  when 
fluid;  but  this  view  is  now  contradicted  by 
many  practical  authorities.  Certainly  careless 
handling  and  thawing  of  frozen  nitro-glycerine 
has  caused  much  loss  of  life  and  property. 
Through  the  pores  or  in  the  stomach,  even  in 
small  quantities,  this  oil  causes  a  terrible  head- 
ache and  colic.  Headache  likewise  results  from 
inhaling  the  gases  of  its  combustion ;  but  all 
persons  are  not  alike  affected  by  these ;  and  it 
is  probable  that  most  persons  suffer  litUe  in- 
eonvenience  from  this  cause  when  they  have 
become  accustomed  to  it. — ^Nobel  introduced 
in  Swedish  quarries  the  practice  of  soaking 
comm3n  gunpowder  with  nitro-glycerine  be- 
fore blasting.  The  effect  produced  was  very 
great;  but  this  method  was  soon  superseded 
by  the  invention  of  dynamite  or  giant  powder, 
also  introduced  by  NobeL  Dynamite  is  finely 
pnlverized  silex,  or  ulicious  ashes,  or  infusorial 
earth  (most  frequently  the  last),  saturated  with 
about  three  times  its  weight  of  nitro-glyoerine, 
and  constituting  a  mass  resembling  damp  Gra- 
ham flour.  The  pulverulent  form  prevents  the 
transmission  of  ordinary  sudden  shocks,  except 
nnder  pressure  in  a  confined  space.  The  pres- 
aare  of  the  inert  mineral  constituents  serves 
^  to  absorb  heat,  so  that  a  high  temperature 
cannot  be  so  easily  imparted  to  the  whole ;  but 
when  Imparted,  this  temperature  effects  a  great 
expansion  of  the  gases  and  increased  effective- 
ness of  explosion.  Ijpited  in  the  open  air,  dyna- 
niite  bams  quietly  with  nitrous  fumes.  Exploded 
^asoally  by  means  of  a  fulminating  fuse  or  cap), 
ft  gi?es  carbonic  acid,  nitrogen,  and  hydrogen, 


and  leaves  a  white  ash,  with  little  or  no  smoke. 
Under  favorable  circumstances,  the  effective- 
ness of  dynamite  is  equal  or  supenor  to  that 
of  nitro-glycerine ;  a  fact  not  surprising,  if  it 
be  remembered  that  the  latter  is  liable  to  scat- 
ter unexploded  drops,  by  reason  of  the  maxi- 
mum rapidity  of  its  ignition.  Dynamite  is  now 
generally  recognized  as  the  safest  of  all  explo- 
sives. It  is  not  affected  by  a  prolonged  tem-i 
perature  of  100°  C,  nor  is  it  as  dangerous  a9 
nitro-glycerine  when  it  solidifies  (at  8*^  C). 
Neither  light  nor  electricity  nor  ordinary  shocks 
cause  it  to  decompose  or  explode.  The  prin- 
cipal dangers  connected  with  its  use  are  those 
of  the  strong  fulminating  powders  used  in  the 
percussion  fuses  to  explode  it.  It  is  also  poa- 
sible  that  if  dynamite  is  carelessly  made,  it  may 
contain  an  excess  of  nitro-glycerine,  which, 
overcoming  the  capillary  force  of  the  mineral 
particles,  may  collect  in  drops  and  settle  f^om 
the  mass,  becoming  a  source  of  serious  accidents. 
Moreover,  it  may  be  that  freezing,  or  thawing 
after  freezing,  has  a  tendency  to  segregate  the 
oil. — Dualline,  introduced  in  1869  by  Lieut. 
Dittmar,  is  another  nitro-glycerine  powder, 
consisting  probably  (the  exact  composition  is 
a  secret)  of  Schnitzels  wood  gunpowder,  sat- 
urated with  this  oil.  Another  formula  is,  in 
100  parts,  50  of  nitro-glycerine,  80  of  6ne  saw- 
dust, and  20  of  nitre.  It  has  been  considera- 
bly used  in  Germany  and  the  United  States. 
As  compared  with  dynamite  (which  it  resem- 
bles in  many  respects),  it  has  the  advantage 
that  it  can  be  exploded  under  confinement  with 
an  ordinary  blasting  fuse;  tiiat  it  does  not 
congeal  so  easily  as  dynamite ;  and  that  it  is 
cheaper.  As  a  disadvantage,  Serlo  mentions, 
that  under  some  conditions  it  partially  ex- 
plodes, partially  burns,  and  in  this  case  pro- 
duces noxious  gases. — ^Improved  lithofracteur, 
or  lithofracteur-dynamite,  manufactured  by 
Krebs  at  Deutz  near  Cologne,  is  supposed  to 
be  the  former  lithofracteur  saturated  with  ni- 
tro-glycerine. Another  formula  is,  in  100 
parts,  52  of  nitro- glycerine,  80  of  silex,  12  of 
stone  coal,  4  of  nitrate  of  soda,  and  2  of  sul- 
phur. This  would  be  a  mixture  of  dynamite 
with  a  very  bad  gunpowder.  The  safety  and 
effectiveness  of  dynamite  are  claimed  for  this 
powder,  with  an  additional  advantage  that 
it  can  be  exploded  at  much  lower  temperature 
— as  low,  according  to  some  experiments,  as 
— 12°  0. — ^Nobel  has  recently  patented  new 
nitro-glycerine  powders,  of  different  degrees 
of  strength.  The  strongest  consists  of  68  parts 
nitrate  of  baryta  and  12  parts  rich  bituminous 
coal,  saturated  with  12  parts  nitro-glycerine. 
Nearly  as  powerful  is  a  mixture  of  70  parts 
nitrate  of  baryta,  10  parts  resin,  and  12  parts 
nitro-glyoerine.  The  effect  of  each  may  be  in- 
creased by  adding  5  to  6  parts  sulphur.  They 
are  exploded  with  percussion  fuses. — Dr.  Jus- 
tus Fuchs,  formerly  in  NobePs  employ,  has 
proposed  as  an  improvement  on  dynamite  a 
compound  containing  85  instead  of  75  per  cent, 
of  nitro-glyoerine,  and  instead  of  infusorial 


88 


EXPLOSIVES 


earth  a  chemically  prepared  substance,  possess- 
ing greater  absorbing  power,  and  capable  of 
complete  combustion  with  almost  no  solid  resi- 
due.— ^The  Oolonia  powder,  manufactured  in 
Cologne,  is  said  to  be  a  black  gunpowder,  with 
80  to  85  per  cent,  of  nitro-glycerine.     It  is  ex- 

$loded  by  artificial  means  only. — Chlorate  of 
"^otassa  Powders.  The  property  of  acids  con- 
taining large  proportions  of  oxygen  to  part  with 
it  readily  is  strongly  shown  by  chloric  acid, 
HC10»,  in  which  the  oxygen  is  very  loosely  held. 
The  anhydric  acid  cannot  be  isolated ;  but  the 
salts  (particularly  of  potassa  and  baryta)  have 
been  extensively  employed  in  the  manufacture 
of  explosives,  by  mixing  with  combustible  ma- 
terials. Even  the  heat  of  percussion  or  friction 
causes  them  when  so  mixed  to  detonate.  A 
few  centigrammes  of  chlorate  of  potassa  rubbed 
in  a  mortar  with  sulphur  or  sulphide  of  anti- 
mony, will  explode  loudly  and  perhaps  shatter 
the  mortar.  A  chlorate  should  never  be  mixed 
by  rubbing  with  a  combustible  substance.  A 
mixture  of  chlorate  of  potassa  with  sugar,  sul- 
phur, sulphide  of  antimony,  or  similar  substan- 
ces, may  be  ignited  by  sunlight  alone,  or  by  a 
drop  of  sulphuric  acid.  On  this  principle  were 
based  the  matches  (now  out  of  fashion)  which 
were  tipped  with  a  mixture  of  chlorate  of  po- 
tassa and  sugar,  and  were  ignited  by  pressing 
them  u[)on  asbestus.  saturated  with  sulphuric 
acid.  During  the  French  revolution,  it  was 
attempted  to  replace  nitre  in  gunpowder  with 
chlorate  of  potassa ;  but  the  mixture  was  too 
explosive  for  artillery  purposes.  Berthollet^s 
experiments  at  Essonne,  in  1792,  were  stopped 
by  a  terrible  explosion ;  he  had  a  narrow  es- 
cape, and  several  were  killed.  A  cane,  striking 
powder  on  the  floor,  was  the  cause.  Percus- 
sion caps  were  formerly  filled  with  gunpowder 
out  of  which  the  nitre  had  been  leached,  and 
to  which  this  chlorate  had  then  been  added. 
Sir  "William  Armstrong  uses  a  mixture  of  amor- 
phous phosphorus  and  chlorate  of  potassa  as  a 
percussion  powder  for  discharging  ordnance. 
A  mixture  of  equal  weights  of  black  sulphide 
of  antimony  and  chlorate  of  potassa  is  general- 
ly employed  for  this  purpose. — ^White  gunpow- 
der, introduced  in  1849  by  Augendre,  for  bronze 
ordnance  and  shells,  is  composed  of  28  parts 
yellow  prussiate  of  potassa,  28  parts  loaf  sugar, 
and  49  parts  chlorate  of  potassa.  According 
to  Wagner,  the  gaseous  products  of  complete 
combustion  should  be  47*4  per  cent.,  and  the 
solid  residue  (cyanide  and  chloride  of  potassium 
and  carburet  of  iron)  62*6  per  cent.  The  gases 
from  100  grammes  would  amount,  at  0°  G.  and 
769  mm.  barometric  pressure,  to  40,680  cubic 
centimetres ;  and  at  2604*5°  C,  the  estimated 
temperature  of  combustion,  to  481,162  cubic 
centimetres.  The  cost  and  corrosiveness  of 
this  powder  have  prevented  its  adoption. — 
Blake's  "safety  explosive,"  patented  in  Eng- 
land, consists  of  one  part  sulphur  and  two  of 
chlorate  of  potash.  These  substances  are  kept 
dry  and  separate,  and  mixed  when  required. 
The  powder  burns  slowly  when  ignited,  but  its 


explosion  is  effected  by  means  of  a  detonating 
tube,  containing  the  compound  itself,  flilmina- 
ting  mercury,  and  ordinary  powder.     The  last 
is  ignited. — A   blasting  powder  is  made  at 
Plymouth,  England,   consisting  of  tan   bark 
soaked  in  chlorate  of  potash  and  covered  with 
powdered  sulphur.    It  is  said  to  bum  slowly 
in  the  open  air,  but  to  explode  with  great  en- 
ergy when  confined. — Explosive  paper  is  pre- 
pared by  impregnating  paper  with  a  mixture 
of  9  parts  chlorate  of  potassa,  A\  of  nitre,  8f 
of  ferrocyanide  of  potassium,  81  of  powdered 
charcoal,  y^  of  starch,  yf^  of  chromate  of  po- 
tassa, and  80  of  water  which  has  been  boiled 
about  an  hour.    The  paper,  when  dry,  cannot 
be  exploded  by  jar  or  percussion,  or  by  a  tem- 
perature less  than  that  of  its  combustion.    Ex- 
periments with  it  in  Austria  have  given  good 
results. — Chloride  of  nitrogen  is  perhaps  the 
most  terrible  explosive  known  to   chemists. 
Dulong,  who  discovered  it  in  1812,  and  lost  an 
eye  and  several  fingers  on  the  occasion,  kept 
the  discovery  a  secret,  lest  other   chemists 
should  repeat  his  perilous  experiments.     The 
unfortunate  result  was  that  Davy,  who  subse- 
quently made  the  same  discovery,  was  also  in- 
jured.   It  is  sometimes  unintentionally  pro- 
duced in  the  treatment  of  ammoniacal  solutions 
with  chlorine.    In  such  cases  the  chemist,  hav- 
ing discovered  its  presence,  quietly   retires, 
locks  the  laboratory,  and  leaves  the  dreadful 
intruder  to  spontaneous  and  harmless  decom- 
position, which  takes  place  in  the  course  of 
a  day  or  two.    Hypochloric  acid,  in  gas  or 
liquid  form,  is  scarcely  less  dangerous. — Pierate 
of  Potash  Powders,    Picric  acid,  obtained  by 
the  action  of  nitric  acid  upon  carbolic  acid, 
is  a  compound  of  carbon,  nitrogen,  hydrogen, 
and  oxygen,  the  formula,  as  given  in  "Wag- 
ner's "  Technology,"  being  CtH.(NO,).0.    Its 
salts  are  explosive  per  se,  and  have  been  used 
in  torpedoes.     Their  preparation   has  given 
rise  to  some  frightful  explosions;  one  at  the 
Sorbonne,  in  1869,  killed  five  persons,  and 
wounded  many  more.    DessignoUe's  powder 
for  blasting  is  a  mixture  of  pierate  and  nitrate 
of  potassa,  to  which  for  a  gunpowder  charcoal 
is  added.    Sulphur  is  unnecessary.    The  ad- 
vantages claimed  for  it  are  the  harmless  charac- 
ter of  the  products  of  combustion  (nitrogen, 
aqueous  vapor,  and  carbonate  of  potash),  and 
the  control  of  its  power  by  variation  of  the  per- 
centage of  the  pierate.    Ten  grades  are  manu- 
factured, containing  from  8  to  20  per  cent,  of 
this  substance,  the  lowest  being  equal  in  effec- 
tiveness to  common  powder. — Ammoniakmt 
is  a  new  powder  invented  by  the  Swedish 
chemist  Norrbin,  and  believed  to  resemble  the 
foregoing,  but  to  contain  pierate  of  ammonia 
instead  of  potassa.    It  is  black,  doughy,  and 
damp ;  is  ignited  with  difficulty  by  flame ;  ex- 
plodes under  percussion ;  does  not  congeal  at 
ordinary  temperatures ;  has  an  explosive  ener- 
gy exceeding  even  that  of  dynamite ;  but  is 
said  to  be  liable  to  decomposition,  to  attract 
moisture  and  lose  power  wnen  stored,  and  to 


EXPLOSIVES 


89 


be  iuel€6s  if  once  frozen.    It  leaves  no  solid 
residae. — Fulminates.    The  compounds  of  cy- 
anogen comprise  many  highly  explosive  snh- 
stances,  among  which  the  fulminates,  or  salts  of 
folminic  acid,  are  the  most  important.  Fulminio 
acid  (Lat.  fulmen^  a  thunderbolt)  is,  according 
-to  the  most  modern  formula  (Kekul^'s),  a  nitro- 
compound of  the  group  C4H8K  (acetonitril), 
and  hence  called  nitro-acetonitril.     One  of  the 
hydrogen  atoms  is  replaced  with  an  atom  of 
NO4,  giving  for  the  acid  C4(N04)H,N.    In  the 
salts  Uie  hydrogen  is  replaced  with  a  metal ; 
thus  the  fulminate  of  silver  is  G4(N04)Ag9N. 
This  hypothesis  explains  the  fact  that  the  ful- 
minates react  very  differently  from  the  cya- 
nates  (mono-,di-,  and  tribasic),  all  of  which  have 
the  same  proportions  of  0,  N,  and  metallic 
base,  but  doubtless  different  atomic  arrange- 
DMnts.    Mercury  fulminate  (empirical  formula, 
C«Ns04Hg9)  is  prepared  by  dissolving  at  a 
moderate  heat,  in  12  parts  of  nitric  acid  of  the 
specific  gravity  of  1*85,  1  part  of  mercury,  and 
adding  11  parts  of  90  to  92  per  cent,  alcohol. 
Liebig  recommends  a  glass  flask,  the  capacity 
of  which  is  18  times  the  volume  of  the  mixture. 
In  this  the  mercury  is  dissolved  in  cold  acid, 
the  nitrous  fumes  being  retained  in  the  flask. 
The  solution  is  poured  into  a  second  vessel, 
containing  one  half  the  alcohol ;  and  the  mix- 
tare  is  then  returned  into  the  first  flask,  where 
it  reabsorbs  the  nitrous  fumes.    In  a  few  mo- 
ments bubbles  rise  from  tlie  bottom,  where  a 
heavy  liquid  begins  to  be  segregated.   By  gentle 
shaking  this   is  mixed  with  the  supernatant 
liquid,  and  a  tempestuous  ebullition  takes  place, 
with  evolution  of  white  fumes,  and  some  ni- 
trous acid,  tlie  mass  becoming  black  from  segre- 
gated metal.    The  remainder  of  the  alcohol  is 
gradually  added;  the  black  color  disapp>ears, 
and  the  fulminate  is  deposited  in  sparkling 
brownish  gray  crystals.  The  vapors  are  chiefly 
carbonic  acid  and  nitrous  ether.    Mercury  ful- 
minate is  scarcely  soluble  in  cold  water,  but 
dissolves  in  180  parts  of  boiling  water,  which 
gives  a  means  of  refining  it  by  recrystallization. 
It  explodes  at  186°  C,  or  under  friction  or 
percussion  between  hard   substances.    When 
moistened  with  6  per  cent,  of  water,  only  the 
portion  actually  struck  explodes.    In  contact 
with  a  tightly  packed  explosive  mixture,  its 
detonation  explodes  the  mixture  more  rapidly 
and  completely  than   any  other  method  of 
firing.'    Hence  its  universal  employment  in  the 
manufacture  of  percussion  caps  and  detonating 
fusees.    According  to  the  French  method,  one 
kilo  of  mercury  gives  1^  kilo  of  fulminate, 
sufficient  for  40,000  caps.    It  is  ground  with 
80  per  cent,  of  water  under  a  wooden  muller 
on  a  marble  bed,  and  6  parts  gunpowder  are 
added  for  every  10  of  fulminate.    The  mixture 
is  dried,  granulated,  and  sized.   A  drop  of  gum 
19  introduced  into  each  cap,  and  the  fulminate 
powder  is  dropped  upon  it.     Some  caps  are 
varnished,  to  make  them  water-proof.    English 
fulminating  powder  consists  of  8  parts  mercury 
Eliminate,  6  parts  chlorate  of  potassa,  1  part 


sulphur,  and  1  part  powdered  glass.  Gum  is 
sometimes  added  in  the  mixture.  Nitre  is  also 
recommended.  Samuel  Guthrie  of  Sackett^s 
Harbor,  N.  Y.,  whose  extensive  and  perilous 
experiments  are  described  in  the  **  American 
Journal  of  Science^'  for  January,  1882,  found 
that  1  part  oxide  of  tin  with  3  parts  mercury 
fulminate,  ground  together  with  a  stiff  solution 
of  starch,  made  a  very  effective  compound. 
During  these  experiments  Mr.  Guthne  dis- 
covered chloroform,  as  did  French  and  German 
investigators  at  about  the  same  time. — Silver 
fulminate  is  more  explosive  and  dangerous  than 
the  mercury  salt.  It  may  be  made  like  the 
latter,  using  fine  silver  instead  of  mercury ;  or 
by  introducing  finely  pulverized  nitrate  of 
silver  into  concentrated  alcohol,  shaking  it 
well,  and  adding  an  equal  amount  of  fuming 
nitric  acid ;  or  by  treating  freshly  precipitated 
oxide  of  silver  with  ammonia.  It  is  employed 
in  the  manufacture  of  explosive  toys.  Gold 
and  platinum  fulminates  are  similar  compounds 
to  the  foregoing:,  but  they  are  not  employed  in 
the  arts. — Fulminating  aniline,  or  chromate  of 
diazobenzole,  obtained  by  the  action  of  ni- 
trous acid  upon  aniline,  and  the  precipitation 
of  the  product  by  the  aid  of  a  hydrochloric 
acid  solution  of  bichromate  of  potassa,  is, 
according  to  Caro  and  Griess,  an  eracient  sub- 
stitute for  fulminating  mercury. — General  The- 
ory of  BxploHves.  Explosive  substances  are 
said  to  ^^  possess  potential  energy  by  virtue  of 
certain  unsatisfied  affinities  between  the  ele- 
ments of  which  they  are  compounded."  In 
the  act  of  explosion  these  affinities  are  satis- 
fied, and  the  potential  energy  becomes  kinetic, 
taking  first  the  form  of  heat;  which  is  par- 
tially expended  in  giving  elastic  force  to  the 
new  gaseous  compounds  generated.  Perhaps 
this  statement  does  not  exactly  cover  cases 
like  the  chloride  of  nitrogen,  which  explodes 
by  dissociation,  leaving  free  chlorine  and  ni- 
trogen. The  elastic  force  at  any  instant  of  an 
explosion  and  the  total  energy  developed  are 
two  different  things.  The  intensity  of  the 
force  depends  upon :  1,  the  amount  of  actual 
heat  developed ;  2,  the  volume  which  a  unit 
of  the  mass  of  the  products  occupies  at  the 
instant ;  8,  the  specific  heat  of  these  products ; 
or,  in  other  words,  upon :  1,  the  volume  of  the 
products;  2,  their  temperature.  The  total 
energy  is  dependent  upon :  1,  the  ratio  be- 
tween final  volume  of  products  and  original 
volume  of  explosive ;  2,  the  total  actual  heat 
of  the  explosion.  The  maximum  intensity  de- 
pends chiefly  upon  the  rapidity  with  which  the 
conversion  of  the  explosive  into  gas  takes  place, 
and  this  depends  on  varying  conditions,  no  ex- 
plosion being  absolutely  instantaneous.  The 
primary  condition  is  the  rapidity  with  which 
the  chemical  reaction  among  the  constituents 
takes  place.  Some,  as  nitrate  and  chlorate 
of  potassa,  require  heat  for  their  decomposi- 
tion; others  are  probably  dissociated  by  the 
vibrations  produced  by  percussion  or  the  ex- 
ploding spark,  as  nitro-glycerine  and  chloride 


40 


EXPONENT 


EXPRESS 


of  nitrogen.  Some  have  so  little  stability  that 
sound  alone  is  sufficient  to  precipitate  the  ex- 
plosion, as  iodide  of  nitrogen,  which  may  be 
exploded  by  sounding  a  tuning  fork  of  the 
proper  pitch  in  its  vicinity.  When  heat  is  re- 
quired, the  rapidity  of  decomposition  will  de- 
pend also  upon  the  rate  of  ignition  throughout 
the  mass.  Thus  in  a  charge  of  granular  gun- 
powder, the  flame  from  the  vent  passes  be- 
tween the  grains,  progressively  enveloping  their 
surfaces,  and  through  the  pores  of  each  into 
the  mass,  its  progress  being  much  hastened  by 
the  enormous  tension  produced  when  the  ex- 
plosion is  confined.  Hence  the  rate  of  igni- 
tion (and  consequently  the  intensity  of  the 
force  at  a  given  instant)  may  be  varied  by 
varying  the  size  of  pores  and  interstices  in  the 
mass;  a  fruitful  field  of  experiment  and  im- 
provement, particularly  in  gunpowder.  It  is 
evident  also  that  the  tension  is  dependent  upon 
the  resistance  to  the  expansion  of  the  gases, 
and  will  rapidly  increase  unless  the  restraint 
is  withdrawn  in  proportion  to  their  progressive 
development.  The  increase  of  tension  brings 
with  it  increased  rapidity  of  ignition  and 
decomposition,  and  this  in  turn  augments 
the  tension,  which  is  thus  a  self-multiplying 
quantity.  Restraint  may  be  offered  by  an  en- 
closing solid  material,  or  by  the  inertia  of 
the  gases  themselves,  and  the  surrounding  air. 
If  a  block  of  compressed  gun  cotton  is  ignited 
in  the  open  air  by  a  flame,  of  moderate  tem- 
perature, it  will  often  consume  away  very 
gradually ;  but  if  ignited  by  an  electric  spark, 
or  the  impact  of  a  bullet,  it  will  explode  with 
great  violence ;  the  probable  explanation  being 
that  in  the  former  case  the  first  ignition  at 
lower  temperature  permitted  the  gases  to  ex- 
pand without  producing  a  very  high  tension, 
this  relation  continuing  to  the  end,  while  in 
the  latter  case  the  first  ignition  was  violent, 
and  the  relief  too  slow  to  prevent  a  self-mul- 
tiplying tension. 

fXPONENT  (Lat  exptmsrey  to  manifest),  in 
arithmetic  and  algebra,  a  small  figure  or  letter, 
written  to  the  right  of  and  above  a  quantity  or 
algebraic  term,  to  show  how  often  the  quantity 
or  term  must  be  taken  as  a  factor.  Thus,  3^ 
(which  is  read  "  the  fourth  power  of  8," 
or  '*  8,  fourth  power  ")  signifies  that  8  is  to  be 
taken  as  a  factor  four  times,  or  multiplied  into 
itself  three  tiroes,  as  follows:  8x8=9;  8x9 
=27 ;  8  X  27=81.  In  like  manner  (a  +  hy  sig- 
nifies that  the  sum  of  the  numbers  represented 
by  a  and  h  must  be  multiplied  consecutively 
into  itself  as  many  times  less  one  as  there  are 
units  in  e.  (See  Alobbba.) — ^Exponential  equar 
tions  and  functions  are  those  in  which  the  ex- 
ponents contain  unknown  or  variable  quanti- 
ties; such  as  ^s=a*,  in  which  a  is  the  only 
known  quantity.  Exponential  equations  are 
nsoally  reduced  to  logarithmic,  and  thus  solved. 

EXKESS,  a  messenger  or  conveyance  sent 
on  any  special  errand,  particularly  a  courier 
despatched  with  important  communications. 
In  the  United  States  the  word  is  applied  to  a 


system  organized  for  the  transportation  of  mer- 
chandise or  parcels  of  any  kind.  This  system 
was  originated  March  4, 1889,  when,  agreeably 
to  announcement  published  for  several  days 
in  the  newspapers,  Mr.  William  F.  Harn- 
den  of  Boston  made  a  trip  from  that  city  to 
New  Tork  as  a  public  messenger.  His  route 
was  by  the  Boston  and  Providence  railroad  and 
the  Long  Island  sound  steamboat,  which  con- 
nected with  that  line.  He  had  in  charge  a  few 
booksellers*  bundles  and  orders,  and  some  bro- 
kers' parcels  of  New  York  and  southern  and 
western  bank  notes  to  deliver  or  exchange — a 
service  for  which  he  charged  an  adequate  com- 
pensation. Mr.  Hamden  proposed  also  to  take 
the  charge  of  freight,  and  attend  to  its  early 
delivery,  for  which  purpose  he  had  made  a 
contract  with  the  above  named  railroad  and 
steamboat  companies,  and  was  to  make  foHr 
trips  per  week.  The  project  recommended  it- 
self to  business  men,  especially  those  whoae 
communications  between  the  two  cities  were 
frequent.  It  was  particularly  acceptable  to 
the  press,  to  which  Mr.  Hamden  made  himself 
very  useful  in  the  volnntary  transmission  of 
the  latest  intelligence,  in  advance  of  tUe  malL 
A  year  later  (1840)  a  competing  express  was 
started  by  P.  B.  Burke  and  Alvin  Adams,  the 
ownership  and  sole  operation  of  which  soon 
devolved  upon  the  latter.  In  1841  Mr.  Adams 
associated  with  himself  William  B.  Dinsmdre 
of  Boston  as  his  partner,  and  gave  him  the 
charge  of  their  New  York  ofiSce.  Adams  and 
co.'s  express  was  carried  by  the  Norwich  and 
Worcester  route.  In  1840  D.  Brigham,  jr., 
Hamden's  New  York  agent,  became  his  part- 
ner, and  soon  after  went  to  England,  where  he 
laid  the  foundation  of  Hamden  and  co.'s  foreign 
business.  He  returned  in  1841,  and  in  that 
year  their  line  was  extended  as  far  south  as 
Philadelphia,  and  west  to  Albany.  A  year  or 
two  later  Adams  and  co.  established  E.  8. 
Sandford  as  their  agent  in  Philadelphia,  and 
he  became  a  partner  in  their  business  there. 
He  also  became  associated  with  8.  M.  Shoema- 
ker of  Baltimore  in  an  express  from  Philadel- 
phia to  Washington,  D.  0.  About  the  same 
time  Hamden  and  co.'s  Boston,  Springfield, 
and  Albany  express  was  purchased  by  Thomp- 
son and  CO.,  who  gave  it  their  name,  which  it 
still  bears.  About  the  same  period  Gay  and 
CO.,  afterward  Gay  and  Kinsley,  commenced 
what  is  now  known  as  Kinsley  and  co.'s  ex- 
press, running  between  New  York  and  Boston, 
via  Newport  and  Fall  River.  The  express 
lines  from  Albany  to  Bufifalo,  and  thence  to  ite 
remoter  west,  were  established  by  Henry  Wella. 
The  first  express  west  of  Buffalo  was  com- 
menced in  April,  1845,  by  Messrs.  Wells,  Far- 
go, and  Dunning,  under  the  style  of  Wells  and 
CO.  It  was  disposed  of  two  years  afterward  to 
William  G.  Fargo  and  William  A.  Livingston, 
who  continued  it,  under  the  style  of  Living- 
ston and  Fargo,  till  March  18,  1860,  when  it 
was  consolidated  with  the  expresses  of  Wells 
and  CO.,  and  Batterfield,  Waason,  and  co.    The 


EXPRESS 


EXTRADITION 


41 


express  line  last  named  had  been  created  about 
a  year  previous  bj  John  Butterfield.  These 
three  concerns,  when  united,  were  called  the 
^^  American  Express  Company/'  William  F. 
Harnden,  the  founder  of  the  express  business, 
died  in  1648,  leaving  little  or  no  property.  In 
the  mean  time  numerous  short  express  routes 
and  local  expresses  had  come  into  successful 
op««tion  throughout  New  England.  Messrs. 
Pollen,  Virgil,  and  Stone,  who  by  their  effi- 
cient services  had  contributed  largely  to  the 
success  of  Uamden^s  business  in  its  infancy, 
aow  started  an  express  between  New  York 
and  Montreal,  and  laid  the  foundation  of  the 
"National  Express  Company."  Wells,  Fargo, 
aud  co.'s  California  express  was  created  in  tiie 
city  of  New  York  in  1852.  Adams  and  co.^s 
Galifomia  express,  established  in  1840,  was 
succeeded  in  1855  by  that  of  Freeman  and  co. 
In  1854  Adams  and  co.,  the  Harnden  express 
(then  owned  by  Thompson  and  Livingston), 
Kinsley  and  co.,  and  Hoey  and  co.  were  con- 
Bolidated  in  a  joint  stock  institution,  now  fa- 
mous 88  tlie  "  Adams  Express  Company."  The 
'*  United  States  Express  Company  "  was  com- 
menced in  1858.  It  runs  a  through  express 
twice  a  day  to  Buffalo,  over  the  New  York 
and  Erie  railway,  and  thence  to  numerous 
western  cities,  towns,  and  stations.  Between 
New  York  and  Dunkirk,  and  at  all  the  stations 
upon  its  route,  the  New  York  and  Erie  rail- 
way company  does  an  express  business  which 
was  first  established  by  the  regular  express 
company  last  mentioned.  The  ^^  Hope  Express 
Company,"  the  "New  Jersey  Express  Com- 
pany," and  the  "  Howard  Express  Company," 
established  as  joint-stock  concerns  since  1854, 
were  founded  upon  successful  individual  enter- 
prises of  some  years*  standing  prior  to  that 
date.  Tbey  serve  every  part  of  New  Jersey 
and  Pennsylvania.  The  "  Eastern  Express  Com- 
pany" also  is  a  union  of  several  individual  en- 
terprises, consolidated  Jan.  1,  1857.  Its  prin- 
cipal office  is  in  Boston,  whence  its  lines  diverge 
by  various  railroad  and  steamboat  routes  into 
Maine  and  New  Hampshire.  Fiske  and  co., 
and  Cheney,  Fiske,  and  co.,  are  proprietors  of 
expresses  which  have  been  very  useful  in  Massa- 
chusettSy  New  Hampshire,  and  Vermont.  Mas- 
Baohusetts  is  remarkable  for  the  number  of  its 
expresses,  the  most  of  which  have  short  routes, 
and  are  operated  by  individual  enterprise; 
238  run  from  the  city  of  Boston  alone.  The 
^*  American-European  Express  and  Exchange 
Company,"  created  in  New  York,  July  1,  1856, 
was  founded  upon  the  business  of  Livingston 
and  Wells,  and  Edwards,  Sandford,  and  co. 
It  sends  and  receives  an  express  by  every  regu- 
lar line  of  foreign  steamships,  and  transacts 
business  in  London,  Paris,  and  all  the  European 
cities. — ^The  principal  companies  which  are  at 

§  resent  (1874)  doing  business  in  tlie  United 
tates  are  the  Adams  express  company,  the 
American,  the  United  States,  Wells,  Fargo, 
and  CO.,  the  southern  express  company,  Sie 
national  express  company,  the  New  Jersey,  the 


eastern,  the  United  States  and  Canada,  and  the 
Texas.  The  railroads  covered  by  the  expresses 
are  about  60,000  miles  in  length,  but  as  they 
are  traversed  in  both  directions  aud  often  sev- 
eral times  each  day,  it  is  estimated  that  the 
express  messengers  travel  more  ^han  300,000 
miles  daily.  The  whole  number  of  men  em- 
ployed in  the  United  States  by  all  the  expresses 
is  over  18,000,  the  number  of  horses  is  about 
8,500,  and  the  number  of  offices  about  8,000. 
The  amount  of  capital  employed  in  the  business 
is  estimated  as  being  not  less  than  $25,000,000. 
The  whole  of  this  amount  is  not  needed  for  the 
purpose  of  supplying  material  or  for  carrying 
on  the  business,  and  the  larger  part  is  held  by 
the  companies  as  a  provision  against  any  losses 
that  may  be  sustained.  The  public  in  its  deal- 
ings with  the  companies  has  therefore  the  pro- 
tection of  a  large  guarantee  capital  in  addition 
to  the  individual  liability  of  the  shareholders. 
Confidence  is  reposed  in  express  companies  to 
such  an  extent  that  in  times  of  financial  panic, 
when  merchants  and  others  have  for  the  time 
lost  confidence  in  their  banks  and  bankers,  they 
trust  the  express  companies  in  their  fiduciary 
capacity  and  make  use  of  them  for  the  purpose 
of  making  their  remittances  and  collections. 
A  peculiar  feature  in  trade  has  grown  out  of 
express  facilities,  called  the  ^^  Collect  on  deliv- 
ery business."  Merchants  whose  wares  are  ad- 
vertised or  known  now  receive  orders  from 
strange  firms  in  distant  parts  of  the  country  to 
send  goods  to  them  by  express,  to  be  paid  for 
on  delivery.  The  merchant  fills  the  order  and 
sends  the  goods  with  his  bill  addressed  to  the 
consignee,  marked  C.  O.  D.,  and  the  amount 
to  be  coUected,  on  the  outside  of  the  package. 
This  is  sent  to  its  destination  by  the  express 
company  and  tendered  to  the  consignee,  with 
the  bill.  Upon  payment  of  the  latter  the  goods 
are  delivered  to  the  new  owner,  and  the  money 
received  is  carried  back  to  the  consignor,  who 
pays  for  the  collection,  while  the  consignee 
pays  the  freight  on  the  package.  The  amount 
of  business  transacted  in  this  way  is  very  large 
and  rapidly  increasing. 

EXTRADITIOir,  the  delivering  up  of  fugitives 
from  justice  by  the  authorities  of  one  country 
or  state  to  those  of  another.  This  subject  may 
be  considered  under  two  heads,  as  it  relates  to 
the  surrender  of  offenders  to  each  other  by  the 
several  states  of  the  American  Union,  or  to 
the  like  mutual  surrender  between  sovereign 
nations.  I.  Bbtwbxn  thb  Statxs  of  ths 
Union.  This  is  provided  for  by  the  constitu- 
tion, art.  IV.  §  2  of  which  declares  that  a  person 
charged  in  any  state  with  treason,  felony,  or 
other  crime,  who  shall  flee  from  justice  and  be 
found  in  another  state,  shall,  on  demand  of  the 
executive  authority  of  the  state  from  which  he 
fied,  be  delivered  up  to  be  removed  to  the  state 
having  jurisdiction  of  the  same.  An  act  was 
passed  by  congress  in  1798  to  carry  this  provi- 
sion into  effect,  and  to  establish  the  like  regular 
tion  for  the  territories;  and  the  several  states 
have  also  statutes  on  the  same  subject.    Th« 


42 


EXTRADITION 


general  oonrse  tinder  these  statutes  is  the  fol- 
lowing :  The  accased  is  either  indicted  in  the 
state  where  the  crime  is  alleged  to  have  been 
committed,  or  he  is  charged  with  the  offence 
before  a  magistrate,  who,  after  examining  into 
the  caae,  and  being  satisfied  by  CTidence  that 
the  charge  is  well  founded,  issues  his  warrant 
for  the  arrest.  A  copy  of  the  indictment  or 
warrant  is  then  presented  to  the  executive  of 
that  state,  who  will  give  a  formal  requisition 
upon  the  executive  of  the  state  to  which  the 
accused  has  fled  for  his  surrender.  The  execu- 
tive upon  whom  the  requisition  is  made,  if  the 
papers  appear  to  be  regular  and  sufficient,  is- 
sues his  warrant  in  compliance,  directed  to 
an  officer  or  to  the  agent  of  the  state  making 
the  requisition,  which  will  be  authority  for 
the  apprehension  and  removal  of  the  accused. 
Some  statutes  authorize  the  supposed  fugitive 
to  be  first  complained  of,  examined,  and  com- 
mitted where  he  is  found,  to  await  a  requisition 
from  the  proper  executive.  It  is  settled  under 
the  constitutional  provision  cited  above  that 
persons  ai*e  liable  to  extradition  under  it  who 
having  committed  offences  in  one  state  are 
found  afterward  in  another,  whether  their  go- 
ing to  such  other  state  was  for  the  purpose 
of  avoiding  punishment  or  not;  but  it  is  also 
settled  that  one  cannot  be  extradited  to  a  state 
where  he  is  not  alleged  to  have  been  when  the 
crime  was  committed.  Thus,  when  8mith,  the 
Mormon  prophet,  was  charged  with  having  in 
Illinois  been  accessory  to  the  attempt  upon  the 
life  of  Gov.  Bogy  in  Missouri,  it  was  decided 
that  he  could  not  be  regarded  as  a  fugitive,  and 
consequently  could  not  be  surrendered.  The 
most  important  controversy  under  this  provi- 
sion has  been  as  to  the  offences  covered  by  it. 
It  has  been  sometimes  insisted  that  only  those 
acts  were  to  be  considered  crimes  within  its 
intent  which  were  such  at  the  common  law, 
or  at  least  which  were  punishable  as  crimes  in 
the  state  Ji\xm  which  the  demand  was  made ; 
and  cases  occurred  in  which  governors  in  the 
free  states  refused  to  surrender  persons  who 
were  accused  in  the  slave  states  of  offences 
against  the  slave  code.  The  last  of  these  cases 
arose  in  1859-'60,  when  a  demand  was  made 
upon  the  governor  of  Ohio  by  the  governor  of 
Kentucky  for  the  surrender  of  one  I^ago,  who 
was  accused  of  the  crime  of  seducing  a  slave 
to  escape  from  her  master.  The  demand  was 
refused,  on  the  ground  that  the  act  was  not  an 
offence  known  to  the  laws  of  Ohio.  Applica- 
tion was  then  made  to  the  supreme  court  of 
the  United  States  for  a  mandamus  to  compel  a 
surrender ;  but  that  court,  while  declaring  its 
opinion  that  the  words  **  treason,  felony,  or 
other  crime,"  as  employed  in  the  constitution, 
include  every  offence  forbidden  and  made 
punishable  by  the  laws  of  the  state  where  the 
offence  was  committed,  at  the  same  time  de- 
cided that  the  court  had  no  power  to  compel 
the  performance  of  executive  duties  by  the 
governor  of  a  state.  Since  the  abolition  of 
slavery,  no  similar  controversy  is  likely  to  arise. 


II.  Extradition  between  Sovereign  Nations. 
As  a  general  rule,  one  nation  does  not  under- 
take to  punish  offences  not  committed  within  its 
territories,  though  the  offender  may  be  found 
there.  Many  publicists,  however,  have  ex- 
pressed the  view  that  nations  owe  to  each 
other  the  obligation  to  surrender  offenders  who 
might  have  fled  to  them  for  an  asylum ;  but 
this  obligation,  if  it  exists,  must  be  regarded 
as  imperfect,  and  as  requiring  stipulations  to 
determine  the  occasions  in  which  it  may  arise, 
and  the  manner  of  its  exercise.  Accordingly, 
though  the  extradition  of  offenders  has  been 
practised  by  some  countries  on  grounds  of 
comity  only,  it  is  now  customary  to  make  the 
obligation  one  of  compact,  in  which  the  respec- 
tive parties  stipulate  to  what  offences  it  shall 
apply,  and  what  exceptions,  if  any,  shall  be 
made.  There  are  two  methods  of  making  such 
compacts :  one  by  legislation,  where  a  country 
provides  by  its  own  laws  that  persons  accused 
of  offences  abroad  shall  be  subject  to  extradi- 
tion on  condition  of  reciprocity  ;  the  other  by 
convention  or  treaty.  The  latter  is  the  method 
usually  adopted.  In  making  such  treaties  it  is 
customary  to  provide  that  they  shall  not  apply 
to  offences  previously  committed,  or  to  those 
of  a  political  character;  though  independent 
of  any  such  express  stipulation  such  cases,  we 
think,  must  be  considered  impliedly  excepted. 
It  is  sometimes  provided,  also,  that  the  con- 
tracting nations  shall  not  be  bound  to  surrender 
their  own  subjects,  though  this  exception  would 
not  be  likely  to  be  insisted  upon  unless  un- 
der very  peculiar  circumstances.  The  United 
States  has  taken  the  lead  in  diplomatic  negotia- 
tions on  this  subject,  and  we  now  have  treaties 
for  the  mutual  rendition  of  persons  accused  of 
offences  as  follows:  With  Great  Britain  (in- 
cluding all  its  possessions):  murder;  assault 
with  intent  to  commit  murder ;  piracy ;  arson ; 
robbery;  forgery  or  the  utterance  of  forged 
paper.  (Treaty  of  Aug.  9,  1842.  This  was  an 
enlargement  of  Jay's  treaty  of  1794,  which 
provided  for  the  mutual  rendition  of  persons 
accused  of  murder  and  forgery.)  "With  the 
Hawaiian  Islands:  the  same  offences  specified 
in  the  treaty  of  1842  with  Great  Britain. 
(Treaty  of  Dec.  29,  1849.)  With  France: 
murder,  comprehending  the  crimes  designated 
in  the  French  penal  coide  by  the  terms  assas- 
sination, parricide,  infanticide,  and  poisoning; 
attempt  to  commit  murder;  rape;  forgery; 
arson ;  embezzlement  by  public  officers,  when 
the  same  is  punishable  with  infamous  punish- 
ment ;  but  this  not  to  apply  to  offences  pre- 
viously committed,  nor  to  those  of  a  purely 
political  character.  (Treaty  of  Nov.  9,  1848.) 
To  the  above  have  been  added  robbery  and 
burglary  (treaty  of  Feb.  26,  1846);  forging  or 
knowingly  passing  or  putting  in  circulation 
counterfeit  coin  or  bank  notes  or  other  paper 
current  as  money  with  intent  to  defraud; 
embezzlement  vrhen  subject  to  infamous  pun- 
ishment; and  the  case  of  accessories  and  ac- 
complices, 83  well  Ef  principals,  is  inclnded 


EXTRADITION 


43 


(treaty  of  Feb.  10,  1858).    With  Prassia  and 
the  other  states  of  the  late  North  German 
Confederation:  murder;  assanlt  with  intent  to 
murder ;  piracy ;  arson ;  robbery ;  forgery  or 
the  utterance  of  forged  papers  ;  the  fabrica- 
tion or  circulation  of  counterfeit  money,  or  the 
embezzlement  of  public  moneys.    (Treaty  with 
Prussia  of  June  16,  1852,  extended  to  all  the 
states  of  the  North  German  Confederation, 
Feb.  22,  1868.     Similar  treaties  were  made 
with  Bavaria,  Sept.  12,  1853 ;  with  Hanover, 
Jon.  18,  1855;  and  with  Baden,  Jan.  80, 1857.) 
With  the  Swiss  Confederation:  murder,  in- 
cluding  assassination,   parricide,   infanticide, 
and  poisoning;  attempt  to  commit  murder; 
rape ;  forgery  or  the  emission  of  forged  papers ; 
arson ;  robbery  with  violence,  intimidation,  or 
forcible  entry  of  an  inhabited  house ;  piracy ; 
embezzlement  by  public  officers,  or  by  persons 
hired  or  salaried,  to  the  detriment  of  their 
employers,  where  these  crimes  are  subject  to 
infamous  punishment.    This  not  to  apply  to 
offences  previously  committed,  or  to  those  of  a 
political  character.    (Treaty  of  Nov.  25, 1850.) 
With  Venezuela :  the  offences  specified  in  the 
treaty  with  the  Swiss  Confederation,  with  the 
addition  of  the  counterfeiting  of  money,  and 
with  the  like  exception.    (Treaty  of  Sept  26, 
1861.)     With  the  Dominican  Republic:   the 
offences  specified  in  the  treaty  with  Venezuela. 
(Treaty  of  Feb.  8,  1867.)    With  Sweden  and 
Norway :  murder,  including  assassination,  par- 
ricide, infanticide,  and  poisoning;  attempt  to 
commit  murder;  rape;  piracy,  including  mu- 
tiny on  board  a  ship  whenever  the  crew  or 
part  thereof,  by  fraud  or  violence  against  the 
commander,  have  taken  possession  of  the  ves- 
sel ;  arson ;  robbery ;  burglary ;  forgery,  and 
the  fabrication  or  circulation  of  counterfeit 
money,  whether  coin  or  paper  money;  em- 
bezzlement by  public  officers,  including  ap- 
propriation of  public  funds.    This  not  to  apply 
to  offences  of  a  political  character,  or  to  any 
person  who  by  its  laws  is  a  citizen  or  subject 
of  the  country  on  which  the  demand  is  made; 
and  where  the  person  demanded  is  charged 
with  a  new  offence  in  the  country  in  which 
he  has  sought  an  asylum,  he  is  not  to  be  de- 
livered up  until  tried  and  acquitted  or  punished. 
(Treaty  of  March  21, 1860.)    With  Italy :  mur- 
der, including  parricide,  assassination,  poison- 
ing, and  infanticide ;  attempt  to  commit  murder ; 
rape ;  arson ;  piracy,  and  mutiny  on  board  a 
ship,  whenever  the  crew  or  a  part  thereof,  by 
fraud  or  violence  against  the  commander,  have 
taken  possession  of  the  vessel ;  burglary ;  rob- 
beiy ;  forgery  and  counterfeiting,  and  the  ut- 
tering of  forged  or  counterfeit  papers,  coin,  or 
paper  money ;  embezzlement  of  public  moneys 
by  public  officers  or  depositaries,  and  embezzle- 
ment by  persons  hired  or  salaried  to  the  detri- 
ment of  their  employers  when  subject  to  in- 
famous punishment  according  to  the  laws  of 
the  United  States,  and  to  criminal  punishment 
according  to  the  kws  of  Italy.    (Treaties  of 
March  28,  1868,  and  Jan.  21,  1869.)    With 


Nicaragua :  the  same  offences  specified  in  the 
treaties  with  Italy.  (Treaty  of  June  25, 1870.) 
With  Austria :  murder,  assault  with  intent  to 
murder;  piracy;  arson;  robbery;  forgery; 
fabrication  or  circulation  of  counterfeit  money, 
whether  coin  or  paper  money ;  embezzlement 
of  the  public  moneys.  This  not  to  apply  to 
ofifences  previously  conomitted,  or  to  offences 
of  a  political  character,  and  neither  to  b€^ 
bound  to  surrender  its  own  citizens  or  subjects ; 
and  one  accused  of  a  new  offence  in  the  coun- 
try to  which  he  has  fled,  not  to  be  surrendered 
until  tried  therefor  and  aoouitted  or  punished. 
^Treaty  of  July  8, 1856.)  With  Mexico :  mur- 
der, including  assassination,  parricide,  infanti- 
cide, and  poisoning;  assault  with  intent  to 
murder ;  mutilation ;  piracy ;  arson  ;  rape ; 
kidnapping,  defining  the  same  to  be  the  talong 
and  carrying  away  of  a  free  person  by  force  or 
deception ;  forgery,  including  the  forging  or 
making  or  knowingly  passing  or  putting  in 
circulation  of  counterfeit  coin,  or  bank  notes 
or  other  paper  current  as  money;  embezzle- 
ment of  public  moneys ;  robbery ;  burglary  and 
larceny  of  cattle  or  other  goods  or  chattels 
of  the  value  of  $25  or  more,  when  committed 
in  the  frontier  states  or  territories  of  the  re- 
spective countries.  This  not  to  apply  to  offen- 
ces of  a  political  character,  or  to  persons  held 
as  slaves  when  the  offence  is  charged  to  have 
been  committed,  or  to  crimes  previously  com- 
mitted; and  neither  party  to  be  obliged  to 
deliver  up  its  own  citizens.  (Treaty  of  Dec. 
11,  1861.)  With  Hayti:  murder,  including 
assassination,  parricide,  infanticide,  and  poison- 
ing ;  attempt  to  commit  murder ;  piracy ;  rape ; 
forging  and  the  counterfeiting  of  money,  and 
the  utterance  of  forged  paper;  arson;  rob- 
bery; embezzlement  by  public  officers  or  by 
persons  hired  or  salaried,  to  the  detriment  of 
their  employers,  when  these  crimes  are  subject 
to  infamous  punishment.  This  not  to  apply  to 
previous  offences,  or  to  citizens  of  the  country 
on  which  the  demand  is  made.  (Treaty  of 
Nov.  8,  1864.)  Besides  these,  there  are  con- 
ventions for  the  mutual  return  of  deserters 
from  ships,  and  treaties  under  which  various 
Indian  tribes  bind  themselves  to  surrender  of- 
fenders to  the  United  States ;  and  the  Creeks 
and  Seminoles  and  the  United  States  agree  to 
a  mutual  surrender  of  offenders  against  their 
respective  laws, — The  several  treaties  with 
foreign  countries  require  that,  when  requisi- 
tion is  made  for  an  offender,  before  the  sur- 
render for  extradition  a  judicial  examination 
should  be  had,  and  that  the  surrender  should 
only  be  made  on  such  evidence  of  criminality 
as  would  justify  the  apprehension  of  the  per- 
son and  his  commitment  for  trial  where  he 
is  found  if  the  offence  had  been  there  commit- 
ted. By  acts  of  congress  passed  to  give  effect 
to  the  treaties,  the  hearing  is  to  be  had  before 
a  federal  judge  or  commissioner,  or  before  a 
judge  of  a  state  court,  who,  if  he  finds  the 
proper  case  established,  will  certify  the  fact 
with  the  evidence  to  the  secretary  of  state, 


u 


EXTRADITION 


EYCK 


that  an  execntive  warrant  may  issne  for  the 
surrender  to  the  aathorized  agent  of  the  foreign 
government.  The  surrender  cannot  be  made 
until  the  judicial  determination  shall  be  had. 
In  the  well  known  case  of  Jonathan  Bobbins, 
arising  under  Jaj^s  treaty,  the  president,  while 
the  case  was  pending  before  a  judge,  interfered 
with  his  advice  and  request  that  the  accused 
should  be  delivered  up,  which  was  done  ac- 
cordingly ;  but  this  raised  in  the  country  such 
an  outcry,  and  tended  so  strongly  to  the  pre- 
judice of  the  administration,  that  the  like 
interference  with  judicial  action  is  not  likely 
again  to  occur.  Nevertheless,  the  action  of 
the  judge  is  not  conclusive  on  the  executive ; 
the  one  acting  for  the  protection  of  individual 
right,  while  die  other  is  to  judge  of  the  inter- 
national obligation.  While  the  executive  can- 
not order  the  extradition  until  it  is  judicially 
determined  that  a  prima  facie  case  of  guilt  is 
shown,  he  is  not,  on  the  other  hand,  compelled 
to  issue  the  warrant  of  extradition  in  com- 
pliance with  the  finding  of  the  judge,  if  in  his 
opinion  the  case  is  not  within  the  treaty  under 
which  the  proceeding  is  assumed  to  be  taken. 
Thus,  in  the  noted  case  of  Karl  Voght  (1878), 
who  was  first  demanded  by  Belgium  for  an 
offence  committed  in  that  kingdom,  but  whose 
extradition  was  refused  on  the  ground  that  we 
had  no  treaty  on  the  subject  with  that  country, 
and  who  was  subsequently  demanded  for  the 
same  offence  by  Prussia  on  the  ground  of  being 
amenable  to  its  laws  as  a  Prussian  subject,  the 
president,  on  the  opinion  of  the  attorney  gen- 
eral that  the  case  was  not  covered  by  treaty, 
refused  to  issue  his  warrant  of  extradition,  not- 
withstanding that  the  district  judge  before  whom 
he  had  been  brought  had  determined  that  a 
case  was  made  out,  and  had  given  the  proper 
certificate.  In  this  the  president  followed  the 
judicial  decisions  in  England.  The  several 
states,  not  being  at  liberty  under  the  constitu- 
tion to  form  treaties  or  conventions  with  for- 
eign powers,  cannot  surrender  accused  persons 
to  those  powers. — Great  Britain  has  treaties 
of  extradition,  besides  that  with  the  United 
States,  with  France,  Denmark,  Germany,  Bel- 
gium, Italy,  and  Austria  (1 874).  The  first,  dated 
Feb.  8,  1843,  only  embraces  murder  (Including 
assassination,  parricide,  infanticide,  and  poison- 
ing), attempt  to  murder,  forgery,  and  fraud- 
ulent bankruptcy.  That  first  made  with  Den- 
mark included  only  the  same  four  offences,  but 
is  now  greatly  enlarged,  and,  like  those  with 
Italy  and  Belgium,  corresponds  in  comprehen- 
siveness to  the  treaty  with  Germany  of  1872. 
The  offences  specified  in  that  are:  murder; 
attempt  to  murder;  manslaughter;  counterfeit- 
ing or  altering  money,  or  uttering  the  same ; 
forgery  or  the  uttering  of  forged  papers,  bank 
notes,  or  paper  money;  embezzlement;  lar- 
ceny ;  obtaining  money  or  goods  by  false  pre- 
tences; crimes  against  the  bankrupt  laws; 
fraud  by  a  bailee,  banker,  agent,  factor,  trus- 
tee, director,  member,  or  public  officer  of  any 
company  when  made  criminal ;  rape ;  abduc- 


tion ;  child  stealing ;  burglary  or  housebreak- 
ing; arson;  robbery;  threats  by  letter  or 
otherwise  with  intent  to  extort;  sinking  or 
destroying  a  vessel  at  sea,  or  attempting  to  do 
so ;  assaults  on  board  a  ship  on  the  high  seas, 
with  intent  to  destroy  life  or  to  do  grievous 
bodily  harm ;  revolt  or  conspiracy  to  revolt 
on  board  a  ship  on  'the  high  seas  against 
the  authority  of  the  master.  Extradition 
may  take  place  for  participation  in  any  of  the 
crimes  specified,  provided  such  participation  be 
punishable  by  the  law  of  both  countries.  Bv 
statute  88  and  84  Victoria,  c.  52,  contempla- 
ting further  treaties  of  the  siime  nature,  it  is 
provided  that  effect  may  be  given  to  any  such 
treaty  by  mere  order  in  council,  and  without 
special  parliamentary  sanction,  which  other- 
wise would  have  been  necessary.  Most  of  the 
European  treaties  of  extradition  are  very  re- 
cent, and  they  are  likely  soon  to  be  adopted 
among  all  Christian  nations. 

EXTRiSIE  IJKCTIOir,  a  sacrament  of  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  church,  and  of  the  Greek  and 
other  eastern  churches,  administered  for  the 
spiritual  and  bodily  relief  of  the  sick.  The 
Greeks  call  it  the  "  oil  of  prayer."  The  Scrip- 
tural authority  on  which  this  rite  is  founded  is 
taken  from  St.  James  v.  14,  15.  In  the  Latin 
church  it  is  called  extreme  or  ^'  laSt "  unction, 
because,  unlike  the  unctions  of  baptism,  con- 
firmation, and  holy  orders,  this  is  reserved  for 
the  last  hour.  The  effects  of  this  sacrament 
are  held  to  be  the  following :  spiritual  strength 
to  overcome  the  enemies  of  salvation  in  the 
final  struggle  of  the  dying  hour,  and  patience 
to  support  the  pains  and  discomforts  of  illness ; 
the  indirect  forgiveness  of  all  mortal  sins  of 
which  the  sufferer  may  be  unconscious,  and 
the  direct  remission  of  venial  sins ;  the  removal 
of  the  weakness  of  the  spiritual  faculties  caused 
by  the  habits  of  sin ;  and  restoration  to  healtii 
when  it  is  for  the  welfare  of  the  patient.  The 
sacrament  is  administered  by  the  priest,  who 
anoints  with  consecrated  oil  the  eyes,  ears, 
nostrils,  mouth,  hands,  and  feet  of  the  sick 
person,  praying  at  each  unction  that  the  Lord 
by  his  mercy  and  through  that  unction  will 
remit  the  sins  committed  through  each  sense. 
— The  various  eastern  churches,  Greek,  Ar- 
menian, Coptic,  and  Nestorian,  agree  with  the 
Latins  in  regarding  this  as  one  of  the  seven 
sacraments  institute  by  Christ ;  but  they  differ 
in  that  they  do  not  reserve  its  use  for  the  sick 
in  danger  of  death.  Moreover,  in  the  Greek 
church  it  is  sometimes  administered  by  as 
many  as  seven  priests  at  the  same  time,  but 
ordinarily  by  two.  Tlie  Greek  form  of  words 
does  not  substantially  differ  from  that  employed 
by  the  Latins. 

EYALET.    See  Yilatbt. 

ETCK,  Tan,  the  name  of  three  painters,  two 
brothers  and  a  sister,  regarded  as  the  founders 
of  the  Flemish  school,  probably  the  children 
of  Josse  van  Eyck,  a  painter,  and  bom  at  Eyck 
(now  Alden  Eyck),  a  village  in  the  bishopric 
of  Li^ge,  near  Maaseyok,  on  the  Maas.    L 


EYCK 


EYE 


45 


Hilcit  ntty  bom  in  1366,  died  in  Ghent,  Sept. 
18,  1486.  After  having  resided  for  some  time 
in  Bruges,  he  removed  with  his  brother  to 
Ghent,  where  be  was  employed  with  him  upon 
an  altsrpiece  for  the  cburoh  of  St.  Bavon.  He 
died  before  its  completion,  and  was  bnried  in 
that  church.  If*  Jan  van  (often  caUed  Jan  van 
Bnigge),  bom  about  1890,  died  in  Bruges  in 
1440  or  1441.  Much  difference  of  opinion  has 
prevailed  in  regard  to  the  precise  date  of  his 
birth,  and  as  to  which  of  the  two  brothers 
was  the  greater  painter ;  bat  it  would  seem  to 
be  safiSciently  well  established  that  Jan  was 
much  joanger  than  Hubert,  and  was  instructed 
hj  faion.  Their  most  celebrated  work  was  the 
altarpiece  in  the  church  of  St  Bavon.  It  was 
about  14  ft  wide  and  12  ft.  high,  and  con- 
tidned  12  pictures,  painted  upon  folding  doors 
or  screens,  representing  the  adoration  of  the 
mystical  lamb,  other  pictures  being  painted 
upon  the  reverse  of  some  of  the  doors.  When 
the  French  obtained  possession  of  Belgium, 
Kapoleon  caused  the  aoors  to  be  carried  to 
Paris,  whence  they  were  removed  in  1815. 
The  four  central  divisions  were  restored  to 
Ghent,  and  are  now  in  the  church  of  St.  Ba- 
von ;  the  »z  most  important  of  the  doors  were 
taken  to  Berlin,  and  form  one  of  the  finest  or- 
naments of  the  royal  museum ;  and  two  of  the 
doors  are  in  the  museum  at  Brussels.  A  fine 
copy  of  the  whole  altarpiece  was  made  by 
Michael  Coxoie  for  Philip  II.  of  Spain,  part  of 
which  is  in  the  Berlin  museum,  part  in  the 
Finakothek  at  Munich,  and  part  in  the  church 
of  St  Bavon  at  Ghent  The  brothers  made 
such  great  improvements  in  the  art  of  oil 
painting  that  its  invention  has  been  often, 
though  erroneously,  ascribed  to  them.  The 
mixture  of  oils  and  gums  which  they  used  as 
the  vehicle  for  their  pigments  was  so  excellent 
that  the  colors  of  their  great  work  still  retain 
a  wonderful  freshness.  They  discarded  the 
artificial  style  of  their  predecessors,  and  en- 
deavored to  reproduce  the  outlines  and  hues 
of  nature.  Although  Jan  adhered  in  his  early 
efforts  to  the  fiat  gold  background  which  had 
before  been  customary,  he  afterward  adopted 
a  more  natural  grouping  for  his  figures  and 
natural  scenes  for  a  background.  The  exam- 
ple of  the  brothers  exerted  a  great  influence 
upon  the  painters  of  Germany,  Italy,  and 
Spain,  and  contributed  to  the  emancipation  of 
art  from  conventional  traditions.  Jan  was  the 
court  painter  of  Philip  the  Good,  duke  of  Bur- 
gundy, and  in  1428,  while  the  painting  of  the 
altarpiece  was  in  progress, .  accompanied  the 
embassy  which  was  sent  by  him  to  Lisbon  to 
iue  for  the  hand  of  the  daughter  of  King  John 
I.  of  Portugal.  After  the  completion  of  the 
altarpiece  in  1432,  he  returned  to  Bruges,  and 
little  is  known  of  his  subsequent  life.  III« 
livganC  van,  died  about  1430.  She  remained 
unmarried  in  order  that  she  might  devote  her- 
self to  painting  in  connection  with  her  broth- 
era.  There  is  in  London  a  fine  picture  by 
her,  isL  three  parts,  of  the  Madonna  and  child. — 


See  Waagen,  Ueber  Hubert  und  Jan  van  Eyeh 
(Breslau,  1822),  and  ''  Eariy  Flemish  Painters," 
by  Crowe  and  Cavalcaselle  (London,  1866). 

E¥E,  the  organ  of  the  special  sense  of  vision, 
lodged  in  man  in  a  cavity  on  each  side  of  the 
upper  portion  of  the  face,  called  the  orbit. 
The  orbits  have  the  form  of  a  quadrangular 
pyramid  of  which  the  base  is  in  front  and  the 
summit  behind;  their  direction  is  horizontal, 
and  their  axes,  directed  backward  and  inward, 
would  cross  at  or  near  the  sella  tursica  of  the 
sphenoid  bone  in  the  cranial  cavity.  They 
have  four  triangular  surfaces,  the  upper  formed 
by  the  orbital  plate  of  the  frontal  and  the 
lesser  wing  of  the  sphenoid  bone ;  the  lower 
by  the  pakte  behind,  the  upper  maxillary  in 
the  middle,  and  the  malar  in  front;  the  ex- 
ternal by  the  sphenoid  behind  and  the  malar 
in  front ;  the  internal  by  the  sphenoid  behind, 
the  ethmoid  in  the  middle,  and  the  lachrymal 
bone  in  front.  The  cavity  has  at  its  upper  ex- 
ternal portion  a  depression  for  the  gland  which 
secretes  the  tears,  at  its  inner  portion  the 
commencement  of  the  bony  passage  to  the 
nose ;  at  the  summit  is  the  round  opening  for 
the  entrance  of  the  optic  nerve,  the  union  of 
the  sphenoidal,  spheno-maxillary,  and  pterygo- 
maxillary  fissures,  and  the  commencement  of 
the  suborbital  canal.  Besides  these  bopy  en- 
closing cavities,  the  eyes  are  protected  from 
dust  and  foreign  bodies  by  the  hairs  of  th^  eye- 
brows above,  and  in  front  by  the  movable  lids, 


Fio.  l^—Horbontal  Section  of  the  EyebaU. 

SeL.  iderotio  coat ;  (M^  cornea;  R..  attachments  of  the  ten- 
dona  of  the  reed  muBclee;  6%..  choroid ;  Olj?^  dUary  pro- 
ceesea;  Cm^  ciliary  moscle;  /r.,  iris;  Aq..  aqueoas  nu- 
mor;  Cry^  erystalUne  lena;  Ft,  yitreoas  humor;  Rt^ 
retina ;  Op^  optic  nerre ;  N.K  the  yellow  spot  The  aeo- 
tion  has  pnsaed  throng:h  a  ciliary  process  on  the  left  side, 
and  between  two  ciliary  processes  on  the  right. 

fringed  with  the  eyelashes.  The  globe  of  the 
eye  is  of  a  generally  spherical  shape,  the  ante- 
rior fifth  being  the  segment  of  a  circle  smaller 
than  that  of  the  rest  of  the  organ ;  the  antero- 
posterior diameter,  greater  than  the  transverse, 
is  10  or  11  Ikies ;  d&fering  from  the  axes  of  the 


48  E 

orbits,  the  axes  of  the  eye*  tra  p«rBl1e1.  lo 
l^nt,  the  globe  of  the  eye  is  in  relation  with  the 
refiectioD  of  the  mucous  membraiie  of  the  lids; 
behind  and  all  aronnd,with  theniasclea,  ve»»elB, 
nerves,  nndacusliion  of  Bott  fat.  The  eye  ia  com- 
posed of  membranes  and  bnmors.  Of  the  mem- 
branes of  the  eye,  the  cornea  has  already  been 
described  under  its  own  title;  the  others  are 
the  sclerotic,  choroid,  ciliary  processes,  iria, 
and  retina.  The  sclerotic  i«  the  external  mem- 
brane, forming  the  posterior  four  fiftiia,  the  an- 
terior filth  being  formed  by  the  cornea;  it  is 
white,  firm,  and  resisting,  opaque,  thick,  and 
composed  of  interlaced  Gbrea.  Beneath  the 
sclerotic  is  the  choroid,  oompoeed  of  small  ar- 
teries and  veins  united  by  delicate  areolar  tis- 
sue; it  extends  from  the  entrance  of  the  optic 
nerve  forward  to  the  ciliary  circle;  both  its 
aarfaces  are  covered  witli  adark  pigment,  which 
gives  the  deep  color  seen  in  the  interior  of  the 
eje.  The  cihary  circle  or  ligament  is  a  grayish 
ring,  a  line  or  two  wide,  united  by  its  larger 
circumference  to  the  choroid,  and  by  its  leaser 
to  the  iris;  the  ciliary  processes  are  membra- 
QOns  folds,  60  lo  80  in  number,  extending  from 
the  choroid  to  the  neighborhood  of  the  opening 
of  the  papil ;  they  form  by  their  union  a.  ring 
behind  the  iris  and  in  front  of  the  vitreous  hu- 
mor, surrounding  the  crystalline  lens  like  a 
crown.  At  a  short  distance  behind  the  cornea 
ia  tbe  circnlar,  vertical,  membranous  curtain, 
the  iris,  pierced  in  the  middle  by  the  pupil ; 
this  curtain  hangs  in  the  aqueons  humor,  sepa- 
rating it  into  the  anterior  and  posterior  cham- 
bers of  the  eye ;  it  presents  anteriorly  a  great 
number  of  radiations  converging  toward  the 
pupil,  the  muscular  llbreB  for  the  dilatation  of 
this  opening,  tmd  is  variously  colored  in  differ- 
ent individuals;  the  posterior  surface  has  a 
number  of  circular  fibres  for  contracting  the 
pupil,  and  ia  covered  with  a  thick  dark  pig- 
ment layer  called  uvea ;  both  surfaces  are  lined 
with  the  delicate  membrane  of  the  aqneous  hu- 
mor; the  greater  circumference  is  connected 
with  the  ciliary  ligament  and  processes;  its 
movements  are  douhtiess  partly  owing  to  its 
erectile  and  vascnlar  tissue.  Beneath  the  cho- 
roid ia  the  retina,  a  thin  soft  eipaaaion  of  the 
Optic  nerve,  surrounding  the  vitreoua  humor 
and  extending  forward  as  far  as  the  ciliary  pro- 
cesses and  cry-itallioe  lens;  about  two  lines  to 
the  outside  of  the  tubercle  of  the  nerve  it  pre- 
sents a  circular  dark  spot  and  a  small  perfora- 
tion discovered  by  SCmmering.  The  retina  is 
the  immediate  organ  of  vision,  which  receives 
the  rays  of  light  and  transmits  the  visual  ira- 
presuons  by  the  optic  nerve  to  the  sensorinm. 
Of  the  humors  of  the  eye,  the  crystalline  lens 
has  been  described  under  that  head ;  the  others 
are  the  aqueous  and  vitreous  humors.  The 
aqueous  humor  Is  a  limpid  transparent  fluid, 
varying  in  quantity  from  four  to  six  grains,  oc- 
cupying the  space  in  front  of  the  lens  which 
is  divided  into  anterior  and  posterior  chambers 
byt^eiris;  it  contains  in  solution  a  little  albu- 
men and  the  salts  nanolly  fonnd  ia  mob  Mcre- 


tions;  when  lost  by  accident  or  in  the  opera- 
tion for  cataract  by  extraction,  it  is  apeedilj- 
formed  again.  The  vitreons  humor  occupies 
the  posterior  three  fourths  of  the  globe  of  the 
eye,  having  the  lens  encased  in  its  anterior 
portion ;  it  condsts  of  a  transparent,  gelatinoas 
fluid  enclosed  in  a  great  number  of  cells  formed 
by  the  {lartitions  of  the  hyaloid  membrane, 
communicating  with  each  other;  in  the  ope- 
ration for  cataract  by  depression  the  lens  is 
pushed  backward  and  downward  into  this  ba- 
mor.  The  optic  nerves  are  the  second  pair  of 
cerebral  nerves.  The  globe  of  the  eye  is  moved 
by  six  muscles  arising  from  the  contour  of  the 
optic  foramen  and  its  vicinity,  and  attached  to 
the  sclerotic  coat;  of  these  muscles  four  are 
straight,  called  the  external,  internal,  superior, 
and  inferior  racti  muscles,  moving  tiie  eye  re- 
spectively ootward,  inward,  upward,  and  dowQ- 


Fia.  !.— UiiKl«(  ot  the  Ej^tbiU  ilrwed  from  aboTA  iDd  from 

S.  S^  iDpnfoT  rKtui;  JAf.  B^  Inferior  r«tDi,-  B.  R,  erter- 
nil  Kclui ;  In.  R.  liilerail  i«<u> :  S  ob.,  >u»rhn  obUque : 
/a/,  dt,  iDbriDcobUqar;  CA,  clilumii  cf  Ibr  optic  nnrH 
{n.y,  //A  theUilnlatrT«.vbicti>nppllMallllwmiiKlea 
eiL«pt  tilt  auparioi  abtfqus  ud  Ibe  uUnuil  nclut. 

ward.  The  firat  two  mascles  are  often  perma- 
nently contracted,  producing  divergent  or  con- 
vergent BtrabinnuB,  e  deformity  curable  by  ttie 
divimon  of  the  contracted  muscles,  a  simple 
and  comparatively  painless  and  bloodless  op- 
eration; the  superior  oblique  muscle  passes 
through  a  pulley  in  the  inner  portion  of  the 
orbital  process  of  the  frontal  bone,  from  which 
it  extends  to  the  posterior  and  external  part 
of  the  globe,  rotating  the  organ  inward  and 
forward;  the  Inferior  oblique  passes  from  the 
internal  and  anterior  part  of  the  floor  of  the 
orbit  to  tlie  external  and  posterior  surface  of 
the  globe,  rotating  the  eye  outward  and  up- 
ward. The  conjunctiva,  the  mucous  mem- 
brane of  the  eye,  is  reflected  from  the  lids  and 
covers  the  anterior  portion  of  the  globe;  it  is 
in  this  membrane  (bat  the  redness  and  swelling 
of  ordinary  ophthalmia  have  their  seat.  Theeyti 
is  frequently  destroyed  by  accident  or  disease ; 
in  cases  of  removal  of  the  organ  artificial  eyes 
are  used  to  remedy  the  deformity ;  these  are 
made  of  glass  and  enamel,  and  when  having 
the  natural  size,  shape,  coloration  of  iris,  form 
of  pupil,  projection  of  cornea,  tint  of  sclerotic, 
and  vascularity,  it  is  often  very  difficult  to  de- 
tect the  real  tto\a  the  artifloial  organ,  espeoiall/ 


EYE 


47 


when  ihe  aocnrate  fitting  of  the  latter  allows 
it  to  be  moved  by  the  mascles  acting  in  sym- 
pathy with  the  sound  eye. — Without  here  treat- 
mg  of  the  laws  of  refraction,  of  the  aberration 
of  sphericity,  and  of  other  optical  principles 
involved  in  vision,  it  will  be  sufficient  to  say 
that  the  rays  from  an  object  are  first  modified 
by  the  convex  cornea,  pass  across  the  aqueous 
humor  through  the  pupil-opening  of  the  iris, 
thence  through  the  dense  crystalline  lens  and 
the  vitreous  humor,  and  are  by  these  media  of 
different  densities  and  shapes  converged  at  the 
proper  focal  distance  on  th^  retina.  All  rays 
beyond  those  necessary  for  perfect  vision  are 
absorbed  by  the  pigment  layer  of  the  choroid, 
which  answers  the  purpose  of  the  black  inte- 
rior of  optical  instruments ;  the  iris,  like  the 
telescopic  diaphragm,  shuts  off  the  rays  from 
the  circumference  of  the  lens,  thus  correcting 
the  aberration  of  sphericity,  contracting  or 
dilatuig  the  pupil  according  to  the  brilliancy  or 
dimness  of  the  illumination  of  the  object,  or  its 
distance  from  the  eye ;  it  is  well  known  that 
the  papil  of  a  cat  in  a  bright  light  becomes 
diminished  to  a  vertical  slit.  As  the  rays  are 
crossed  in  the  lens,  an  inverted  image  is  formed 
on  the  retina,  though  the  mental  perception  is 
of  an  erect  image.     Not  only  spherical  but 


Tie.  8 — innstration  of  the  chflngo  fn  the  ftMrn  of  the  lens 
when  adjusted — a  to  distant,  b  to  near  ohiJects. 

chromatic  aberration  is  corrected  sufficiently 
for  all  practical  purposes  in  healthy  eyes  by  the 
different  refractive  powers  of  the  media  and 
by  the  different  curves  of  their  surfaces,  so  that 
the  image  on  the  retina  is  well  defined  and  free 
from  false  colors.  The  power  by  which  the 
eye  adapts  itself  instantly  to  variations  in  the 
distance  of  objects  depends  upon  a  change  in 
the  curvatures  of  the  crystalline  lens,  this  body 
becoming  more  convex,  and  consequently  more 
highly  refractive,  in  vision  for  near  objects,  less 
80  in  vision  for  remote  objects.  The  physiolo- 
i?T  and  defects  of  vision  will  be  more  properly 
treated  in  the  article  Vision  ;  for  recent  obser- 
vations by  Kdlliker  on  the  structure  of  the  dif- 
ferent layers  of  the  retina,  the  reader  is  re- 
ferred to  the  works  of  Dr.  Carpenter  on  the 
principles  of  human  and  comparative  physiol- 
ogy. The  pupil  is  diminished  by  the  action 
of  muscles  deriving  their  nervous  infiuence 
from  the  third  pair,  but  is  dilated  through  the 
influence  of  the  cervical  portion  of  the  sympa- 
thetic nerve.  The  movements  of  the  eyeballs, 
whenever  voluntary,  are  always  harmonious, 
but  not  necessarily  symmetrical;  though  one 
cannot  be  elevated  and  the  other  depressed  at 
the  same  time,  one  may  be  tumea  outward 

311  VOL.  VII. — i 


and  the  other  inward  when  the  axes  of  the 
eyes  are  turned  toward  an  object  on  either  side 
of  the  head.  The  muscles  of  the  eyeball  are 
moved  principally  through  the  third  pair  of 
nerves,  the  motored  oeulorum^  but  the  superior 
oblique  has  a  special  nerve,  the  fourth  pair, 
and  the  external  recti  the  sixth  pair ;  the  sen- 
sibility of  the  eye  is  derived  from  the  ophthal- 
mic branch  of  the  fifth  pair;  by  the  ophthal- 
mic or  ciliary  ganglion  the  sensory  branches 
of  the  fifth  pair,  the  motor  branches  of  the 
third  pair,  and  the  sympathetic  filaments  are 
united  together.  The  vascular  supply  of  the 
globe  of  the  eye  is  derived  from  the  ophthalmic 
branch  of  the  internal  carotid  artery. — The 
complicated  eye  of  the  mammal  and  bird  be- 
comes more  simple  in  reptiles  and  fishes,  losing 
the  eyelids,  and  in  the  articulates  generally 
losing  all  that  is  anterior  to  the  vertebrate 
crystalline  lens,  as  well  as  mobility,  the  latter 
loss  being  supplied  by  the  multiplication  of  the 
organs  or  facets.  The  mammalian  eye  is  con- 
structed to  suit  the  circumstances  of  the  life 
of  the  animal ;  of  large  size  in  ruminants  and 
rodents,  it  is  small  in  moles,  bats,  and  ceta- 
ceans, and  in  the  latter  flattened  anteriorly  as 
in  fishes.  The  eyes  are  generally  placed  later- 
ally, but  in  the  nocturnal  species  they  are  di- 
rected forward  as  in  man ;  the  lachrymal  ca- 
runcle at  the  inner  angle  has  in  man  only  a 
rudiment  of  a  nictitating  membrane,  which  is 
more  developed  in  some  mammals,  but  re- 
markably in  birds ;  the  sclerotic  is  thicker  in 
animals  whose  eyes  vary  much  from  a  sphere,, 
especially  posteriorly,  this  membrane  in  a 
whale  with  an  eye  of  the  size  of  an  orange 
being  an  inch  thick  behind ;  the  choroid,  dark 
in  man,  in  the  oamivora,  ruminants,  and  other 
orders,  reflects  vivid  metallic  colors,  remark- 
ably brilliant  at  night,  from  the  depth  of  the 
organ.  In  animals  and  man  destitute  of  the 
usual  coloring  mutter  of  the  surface,  or  in  albi- 
nos, the  iris  is  pink,  from  the  color  of  the  blood 
circulating  in  its  vessels;  during  foetal  life, 
until  the  end  of  the  seventh  month,  the  pupil 
is  closed  by  a  membrane.  The  foramen  of 
Sdmmering  is  said  not  to  exist  in  any  mam- 
mals below  the  quadrumana ;  the  tear  gland 
is  found  in  all  except  oetacea.  In  birds  the 
sclerotic  becomes  more  or  less  strengthened 
by  cartilage,  and  in  the  neighborhood  of  the 
cornea  is  provided  with  a  series  of  bony  plates, 
arranged  in  a  circle,  and  overlapping  each 
other ;  but  the  chief  peculiarity  consists  in  the 
pscten^  folded  like  a  comb  or  fan,  and  projected 
forward  toward  the  lens;  it  is  vascular  like 
the  choroid,  though  not  connected  with  it,  and 
is  dark  with  pigment ;  its  use  is  not  satisfac- 
torily ascertained.  Many  species  of  reptiles 
have  osseous  pieces  in  the  sclerotic ;  snakes 
have  no  movable  lids;  the  chameleon  has  a 
single  circular  lid.  In  fishes  the  eyes  are  gen- 
erally large,  the  sclerotic  thick,  and  in  some 
(as  the  tunny)  osseous  anteriorly;  they  have 
neither  lids,  except  the  most  rudimentary,  nor 
lachrymal  glands ;  the  cornea  is  very  flat,  and 


48 


EYE 


EYLAU 


the  lens  dense;  aronnd  the  entrance  of  the 
optic  nerve  there  is  a  very  vascular,  horse- 
shoe-shaped organ,  between  the  layers  of  the 
choroid,  called  the  choroid  gland  or  muscle. 
The  organs  of  vision  in  insects  consist  of  sim- 
ple or  of  compound  eyes,  the  former  occurring 
chiefly  in  larv»,  the  latter  in  perfect  insects ; 
they  are  vrholly  absent  in  some  larvse,  and 
both  forms  coexist  in  the  perfect  state  of  many. 
The  simple  eyes  (oeeUi  or  ttemmata)  consist 
of  a  convex  cornea,  behind  which  is  a  lens, 
lodged  in  an  expansion  of  the  optic  nerve,  and 
surrounded  by  a  variously  colored  pigment 
layer ;  they  vary  in  number  from  two  to  more 
than  100,  and  are  situated  on  the  head.  The 
compound  eyes  are  made  up  of  simple  eyes  so 
closely  placed  that  their  facets  or  comeso  are 
contiguous ;  behind  each  cornea  is  a  transpa- 
rent pyramid  whose  interior  apex  is  received 
into  a  kind  of  vitreous  body,  surrounded  by  the 
nerve  and  the  choroid;  there  are  sometimes 
many  thousand  facets  in  these  eyes,  which 
may  cover  nearly  the  whole  head,  and  hairs 
may  project  at  their  angles.  In  the  arachnids 
the  eyes  are  simple,  and  the  orders  have  been 
characterized  by  their  number,  situation,  and 
direction ;  they  are  most  numerous  in  the 
scorpions.  The  sense  of  sight  is  present  in 
almost  all  Crustacea ;  their  simple  eyes  consist 
of  a  cornea  with  a  lens  and  pigment  layer ;  a 
usual  form  is  that  of  many  simple  eyes,  placed 
close  together,  and  covered  by  a  common  cor- 
nea; sometimes  there  is  a  faceted  cornea  un- 
der the  simple  one;  the  highest  forms  have 
compound  faceted  eyes,  in  many  situated  at 
or  near  the  end  of  two  peduncles  movably  ar- 
ticulated to  the  cephalo-thorax  and  concealed 
in  special  fosssB ;  these  facets  are  very  numer- 
ous, and  behind  each  is  the  usual  lens  and  pig- 
ment. The  eyes  of  cephalopods  are  very  large 
and  highly  developed,  resembling  in  some  re- 
spects the  vertebrate  organ ;  there  is  generally 
an  ocular  bulb,  and  a  capsule  constituted  by  a 
cartilaginous  orbit  and  a  fibrous  continuation 
of  the  cutaneous  envelope,  which  takes  the 
place  of  a  cornea ;  semi-lunar  folds  containing 
muscular  fibres  cover  the  eye  like  lids ;  in 
front  of  the  globe  is  a  space  analogous  to  an 
anterior  chamber,  containing  a  serous  fluid, 
and  in  the  octopods  communicating  external- 
ly ;  internally  this  chamber  is  closed  by  a  kind 
of  pupil ;  its  serous  membrane  has  a  silvery 
lustre;  in  some  species  the  lens  is  in  direct 
contact  with  the  water  in  which  they  swim ; 
there  is  an  iris,  sclerotic,  vitreous  liquid,  a 
spherical  brownish  lens  formed  of  concentric 
layers,  a  ciliary  body,  and  pigment  layer ;  in 
the  nautilus  the  eyes  are  placed  on  a  project- 
ing stalk,  but  in  others  are  generally  deeply 
sunk  in  the  head.  In  the  cephalophora  (in- 
jcluding  pteropoda,  heteropoda,  and  gasteropo- 
dous  mollusks)  eyes  are  generally  present, 
never  more  than  two  in  number  and  compara- 
tively small ;  they  are  almost  always  connected 
with  the  tentacles,  either  at  their  base,  sides, 
or  extremities.    In  acephalous  molluaks  eyes 


are  very  common  and  numerous,  occupying 
the  borders  of  the  mantle  or  confined  to  the 
orifices  of  the  tubes,  and  are  either  peduncu- 
lated or  sessile.  In  the  annelids  the  eyes  are 
generally  either  wanting  entirely,  or  are  mere- 
ly able  to  distinguish  light  from  darkness ;  but 
the  leeches  have  from  two  to  ten  undoubted 
eyes.  In  the  helminths  there  appear  to  be  no 
eyes,  only  pigment  spots  containing  no  light- 
refracting  body.  Below  these  are  found  in 
the  radiata  various  eye  specks  and  pigment  dots 
which  doubtless  in  some  cases  are  true  eyee, 
but  authors  are  not  yet  agreed  as  to  the  light- 
refracting  powers  of  most  of  these  organs. 
The  eye  of  the  blind  fish  of  the  Mammoth 
cave,  Kentucky,  though  unable  to  form  a  dis- 
tinct image,  can  doubtless  distinguish  light 
from  darkness  through  the  areolar  tissue  and 
skin  which  cover  it ;  Prof.  J.  'Wyman  has 
found  in  it  a  lens,  sclerotic,  choroid,  retina, 
and  optic  nerve,  and  it  is  therefore  constructed 
on  the  vertebrate  plan,  rather  than  the  inverte- 
brate to  which  it  has  generally  been  compared ; 
the  parts  in  connection  with  the  nervous  sys- 
tem are  developed,  while  those  which  are 
formed  by  inversion  of  the  integuments  are 
mostly  absent ;  some  authors  are  of  opinion 
that  the  stimulus  of  light  for  several  genera- 
tions would  retransform  this  eye  into  an  or- 
dinary organ  of  vision. 

EYE  STONE,  the  operculum  or  calcareous 
mouthpiece  of  certain  species  of  small  univalve 
shells.  The  stony-like  substance,  one  third  of 
an  inch  or  less  in  its  largest  dimensions,  pre- 
sents a  form  like  that  of  a  turtle,  a  convex  sur- 
face upon  a  plane  base ;  and  being  placed  on  a 
smooth  plate  in  a  weak  acid,  as  lemon  juice, 
the  evolution  of  carbonic  acid  gas  from  the 
carbonate  of  lime  of  which  it  is  composed 
lifts  it  up  and  causes  the  stone  to  move  about 
as  if  alive.  A  similar  efiTect  resulting  from 
chemical  decomposition  is  sometimes  observed 
in  animal  bodies ;  and  loaves  of  bread,  Huna- 
boldt  remarks,  have  been  observed  to  move  in 
like  manner  in  the  oven,  whence  the  ovens 
have  been  called  enchanted.  He  found  the 
little  opercula,  called  piedrat  de  los  cjoty  or 
eye  stones,  regarded  as  great  mysteries  by  the 
inhabitants  of  the  coast  of  Venezuela  near  Cu- 
mand.  They  collected  them  in  great  quanti- 
ties on  the  beach  at  Cape  Araya,  and  made 
use  of  them  to  extract  dust  or  any  foreign 
substance  from  the  eye,  a  purpose  for  which 
they  are  still  collected  and  exported,  and  are 
kept  by  druggists.  Being  introduced  under 
the  lid  of  the  eye,  the  stone  moves  about  by 
the  motion  of  the  organ,  and  any  little  parti- 
cles it  comes  in  contact  with  adhere  to  it  and 
are  finally  removed  with  it. 

ETLAU,  or  EUai,  a  town  of  Prussia,  province 
of  East  Prussia,  in  the  district  and  22  m.  S.  S.  E. 
of  the  city  of  EOnigsberg ;  pop.  in  1871,  8,728. 
It  is  situated  on  the  Pasmar,  a  small  tributary 
of  the  Alle,  contains  an  old  castle,  and  has 
manufactories  of  cloth,  hats,  and  leather.  Here 
on  Feb.  7  and  8,  1807,  was  fought  a  battle 


EZEKIEL 


EZZELmO 


49 


between  the  French  under  Napoleon,  85,000 
strong  with  350  guns,  and  the  Russians  and 
Prussians,  75,000  strong  with  460  guns.  The 
total  number  of  killed  and  wounded  was  near- 
ly 40,000,  and  both  sides  claimed  the  victory. 
In  this  battle  Napoleon  was  nearly  made  pris- 
oner, but  was  saved  by  his  own  presence  of 
mind  and  the  heroism  of  his  little  body  guard 
of  100  men. — This  town  is  called  Preussisch 
Eylan,  to  distinguish  it  from  Deutsch  Eylau,  a 
smaJl  town  of  West  Prussia,  in  the  district  of 
Marienwerder,  70  m.  S.  S.  W.  of  the  former,  at 
the  S.  extremity  of  Lake  Geserich. 

EZEKIEL,  the  third  of  the  great  Hebrew 
prophets,  and  contemporary  with  Jeremiah 
and  Daniel,  lived  in  the  7th  and  6th  centuries 
B.  0.  He  was  still  young  when  he  went  into 
captivity,  following  King  Jehoiachin  to  Baby- 
loo.  There,  on  the  banks  of  the  Ohebar,  sup- 
posed to  be  the  Ohaboras  in  Mesopotamia,  in 
the  fifth  year  of  his  exile,  he  began  his  pro- 
phetic career,  declaring  to  his  fellow  exiles  the 
misfortunes  which  were  besetting  and  threat- 
ening Jerusalem  and  the  coimtry  of  Judah. 
In  the  25th  year  of  his  exile  he  described  the 
new  temple  which  was  to  rise  in  Jerusalem 
after  the  redemption  of  his  people.  This  is 
one  of  the  last  prophecies  remaining  from  him, 
and  thero  is  no  account  of  him  beyond  the  27th 
year  of  the  captivity  of  Jehoiachin.  Accord- 
ing to  a  doubtful  tradition,  he  was  assassinated 
br  one  of  the  exiled  princes,  and  during  the 
middle  ages  his  tomb  was  pointed  out  between 
the  Euphrates  and  the  Chebar.  His  book, 
which  abounds  in  visions,  poetical  images,  and 
allegories,  is  divided  into  three  parts :  the  first 
(ch.  i.  to  xxiv.)  was  written  before  the  de- 
struction of  Jerusalem ;  the  second  (ch.  xxv.  to 
xxxii.)  contains  prophecies  against  foreign  na- 
tions ;  the  third  (xxxii.  to  xlviii.)  foretells  the 
resurrection  of  Israel  and  the  erection  of  the 
new  temple.  The  genuineness  of  the  book  has 
never  been  doubted ;  but  our  present  Hebrew 
text  is  among  the  most  corrupt  of  the  books  of 
the  Old  Testament.  The  best  commentaries 
are  those  of  Umbreit  (1848),  H&vemick  (1843), 
Hitzig  (1847),  and  Ewald  (2d  ed.,  1868). 

EZRA,  a  Jewish  scribe  and  priest,  accord- 
ing to  Joaephus,  high  pnest  of  the  Jews  in 
Babylon.  Under  his  guidance,  the  second  ex- 
pedition of  the  Jews  proceeded  from  Babylon 
to  Palestine,  under  the  reign  of  Artaxerxes 
L,  about  458  B.  0.  The  important  services 
rendered  by  Ezra  to  his  countrymen  on  that 
occasion,  and  also  in  arranging  and  settling  the 
canon  of  Scripture,  are  specially  acknowledged 
by  the  Jews,  so  that  he  is  even  regarded  as  the 
second  founder  of  the  nation.  Josephus  says 
that  Ezra  died  at  Jerusalem,  and  was  buried 
there  with  great  magnificence  ;  according  to 
others,  he  returned  to  Babylon  and  died  there, 
at  the  age  of  120.  Ezra  is  said  by  some  of  the 
rabbis  to  have  introduced  the  present  square 
Hebrew  charaotera,  and,  in  conjunction  with 
some  of  the  elders,  to  have  made  the  Masora, 
the  punctuation  and  accentuation  of  the  Bible. 


Besides  the  book  of  Ezra,  he  was  supposed  to 
be  the  author  of  the  two  books  of  Chronicles, 
and  some  writers  attribute  to  him  also  the 
books  of  Nehemiah  and  Esther,  though  they 
differ  in  style  from  his  acknowledged  writings. 
— The  book  of  Ezra  contains  an  account  of  the 
favors  bestowed  upon  the  Jews  by  the  Persian 
kings,  the  rebuilding  of  the  temple,  the  mission 
of  Ezra  to  Jerusalem,  and  the  various  regula- 
tions and  reforms  introduced  by  him.  The  the- 
ologians of  the  liberal  school  generally  attribute 
the  last  revision  of  the  book  to  a  later  hand 
than  that  of  Ezra.  Bertheau  (in  Schenkers 
BibeUexicon,  1868)  puts  the  date  of  the  last  re- 
yision  about  800  B.  0. ;  others,  after  the  exam- 
ple of  Spinoza,  in  the  time  of  the  Maccabees. 
Parts  of  the  book  are  written  in  Ghaldee  (iv. 
8  to  vi.  18,  and  vii.  12  to  26).  For  a  full  dis- 
cussion of  the  questions  relating  to  the  book  of 
Ezra,  see  the  introductions  of  Berthold,  De 
Wette,  Keil,  and  H&vemick,  and  the  commen- 
tary of  Bertheau  (1862). — ^In  ancient  manu- 
scripts there  are  four  books  of  Ezra,  viz.,  the 
one  just  spoken  of,  the  book  of  Nehemiah,  and 
the  two  books  which  in  the  English  version 
are  called  Ist  and  2d  Esdras,  and  placed  among 
the  apocryphal  books.    (See  Esdras.) 

EZZELINO  (or  EcceHae)  DA  ROMANO,  a  leader 
of  the  Ghibellines  in  Italy,  bom  at  Onaro,  April 
26,  1194,  died  at  Soncino,  Sept.  26, 1269.  He 
belonged  to  a  Oerraan  family  which  in  the  11th 
century  had  acquired  large  feudal  possessions 
in  Lombardy,  and  whose  principal  seat  was 
the  castle  of  Romano  near  Padua.  He  was  the 
fourth  of  his  name,  and  is  known  in  history  as 
Ezzelino  the  Tyrant.  From  his  youth  he  en- 
tered into  the  quarrels  of  the  time,  and  war 
having  become  general  in  Lombardy,  he  re- 
mained faithful  to  the  emperor  Frederick  II. 
His  lands  being  ravaged  by  the  Guelphs,  he  in- 
vited the  help  of  the  emperor,  who  relieved 
him  and  gained  notewortny  advantages.  In 
1286  Ezzelino,  with  his  brother  Alberic,  gained 
possession  of  Verona  and  Yicenza,  and  he  be- 
came podestaof  Verona,  and  his  brother  of  Vi- 
cenza.  In  February,  1237,  after  the  return  of 
the  emperor  to  Germany,  he  took  Padua.  He 
subsequently  captured  Treviso,  and  imprisoned 
many  eminent  people  on  suspicion  of  disaffec- 
tion to  him ;  and  from  this  time  his  oppression 
and  cruelty  became  conspicuous.  The  em- 
peror returned  with  reinforcements,  and  they 
gained  the  victory  of  Cortenuova,  Nov.  27, 
1287.  The  following  spring  he  married  a 
natural  daughter  of  Frederick.  In  1239  he 
was  excommunicated  by  the  pope.  In  1240 
he  was  intrusted  with  the  conduct  of  the  war 
in  Lombardy,  and  lost  Ferrara ;  but  in  1246  he 
repulsed  the  marquis  of  Este,  and  subsequent- 
ly he  took  Verona,  Feltre,  Belluno,  and  even 
Este.  By  1250,  when  the  emperor  died,  he 
had  extended  his  control  from  the  Adriatic  to 
the  suburbs  of  Milan.  A  league  was  formed 
against  him  in  1262  by  most  of  the  Lombard 
cities,  the  marquis  of  Este,  and  others,  inclu- 
ding his  own  brother  Alberic,  and  in  1266  a 


60 


FABER 


ornsade  was  proclaimed  agunst  Lim ;  bnt  he 
still  saocessfxilly  resisted  all  combinations,  and 
in  the  latter  year  he  besieged  Mantaa.  A  new 
league  being  formed  against  him,  which  was 
joined  bj  Venice,  the  allies  invested  and  cap- 
tured Padna,  which  was  held  by  his  nephew 
Ansedisio.  But  Ezzelino  defeated  the  army  of 
the  league  near  Brescia,  and  captured  that  city 


Sept.  1,  1258.  In  1269  he  threatened  Milan, 
but  it  was  saved  by  Martin  della  Torre ;  and 
Ezzelino^s  retreat  being  cut  off,  he  was  forced 
into  a  battle  near  Soncino,  in  which  he  was 
severely  wounded  and  captured  (Sept.  16),  and 
his  army  dispersed.  He  refused  food,  tore  the 
bandages  from  his  wounds,  and  died  without 
reconciliation  to  the  church. 


F 


F 


THE  6th  letter  of  the  English  and  Latin, 
^  the  20th  of  the  Arabic,  and  the  23d  of 
the  Persian  alphabet,  indicates  a  labiordental 
sound,  produced  by  the  passage  of  the  expired 
air  between  the  lower  lip  and  the  upper  in- 
cisive teeth,  while  the  glottis  and  larynx  are 
almost  at  rest.  Quintilian  calls  this  sound 
**  scarcely  human,^'  since  it  is  a  mere  afflatus, 
and  is  wrongly  placed  among  the  semi- vocals. 
Its  sonorous  parallel  is  the  softer  sound  of  V 
(as  in  English),  in  producing  which  the  glottis 
and  larynx  are  engaged.  F  is  represented  in 
ancient  Greek  both  by  the  ^  (ph)  and  the  di- 
gamroa,  in  corresponding  words ;  but  the  sound 
of  the  former  was  less  harsh  and  rather  as- 
pirated than  blowing  (efflatua),  and  the  latter 
sounded  almost  like  our  V.  The  figure  of  the 
Latin  F  arose  from  the  doubling  of  the  Greek 
r.  The  emperor  Claudius  is  reported  to  have 
used  it  inverted  (A)  to  represent  V.  As  a 
numeral  sign  for  6,  the  stigma  was  employed 
by  the  Alexandrines,  as  one  of  the  three  eirltnffta, 
instead  of  this  digamma,  which  is  named  pav 
or  van.  The  shape  of  the  stigma  (r)  is  an  in- 
verted Oscic  and  Umbric  F  (D ).  We  find  the 
prototype  of  our  cursive  /  on  ancient  Hebrew 
coins;  but  in  the  present  so-called  Hebrew,  as 
in  the  Syriac,  Sabieic,  Palmy renic,  and  some 
other  kindred  writings,  the  vau  takes  the  place 
of  F,  and  indicates  tiie  sounds  of  v  and  u,  F 
occurs  in  the  same  place  also  on  the  Idalian 
tablet  of  Cyprus,  in  Lycian,  also  in  Tuarik 
(Berber),  and  in  some  other  writings.  In  the 
Cyrillic  alphabet  the  phsrt  and  phie  (^)  corre- 
spond to  it  as  the  27th  letter,  in  Glagolitic  as 
the  2dd,  and  in  Russian  as  the  27th.  F  is  the 
first  rune,  and  it  is  represented  hieroglyph- 
ically  by  a  homed  snake.  It  is  often  vica- 
riously converted  into  other  letters  or  sounds, 
especially  into  labials,  as  in  the  following  exam- 
ples: \jIbX,  frater^  frango^  fagu9^  Eng,  hroiher^ 
hreak,  heeeh  ;  Lat.  pes^  ptignarey  porculus,  Eng. 
/oot^  fight,  Ger.  Ferhel ;  Lat.  ferrum,  JUi- 
1M,  folium,  fugere,  formo%u$^  fdbulari,  famesy 
furari,  Span,  (since  the  14th  century)  hierrOy 
hijo,  hofo,  huir,  hermoso,  hdhlar,  Kambre^  Kur- 
tar.  The  Greek  ^  the  Italians,  Spaniards, 
and  Portuguese  uniformly  replace  by  /.  F 
sometunee  also  interchanges  with  gutturals,  as 
G^rm.  Schaeht,  Eng.  ahftft ;  Dutch  aehter,  Eng. 
after ;  Germ,  krieehen,  Eng.  creep  and  crafty. 
In  English  and  French  it  alternates  with  « 


in  grammatical  forms,  as  ti^,  mtee;  natif, 
native.  The  Greek  6  sometimes  becomes  /, 
as  TheodoroSj  Russ.  Fedor;  Bipa,  6kpa,  Lat. 
foreSy  fera.  Very  peculiar  are  the  transforma- 
tions of  the  Latin  fl  (also  pC)  into  Spanish  II 
and  Portuguese  ch  ;  as  fLamma,  Span.  llamcL, 
Port,  chamma,  &c.  The  Devanagari,  and 
most  graphic  systems  of  eastern  Asia  derived 
from  it,  have  no  F.  The  sound  exists  in  the 
Chinese  and  Japanese  languages.  Most  Amer- 
ican languages  are  guttural,  and  lack  among 
others  the  sound  of  f — ^As  a  numeral  in  the 
middle  ages,  F  was  equivalent  to  40,  and  f  to 
40,000.  It  signifies  60  in  Arabic,  and  10,000 
in  Armenian.  Its  substitute  ph  stands  for  500 
in  Russian  and  Georgian ;  while  the  Phcenician, 
Chaldaic,  and  Syriac  vau  designated  6.  As  an 
abbreviation,  F  stands  tovfiliue,  fecit.  Flavins, 
Fahrenheit;  for  forte  in  music,  and  ff  for 
fortissimo,  F  is  marked  on  the  French  coins 
of  Angers,  on  the  Prussian  of  Magdeburg,  and 
on  the  Austrian  of  Hall  in  the  Tyrol.  In  music, 
it  denotes  the  fourth  diatonic  interval,  or  the 
sixth  string  on  the  piano  in  the  chromatic 
scale,  and  is  called /a  in  the  solfeggio. 

FABEB,  Frederiek  Wililaa,  an  English  clergy, 
man  and  author,  bom  June  28, 1814,  died  Sept. 
26,  1868.  He  was  educated  at  Oxford,  and 
became  rector  of  Elton  in  Northamptonshire, 
which  office  he  filled  until  his  conversion  to 
the  Roman  Catholic  faith,  which  was  formally 
consummated  Nov.  17,  1845.  His  published 
writings  up  to  that  time  were  as  follows: 
"  Tracts  on  the  Church  and  the  Prayer  Book  " 
(1839);  "  A  Sermon  on  Education  "  (1840); 
"  The  Cherwell  Water  Lily  and  other  Poems  " 
(1 840) ;  "  The  Styrian  Lake  and  other  Poems  " 
(1842);  ''Sights  and  Thoughts  in  Foreign 
Churches"  (1842);  "  Sir  Lancelot,  a  Poem" 
(1844) ;  "  The  Rosary  and  other  Poems  "  (1845) ; 
and  several  papers  in  the  ''  lives  of  the  English 
Saints,"  edited  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  Newman.  Dr. 
Faberwas  ordained  priest  in  1847,  Joined  Dr. 
Newman,  who  had  just  transplanted  the  Ora- 
tory of  St  Philip  Neri  to  England,  in  1848 
received  the  habit  of  that  congregation,  and 
became  distinguished  as  an  earnest  and  eloquent 
preacher.  His  published  writings  after  his 
conversion  are  as  follows :  ''  Catholic  Hymns," 
and  an  '*  Ess^  on  Beatification  and  Canoniza- 
tion "  (1848) ;  "  The  Spirit  and  Genius  of  St. 
Philip  Neri "  (1850) ;  **  Catholic  Home  Mis- 


FABER 


FABIUS 


51 


« 


wons"  (1851);  "AU  for  Jesus"  (1854); 
''Groirth  in  HoIiDess"  (1855) ;  ''  The  Blessed 
Sacrament"  (1866);  "The  Creator  and  the 
Creature  "  (1857) ;  "  The  Foot  of  the  Cross,  or 
the  Sorrows  of  Mary,"  "  Sir  Lancelot "  (being 
his  former  poem  rewritten),  and  "  EthePs  Story 
Book  "  (1858) ;  and  "  Spiritual  Conferences  " 
(1859).  Several  years  before  his  death  he  be- 
came superior  of  the  Oratory  at  Brompton. 
—See  Bowden's  **  Life  of  F.  W.  Faber  "  (1869). 

FABEB,  Gtni^  Staitoy,  an  English  theological 
writer,  ancle  of  the  preceding,  born  Oct.  25, 
1773,  died  near  Durham,  Jan.  27,  1854.  He 
studied  at  the  university  of  Oxford,  where  he 
became  a  fellow  and  tutor  of  Lincoln  college, 
was  appointed  Bampton  lecturer  in  1801,  and 
in  the  same  year  published  his  discourses  under 
the  title  of  Hora  Mosaics  (2d  ed.  enlarged, 
1818).  He  took  the  degree  of  B.B.  in  1803, 
married,  gave  up  his  fellowship,  and  for  two 
years  assisted  his  father,  the  rector  of  Calver- 
ley  in  York,  as  curate.  He  subsequently  oo- 
capied  various  vicarages,  in  1831  was  made 
prebendary  of  Salisbury,  and  in  1832  appoint- 
ed master  of  Sherburn  hospital.  He  wrote  a 
large  number  of  works,  roost  of  which,  par- 
ticularly those  on  prophecy,  in  wliich  he  holds 
that  the  inspired  predictions  apply  not  to  in- 
dividuals but  to  governments  and  nations,  have 
had  a  wide  popularity.  Among  the  most  im- 
portant are :  ^^  Dissertation  on  the  Mysteries 
of  the  Cabiri,  or  the  Great  Gods  of  Phoenicia  " 
(2  vols.  8vo,  Oxford,  1803) ;  "  The  Origin  of 
Pagan  Idolatry"  (8  vols.  8vo,  1816);  "Diffi- 
culties of  Romanism"  (8vo,  1826);  "The 
Sacred  Calendar  of  Prophecy  "  (3  vols..  1828) ; 
" Papal  Infallibility "  (8vo,  1851);  and  "The 
Revival  of  the  French  Emperorship  antici- 
pated from  the  Necessity  of  Prophecy  "  (12mo, 
1853 ;  New  York,  1869). 

FABIVSy  the  name  of  an  ancient  Roman  gens, 
which  claimed  to  be  descended  from  Hercules 
and  the  daughter  of  the  Arcadian  Evander. 
Of  the  various  families  which  belonged  to  the 
geru  Fahia^  the  most  ancient  was  that  of  the 
Vibolani,  three  brothers  of  which  were  consuls 
for  seven  years  in  succession  (485-479  B.  C). 
These  brothers  rendered  themselves  odious 
to  the  common  soldiers  by  refusing  to  divide 
among  them  the  booty  gained  in  war,  and  by 
their  opposition  to  the  agrarian  law,  but  after- 
ward became  popular  by  their  courage  in  a 
battle  fought  with  the  Veientes  in  the  consul- 
ebip  of  Marcus  Fabius,  in  480.  In  this  bat- 
tle Quintus  Fabius  was  killed,  and  his  brothers 
Marcus  the  consul  and  Csbso  were  foremost  in 
the  fight  The  soldiers  bravely  supported  them, 
and  after  the  battle  the  Fabii  espoused  the 
eaase  of  the  plebeians  and  were  regarded  by 
the  patricians  as  apostates.  They  gained  high 
honor  by  offering  to  undertake  alone  the  war 
against  the  Veientes.  The  whole  family,  with 
the  exception  of  a  single  member,  to  the  num- 
ber of  more  than  800,  left  Rome  with  their 
followers,  fortified  themselves  upon  the  banks 
of  the  Cremera,  and  prosecuted  the  war  with 


great  energy.  But  in  the  consulship  of  Hora- 
tins  (477)  Pulvillus  and  T.  Menenius  Lanatus 
they  were  all,  after  heroic  resistance,  over- 
whelmed and  destroyed.  The  only  member  of 
the  family  who  survived  was  Quintus,  son 
of  Marcus,  who  had  remained  at  Rome,  and 
from  him  were  descended  the  Fabii  who  after- 
ward became  famous  in  Roman  history.  Among 
them,  Quintus  Fabius  Rullianus  is  commonly 
considered  the  first  who  had  the  cognomen 
Maximus.  In  325,  as  master  of  the  horse, 
he  gave  battle  to  the  Samnites,  contrary  to 
the  express  orders  of  the  dictator  L.  Papirius 
Cursor,  and  obtained  a  signal  victory.  After 
other  brilliant  victories,  in  295,  being  consul 
for  the  fifth  time,  he  was  in  command  at 
the  great  battle  of  Sentinum,  and  defeated 
the  combined  armies  of  the  Samnites,  Gauls, 
Etruscans,  and  Umbrians.  He  is  reputed 
among  the  most  eminent  of  the  Roman  gen- 
erals, but  the  principal  authorities  in  regard 
to  this  period  belonged  to  the  Fabian  house, 
and  it  is  probable  tliat  his  military  achieve- 
ments have  been  much  exaggerated. — Accord- 
ing to  Poly  bins,  it  was  not  Q.  Fabius  Rul- 
lianus upon  whom  the  cognomen  of  Maximus 
was  origmally  conferred,  but  his  great-grand- 
son,  Quintus  Fabius  Maximus  Verrucosus,  who 
by  his  prudent  generalship  in  the  second  Punic 
war  saved  the  Roman  commonwealth  from 
impending  ruin.  Having  been  appointed  pro- 
dictator  after  the  defeat  of  Lake  Thrasyme- 
nus,  in  217,  he  perceived  that  it  was  impos- 
sible with  raw  and  disheartened  troops  to 
oppose  successfully  a  veteran  army  flushed 
with  victory.  He  therefore  avoided  pitched 
battles  and  moved  his  camp  from  highland  to 
highland,  where  HannibaPs  Numidian  horse 
and  Spanisli  infantry  could  not  follow  him.  He 
thus  tired  them  out  with  marches  and  counter- 
marches. This  policy  gained  for  him  the  title 
of  Cunetator^  delayer.  It  was  admirably  suited 
to  the  position  of  affairs,  but  the  Roman  senate 
and  people  were  impatient  under  it,  and  divided 
the  command  between  Fabius  and  Minucius,  his 
master  of  the  horse.  Minucius  made  a  rash 
advance,  was  surrounded  by  the  enemy,  and 
would  have  been  destroyed  had  he  not  been 
rescued  by  Fabius.  Varro,  one  of  the  consuls 
who  assumed  the  command  aft«r  the  expiration 
of  Fabius^s  dictatorship,  disregarded  his  coun- 
sels and  suffered  a  severe  defeat  at  Cannss  (216). 
After  this  Fabius  suggested  the  measures  of 
defence  which  were  adopted  by  the  senate. 
He  was  made  consul  for  the  fifth  time  in  209, 
and  became  prineepB  senatuB,  During  this  year 
he  inflicted  a  severe  blow  upon  the  Carthagin- 
ians by  the  recapture  of  Tarentum.  Toward 
the  end  of  the  war  the  more  energetic  plan  of 
action  proposed  by  Scipio  prevailed  over  the 
advice  of  Fabius.  He  died  at  an  advanced  age 
in  208,  when  Hannibal  was  about  leaving  Italy. 
— Cains  Fabius  Pictor  painted  a  battle  piece 
for  the  temple  of  Salus  which  was  dedicated  in 
302  B.  C,  the  earliest  Roman  painting  of  which 
there  is  any  record.    It  was  preserved  till  th« 


62 


FABRE 


FABKICIUS 


time  of  the  emperor  Claudius,  when  the  temple 
was  destroyed  by  fire. — His  son  Numerius  Fa- 
bius  Pictor  is  mentioned  by  Cicero  as  an  an- 
thor  of  Greek  annals,  but  was  possibly  mista- 
ken for  his  nephew  (a  grandson  of  the  painter), 
Quintus  Fabius  Pictor,  the  first  prose  writer  of 
Rome,  who  served  in  the  Gallic  war,  225  6.  C, 
and  in  the  second  Punic  war.  He  was  the  au- 
thor of  a  history  of  Rome  from  its  foundation 
to  his  own  time.  Of  this  work,  probably  writ- 
ten in  Greek,  which  was  highly  valued  by  later 
writers,  no  fragments  remain. 

FABRE,  FnuDLfnis  Xavier  Paseal,  a  French 
painter,  bom  in  Montpellier,  April  1,  1766, 
died  March  12,  1887.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Da- 
vid, and  produced  in  1787  a  painting  repre- 
senting the  ^*  Execution  of  the  Children  of 
Zedekiah  by  order  of  Nebuchadnezzar,"  for 
which  he  received  the  great  prize  of  the  acad- 
emy, and  was  sent  as  a  pensionary  to  Rome. 
He  was  believed,  though  perhaps  erroneously, 
to  have  been  secretly  married  to  the  countess 
of  Albany,  who  on  her  death  in  1824  made 
him  her  sole  heir,  and  bequeathed  to  him  valu- 
able MSS.  which  had  been  left  to  her  by  Alfi- 
eri.    Fabre  gave  them  to  the  city  of  Florence. 

FABRE,  Jeaa,  sumamed  ^^the  honest  crimi- 
nal," a  Protestant  hero,  bom  in  Nimes  in  1727, 
died  in  Cette,  May  81,  1797.  He  was  a  manu- 
facturer and  a  member  of  the  small  Protestant 
community  at  Ntmes.  He  and  his  coreligion- 
ists celebrated  the  new  year  of  1766  in  a  seclu- 
ded locality,  where  they  were  surprised  by  the 
soldiery,  but  he  escaped.  His  father,  however, 
having  been  arrested,  Jean  took  his  place  as  a 
prisoner  in  the  galleys  of  Toulon,  and  was  sub- 
jected to  great  hardships.  His  release  in  1762, 
and  his  full  pardon  in  1768,  were  mainly  due 
to  a  play  by  Fenouillot  de  Falbaire,  Vhonnite 
eriminelf  of  which  he  is  the  hero.  His  auto- 
biography, completed  by  his  son,  was  pub- 
lished with  a  biographical  notice  by  Athanase 
Coquerel^^s  in  the  Bulletin  de  la  tocieti  de 
rhistoire  du  protestantisme  franpau  (Paris, 
January  to  April,  1866). 

FABRE  D'fiGLABrriNE,  Philippe  Fnnfois  Nazidre, 
a  French  revolutionist  and  author,  bora  in 
Languedoc,  Dec.  28,  1766,  guillotined  in  Paris, 
April  6,  1794.  In  gratitude  for  a  wild  rose 
{eglantine)  of  gold  awarded  to  him  in  early  life 
at  the  floral  games  at  Toulouse,  he  adopted 
that  name.  He  wrote  a  variety  of  plays  for 
the  theatres  of  Pains,  a  few  of  which,  as  Le 
PhilintedeMoliire^  U intrigue  epiatolaire^  &c., 
were  favorably  received.  On  the  outbreak  of 
the  revolution  he  associated  himself  with  Dan- 
ton,  whose  secretary  he  became  in  1792.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  convention,  where  he  ad- 
Tocated  the  most  violent  measures,  but  played 
only  a  secondary  part.  He  was  accused  of  ve- 
nality, and  doomed  to  share  the  fate  of  Dan- 
ton.  While  ascending  the  guillotine  he  dis- 
tributed some  of  his  writings  among  the  popu- 
lace. One  of  his  comedies,  Les  prieepteura^ 
was  produced  for  the  first  time  five  years  after 
his  death,  and  received  with  great  applause. 


Two  volumes  of  his  writings  were  published  in 
1801  as  (Euvres  potthumes  et  mSleee, 

FABRETTl,  RallkeUe,  an  Italian  antiquary, 
bom  in  Urbino  in  1618,  died  in  Rome  in  1700. 
At  the  age  of  18  he  went  to  Rome,  where  he 
made  himself  profoundly  acquainted  with  the 
literature  and  art  of  the  ancients.  After  filling 
a  diplomatic  mission  in  Spain,  he  became 
treasurer  of  Pope  Alexander  VII.,  and  under 
tlie  three  succeeding  popes  held  various  offices 
at  Rome,  Madrid,  and  Urbino.  During  his 
18  years' residence  in  Spain  he  explored  nearly 
all  the  antiquities  of  that  kingdom.  His  first 
archsBological  works,  De  AquaductihiB  Veteris 
Roma  and  De  Columns  Trajani,  excited  a  gen- 
eral interest.  His  interpretation  of  certain  pas- 
sages of  Livy  involved  him  in  a  violent  dis- 
cussion with  Gronovius.  In  a  learned  work 
upon  ancient  inscriptions  he  made  known  the 
treasures  discovered  by  him  in  the  catacombs 
of  Rome.  His  rich  collection  of  antiquities  is 
still  in  the  ducal  palace  of  Urbino. 

FABRIANO,  a  town  of  central  Italy,  in  the 
province  and  84  m.  8.  W.  of  the  city  of  An- 
cona,  at  the  foot  of  the  Apennines;  pop.  about 
6,000.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop,  has  a  cathe- 
dral and  several  convents,  and  is  celebrated 
chiefly  for  its  paper  and  parchment.  It  is  be- 
lieved to  be  one  of  the  first  places  at  which 
paper  from  linen  rags  was  manufactured.  The 
town  also  contains  tanneries  and  powder  mills, 
and  manu&ctures  cloth  and  hats. 

FABRIANO,  Gentile  da,  an  Italian  painter  of 
the  Roman  school,  bom  at  Fabriano  about 
1870,  died  in  Rome  in  1460.  Michel  Angelo 
said  that  his  name  Gentile,  the  noble  or  deli- 
cate, was  in  harmony  with  the  character  of  his 
works.  About  1418  he  painted  in  the  cathe- 
dral of  Orvieto  a  Madonna,  which  still  exists, 
and  which  was  so  much  admired  that  the  ar- 
tist received  the  title  of  magiiter  magi»trorum. 
He  then  went  to  Venice,  where  he  obtained 
great  success,  and  was  invited  to  Rome,  where 
his  paintings  in  the  church  of  St.  John  Late- 
ran,  which  his  infirmities  did  not  permit  him 
to  finish,  made  him  esteemed  the  first  painter 
of  Italy.  His  manner  resembles  that  of  Era 
Angelico. 

FABRICIVS  (Cilu  FaMdns  LudDis),  a  Roman 
statesman,  celebrated  for  his  virtue  and  integ- 
rity. While  consul  in  282  B.  0.  he  defeated 
the  Lucanians,  Bmttians,  and  Samnites,  and 
enriched  the  public  treasury  with  more  than 
400  talents  from  the  spoils  of  the  enemy,  re- 
maining poor  himself.  In  280  he  served  as 
legate  in  the  campaign  against  Pyrrhus,  king 
of  Epirus,  to  whom  he  was  sent  at  its  close 
with  an  embassy,  to  ask  the  ransom  or  ex- 
change of  some  Roman  prisoners  of  war.  The 
meeting  of  the  envoy  and  the  king  at  Taren- 
tum  has  perhaps  been  embellished  by  the  Ro- 
man historians.  Fabricins  is  represented  to 
have  withstood  not  only  the  most  splendid 
offers  of  Pyrrhus,  who  knowing  his  poverty 
tried  to  bribe  him  into  his  service,  but  also  the 
threatening  aspect  of  an  elephant  seemingly 


FABRIOIUS 


FABYAN 


53 


let  loose  apon  him.  In  reward  of  his  integrity 
the  king  allowed  the  captives  to  go  to  Rome 
for  the  celebration  of  the  Saturnalia,  on  prom- 
ise of  returning  after  the  festival.  In  279  Fa- 
bricins  fongtit  in  the  battle  of  Asculum,  which, 
though  nominally  a  victory  for  Pyrrhus,  was 
regarded  by  him  almost  as  a  defeat.  In  the 
next  year  he  commanded  again  as  consul,  and 
exposed  to  his  enemy  the  treachery  of  his 
physician,  who  offered  to  poison  him;  upon 
which  Pyrrhus  is  said  to  have  exclaimed,  ^*  It 
is  easier  to  turn  the  sun  from  its  career  than 
Fabricius  from  his  honesty,"  and  to  have  freed 
all  his  captives  without  ransom.  When  Pyr- 
rhus evacuated  Italy,  Fabricius  was  engaged  in 
subdoing  his  allies.  As  censor  in  275  he  de- 
prived P.  Cornelius  Rufinus  of  his  seat  in  the 
senate,  for  haying  in  his  household  10  pounds 
of  silver  plate.  Like  Curius  Dentatus,  he 
spumed  the  presents  of  the  Samnite  ambas- 
sadors, and  died  so  poor  that  the  senate  had  to 
provide  marriage  portions  for  his  daughters. 
He  was  buried  within  the  walls  of  Rome,  the 
prohibitory  law  of  the  twelve  tables  having 
been  suspended  in  his  honor. 

FABRICIUS,  deorg y  a  German  scholar,  born  in 
Chemnitz,  Saxony,  April  24,  1616,  died  in 
Meissen,  July  13,  1571.  He  was  director  of 
the  college  of  Meissen.  His  edition  of  Horace 
(2  vols.,  Basel,  1555)  is  still  esteemed.  He 
▼rote  Latin  poetry  with  great  purity,  and  in 
his  sacred  poems  he  would  employ  no  words 
which  had  the  slightest  flavor  of  paganism. 
B&umgarten-Orusius  wrote  a  sketch  of  his  life 
and  writings  (Meissen,  1889). 

FABElCmS,  or  Fabrizit,  Glrotaa*,  sumamed 
from  his  birthplace  ab  Aquapendents,  an 
Italian  anatomist  and  surgeon,  born  at  Ac- 
qnapendente,  in  the  Papal  States,  in  1587,  died 
in  radna.  May  21,  1619.  A  pupil  of  Fallopius, 
he  succeeded  him  as  professor  of  anatomy  and 
surgery  at  the  university  of  Padua,  which  posi- 
tion he  held  for  50  years.  Fabricius  was  the 
first  to  demonstrate  in  1574  the  presence  of 
valvular  folds  in  all  the  veins  of  the  extremi- 
ties. William  Harvey,  who  was  his  pupil,  ac- 
knowledged himself  indebted  to  his  teachings 
for  the  discovery  of  the  circulation  of  the 
hlood.  His  writings  comprise  dissertations  on 
the  formation  of  the  foetus,  the  structure  of  the 
cesophagns,  stomach,  and  body,  and  the  pecu- 
liarities of  the  eye,  ear,  and  larynx ;  treatises 
on  the  e^  and  on  veins,  &o.  Great  honors 
vere  bestowed  on  him  by  the  Venetian  gov- 
ernment, and  a  large  anatomical  theatre  was 
eoQstrueted  for  his  accommodation.  The  first 
edition  of  his  surgical  works  appeared  at  Padua 
in  1617.    An  edition  of  his  anatomical  and 

ejrsiological  works  was  published  by  Bohn  in 
ipsic  in  1687,  followed  in  1737  by  the  more 
complete  one  of  Albinus  of  Leyden. 

FABUai»,  J«kani  Aikert,  a  German  bibli- 
ographer, bom  in  Leipsic,  Nov.  11,  1668,  died 
in  Hamburg,  April  80,  1736.  He  studied  phi- 
losophy, medicine,  and  theology,  and  in  1699 
was  appointed  professor  of  rhetoric  and  moral 


philosophy  in  the  gymnasium  of  Hamburg. 
The  extent  of  his  learning  in  almost  every  de- 
partment of  knowledge,  especially  in  philology, 
was  remarkable.  His  most  celebrated  works 
are :  Bihliotheea  Latina  (Hamburg,  1697 ;  5th 
ed.,  3  vols.,  1721 ;  new  ed.  by  Ernesti,  3  vols., 
Leipsic,  1773-'4) ;  Bihliotheea  Orceca  (14  vols., 
Hamburg,  1705-^28 ;  continuation  and  new  edi- 
tion by  Harless,  12  vols.,  Hamburg,  1790-1809, 
provided  with  an  index  in  1888);  Biblio- 
graphia  Antiquaria  (Hamburg,  171 3;  new  ed. 
by  Schafehausen,  1760) ;  Bibtiotkeca  EceUH- 
astica  (Hamburg,  1718) ;  and  Bihliotheea  Me- 
dia et  Injima  jMatis  (5  vols.,  Hamburg,  1784 ; 
supplementary  vol.  by  SchOttgen,  1746;  new 
ed.  by  Mansi,  Padua,  1754). 

FABRICIUS,  J«haii]i  Chrisdai,  a  Danish  ento- 
mologist, bom  in  Tondem,  Schleswig,  Jan.  7, 
1743,  died  in  Kiel  in  1807  or  1808.  His  aca- 
demic studies  were  pursued  at  Copenhagen, 
Leyden,  Edinburgh,  and  finally  at  Upsal,  under 
T^innsBUS.  He  was  much  attached  to  the  great 
Swede,  and  has  preserved  many  interesting 
details  of  his  private  life.  He  adopted  Lin- 
n»us*s  method,  and  introduced  a  system  of 
classifying  insects  by  the  parts  which  consti- 
tute the  mouth.  He  took  the  degree  of  doc- 
tor of  medicine  about  1767,  and  was  afterward 
appointed  professor  of  natural  history  in  the 
university  of  Kiel,  where  he  wrote  his  Systema 
Bntomologia  (1775),  subsequently  enlarged 
into  Entomologia  Systematica  (4  vols.  8vo, 
Copenhagen,  1792-4).  He  employed  the  re- 
mainder of  his  life  in  developing  and  perfect- 
ing it,  and  for  this  purpose  made  tours  over 
different  parts  of  Europe.  His  Genera  In- 
sectorum  (8vo,  Kiel,  1777),  Philosophia  Ento- 
mologiea  (Hamburg,  1778),  Species  Ijuectorum 
(2  vols.,  1781),  Mantissa  Insectorum  (2  vols., 
Copenhagen,  1787),  and  other  works  show 
how  complete  and  extended  were  his  investi- 
gations in  this  branch  of  science.  He  also 
published  essays  on  botany  and  natural  history, 
accounts  of  travels  in  Norway,  Russia,  and 
England,  and  a  variety  of  treatises,  historical, 
political,  and  economical,  relating  to  Denmark, 
the  latter  being  prepared  by  him  in  his  capacity 
of  councillor  of  state  and  professor  of  rural 
and  political  economy  at  Kiel.  He  died  of 
grief,  it  is  supposed,  occasioned  by  the  bom* 
bardment  of  Copenhagen,  and  the  political 
misfortunes  of  Denmark. 

FABYAN,  or  FaUaa,  Robert,  an  ancient  Eng- 
lish chronicler,  bom  in  London  about  1450, 
died  in  1512.  He  was  a  merchant,  became  an 
alderman  and  sheriff  of  London,  and  wrote  a 
general  chronicle  of  English  history,  which  he 
called  the  "Concordance  of  Histories,"  from 
the  fabulous  exploits  of  Brutus  in  Great  Britain 
to  the  reign  of  Henry  VIL  It  was  first  pub- 
lished after  the  author's  death  (folio,  1516),  and 
reappeared  in  numerous  editions,  the  last  of 
which  is  that  by  Sir  Henry  Ellis,  accompanied 
by  notes  and  a  learned  introduction  ("  Chron- 
icles of  England  and  France,"  royal  4to,  Lon- 
don, 1811).    On  account  of  its  free  animad' 


54 


FACCIOLATO 


FACTOR 


versions  on  the  Catholic  clergy,  Cardinal  Wol- 
sey  is  said  to  have  caused  the  destruction  of  a 
portion  of  the  first  edition,  perfect  copies  of 
which  are  now  rare. 

FACCIOLATO,  or  FMdolatI,  Jacopo,  an  Italian 
philologist,  horn  in  Torreglia,  near  Padua,  Jan. 
4,  1682,  died  Aug.  26,  1769.  Cardinal  Bar- 
harigo  sent  him  to  the  ecclesiastical  seminary 
of  Padua,  where  he  took  orders  and  rose  to  he 
professor  of  philosophy,  and  finally  head  of 
the  institution.  He  afterward  filled  tlie  chair 
of  logic  in  the  university  of  the  same  city,  and 
was  charged  with  continuing  the  history  of 
that  establishment  which  Papadopoli  had  he- 
gun.  Besides  several  good  editions  of  the 
classics  and  various  works  on  grammar,  ethics, 
theology,  and  some  poetry,  he  published  re- 
visions of  the  Lexicon  of  Schrevelius,  the  The- 
iaurus  Ciceronianusoi  WizoWmb^  and  an  edition 
in  seven  languages  of  Calepino^s  dictionary  (2 
vols,  fol.,  1731),  in  which  he  received  much  as- 
sistance from  his  pupil  Forcellini  and  others. 
It  was  on  the  conclusion  of  the  last  named 
work  that  Facciolato  and  Forcellini  began  to 
compose  the  great  Latin  dictionary  published 
after  the  death  of  both,  under  their  joint  names, 
but  which  was  almost  entirely  the  work  of  the 
latter.    (See  Fobobluni.) 

FACTOR  (Lat.,  from  facere^  to  do  or  make), 
one  who  conducts  business  for  another.  The 
word  originally  had  almost  the  same  meaning 
as  agent  (Lat.  agere^  to  act).  But  while  agent 
was  used  to  represent  every  one  who  acted  in 
any  way  in  the  stead  of  another,  factor  became 
limited  to  those  who  so  act  in  mercantile  trans- 
actions. Factor  is  then  a  mercantile  agent, 
herein  being  like  a  broker ;  but  the  difference 
between  them  is  principally  this :  a  broker  acts 
for  his  principal  in  reference  to  mercantile 

Property  which  the  principal  retains  in  his 
ands;  while  the  factor  has  possession  of  the 
goods  sent  to  him  for  sale;  or  takes  possession 
of  those  which  he  buys  for  his  principal.  From 
this  difierence  others  have  grown;  and  the 
most  important  of  these  is,  that  the  hroker 
huys  and  sells  as  agent,  while  the  factor  may 
buy  and  sell  in  his  own  name,  the  person  deal- 
ing with  him  not  always  knowing  whether  the 
factor  or  some  one  else  owns  the  goods.  In 
the  United  States,  among  merchants,  the  phrase 
commission  merchant  has  taken  the  place  of 
factor,  and  means  much  the  same  thing;  hut 
the  word  factor  is  retained  as  a  law  term,  and 
the  law  of  factors  is  the  law  of  commission 
merchants.  Besides  regular  commission  mer- 
chants, any  one  intrusted  with  the  possession 
of  property  belonging  to  another,  and  author- 
ized by  the  owner  to  dispose  of  it,  may  be  a 
factor,  as  a  supercargo.  So  a  common  carrier 
may  be  a  factor ;  and  while  he  acts  as  such,  he 
is  responsible  only  as  a  factor,  that  is,  only  for 
injuries  or  losses  caused  by  want  of  due  care ; 
but  when  he  has  sold  goods  as  factor,  and  has 
received  the  money  which  it  is  his  duty  to  bring 
home  as  carrier,  his  ohligations  as  carrier  re- 
vive, and  he  is  now  liahle  for  any  loss  not 


caused  hy  the  act  of  God  or  the  public  enemy. 
A  factor  is  a  general  agent,  and  as  snch  hinds 
his  principal. — The  most  general  duty  of  a  fac- 
tor, as  of  every  agent,  is  to  obey  the  instruc- 
tions he  receives.    But  he  is  considered  by  the 
law  merchant  as  an  agent  having  much  discre- 
tion, and  an  equal  responsibility ;  while  there- 
fore he  is  bound  to  obey  definite  and  positive 
instructions,  he  is  not  bound  to  pay  such  regard 
to  mere  intimations  or  wishes,  because  he  may 
well  believe  that,  whatever  his  principal  might 
desire  or  consider  expedient,  if  he  did  not  give 
positive  directions  it  was  because  he  preferred 
leaving  the  decision  to  the  discretion  of  his 
factor.    And  even  if  he  have  positive  and  pre- 
cise instructions,  his  departure  from  them  will 
be  justified  if  it  w^as  caused  by  an  unforeseen 
emergency,  and  if  he  acted  in  good  faith,  and 
certainly  for  the  actual  advantage  of  his  prin- 
cipal.   If,  however,  a  factor  buys  goods  for  his 
principal  and  sends  them  to  him  in  distinct 
violation  of  an  order,  his  principal  may  reject 
the  same,  and  may  return  them  to  his  factor ; 
or,  if  the  nature  of  the  goods  and  the  circum- 
stances of  the  case  render  it  certainly  expedient^ 
he  may  sell  the  goods  for  his  factor,  and  remit 
to  him  or  credit  him  with  the  proceeds.    A 
factor  generally  acquires  no  right  to  his  com- 
missions until  the  service  hy  which  he  is  to 
earn  them  is  wholly  rendered,  unless  prevented 
without  his  fault  from  completing  his  service, 
in  which  case  he  may  have  a  reasonable  com- 
pensation.   Nor  has  he  any  claim  for  compen- 
sation unless  he  conducts  his  business  with 
proper  care  and  skill,  an<l  he  is  liable  in  dam- 
ages for  any  loss  his  principal  sustains  by  his 
want  of  care  and  skill ;  nor  can  he  claim  any 
compensation  for  any  illegal  or  immoral  service. 
A  factor  cannot  delegate  liis  power  and  right, 
except  so  far  as  he  is  authorized  to  do  so,  either 
expressly,  or  by  the  established  usage,  or  by 
the  peculiar  circumstances  of  the  case.    In  the 
absence  of  positive  instructions,  it  is  the  duty 
of  the  factor  to  obey  and  conform  to  the  com- 
mon usage  of  that  business,  and  he  can,  in 
general,  bind  his  principal  only  within  that 
usage.    He  has  a  considerable  discretion,  hot 
is  bound  to  use  it  with  reasonable  care,  and 
with  perfect  good  faith.    Thus,  if  he  hastens  a 
sale  improperly,  and  without  reasonable  cause 
or  excuse,  as,  for  example,  if  he  hurries  a  sale, 
clearly  against  the  interest  of  the  principal,  for 
the  purpose  of  realizing  at  once  his  own  ad- 
vances, such  a  sale  would  be  considered  a 
fraudulent  sacrifice  of  his  principalis  property, 
and  would  render  him  liable  in  damages.    The 
factor  is  bound  to  insure  the  property  of  his 
principal  when  instructed  to  do  so,  and  also  if 
a  general,  well  established,  and  well  known 
usage  requires  it  of  him,  and  particularly  if 
there  have  been  antecedent  acts  or  usages  be- 
tween him  and  his  principal,  from  which  his 
principal  might  reasonably  have  expected  that 
he  would  effect  insurance,  and  therefore  omit 
doing  this  himself. — In  general,  the  principal 
has  the  right  of  revoking  the  authority  he  has 


FACTOR 


55 


given  to  his  factor  at  any  time  before  the  fac- 
tor has  made  any  advances  upon  the  goods; 
and  may  then  demand  them,  paying  of  coarse 
whatever  legal  claims  the  factor  may  have,  not 
for  his  commissions,  bat  tor  expenses  properly 
incarred  about  the  goods,  and  for  any  special 
services  he  has  been  called  upon  to  render. 
But  it  is  a  question  whether,  if  a  commission 
merchant  has  made  advances  upon  goods,  he 
has  not  now  acquired  an  interest  in  them  and 
an  authority  over  them,  which  his  principal 
cannot  defeat  by  revocation.  The  prevailing 
doctrine  in  the  United  States  is  that  a  factor 
by  advances  upon  goods  acquires  an  interest  in 
the  goods  themselves,  and  that  his  authority 
over  them  is  therefore  irrevocable.  In  Eng- 
land the  courts  hold  otherwise,  and  a  factor 
who  has  made  advances  upon  goods  is  denied 
the  power  to  sell  them  or  any  part  of  them  if 
positively  prohibited  by  his  principal;  while 
in  the  United  States  he  may  sell  so  much  as 
will  cover  his  advances  and  charges,  the  prin- 
cipal having  power  over  only  the  surplus  or 
residue  after  the  factor^s  advances  are  repaid. 
The  factor  is  not  obliged  to  sell,  but  after  de- 
mand and  reasonable  delay  may  have  his  action 
against  his  principal  for  his  advances. — The 
qaestion  what  power  a  factor  has  to  pledge  the 
goods  consigned  to  him  has  been  much  agi- 
tated. By  placing  the  goods  in  his  possession, 
the  principal  may  be  said  to  give  to  his  factor 
tlie  power  of  acting  as  an  owner,  to  the  injury 
of  others.  It  is  on  this  ground  that  in  England 
and  in  many  of  the  United  States  such  a  fac- 
tor, whether  called  commission  merchant,  con- 
signee, agent,  or  otherwise,  is  deemed  to  be  the 
trae  owner,  so  far  as  to  render  valid  a  sale, 
pledge,  or  other  disposition  of  the  property, 
while  the  party  with  whom  he  deals  acts  in 
good  faith.  A  factor  may  make  a  special  con- 
traet  with  his  principal,  to  guarantee  all  sales 
made  for  him.  In  continental  Europe,  some- 
thnea  in  Ensrland,  more  rarely  here,  such  a 
factor  is  said  to  act  under  a  del  credere  com- 
mission. With  us  he  is  commonly,  and  per- 
haps universally,  said  to  act  under  a  guaran- 
tee commission.  The  meaning  of  this  is,  that 
in  addition  to  the  usual  Commission  (or  that 
agreed  upon)  for  the  sale  of  the  goods,  he 
receives  a  further  commission,  in  considera- 
tion of  which  he  guarantees  the  payment  by 
the  purchaser  of  the  price  of  the  goods,  and 
agrees  to  pay  if  the  purchaser  does  not.  A 
gaarantee  commission  merchant  has  the  same 
claim  on  his  principal  for  his  advances  as  if 
he  made  no  guarantee.  If  he  takes  a  note 
from  the  purchaser  of  the  goods,  this  note  is 
the  property  of  his  principal,  and  he  guaran- 
tees the  note ;  and  ii  he  takes  payment  in  de- 
preciated paper,  he  must  make  it  good.  If 
money  be  paid,  and  he  remits  it  in  some  cus- 
tomary and  proper  way,  or  in  such  way  as  may 
he  specially  directed  by  the  owner,  he  is  not 
responsible  for  its  safe  arrival,  unless  he  under- 
takes to  guarantee  the  remittance ;  in  which 
case  he  may  charge  a  commission  for  his  guaran- 


tee. Without  any  guarantee  commission  a 
factor  is  liable  to  his  principal,  not  only  for  his 
neglect  or  defiftalt,  but  for  certain  acts  which 
seem  to  assume  this  liability ;  as  if  he  seUs 
the  goods  of  several  princii)als  to  one  pur- 
chaser, on  credit,  and  takes  a  note  payable  or 
indorsed  to  himself,  and  gets  it  discounted. — 
It  has  already  been  remarked  that  a  factor 
may  buy,  sell,  sue  and  be  sued,  demand,  col- 
lect, receive,  and  receipt  for  money,  all  in  his 
own  name,  and  as  a  principal,  while  a  broker 
can  do  all  this  only  in  his  own  name  and  as  an 
agent.  This  difference  between  them  springs 
from  the  possession  of  the  goods  by  the  factor 
(for  possession  is  one  of  the  principal  indicia 
of  ownership)  and  the  non-possession  of  them 
by  the  broker.  There  is  a  more  important  dif- 
ference between  them,  founded  on  the  same 
circumstance;  this  is,  that  the  factor  has  a 
lien  on  the  ^oods  for  his  advances,  charges, 
and  commissions,  and  a  broker  has  not.  But 
if  a  factor  voluntarily  transfers  the  goods  to 
the  owner,  or  to  the  owner^s  order,  he  cannot 
reclaim  them  as  his  security,  but  retains  only 
his  personal  right  to  demand  his  advances  and 
charges  from  the  owner.  If  the  owner  is  in- 
solvent, the  factor  takes  then  only  his  dividend ; 
whereas  if  he  still  holds  the  possession,  the 
other  creditors  can  have  the  goods  only  by  dis- 
charging the  factor's  claims  in  full,  llierefore 
the  factor  and  his  principal  may  have  claims 
against  a  purchaser  which  may  seem  to  conflict ; 
for  the  principal  may  demand  his  price,  while 
the  factor  claims  his  advances  and  charges.  In 
general,  it  may  be  said  that  if  a  purchaser  pays 
in  good  faith  to  eitlier,  without  notice  of  the 
other^s  claim,  he  will  be  protected  against  the 
other.  But  if  the  owner  demands  his  price, 
the  purchaser  cannot  set  off  against  this,  or 
claim  to  deduct,  a  general  debt  to  the  pur- 
chaser from  the  factor,  unless  the  factor  sold 
the  goods  as  his  own,  under  circumstances 
which  gave  him  a  right  so  to  sell  them,  and  the 
buyer  believed  they  were  his  own ;  in  which 
case  the  buyer  may  charge  against  the  price, 
or  indeed  pay  tlie  whole  price,  by  the  indebted- 
ness of  the  factor  to  him.  On  the  other  hand, 
if  the  factor  has  a  lien  on  the  goods,  and  has  not 
lost  his  lien  by  parting  with  the  possession  of 
the  goods,  the  buyer  cannot  set  off  against  this 
lien  any  debt  due  to  him  from  the  principal, 
although  the  principal  be  named  at  the  sale  as 
the  owner  of  the  goods. — An  important  dis- 
tinction is  made  between  a  foreign  factor,  or 
one  who  transacts  business  for  his  principal  in 
a  country  in  which  the  latter  does  not  reside, 
and  a  domestic  factor,  or  one  who  acts  in  the 
same  country  in  which  the  principal  resides. 
Although  every  factor  may  act  in  his  own  name, 
yet  in  the  case  of  a  foreign  factor  tlie  law  goes 
much  further,  and  considers  the  factor  as  in 
almost  all  respects  a  principal.  The  reason  of 
this  is  obvious.  A  person  dealing  at  home 
with  a  factor  whose  principal  resides  abroad, 
has  no  means  of  knowing  who  the  principal  is, 
or  what  goods  are  his,  or  by  what  title  they 


66 


FA0UNDU8 


FAHLCRANTZ 


are  his,  or  for  what  purpose  they  are  in  the 
factor^s  hands,  excepting  as  the  factor  may 
choose  to  tell  him.  He  can  have  no  access,  or 
certainly  no  easy  access,  to  the  foreign  prin- 
cipal, for  the  purpose  of  remedy  or  enforce* 
ment ;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  cannot  be  pre- 
earned  to  have  bought  or  sold  on  the  credit  of 
a  person  thus  unknown  and  inaccessible.  It  is 
but  fair,  therefore,  that  die  factor  should  be,  as 
to  the  purchaser,  the  principal ;  and  it  is 
equally  fair  that  the  factor  should  be  in  such 
case  the  only  principal.  These,  however,  are 
but  presumptions  of  law.  The  factor  and 
purchaser  may  make  what  agreement  they 
please,  and  the  law  will  carry  it  into  effect. 
In  the  absence  of  special  agreement,  that  is, 
in  the  case  of  an  ordinary  transaction  with  a 
foreign  factor,  the  buyer  may  sue  the  factor, 
and  cannot  sue  the  principal,  although  the 
principal  may  recover  from  a  buyer  a  price  not 
yet  paid  to  the  factor.  The  rule  that  the  party 
dealing  with  the  factor  looks  to  him  only, 
seems  to  be  well  settled,  if  he  knew  that  he 
was  dealing  with  the  factor  of  a  foreign  prin- 
cipal, and  reserved  no  right  or  claim  against 
that  principal.  Whether  he  could  sue  the 
principal,  if  he  did  not  know  him  at  the  time  • 
of  the  transaction,  but  discovered  him  after- 
ward, 18  not  so  certain ;  for  there  are  authori- 
ties which  limit  the  rule  to  the  former  cases, 
and  in  the  latter  give  the  party  a  concurrent 
remedy  against  the  factor  and  the  principal. 
It  seems  now  settled  that,  for  the  purpose  of 
this  distinction,  the  states  of  the  Union  are 
foreign  to  each  other.  It  is  a  general  rule 
that  a  principal  does  not  lose  his  property  by 
any  wrongful  act  of  his  factor,  as  long  as  he 
can  trace  and  identify  his  goods,  either  in  the 
factor^s  hands,  or  into  the  hands  of  any  per- 
son who  holds  by  representation  of  or  deriva- 
tion from  the  factor,  without  being  purchaser, 
pledgee,  or  otherwise  a  transferee  in  good  faith 
and  for  value.  And  when  a  principal  finds  his 
property  encumbered  by  an  act  of  the  factor, 
as  a  pledge,  or  the  like,  he  may  always  recover 
his  property  by  paying  the  amount  of  encum- 
brance. In  some  of  the  United  States  a  fraud- 
ulent disposition  by  a  factor  of  the  property  of 
his  principal  is  an  indictable  offence,  and  is 
punished  with  severity. 

FICUITDUS,  a  Latin  theologian  of  the  6th  cen- 
tury, bishop  of  Hermia  in  Byzacium,  Africa. 
With  many  other  bishops,  especially  those  of 
Africa,  he  opposed  Justinian^s  decree  condemn- 
ing the  *'  tliree  chapters ''  (see  Constantinople, 
Councils  of),  and  wrote  at  Constantinople 
Fro  Ltfemione  trium  Capitulorum  Libri  XIL 
He  attended  the  conference  of  bishops  called 
by  Pope  Yigilius  there  in  547,  refused  to  com- 
mune with  him  for  his  vacillating  course,  and 
after  the  council  of  Constantinople  (553)  was 
banished.  The  above  work  (edited  by  Sir- 
mond,  1629)  and  other  writings  of  Facundus 
were  several  times  printed  in  the  17th  and 
18th  centuries. 

FlEO)  J^hn  and  IliMUUk    See  supplement. 


FAEUZA  (ano.  Fa'oentid)^  a  fortified  city  of 
central  Italy,  in  the  province  and  18  m.  8.  W. 
of  the  city  of  Ravenna,  on  the  Lamone,  at  its 
junction  with  the  canal  of  Zanelli ;  pop.  in 
1871,  86,299.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  bishopric,  and 
has  a  fine  cathedral,  theatre,  several  churches 
and  convents  which  contain  valuable  paintings, 
a  lunatic  asylum,  a  city  hall,  several  splendid 
private  palaces,  a  royal  lyceum  with  a  picture 
gallery,  a  communal  gymnasium,  and  a  techni- 
cal school.  The  beauty  of  the  city  and  its 
suburbs  has  gained  for  it  the  name  of  the  Flor- 
ence of  Romagna.  Its  formerly  celebrated 
manufactures  of  a  peculiar  earthc^nware,  called 
from  this  place  faience^  have  declined  in  im- 
portance, and  its  chief  industry  at  present  con- 
sists in  manufactures  of  paper,  linen,  and  silk, 
and  in  an  active  commerce  in  the  products  of 
the  territory,  which  are  taken  by  canal  from 
Faenza  to  the  Po.  A  few  miles  from  the  town 
are  ferruginous  and  saline  springs  and  baths, 
which  are  much  resorted  to. — This  city  was 
the  scene  of  the  defeat  of  Carbo  and  Nor- 
banus  ])y  Metellus,  82  B.  C.  It  was  taken  by 
the  Goths  in  the  6th  century,  and  by  the  em- 
peror Frederick  II.  in  1241.  Sir  John  Hawk- 
wood,  in  the  service  of  Gregory  XL,  captured 
it  in  1876,  and  put  to  death,  it  is  said,  about 
4,000  persons.  It  was  successively  subject  to 
Bologna  and  Venice,  and  in  1509  was  taken 
by  Pope  Julius  II. 

FASCUe.    See  Fiesole. 

FAGNAM,  Jcseph,  an  American  artist,  bom  in 
Naples,  Italy,  Dec.  24, 1819,  died  in  New  York, 
May  22,  1878.  He  made  crayon  poi*traits  be- 
fore completing  his  Idth  year,  letl  the  royal 
academy  at  18,  and  removed  to  Vienna,  where 
he  painted  a  portrait  of  the  archduke  Charles. 
In  1842  in  Paris  he  met  Maria  Christina  of 
Spain,  who  invited  him  to  Madrid.  Inhere  he 
secured  the  friendship  of  Sir  Henry  Bulwer, 
and  accompanied  him  to  Washington  in  1849. 
In  1851  he  removed  to  New  York,  and  married 
an  American  lady.  From  1858  till  1 865  he  was 
in  Europe,  and  executed  portraits  of  Garibaldi, 
Victor  Emanuel,  the  empress  Eugenie,  Abdul 
Aziz,  AH  Pasha,  Cialdini,  Rattazzi,  and  others. 
After  his  return  to  New  York  he  painted  a 
series  of  pictures  called  the  "Nine  Muses.^' 
Among  his  other  works  are  portraits  of  Queens 
Christina  and  Isabella  of  Spain,  the  duchess  of 
Alba,  the  duke  d^Aumale,  the  countess  Guic- 
cioli,  Lord  Byron  from  a  miniature.  Sir  Robert 
Peel,  Alexis  de  Tocqueville,  John  Bright,  Rich- 
ard Cobden,  Daniel  Webster,  Henry  Clay,  Gen. 
Taylor,  and  Gen.  Sheridan.  He  received  the 
only  gold  medal  ever  given  for  a  portrait  by  the 
royal  Bourbonic  academy  of  Naples,  and  was 
decorated  by  a  number  of  European  sovereigns. 

FAHLCRAHrrZ,  Karl  Johai,  a  Swedish  painter, 
born  in  Dalecarlia,  Nov.  29,  1774,  died  Jan.  1, 
1861.  He  was  the  son  of  a  clergyman,  and,  al- 
though self-taught,  his  delineations  of  Scandi- 
navian scenery  won  for  him  the  reputation  of 
the  best  Swedish  landscape  painter  of  his  day. 
His  most  finished  paintings  belong  to  the  Swe- 


FAHLUN 


FAIR 


67 


diah  royal  family,  and  a  number  of  tbem  were 
purchased  by  Frederick  VI.  of  Denmark. 

FAHU'BT,  or  Falin  (Sw.  Fahlu),  the  capital  of 
the  Swedish  I&n  of  the  same  name  or  Koppar- 
berg,  on  the  W.  shore  of  Lake  Runn,  130  m.  N. 
K  W.  of  Stockholm ;  pop.  in  1868, 6,891.  The 
houses  are  low  and  almost  entirely  of  wood.  The 
copper  mines  W.  of  this  town  are  among  the 
oldest  and  most  celebrated  in  Europe.  They 
produced  in  former  times  upward  of  3,000  tons, 
but  now  about  700  tons  annually.  The  exter- 
nal opening,  made  by  the  falling  in  of  ancient 
galleries,  is  about  300  ft.  deep,  and  1,200  ft. 
long  by  600  wide.  The  descent  to  the  bottom 
of  this  is  by  easy  stairs,  whence  steep  ladders 
lead  to  the  pits,  the  lowest  of  which  are  about 
1,300  fL  from  the  suiiace.  The  excavations 
extend  many  miles  under  ground,  forming 
several  magnificent  chambers,  where  banquets 
were  given  to  Bemadotte  and  his  queen,  and 
Prince  Oscar,  on  which  occasions  the  mines 
were  brilliantly  illuminated.  The  mines  are 
owned  by  a  company  of  1,200  shares,  which 
has  the  monopoly  of  iron  and  other  wbrks  in 
the  vicinity.  Besides  copper,  small  quantities 
of  gold,  silver,  and  lead  are  obtained  from  the 
ore.  Connected  with  the  mines  are  a  school 
of  practical  mining,  a  model  room,  a  large 
scientific  library,  and  a  geological  museum. 
(For  the  Ian  see  Kopparbebo.) 

FAHRENHEIT,  Gibriel  Dtnlel,  a  German  phy- 
sicist and  mechanician,  born  in  Dantzic  about 
1690,  died  in  Amsterdam,  Sept.  16, 1736.  His 
predilection  for  the  natural  sciences  led  him  to 
abandon  mercantile  life  and  travel  in  pursuit 
of  knowledge.  After  visiting  various  parts  of 
Germany,  France,  and  England^  he  settled  at 
Amsterdam  as  a  maker  of  philosophical  instru- 
ments. Here  some  of  the  most  eminent  natu- 
ral philosophers  of  the  day  became  his  friends 
and  instructors.  Fahrenheit  improved  the 
areometer,  and  made  some  progress  with  the 
design  of  a  hydraulic  machine  for  the  draining 
of  marshes,  which  he  left  unfinished ;  but  he  is 
chiefly  distinguished  for  the  changes  which  he 
made  in  the  thermometer,  which  were  first  car- 
ried out  in  1720,  and  have  added  much  to  the 
accuracy  and  value  of  that  instrument.  (See 
Thsbmometeb.)  His  thermometer  since  its 
first  introduction  has  been  in  general  use  jn 
Holland,  Great  Britain,  and  the  United  States. 
Its  constructor  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
royal  society  of  London  in  1724,  in  whose 
^^Philosophical  Transactions"  for  that  year 
are  papers  by  him. 

FAIHHESBE,  Lsab  liM  C^r,  a  French  sol- 
dier, bom  in  Lille,  June  3,  1818.  He  studied 
at  Paris  and  Metz,  served  in  Algeria  and 
Guadeloupe,  and  became  in  1864  governor  of 
Senegal,  where  he  distinguished  himself  and 
considerably  extended  the  French  possessions. 
After  a  brief  command  in  Algeria  he  was 
sent  again  to  Senegambia,  and  remained  there 
as  governor  till  1865,  when  he  became  com- 
mander of  the  military  division  of  Bona  in 
Algeria.     After  the  capture  of  the  citadel^ 


of  Amiens  by  the  Germans,  at  the  end  of 
November,  1870,  he  was  appointed  by  Gam- 
betta  commander-in-chief  of  the  northern 
army  and  of  the  third  military  division.  With 
about  50,000  men  he  took  the  offensive  near 
Amiens,  and  atlter  various  unfortunate  engage- 
ments was  thoroughly  defeated  at  Bapaume, 
Jan.  3,  1871,  P6ronne  capitulating  Jan.  10, 
after  three  weeks'  resistance;  and  he  was 
overwhelmed  at  St.  Quentin,  Jan.  19.  His 
forces  were  completely  disorganized  and  re- 
treated toward  Lille,  and  the  northern  army 
was  disbanded  in  March.  In  June  he  was 
elected  by  Lille  to  the  national  assembly,  and 
in  1872  he  resigned  his  commission  in  the  army. 
He  has  written  Chapitre  de  geographie  sur 
le  nard-ouest  de  TAfrique  (1864) ;  Collection 
compute  dee  inacriptione  numidiquee  (1870); 
and  Campagne  de  VarmSe  du  nora  (1871,  sev- 
eral times  reprinted). 

FAILLON,  Michel  ^tienne,  a  French  theological 
and  historical  writer,  born  at  Tarascon  in  1799, 
died  in  Paris,  Oct.  25,  1870.  He  was  a  Sul- 
pician  of  Paris,  and  came  to  Montreal  in  1854  as 
visitor  of  the  houses  of  that  congregation  in 
America.  His  contributions  to  the  history  of 
Canada  are  numerous  and  vtiluable,  embracing 
a  life  of  the  Ven.  Mr.  Olier  (1853);  of  Margaret 
Bourgeoys,  foundress  of  the  congregation  sis- 
ters (1852) ;  of  Mile.  Maure,  foundress  of  the 
H6tel  Dieu  (1854);  of  Madame  d'Youville, 
foundress  of  the  gray  sisters  (1852);  of  Mile, 
le  Ber,  the  recluse  (1860) ;  and  a  very  extended 
history  of  the  French  colony  in  Canada,  of 
which  8  vols.  4to  (1865-'6)  appeared  before  his 
death,  embracing  only  a  small  portion  of  his 
plan. 

FAILLT,  Pierre  Loais  Charles  Achille  de,  a  French 
soldier,  bom  at  Rozoy-sur-Serre,  department 
of  Aisne,  about  1810.  He  went  to  Algeria  as 
sub-lieutenant  in  1828,  was  afterward  orderly 
officer  of  King  Louis  Philippe  and  director 
of  the  military  school  at  Toulouse,  became 
briga<lier  general  in  1852,  and  for  his  services 
in  the  Crimean  war  was  made  general  of  di- 
vision, Sept.  22,  1855.  He  was  aide-de-camp 
of  Napoleon  III.,  commanded  a  division  in 
the  war  of  1859,  and  especially  distinguished 
himself  at  Sol  ferine.  In  1867  he  was  sent 
with  an  expeditionary  corps  to  Rome.  On 
the  outbreak  of  the  Franco-German  war  in 
1870  he  was  placed  in  command  of  the  fifth 
corps,  with  his  headquarters  at  Bitsch.  After 
the  disastrous  battle  of  Wdrth  he  retired  with 
the  remnant  of  MacMahon^s  army  to  Ch&lons. 
Cooperating  with  the  forces  of  the  latter  during 
their  passage  of  the  Ardennes  for  the  relief 
of  Bazaine  at  Metz,  he  was  surprised  and  de- 
feated at  Beaumont,  Aug.  30.  MacMahon  was 
paralyzed,  and  the  capitulation  of  Sedan  ter- 
minated the  career  of  Failly.  While  a  prisoner 
of  war  he  attempted  in  his  Marches  et  opkroh 
tione  du  5"**  corps  (Brussels,  1871)  to  refute  the 
charges  brought  against  him. 

FiiR  (Lat./<9na,  a  day  of  rest,  a  holiday),  a 
gathering  for  the  purchase  and  sale  of  goods^ 


58 


FAIR 


or  the  hiring  of  servants,  occasionally  associ- 
ated with  religious  festivals  and  popular  enter- 
tainments. The  ancient  Greeks  held  fairs  in 
coi\j unction  with  popular  assemblies  for  politi- 
cal purposes.  The  Roman  fora,  though  prop- 
erly permanent  market  places,  attracted  great 
multitudes  at  times  of  festivity  and  important 
judicial  and  political  gatherings,  and  on  such 
occasions  the  special  facilities  for  selling  goods, 
as  well  as  the  special  provisions  for  popular 
entertainment,  must  have  given  them  some- 
what of  the  character  of  fairs.  In  the  6th  cen- 
tury fairs  were  established  in  several  French 
and  Italian  cities.  The  fair  of  8t.  Denis  was 
instituted  by  Dagobert  in  629,  and  the  fair  of 
St.  Lazare  by  Louis  VI.  Aix-la-Chapelle  and 
Troyes  trace  their  fairs  to  about  the  year  800. 
Alfred  the  Great  introduced  them  into  Eng- 
land in  886,  and  in  960  they  were  established 
in  Flanders.  Fairs  for  the  sale  of  slaves  were 
common  throughout  Germany  and  the  north 
of  Europe  about  the  year  1000 ;  and  in  1071 
they  were  encouraged  in  England  by  William 
the  Conqueror.  Slaves  were  sold  also  at  St. 
Denis,  and  French  children  were  taken  in  re- 
turn to  be  bartered  away  in  foreign  countries ; 
this  trade  was  prohibited  through  the  efforts 
of  Bathilda,  a  wealthy  freedwoman.  These 
institutions  were  of  great  value  during  the  mid- 
dle ages,  and  especially  serviceable  in  rude  and 
inland  countries.  The  number  of  shops  and 
the  objects  offered  for  sale  in  them  were  very 
limited,  and  consequently  little  frequented  by 
dealers.  These  fairs  had  numerous  privileges 
annexed  to  them,  and  they  alforded  special 
facilities  for  the  disposal  of  goods.  While  com- 
merce was  burdened  with  every  possible  kind 
of  taxes  and  tolln,  and  travel  was  not  only  diffi- 
cult but  frequently  unsafe,  the  fairs  had  gen- 
erally the  advantage  of  being  free  from  imposts, 
and  the  merchants  who  wished  to  be  present 
at  them  enjoyed  the  protection  of  the  govern- 
ment for  their  goods  and  persons.  Many  fairs 
were  associated  with  religious  festivals,  perhaps 
to  insure  a  large  concourse  of  people.  In  many 
places  they  are  still  held  on  the  same  day  with 
the  vigil  or  feast  of  the  saint  to  whom  the  prin- 
cipal church  of  the  town  is  dedicated.  It  was 
even  customary  in  England  and  Germany  to 
hold  the  fairs  in  the  churches  and  churchyards. 
Fairs  for  cattle,  agricultural  products,  and  sta- 
ple manufactures  have  been  found  entirely  un- 
necessary in  countries  eiyoying  a  free  and  flour- 
ishing trade,  and  they  dwindle  accordingly  into 
insignificance.  On  the  other  hand,  fairs  offer 
special  opportunities  for  comparing  different 
qualities  of  home  manufactures  and  produce, 
and  thus  are  valuable  as  a  means  of  instruction. 
Another  advantage  attached  to  them  is  that 
they  bring  communities  which  are  but  slowly 
reached  by  the  progress  of  civilization  into 
regular  contact  with  it.  The  most  celebrated 
fairs  of  large  cities  in  former  times  accordingly 
manifest  the  greatest  decrease  of  attendance, 
while  the  genuine  country  fairs  still  retain 
much  of  their  importance. — To  the  priory  of 


St.  Bartholomew  in  London,  founded  early  in 
the  12th  century,  Henry  I.  granted  in  1188  the 
privilege  of  holding  a  fair  on  St.  Bartholomew's 
day.  The  original  grant  was  for  three  days, 
but  it  was  gradually  extended  to  fifteen.  An 
order  of  the  common  council  in  1708  limited 
its  duration  again  to  three  days.  It  was  at 
first  a  great  place  of  resort  for  traders  and 
pleasure  seekers,  but  it  declined  in  importance 
until  it  was  only  attended  by  itinerant  show- 
men and  the  owners  of  a  few  stalls.  In  1860 
the  lord  mayor  made  proclamation  of  the  fair 
for  the  last  time,  and  it  has  not  been  held  since 
1865.  (See  Morley's  "Memoirs  of  Bartholo- 
mew's Fair,"  London,  1859.)  Weyhill  fair  in 
Hampshire  (Oct.  10)  has  probably  the  greatest 
display  of  sheep  of  any  fair  in  Great  Britain. 
St.  Faith's,  near  Norwich  (Oct.  17),  is  the  prin- 
cipal English  fair  for  Scotch  cattle,  but  large 
numbers  are  also  disposed  of  at  Market  Har- 
borough,  Carlisle,  and  Ormskirk.  Ipswich  has 
two  considerable  fairs,  one  in  August  for  lambs, 
of  which  about  100,000  are  sold,  and  one  in 
September  for  butter  and  cheese.  The  August 
fair  of  Horncastle,  Lincolnshire,  is  the  largest 
horse  fair,  and  is  resorted  to  by  dealers  not 
only  from  Great  Britain,  but  also  from  the 
continent  and  the  United  States.  Ilovvden  in 
Yorkshire  has  also  a  large  horse  fair,  particu- 
larly for  Yorkshire  hunters.  Suffolk  horses 
are  exhibited  at  the  celebrated  TToodbridge 
Lady-day  fair.  Bristol,  Exeter,  and  many 
other  English  cities,  towns,  and  hamlets,  have 
their  fairs.  A  great  cheese  fair  is  held  in  April 
at  Gloucester.  Fairs  were  held  at  Greenwich 
at  Easter  and  Whitsuntide,  which  attracted 
large  crowds  of  visitors  from  London  to  partake 
in  the  man}'  amusements,  as  well  as  to  enjoy 
the  fresh  air  and  the  fine  scenery  from  the  park 
and  its  neighborhood;  but  Greenwich  fair  was 
suppressed  in  1867  by  the  police,  the  inhabi- 
tants having  complained  of  it  as  a  nuisance. 
Walworth,  Camberwell,  and "  Peckham  fairs 
have  also  been  suppressed.  The  most  impor- 
tant mart  in  Scotland  for  cattle  and  sheep  is 
Falkirk  fair  or  tryst.  The  largest  fair  in  Ire- 
land for  the  sale  of  cattle  and  sheep  is  held 
from  Oct.  5  to  9  at  Ballinasloe,  in  the  counties 
of  Galway  and  Roscommon.  About  25,000 
head  of  cattle  and  75,000  sheep,  most  of  which 
are  raised  in  Connaught,  are  annually  brought 
to  this  fair.  Donnybrook  fair,  celebrated  for 
its  noisy  mirth  and  pugnacity,  is  now  abolished. 
— In  France  the  St.  Denis  fair,  near  Paris,  both 
commercial  and  religious,  was  continued  till 
1789.  It  was  customary  to  exhibit  there  a 
piece  of  wood  alleged  to  have  belonged  to  the 
cross  on  which  Jesus  was  crucified,  and  the 
whole  of  Paris  went  to  see  it  The  St.  Lazare, 
St.  Laurent,  St.  Germain,  and  St.  Ovid  fain 
in  Paris  were  also  suppressed  in  1789.  Per- 
manent markets  have  taken  their  place  as  far 
as  the  sale  of  goods  is  concerned,  and  the  popu- 
lar shows  and  entertainments  that  used  to  at- 
tend them  are  now  confined  to  the  celebration 
of  national  holidays  and  church  festivals.    In 


FAIR 


59 


the  departments  a  hw  fairs  are  still  in  exist- 
ence and  enjoy  a  good  trade.  The  most  im- 
portant is  the  fair  of  Beaucaire,  which  is  held 
Jnlj  22-28,  and  rivals  the  great  fairs  of  Ger- 
many and  Russia.  The  counts  of  Toulouse 
granted  this  fair  some  privileges  in  the  13th 
century,  and  Charles  VIII.  decreed  its  time 
and  duration.  In  tiie  very  heart  of  the  town 
an  extensive  square  is  appropriated  for  it,  and 
while  it  lasts  thousands  of  stalls  are  erected  on 
it,  in  which  is  offered  for  sale  everything  that 
forms  an  article  of  commerce.  It  is  believed 
that  often  as  many  as  200,000  traders  from 
all  parts  of  the  world  assemble  here.  After 
dark  the  whole  town  is  given  up  to  gayety,  and 
the  numerous  show  and  concert  and  dancing 
saloons  turn  it  into  a  pandemonium.  A  tribunal 
of  commerce,  consisting  of  12  members,  exer- 
cises during  this  season  absolute  judicial  power 
over  all  mercantile  differences.  It  is  estimated 
that  the  trade  of  the  week  of  the  fair  amounts 
to  $4,000,000  or  $5,000,000.  Equally  large  are 
the  transactions  made  at  the  fair  of  Guibray, 
a  small  suburb  of  the  town  of  Falaise,  held 
from  Aug.  10  to  15.  It  was  instituted  in  the 
11th  century  by  the  dukes  of  Normandy,  and 
is  the  principal  market  for  wool  and  woollen 
goods,  and  for  valuable  horses. — ^The  annual 
fairs  in  Amsterdam,  Rotterdam,  and  other 
cities  in  Holland,  are  scenes  of  great  popular 
rejoicings.  For  several  days  and  nights  the 
sheets  are  paraded  by  joyous  crowds,  and  the 
usaal  sobriety  of  the  Dutch  yields  to  boisterous 
demonstrations.  Theatres  and  shows  of  all 
kinds  form  the  staple  amusements,  and  among 
the  refreshments  are  wafer  cakes,  a  sort  of 
thin  cake  baked  iir  an  iron  mould,  of  which  the 
consumption  is  enormous. — The  principal  fair 
of  Italy  is  that  of  St.  Mary  Magdalen  in  Siniga- 
glia,  which  is  annually  held  in  July  and  Au- 
gust, and  attended  by  traders  from  all  parts  of 
central  and  northern  Europe,  north  Africa,  and 
the  Levant.  Among  the  various  products  of 
Italian  industry  which  change  hands  here,  silk 
13  the  most  important.  Fairs  of  less  conse- 
quence are  held  in  other  parts  of  Italy,  as  well 
as  in  Spain  and  Portugal.  The  most  famous 
fair  of  Madrid  is  annually  held  on  May  15,  at 
the  hermitage  of  San  Isidro  del  Campo,  when 
the  grand  pilgrimage  and  festival  of  San  Isidro 
draws  thither  crowds  of  the  population.  The 
great  Hungarian  fairs  are  held  chiefly  at  Pesth. 
Four  times  a  year,  in  March,  May,  August,  and 
November,  the  industrial  products  of  Hungary 
are  brought  here  for  sale.  Scarcely  less  im- 
portant for  the  commerce  of  eastern  Europe, 
and  more  interesting  for  the  traveller  and  ob- 
server of  national  customs,  are  the  fairs  of  De- 
breczin. — The  fairs  of  the  greatest  European 
importance,  however,  are  those  of  Germany. 
They  originated  there,  as  in  many  other  coun- 
tries, through  religious  festivals.  Hence  fairs 
were  called  Kirchmeuen^  church  fairs,  the 
German  word  MeiM  (fair)  being  derived  from 
mass.  The  most  prominent  fairs  are  those  of 
Leipsic,  Frankfort-on-the-Main,  Frankfort-on- 


the-Oder,  and  Brunswick.  Tlie  Leipsio  fairs 
date  from  the  12th  century,  and  are  the  most 
frequented.  Of  the  aggregate  value  of  goods 
sold  at  German  fairs  Leipsic  has  46  per  cent., 
Frankfort-on-the-Oder  86,  Frankfort-on-the- 
Main  15,  and  Brunswick  5.  Leipsic  holds  three 
fairs :  the  Easter  fair,  beginning  on  the  second 
Sunday  after  Easter,  the  Michaelmas  fair,  begin- 
ning with  the  week  of  Michaelmas ;  and  the  New 
Yearns  fair,  beginning  on  Dec.  27.  The  Easter 
fair  is  the  most  important,  and  the  New  Year's 
fair  the  least.  The  imports  of  goods  in  1870 
for  New  Year's  amounted  to  187,930  owt. ;  for 
Easter  to  813,800  cwt. ;  for  Michaelmas  to 
296,870  owt. ;  total,  798,100  cwt.  The  prin- 
cipal articles  of  trade  carried  to  the  fdirs  are 
furs,  yarn,  silk,  cloth,  cotton  goods,  ribbons, 
hardware,  toys,  china,  glass,  and  earthenware, 
drugs,  grain,  hides,  leather,  dye  stuffs,  colors, 
oils,  alcohol,  coal,  and  paper.  Easter  is  the 
customary  season  among  booksellers  for  set- 
tling their  accounts,  and  for  the  principal  trade 
sale,  but  the  exhibition  of  books  formerly  con- 
nected with  this  fair  has  gone  into  disuse. — 
The  most  celebrated  fairs  of  Russia  are  held  in 
Nizhni-Novgorod.  The  January  fair  is  special- 
ly for  timber  and  articles  in  wood,  and  takes 
place  on  the  frozen  river ;  the  July  fair  is  de- 
voted to  the  sale  of  horses ;  but  the  Peter  Paul 
fair,  begmning  Aug.  6  and  lasting  until  the 
end  of  September,  embraces  every  known  pro- 
duct of  Asia  and  Europe,  and  exceeds  in  mag- 
nitude all  other  fairs  in  the  world.  The  tra- 
ders present  during  this  season  often  number 
200,000,  and  comprise  representatives  of  every 
race  and  nation.  The  principal  articles  of 
trade  are  tea,  grain,  cotton,  wool,  horse  and 
camel  hair,  hides,  iron,  copper,  jewels,  and 
furs;  but  every  kind  of  manufacturing  and 
agricultural  produce  is  brought  to  this  market. 
The  sales  amount  to  nearly  $100,000,000.  The 
Russian  government  erected  a  bazaar  for  sto- 
ring furs,  shawls,  and  tea,  and  drew  from  each 
fair  a  rent  of  $200,000.  This  enormous  build- 
ing was  destroyed  by  fire  in  1864.  The  fair  of 
Kiakhta  on  the  Russian-Chinese  frontier,  held 
every  December  rinoe  1727,  and  formerly  of 
great  magnitude,  as  it  was  the  only  legal  tra- 
ding post  between  the  two  countries,  has  dwin- 
dled to  comparative  insignificance  since  the 
opening  for  traffic  in  1860  of  the  whole  fron- 
tier, and  the  decree  of  1861  permitting  the 
importation  of  tea  from  the  countries  W.  of 
Russia,  and  the  ports  on  the  Baltic  sea. — The 
chief  fairs  of  Turkey  are  those  of  Yeni^je  Var- 
dar  and  Seres,  the  former  commencing  on 
Deo.  8  and  continuing  for  about  three  weeks, 
and  the  latter  on  March  21,  for  three  or  four 
weeks;  of  Okhrida  (May  3),  Varna  (May  23), 
Filibe  (Aug.  27),  and  Eski  Saghra  (Nov.  10), 
each  of  which  lasts  a  fortnight ;  and  those 
of  Yatar  Bazari  (Sept.  15)  and  Tchaltadeh 
(Nov.  6),  which  last  10  days.  Conspicuous 
among  the  various  traders  assembled  there  are 
the  Greeks  and  Armenians.  But  the  greatest 
fair  in  the  East  is  held  at  Mecca  during  the 


60 


FAIR 


FAIRFAX 


time  of  the  annual  pilgrimages.  Although  it 
has  declined  from  its  ancient  magnitude,  the 
average  concourse  still  amomits  to  100,000. — 
The  largest  fair  in  India  is  held  at  the  vernal 
equinox  at  llardwar,  on  the  upper  Ganges.  It 
is  the  season  of  the  yearly  pilgrimage,  and  from 
200,000  to  300,000  strangers  are  then  assembled 
in  the  town;  every  12th  year,  which  is  ac- 
counted peculiarly  holy,  nearly  2,000,000  pil- 
grims and  dealers  visit  the  place.  This  fair  is 
supplied  with  every  article  of  home  produce, 
and  not  only  elephants  but  tigers  and  other 
wild  beasts  are  offered  for  sale.  Previous  to 
the  British  occupation,  the  fairs  usually  ended 
in  bloodshed;  but  owing  to  the  precautions 
adopted,  perfect  order  is  now  preserved. — Ac- 
cording to  Prescott's  "  History  of  the  Conquest 
of  Mexico,^'  fairs  were  held  in  the  principal 
cities  of  ancient  Mexico  every  fifth  day  (there 
having  been  no  shops),  and  were  thronged. 
*^A  particular  quarter  was  allotted  to  each 
kind  of  article.  The  transactions  were  con- 
ducted under  the  inspection  of  magistrates  ap- 
pointed for  the  purpose.  The  traffic  was  car- 
ried on  partly  by  barter,  and  partly  by  means 
of  a  regulated  currency  of  different  values. 
This  consisted  of  transparent  quills  of  gold 
dust ;  of  bits  of  tin,  cut  in  the  form  of  a  X  i 
and  of  bags  of  cacao,  containing  a  specific  num- 
ber of  grains."  Fairs  were  regularly  held  at 
Azcapozalco,  not  far  from  the  capital,  for  the 
sale  of  slaves.  The  gatherings  in  the  market 
of  Tlascala  were  a  sort  of  fairs,  where  pottery 
which  was  considered  equal  to  the  best  in  Eu- 
rope formed  one  of  the  principal  articles  of 
trade,  and  every  description  of  domestic  pro- 
duce and  manufacture  was  brought  there  for 
sale.  But  the  greatest  fair  was  held  in  the 
city  of  Mexico.  The  visitors  there  were  esti- 
mated at  from  40,000  to  50,000,  but  the  most 
perfect  order  reigned  throughout.  A  court  of 
12  judges  sat  in  one  part  of  the  tianguez^  clothed 
with  absolute  power,  which  they  exercised 
with  great  rigor.  In  Prescott's  "  History  of  the 
Conquest  of  Peru  "  it  is  said  that  the  incas  in- 
stituted fairs  for  the  facilitation  of  agricultural 
exchanges.  They  took  place  three  times  a 
month  in  some  of  the  most  populous  places, 
where,  as  money  was  unknown,  a  rude  kind 
of  commerce  was  carried  on  by  barter. — The 
only  fairs  in  the  United  States,  properly  so 
called,  are  assemblages  for  the  sale  and  pur- 
chase of  goods,  generally  contributed  gratui- 
tously, for  the  benefit  of  some  particular  ob- 
ject, as  the  building  or  furnishing  of  a  church, 
or  the  promotion  of  some  charitable  enterprise. 
During  the  civil  war  very  large  sums  were 
raised  by  the  so-called  sanitary  fairs,  for  the 
benefit  of  the  sick  and  wounded. — The  word 
fair  is  also  applied  to  exhibitions  of  articles 
not  specially  intended  for  sale,  and  sometimes 
strictly  prohibited  from  sale  at  the  place  of  ex- 
hibition. The  state  and  county  fairs  in  the 
United  States  are  for  competitive  exhibition 
rather  than  general  traffic.  (See  Industeial 
Exhibitions.) 


FUBBilUr,  Sir  WifflaB,  a  British  civil  en- 
gineer and  machinist,  bom  in  Kelso,  Feb.  19, 
1789,  died  in  Manchester,  Aug.  18,  1874.  He 
learned  engineering  at  a  colliery  in  Newcastle, 
where  he  remained  seven  years.  In  1817  he 
began  business  in  Manchester  as  a  machine 
miD^er,  and  for  upward  of  20  years  his  firm 
was  the  most  important  of  the  kind  in  that 
town.  Among  the  improvements  he  intro- 
ducetl  may  be  luentioned  simpler  contrivances 
for  driving  the  machinery  of  factories,  modifi- 
cations in  the  valves  of  steam  engines,  the 
double-fined  boiler,  the  use  of  ventilated  buck- 
ets in  water  wheels,  and  the  invention  of  the 
riveting  machine.  In  1830-^81,  his  attention 
having  been  drawn  to  the  advantages  of  iron 
as  a  material  for  building  ships,  he  constructed 
a  small  iron  vessel,  which  was  successfully 
launched,  and  was  one  of  the  first  of  its  clnss 
in  England.  He  afterward  constructed  at  Mill- 
wall  many  large  vessels  of  the  same  material. 
He  was  also  one  of  the  first  to  attempt  build- 
ings of  iron.  His  experience  in  the  iron  manu- 
facture caused  him  to  be  consulted  with  regard 
to  the  construction  of  the  tubular  bridge  over 
the  Menai  strait ;  and  in  connection  with  Mr. 
Hodgkinson  he  engaged  in  a  number  of  experi- 
ments, the  result  of  which  has  been  to  intro- 
duce into  general  use  wronght-iron  plate  gird- 
ers in  ordinary  building  operations,  as  well  as 
in  railway  engineering.  He  delivered  lectures 
in  1858  on  the  *'*'  Resistance  of  Tubes  to  Col- 
lapse," on  the  "Floating  Corn  Mill  for  the 
Navy,"  on  the  "Progress  of  Mechanical  Sci- 
ence," &c.  He  published  "  Cast  and  Wrought 
Iron  for  Building  Purposes "  (London,  1852 ; 
New  York,  1854) ;  "  Useful  Information  for 
Engineers"  (1856);  "Iron,  its  History  and 
Manufacture"  (Edinburgh,  1863);  "Mills  and 
Mill  Work"  (2  vols.,  London,  1864-'5);  and 
"Iron  Ship  Building"  (1865).  He  was  made 
a  baronet  in  1869.-— See  Smiles^s  "Lives  of 
Engineers." 

FAIRFAX,  a  N.  E.  county  of  Virginia,  sepa- 
rated from  Maryland  and  the  District  of  Co- 
lumbia by  the  Potomac  river ;  area,  480  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  12,952,  of  whom  4,284  were 
colored.  The  Occoquan  river  touches  it  on 
the  S.  W.  The  Orange,  Alexandria,  and  Ma' 
nassas,  and  the  Washington  and  Ohio  railroads 
pass  through  it.  On  the  bank  of  the  Potomac, 
in  this  county,  and  16  m.  below  Washington 
city,  stands  Mount  Vernon,  the  residence  of 
George  Washington.  The  surface  is  generally 
hilly.  The  soil  in  some  places  is  sandy,  and  in 
others  is  nearly  worn  out ;  but  there  are  many 
fertile  and  well  cultivated  districts.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  59,982  bushels  of 
wheat,  295,830  of  Indian  corn,  120,072  of 
oats,  71,227  of  potatoes,  8,097  tons  of  hay, 
and  178,846  lbs.  of  butter.  There  were  2,811 
horses,  8,907  milch  cows,  3,825  other  cattle, 
2,414  sheep,  and  7,152  swine;  4  fiour  and  6 
saw  mills,  12  manufactories  of  carriages  and 
wagons,  and  2  of  bricks.  Capital,  Fairfax 
Court  Honae. 


FAIRFAX 


61 


FIBFAX,  Edward,  an  English  poet,  born  at 
Denton,  Yorkshire,  died  in  the  parish  of  Fay- 
stone  about  1638.  The  translation  of  Tasso^s 
^^Jerasalem  Delivered,''  by  which  alone  his 
name  is  remembered,  was  made  in  his  youth, 
and  dedicated  to  Queen  Elizabeth,  and  was 
long  enthusiastically  admired.  The  first  edi- 
tion was  dated  1600.  Its  popularity  has  re- 
vived in  the  present  century,  and  several  edi- 
tions have  appeared  in  England  and  the  United 
States.  The  last  American  edition  was  in 
1855.  He  also  wrote  a  few  eclogues,  a  prose 
work  on  demonology,  and  a  ^*  History  of  Ed- 
ward the  Black  Prince,''  the  manuscript  of 
which  was  destroyed  by  fire  at  Whitehall. 

FAIRFAX,  Thonas,  third  Baron  Fairfax  of 
Cameron,  in  the  Scottish  peerage,  grand-nephew 
of  the  preceding,  a  parliamentary  general  in 
the  civil  wars  of  Charles  I.,  bom  at  Denton, 
Yorkshire,  in  January,  1611,  died  at  Bilburgh, 
near  York,  Nov.  12,  1671.  He  studied  at  St. 
John's  college,  Cambridge,  served  as  a  volun- 
teer in  Holland,  under  the  command  of  Lord 
Vere,  whose  daughter  he  afterward  married, 
returned  to  England  in  1634  or  1635,  and  lived 
in  retirement  till  the  breaking  out  of  the  war 
in  1642.  When  the  king  set  about  raising  a 
gaard  for  his  person  at  York,  Fairfax  presented 
himself  at  tlie  head  of  a  multitude  of  100,000, 
prajiag  that  he  would  return  and  hearken  to 
his  parliament.  The  first  hostilities  occurring 
in  Yorksliire,  Fairfax's  father,  Ferdinando, 
second  Lord  Fairfax,  was  made  general  of  the 
parliamentary  forces  in  the  north,  with  himself 
(then  Sir  Thomas  Fairfax)  as  his  general  of  the 
horse.  They  were  denounced  as  traitors  by 
the  earl  of  Newcastle,  the  royal  commander 
in  those  parts,  who  in  turn  was  proclaimed  a 
traitor  by  the  parliament.  The  Fiurfaxes  were 
defeated  in  several  encounters,  and  completely 
routed  in  an  attack  upon  the  royalist  forces 
nnder  the  earl  of  Newcastle  at  Atherton  Moor. 
The  first  parliamentary  success  of  1644  was 
that  of  Nantwich,  in  Cheshire,  where  Sir 
Thomas  Fairfax  defeated  Byron  with  great  loss, 
and  Monk,  the  future  restorer  of  the  monarchy, 
was  taken  prisoner.  Fairfax  then  Joined  the 
Scotch  army,  which  to  the  number  of  20,000, 
under  the  command  of  Lord  Leven,  had  crossed 
the  Tyne,  and  united  with  the  earl  of  Manches- 
ter's army,  in  which  Cromwell  was  migor 
general  At  Marston  Moor,  near  York,  on 
July  2,  Fairfax  gained  a  temporary  success; 
bat  the  victory  was  decided  only  by  the  steady 
valor  of  the  republicans  under  Cromwell. 
York  was  immediately  forced  to  surrender, 
and  Sir  Thomas  quickly  reduced  the  remaining 
royalist  fortresfies  north  of  the  Trent,  and  after 
the  passage  of  the  self-denying  ordinance  in 
1646  received  from  parliament  the  appointment 
of  commander-in-chief.  On  April  8  he  de- 
parted for  Windsor,  where  with  the  assistance 
of  Cromwell,  who  was  his  lieutenant,  he  set 
about  remodelling  the  army.  On  June  14  the 
hostile  forces  met  at  Naseby,  where  Fairfax 
and  Cromwell  pierced«the  royalist  ranks  in  all 


direotions.  The  personal  valor  of  Fairfax  was 
especially  signalized  in  this  battle.  He  was 
constantly  in  the  thickest  of  the  fight,  and 
rode  about  bareheaded  after  his  helmet  was 
beaten  to  pieces.  He  now  quickly  recovered 
Leicester,  Langport,  Bridgewater,  and  Bath. 
Bristol  soon  surrendered,  and  the  speedy  re- 
duction of  the  kingdom  followed,  Fairfax  and 
Cromwell  having  to  this  end  divided  their 
forces.  In  the  politics  of  the  dominant  party 
Fairfax  had  now  to  play  the  difiicult  part  of 
a  sincere  advocate  of  monarchical  power.  He 
seems  to  have  been  led  on  by  Cromwell,  and 
to  have  been  the  instrument  of  projects  whose 
depth  he  could  not  fathom.  In  1648  he  anni- 
hilated the  last  remains  of  the  royalist  party 
at  Colchester.  His  own  infiuence  declined  as 
that  of  Cromwell  and  the  Independents  in- 
creased ;  and  though  his  loyal  instincts  re- 
coiled from  the  judicial  trial  of  the  king,  he 
was  unable  to  prevent  it.  He  accepted  the 
command  of  all  the  forces  of  England  and  Ire- 
land under  the  new  government,  put  down  the 
Levellers  in  Oxfordshire,  and  composed  the 
troubles  in  Hampshire.  When  in  1650  the 
Scots  declared  for  Charles  II.,  he  refused  to 
march  against  them,  and  laid  down  his  com- 
mission. When  Monk  entered  England,  Fair-i 
fax  took  possession  of  York,  Jan.  1,  1660.  He 
gave  his  consent  to  the  restoration  of  the  mon- 
archy, and  presented  to  King  Charles  the  horse 
on  which  he  rode  to  his  coronation,  after  which 
he  went  into  retirement.  Lord  Fairfax  was  a 
friend  of  learning,  and  in  his  youth  devoted 
much  attention  to  antiquarian  studies.  During 
the  siege  of  York,  when  a  tower  containing 
many  ancient  docaments  was  blown  up,  he  re- 
warded the  soldiers  for  bringing  him  as  many 
as  could  be  found,  and  employed  Roger  Dods- 
worth  to  copy  them ;  they  now  make  a  part 
of  the  Monastieon  Anglicanum.  When  he 
took  possession  of  Oxford,  June  24,  1646,  he 
set  a  guard  over  the  Bodleian  library,  which 
otherwise  might  have  been  destroyed.  He 
wrote  a  narrative  of  his  career  from  the  com- 
mencement of  the  war,  not  intended  for  the 
public  eye,  but  which  was  published  in  1699 
under  the  title  of  **  Short  Memorials  of  Thomas, 
Lord  Fairfax." — See  "  The  Fairfax  Correspon- 
dence," edited  from  the  family  manuscripts  by 
Robert  Bell  (4  vols.,  London,  1849) ;  and  "  Life 
of  the  Great  Lord  Fairfax,"  by  C.  R.  Mark- 
ham  (1870). 

FAIRFAX,  Thoms,  sixth  Baron  Fairfax  of 
Cameron,  a  British  nobleman,  bom  about 
1690,  died  at  Greenway  Court,  near  Winches- 
ter, Va.,  in  1782.  He  was  educated  at  Ox- 
ford, ^i^oj^  a  reputation  as  a  wit  and  man  of 
letters,  and  contributed  some  papers  to  the 
"Spectator."  He  visited  Virginia  in  1739  to 
look  after  the  large  estates  he  had  inherited 
from  his  mother,  the  daughter  of  Lord  Cul- 
peper,  governor  of  the  province  between 
1680  and  1688.  They  comprised  upward  of 
5,700,000  acres  lying  between  the  Potomac 
and  Rappahannock  rivers,  on  both  sides  of  the 


62 


FAIRFIELD 


Blue  Ridge,  including  a  great  portion  of  the 
Shenandoah  valley.  Ho  resided  afterward 
at  Belvoir,  near  Mount  Vernon,  on  the  Poto- 
mac. In  1748  he  made  the  acquaintance  of 
George  Washington,  then  a  youth  of  16,  and, 
impressed  with  his  energy  and  talents,   em- 

Eloyed  him  to  survey  liis  lands  lying  west  of  the 
Hue  Ridge.  This  was  the  commencement  of 
an  intimacy  between  Faiiiux  and  Washington, 
which  survived  all  differences  of  opinion  on 
political  subjects,  and  terminated  only  with 
the  death  of  the  former.  So  favorable  was  the 
report  of  Washington,  that  his  employer  soon 
after  took  up  his  residence  at  Greenway  Court, 
in  the  midst  of  a  manor  of  10,000  acres,  about 
12  miles  from  Winchester,  where  during  the 
remainder  of  his  life  he  lived  in  a  state  of  ba- 
ronial hospitality.  During  the  panic  on  the 
Virginian  frontier  after  the  defeat  of  Braddock, 
F^rfax  organized  a  troop  of  horse,  and,  as 
lord  lieutenant  of  Frederick  county,  called  out 
the  local  militia.  During  the  revolutionary 
war  he  adhered  to  the  royal  cause.  The  sur- 
render at  Yorktown  deeply  wounded  his  na- 
tional pride,  and,  according  to  tradition,  was 
the  immediate  cause  of  his  death,  which  hap- 
pened soon  after.  The  generosity  of  Lord 
Fairfax  is  exemplified  in  the  surrender  of  his 
large  estates  in  England  to  his  brother,  and  in 
his  frequent  gifts  of  lands  to  his  poor  neiglibors 
in  Virginia. — The  title  is  still  vested  in  his 
descendants,  the  present  and  11th  baron  (1874) 
being  John  Cout^e  Fairfax,  M.  D.,  of  Bladens- 
burg,  Md. 

FAIRHELIk  I.  A  S.  W.  county  of  Connecti- 
cut, bordering  on  Long  Island  sound  and  the 
state  of  New  York,  and  bounded  N.  E.  by  the 
Housatonic  river ;  area,  647  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  95,276.  It  has  excellent  harbors  all 
along  the  coast,  and  contains  several  important 
commercial  ports.  The  Housatonic  is  naviga- 
ble by  steamboats,  and  supplies  valuable  water 
power.  The  surface  of  the  county  is  consider- 
ably diversified,  and  the  soil  is  good.  It  is 
traversed  by  numerous  railroads  connecting 
with  New  York,  New  Haven,  Albany,  &c.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  13,812  bushels 
of  wheat,  46,457  of  rye,  286,683  of  Indian 
corn,  172,482  of  oats,  515,128  of  potatoes,  78,- 
950  tons  of  hay,  880,261  lbs.  of  butter,  and 
190,047  of  tobacco.  There  were  5,652  horses, 
14,214  milch  cows,  15,263  other  cattle,  6,082 
sheep,  and  8,200  swine.  There  were  754 
manufacturing  establishments,  with  an  aggre- 
gate capital  of  $12,145,097.  The  most  impor- 
tant were  2  of  ammunition,  12  of  boots  and 
shoes,  7  of  buttons,  24  of  carriages  and  wagons, 
32  of  clothing,  3  of  cotton  goods,  8  of  drugs 
and  chemicals,  1  of  small  arms,  7  of  furniture, 
4  of  gas,  14  of  hardware,  6  of  hat  materials, 
27  of  hats  and  caps,  1  of  rubber  goods,  2  of 
patent  and  enamelled  leather,  4  of  engines  and 
boilers,  5  of  tombstones,  18  of  saddlery  and 
harness,  7  of  sashes,  doors,  and  blinds,  1  of 
sewing-machine  fixtures,  3  of  sewing  machines, 
1  of  steel,  8  of  steel  springs,  1  of  straw  gooda, 


23  of  tin,  copper,  and  sheet-iron  ware,  1  of 
wire  work,  9  of  woollen  goods,  1  planing  mill, 
23  fiour  mills,  13  iron  works,  and  4  brass 
founded es.  Capitals,  Bridgeport  and  Danbury. 
II.  A  N.  central  county  of  South  Carolina, 
bounded  S.  W.  by  Broad  river,  and  N.  E.  by 
the  Wateree ;  area,  680  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
19,888,  of  whom  14,101  were  colored.  It  has 
an  uneven  surface  and  a  fertile  soil.  It  is 
traversed  by  the  Charlotte,  Columbia,  and 
Augusta,  the  Spartanburg  and  Union,  and  the 
Greenfield  and  Columbia  railroads.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  28,005  bushels  of 
wheat,  218,054  of  Indian  corn,  16,269  of  oats, 
and  14,024  bales  of  cotton.  There  were  1,142 
horses,  2,556  mules  and  asses,  2,891  milch 
cows,  3,900  other  cattle,  and  6,044  swine. 
Capital,  Winnsborough.  III.  A  central  coun- 
ty of  Ohio,  with  a  surface  diversified  by  hills, 
plains,  and  rolling  lands,  and  a  soil  of  great 
fertility;  area,  490  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  81,- 
138.  It  is  intersected  by  the  Ohio  and  Hock- 
ing canals,  and  the  Cincinnati  and  Muskingum 
Valley  and  the  Hocking  Valley  railroads;  and 
is  drained  by  the  head  stream  of  Hocking  river, 
and  by  several  small  creeks.  Limestone  and 
freestone  are  abundant.  The  chief  productions 
in  1870  were  553,924  bushels  of  wheat,  1,706,- 
216  of  Indian  com,  24,288  of  oats,  24,431  of 
barley,  116,281  of  potatoes,  25,107  tons  of  hay, 
1  609,848  lbs.  of  butter,  and  175,239  of  wool. 
!  There  were  8,728  horses,  7,956  milch  cows, 
13,204  other  cattle,  40,138  sheep,  and  35,995 
swine ;  4  manufactories  of  agricultural  imple- 
ments, 12  of  carriages  and  w^agons,  9  of  clothing, 
4  of  iron  castings,  12  of  saddlery  and  harness, 
4  of  woollen  goods,  2  planing  and  9  saw  mills, 
8  tanneries,  8  currying  establishments,  4  brew- 
eries, and  13  flour  mills.    Capital,  Lancaster. 

FAIRFIELD,  a  town,  port  of  entry,  and  for- 
merly capital  of  Fairfield  co.,  Connecticut,  on 
Long  Island  sound,  and  on  the  New  York  and 
New  Haven  railroad,  20  m.  W.  S.  W.  of  New 
Haven ;  pop.  in  1870,  5,645.  The  village  is 
half  a  mile  from  the  sound,  principally  on  one 
^road  street,  and  in  the  vicinity  is  a  spacious 
hotel  for  summer  visitors.  The  village  of 
Greenfield  Hill,  in  which  Dr.  Timothy  Dwight 
resided,  is  in  this  town.  About  li  m.  E.  of  Fair- 
field village  is  Black  Rock,  one  of  the  finest 
harbors  in  Connecticut,  accessible  for  large 
vessels  at  all  times  of  tlie  tide.  About  2  m. 
W.  of  Fairfield,  at  the  mouth  of  Mile  river,  is 
the  village  of  Southport,  the  principal  business 
centre  of  the  town.  The  value  of  the  foreign 
commerce  for  the  year  ending  June  80,  1873, 
was  $29,410.  There  were  registered,  enrolled, 
and  licensed  184  vessels  of  11,507  tons,  of 
which  175  of  8,918  tons  were  sailing  vessels,  7 
steamers,  and  2  barges ;  built  during  the  year, 
19  vessels  of  210  tons.  Tlie  town  contains  2 
carriage  factories,  a  harness  factory,  a  national 
bank,  a  savings  institution,  an  insurance  agen- 
cy, 16  public  schools,  and  7  churches.  Fair- 
field was  settled  in  1689,  and  incorporated  in 
1616.    In  1779  it  was  burned  by  tlie  British 


FAIRIES 


63 


bnder  Gov.  Trjon.  Since  the  ceDsns  of  1870 
a  portion  oontaining  about  1,900  inhabitants 
hss  been  annexed  to  Bridgeport. 

FAIRIiSy  supernatural  beings,  generally  hu- 
man in  appearance,  but  endowed  with  super- 
human power,  who  have  played  an  important 
part  in  the  popular  superstition  of  nearly  all 
nations,  and  are  still  believed  to  exist  by  the 
common  people  of  many  countries.  The  origin 
of  the  word  is  obscure,  but  it  is  probably  related 
CO  the  Latin  fata  (pi.  oi  fatum\  which  is  the 
Italian  (sing.)  for  fairy.  The  difference  between 
a  fairy  and  a  god  or  goddess  of  ancient  Greece 
and  other  polytheistic  lands  is  very  small  in  re- 
gard to  the  superhuman  power  which,  they  are 
believed  to  possess ;  but  fairies  are  never  objects 
of  worship,  or  of  religious  sentiment  and  cere- 
mony, though  occasionally  invoked  for  aid,  or 
propitiated.  Fairies  are  believed  to  suffer  death 
after  a  more  or  less  extended  period.  They 
are  either  benevolent  or  malicious,  and  accord- 
ingly either  the  protectors  or  persecutors  of 
homau  beings.  Some  seem  to  have  no  other 
pnrpose  than  that  of  enticing  young  mortals 
into  their  habitations,  and  treating  them  for  a 
season  to  all  manner  of  sensual  pleasure.  Their 
nature  varies,  however,  with  every  nation. — 
The  a^^^nns  of  the  Hindoo  Vedas  are  the  general 
helpers  of  favorite  individuals ;  they  assist  in 
love  intrigues,  remove  bodily  infirmities,  supply 
riches^  succor  in  danger,  and  ride  in  chariots  of 
gold.  Bat  numerous  similar  beings  are  spoken 
of  in  the  Vedas,  and  it  may  be  that  the  adityas, 
also  commonly  mentioned  with  the  epithet  asu- 
ro,  belong  to  the  same  class.  The  peris  of  the 
Persian  legends  are  delicate  creatures  of  won- 
drona  beauty,  and  either  male  or  female.  They 
protect  mortals  against  the  power  of  the  devs, 
who  strive  to  drag  them  into  sin  and  eternal 
destruction.  Though  not  immortal,  they  en- 
joy great  longevity ;  and  though  possessed  of 
Boperhuman  power,  they  are  quite  human  in 
sentiment  and  passion.  The  Arabs  believe  in 
jinns,  who  take  the  place  of  the  Persian  peris, 
and  fight  against  the  devs.  They  are  said  to 
have  fived  on  earth  several  thousand  years 
before  Adam,  and  a  tradition  from  the  pro- 
phet says  they  were  formed  of  smokeless  fire. 
They  are  to  die  before  the  general  resurrection, 
but  many  of  them  have  already  been  slain  by 
shooting  stars  hurled  at  them  from  heaven. 
Not  all  are  obedient  to  the  will  of  God ;  some 
become  ghouls  and  side  with  the  devs.  They 
are  said  to  dwell  with  the  peris  in  the  moun- 
tains of  Xaf,  or  Jinnestan,  which  is  the  boun- 
dary region  of  the  flat  circular  earth.  They 
propagate  their  species,  and  unite  sometimes 
with  human  beings.  ITiey  can  render  them- 
selves visible  and  invisible,  and  assume  the 
form  of  animals.  The  Jews  believed  in  beings 
like  the  Arabian  jinns,  whom  they  called  she- 
dim,  aehirim,  or  mazzikim.  According  to  Tal- 
mudical  legends,  the  shedim  were  offspring  of 
Adam,  who  after  having  eaten  from  the  tree  of 
life  was  under  exoommunication  for  180  years, 
and  begat  during  that  time  spirits,  demons, 
812  VOL.  VII. — 5 


and  spectres  of  the  night.  They  are  said  to  re- 
semble angels  in  being  able  to  see  without  being 
seen,  in  having  wings,  and  in  knowing  the 
future;  and  to  resemble  man  in  eating  and 
drinking,  marrying,  and  bearing  children,  and 
in  being  subject  to  death.  They  have  the 
"power  of  assuming  any  form  they  please.  The 
Grecian  mythology  abounds  in  personifications, 
and  the  beings  who  presided  over  the  various 
parts  of  external  nature  were  mostly  con- 
ceived to  be  females,  and  were  denominated 
nymphs,  which  originally  signified  newly  mar- 
ried women.  They  were  always  represented  in 
the  perfection  of  beauty,  and  dwelt,  under  the 
various  names  of  oreads,  dryads,  naiads,  lim- 
niads,  and  nereids,  in  mountains,  trees,  springs, 
lakes,  the  sea,  caverns,  and  grottoes.  Their 
life  resembled  that  of  women,  and  they  oc 
casionally  bestowed  their  love  on  mortals. 
They  possessed  power  to  reward  and  punish, 
and  to  protect  and  persecute.  The  fairies  of 
the  Romans  were  like  those  of  Greece,  and 
were  generally  supposed  to  lead  a  solitary  life 
in  fountains,  streams,  and  lakes.  Of  these  £ge- 
ria,  Anna  Perenna,  and  Jutuma  were  the  most 
famous.  The  rural  lares  resembled  the  Gothic 
.dwarfs  in  size,  and  were  regarded  as  being  the 
souls  of  dead  men  who  lingered  near  their 
earthly  habitations.  The  lares  formed  part  of 
the  Etrurian  religion,  and  differed  from  the 
penates,  who  were  not  fairy-like  beings,  but 
gods,  or  personifications  of  natural  powers. — 
The  old  Italians  believed  in  a  being,  called  an 
incubo,  that  had  the  power  of  revealing  hidden 
treasures.  A  being  very  much  resembling  it 
occurs  stiU  in  the  popular  tales  of  modem  Na- 
ples. He  is  a  stout  little  man  with  a  broad- 
brimmed  hat  and  a  long  coat,  and  leads  people 
to  places  where  treasures  are  concealed.  His 
name  is  Monacello,  which  is  given  also  to  other 
diminutive  beings  resembling  the  house  spirit 
of  the  Germanic  nations.  The  most  prominent 
figures  in  ancient  and  modem  Italian  legends 
are  the/at^.  These  beings  are  ruled  by  Demo- 
gorgon,  who  resides  in  the  Himalaya  moun- 
tains, and  are  summoned  to  him  every  fifth 
year.  One  of  them,  the  Fata  Morgana,  was 
the  personification  of  Fortune,  and  plays  an 
important  r61e  in  the  Orlando  innanwrato. 
In  that  poem  Boiardo  introduces  the  Fata  Sil- 
vanella,  who  raised  a  tomb  over  Narcissus, 
and  then  dissolved  away  in  a  fountain;  and 
when  Brandamarte  opens  the  tomb  and  Idsses 
the  hideous  serpent  that  thrusts  out  its  head, 
it  becomes  a  beautiful  maiden.  Other  fate  are 
Nera,  Bianca,  Alcina,  Dragontina,  and  Falerina. 
The  fairies  of  Spain  are  not  very  numerous, 
and  Spanish  fairy  lore  is  very  scanty.  There 
is  a  tale  of  a  girl  seized  by  demons  who  re- 
side at  the  bottom  of  a  lake ;  another  of  a 
nobleman  who  married  a  woman  that  flew  into 
the  air  at  hearing  tlie  name  of  the  Virgin 
Mary ;  and  another  of  a  hunchback  musician, 
who  was  one  night  surrounded  by  little  beings, 
whom  he  so  pleased  with  his  art  that  they 
removed  his  hunch.    The  greatest  reputation 


64 


FAIRIES 


is  enjoyed  by  the  daendes  and  trasgoa,  who  re- 
semble the  house  spirits. — The  dracs  of  southern 
France  assume  the  human  form,  reside  in  the 
caverns  of  rivers,  and  entice  bathing  women 
and  boys.  The  foUets  inhabit  the  houses  of 
simple  country  people,  and  are  invisible,  though 
their  voices  are  heard ;  their  chief  employ- 
ment seems  to  be  pelting  people  with  stones 
and  household  utensils.  There  are  also  ac- 
counts of  spirits  who  suddenly  enter  a  house, 
ransack  and  upset  everything,  and  torment 
those  who  are  sleeping  in  it.  The  fadas  were 
fairy  ladies  who  became  the  spouses  of  men, 
and  lived  with  them  in  great  felicity ;  but  when 
a  husband  discovered  the  secret  of  their  nature, 
or  became  unfaithful,  be  either  died  instantly 
or  led  a  wretched  life  for  the  remainder  of  his 
days.  The  f6es,  lutins,  or  gobelins  of  the  north 
of  France  are  similar  to  the  kobolds  and  nisses 
of  other  nations.  The  f6es  are  small  and 
handsome,  dance  in  circles  or  fairy  rings  by 
night,  haunt  solitary  springs  and  grottoes, 
mount  and  gallop  strange  horses,  sitting  upon 
the  neck  and  tying  together  locks  of  the  mane 
to  form  stirrups,  always  bring  luck  by  their 
presence,  and,  like  the  fjEdries  of  most  coun- 
tries, were  believed  to  preside  at  births,  to 
love  young  children,  to  give  them  presents, 
and  to  steal  tliem  away,  leaving  instead  their 
own  fairy  offspring,  which  were  called  change- 
lings, and  were  unusually  beautiful  in  counte- 
nance but  evil  in  propensities.  In  the  12th  and 
18th  centuries  the  forest  of  Brezeliande,  near 
Quentinin  Brittany,  was  thought  to  contain  the 
tomb  of  Merlin,  and  to  be  a  chief  seat  of  the 
fairies.  The  white  ladies  were  Norman  fairies, 
and  often  malignant.  They  were  supposed  to 
be  attached  to  certain  great  families,  in  whose 
affairs  they  interfered,  sometimes  for  good, 
sometimes  for  evil.  The  white  lady  of  Avenel 
in  Scott's  romance  of  *^  The  Monastery  "  is  an 
instance  of  this  kind.  The  lutins  or  goblins 
were  playful  and  malicious  elves,  pinching 
children  and  maidens,  twisting  their  hair  into 
inexplicable  knots  when  they  were  asleep,  and 
delighting  to  perplex  peasants  and  to  bring 
them  into  difficulty.  One  of  the  chief  articles 
of  accusation  against  the  maid  of  Orleans  was 
that  she  resorted  to  a  fountain  of  the  fairies  to 
see  her  visions;  and  in  Brittany  there  are 
fountains  still  regarded  by  the  natives  as  sacred 
to  the  fairies,  and  believed  to  sometimes  change 
into  gold  or  diamond  the  hand  that  is  inserted 
into  them. — ^The  Eddas  of  the  Scandinavians 
tell  of  alfs  that  are  either  whiter  than  the  sun 
and  live  on  earth,  or  blacker  than  pitch,  and 
live  under  ground;  and  of  dvergar,  who  are 
diminutive  beings  dwelling  in  rocks  and  hills, 
and  skilful  workmen  in  gold,  silver,  and  iron. 
The  alfs  live  still  in  the  imagination  of  the 
peasantry  of  Scandinavia,  and  are  distinguish- 
ed as  either  white  or  black.  The  white  alfs 
are  the  good  elves,  who  dwell  in  the  air,  dance 
on  the  grass,  and  have  when  they  show  them- 
selves a  handsome  human  form.  The  black 
aliS  are  the  evil  elves,  who  frequently  inflict 


injury  on  mankind.  The  elves  are  believed  to 
have  kings,  and  to  celebrate  weddings  and  en- 
joy banqueting,  and  singing.  The  Norwegians 
call  the  elves  huJdrafolk,  and  their  music  hut' 
draslaat  There  is  also  a  tune  called  the  df 
king's  tune,  which  is  well  known,  but  not 
sung  or  played ;  for  as  soon  as  it  begins  both 
old  and  young,  and  even  inanimate  objects, 
are  impelled  to  dance,  and  the  player  cannot 
stop  unless  he  manages  to  play  the  tune  back- 
ward. The  Danes  call  the  elves  ell^olk^  and 
believe  that  they  live  in  elle  moors.  An  elf 
man  is  an  old  man  with  a  low-crowned  hat. 
The  elf  woman  is  young  and  fair  in  front, 
but  behind  she  is  hollow  like  a  dough  trough ; 
and  she  has  an  instrument  which  when  she 
plays  on  it  ravishes  the  hearts  of  young  men. 
The  more  usual  appellation  of  the  dwarfs  is  troll 
or  Prold^  and  they  are  represented  as  living 
either  in  single  families  or  in  large  communities 
inside  of  hills  and  mounds.  Their  character 
seems  to  have  gradually  sunk  down  to  tiie 
level  of  the  peasantry.  They  are  regarded  as 
rich,  obliging,  and  neighborly,  but  they  have 
a  sad  propensity  for  stealing.  The  nisses  are 
domestic  fairies  of  Norway,  and  are  fond  of 
frolicking  by  moonlight  and  of  driving  in 
sledges  in  the  winter.  Every  church  had  its 
niss,  who  was  then  called  a  kirJcegrim;  it 
looked  after  propriety  of  manners  and  pun- 
ished misconduct.  The  rivers  and  lakes  are 
inhabited  by  necks,  stromkarls,  and  other  beings 
similar  to  mermen  and  mermaids.  They  are 
wonderful  musicians,  and  when  they  play  oa 
their  harps  all  nature  has  to  dance. — The 
Germans  believed  in  d waifs  and  elves,  wild 
women,  kobolds,  and  nixes  or  water  spirits. 
The  dwarfs  were  also  known  as  the  still 
people  and  the  little  people,  and  had  their 
abodes  underground  and  in  the  clefts  of 
mountains.  They  visited  the  surface  of  the 
earth  only  by  night,  and  could  render  tiliem- 
selves  invisible  and  pass  through  rocks  and 
walls.  They  were  generally  benevolent.  The 
beings  called  ^^  little  wights  "  inhabited  south- 
em  Germany.  They  are  only  a  few  inches  in 
stature,  and  look  like  old  men- with  long  beards, 
dressed  like  miners,  with  lanterns  and  tools. 
They  announce  a  death  in  a  family  by  knock- 
ing three  times.  The  wild  women  are  beauti- 
ful, and  live  in  the  mountain  Wunderberg,  on 
the  moor  near  Salzburg.  Kobolds  assist  in  the 
household,  and  love  to  play  tricks  on  the  ser- 
vants. The  miner's  kobold  reveals  valuable 
veins  and  protects  the  virtuous.  The  nixes 
inhabit  lakes  and  rivers ;  the  male  is  like  a  man, 
old  and  long-bearded,  has  green  teeth,  and 
always  wears  a  green  hat;  the  female  appears 
sometimes  as  a  beautiful  maiden,  but  often  in 
a  body  terminating  in  the  form  of  a  fish  or 
of  a  horse.  They  have  magnificent  dwellings 
under  the  water,  to  which  they  love  to  en- 
tice handsome  mortals.  They  comb  their 
golden  locks  on  sunny  days,  sitting  on  rocks 
and  trees. — In  Ireland  and  Scotland  fairies 
were  believed  to  shoot  at  cattle  with  arrows 


FAIRIES 


FAEIB 


65 


headed  with  flint,  and  thns  to  bewitch  them ; 
these  small   arrowheads  are  known  to  the 
country  people  and  antiquaries  as  elf  arrows. 
The  elf  nre  was  the  ignis  /atuus,  and  other 
Inminons  points  on  moors  and  heaths  were 
called  fairj  sparks.    A  mole  or  defect  on  a 
person  was  a  fairy  nip  or  an  elvish  mark,  and 
a  matted  lock  of  hair  in  the  neck  an  elf  lock. 
The  Oaelio  fairies  are  very  handsome,  are  usu- 
ally attired  in  green^  and  dance,  lend  and  bor- 
row, and  make  shoes  very  rapidly.    The  Gaels 
call  them  daoine  thi  or  men  of  peace,  and  their 
'  habitations  thians  or  tomharM^  which  are  like 
turrets,  and  consist  of  masses  of  stone.    Some 
mortals  have   been   among  them,  and  after 
bananeting  with  them  they  fell  asleep  and 
awoke  after  a  hundred  years.    The  brownie  and 
kelpie  of  the  Highlands  seek  to  decoy  unwary 
people  to  ride  on  them  when  they  appear  in 
the  form  of  horses,  and  plunge  with  them  into 
the  neighboring  loch  or  river. — The  fairies  of 
EaglancT  correspond  with  those  of  the  Scan- 
dinavians and  Germans,  but  the  fairies  of  the 
English  people  are  somewhat  different  from 
those  of  the  poets.    The  popular  fairies  were 
either  rural  elves,  inhabiting  woods,  fields, 
mountains,  and  caverns;  or  house  spirits,  usu- 
ally called  hobgoblins  or  Robin  Goodfellows. 
The  fairies  of  the  **  Fa3rie  Queen "  of  Spen- 
ser and  those  of  the  ^*  Midsummer  Night's 
Dream"  are  not  the  same.     The  former  are 
stately  beings,  typical  of  the  moral  virtues, 
with  traits  borrowed  from  the  Italian  fairy 
mythology,  dwelling  in  enchanted  castles,  sur- 
rounded by  courts  of  knights  and  ladies,  and 
ruling  over  extensive  kingdoms    Shakespeare 
adopted  the  elves  and  pixies  of  popular  super- 
stition, with  their  diminutive  stature,  fondness 
fur  dancing,  love  of  cleanliness,  and  child- 
stealmg  propensities,  formed  them  into  a  com- 
munity ruleid  over  by  Oberon  and  Titania  or 
Queen  Mab,  and  gave  immortality  to  "that 
merry  wanderer  of  the  night,"  Puck,  alias 
Robin  Goodfellow,    alias    Uobgoblm.     The 
**Mad  Pranks  and  Merry  Jests  of  Robin  Good- 
fellow  "  (printed  by  the  Percy  society,  1841) 
was  originally  published  in  the  age  of  Shake- 
speare, and  famishes  the  first  records  of  this 
mischievous  son  of  a  fairy,  who  **  from  hag- 
bred  Merlin's  time ''  had  been  famous  for  his 
pranks.    Oorresponding  to  him  are  the  Rtl- 
bezahl  or  Number  Nip  of  German  fairy  lore, 
the  Clnricaune  of  Ireland,  the  Eulenspiegel  of 
Germany,  and  the  Howleglass  or  Owlespiegle  of 
Scotland. — ^The  North  American  Indians  have 
many  quaint  fairy  legends,  which  have  been 
collected  and  narrated  by  Schoolcraft;  and  it 
appears  from  Mitford's  ''Tales  of  Old  Japan'' 
that  the  Japanese  have  numerous  books  of 
£ury  stories,  in  which  the  fox  plays  an  impor- 
tant part.  These  stories  are  mostly  for  children. 
—The  earliest  collection  of  European  fairy 
stories  in  prose  was  the  Italian  Notti  piacevoli 
of  Straparola  (Venice,  1650).    The  best  Ital- 
ian collection  is  the  Fentamerone  of  Giambat- 
tista  Basile  (Naples,  1687;  translated  from 


the  Neapolitan  by  W.  E,  Taylor,  London, 
1856) ;  it  is  full  of  learned  allusions  and  keen 
satire,  and  designed  for  the  amusement  only 
of  grown  persons.  Near  the  end  of  the  17th 
century  the  Contes  des  fees  of  Perrault  and 
Madame  d'Aulnoy,  and  their  successors,  gave 
vogue  to  fairy  stories  throughout  Europe,  writ- 
ten chiefly  for  the  instruction  and  amusement 
of  children.  The  '*  Arabian  Nights'  Entertain* 
ments,"  introduced  into  Europe  by  Galland 
about  the  beginning  of  the  18th  century,  con- 
tributed much  to  their  popularity,  and  was 
quickly  followed  by  various  imitations  of  the 
Arabian,  Persian,  Turkish,  and  Mongol  tales. 
The  ''  Tales  of  the  Genii "  by  James  Ridley, 
the  Fahlei  et  eantes  indiens  of  Langlds,  and 
the  later  Conies  chinois  of  R^musat,  are  ex- 
amples. The  best  later  imitations  are  some  of 
the  tales  of  Tieck,  Musftus,  and  Novalis,  and 
especially  of  La  Motte  Fouqu^,  and  the  ro- 
mance of  the  caliph  *^  Vathek,"  by  Beckford. 
Hans  Christian  Andersen's  fairy  tales  hold  a 
high  rank  in  this  species  of  literature. — The 
best  works  on  the  subject  are  Keightley's 
"Fairy  Mythology"  (enlarged  ed.,  1860); 
Scott's  "  Essay  on  the  Fairy  Superstition,"  in 
the  "Mmstrelsy  of  the  Scottish  Border;" 
Oroker's  *^  Fairy  Legends  and  Traditions  of 
the  South  of  Ireland  "  (1825) ;  Dalyell's  ''  Dark- 
er Superstitions  of  Scotland"  (1888);  "Rus- 
sian Popular  Tales,"  translated  from  the  Ger- 
man of  Dietrich,  with  an  introduction  by 
Grimm  (London,  1857);  Dasent's  "Popular 
Tales  from  the  Norse"  (1859);  Strahlheim's 
SagenschaU  aller  Volker  der  alien  Welt  (Frank- 
fort, 1862) ;  Braun's  NaturgesehUhie  der  Sage 
f2  vols.,  Munich,  1864-'5);  and  Kremer's 
Ueber  die  sUdarahische  Sage  (Leipsic,  1866). 

FAIR  OAKS,  Battle  ef.    See  Ohiokahomhtt. 

FAITHFI7LL,  Eaily.    See  supplement. 

FAITHORNE.  L  WUHaa,  an  English  engraver, 
bom  in  London  about  1625,  died  therein  May, 
1691.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Sir  Robert  Peake, 
served  under  him  in  the  royal  army,  and  was 
captured  at  Basinghouse  and  confined  in  Al- 
dersgate.  He  was  at  length  released  and  went 
to  France,  where  he  received  instruction  from 
Robert  Nanteuil.  In  1650  he  was  permitted  to 
return,  and  set  up  a  shop  near  Temple  Bar, 
where  he  did  a  large  business  in  Italian, 
Dutch,  and  English  prints,  and  also  continued 
his  professional  work.  He  is  most  famous  for 
his  portraits,  of  which  he  produced  a  large 
number,  including  Cromwell,  Prince  Rupert, 
Milton,  Sir  Thomas  Fairfax,  Thomas  Hobbes, 
and  Robert  Boyle.  In  1662  he  published  a 
treatise  on  engraving  and  etching.  II.  WflUaay 
son  of  the  preceding,  bom  in  1656,  died  in 
1686.  Like  his  father,  his  best  works  were 
portraits;  but  he  confined  himself  mainly  to 
the  mezzotint  process.  He  became  dissipated, 
and  died  early.  Among  his  portraits  are  those 
of  Mary,  princess  of  Orange,  Queen  Anne 
when  princess  of  Denmark,  and  Drydeu. 

FAKIR  (an  Arabic  word  meaning  a  poor 
man),  the  name  of  a  mendicant  order  in  the 


East  Indies,  like  the  dervishes  of  Persia  and 
Turkey.  The  firat  condition  of  an  ladisn  men- 
dicant monk  is  poverty.  He  wears  a  rent  rolie, 
such  as  tlie  HuBsulinans  pretend  the  ancient 
proiihets  wore.  In  10  things,  according  to 
HaBsau  el-Basari,  he  is  like  a  dog:  he  is  al- 
ways hungry ;  he  has  no  sure  abiding  place ; 
lie  watches  by  night;  he  never  abandons  hia 
master,  even  when  maltreated ;  he  is  aatisfied 


FALA8HA8 

is  highly  honored.    They  are  the  children  of 

Soor  parents,  who  live  in  retirement  in  mosqnes, 
evoted  to  the  reading  of  the  Koran  and  the 
stndj  of  the  laws,  till  they  become  qnalified  for 

the  duties  of  mollahi  or  doctors  of  theology. 
The  fakirs  often  inflict  upon  themselves  very 
severe  penances.  Some  remain  bent  forward 
in  the  form  of  a  right  angle  nntil  they  grow 
permanently  into  that  shape.  Others  lay  fire 
on  their  heads  till  their  scalps  are  burned  to 
the  bone.  Sometimes  a  fakir  ties  his  wrists 
to  his  ankles,  has  his  back  plastered  with  Sltb, 
and  then  makes  a  journey  of  hundreds  of 
miles,  rolling  along  like  a  cart  wheel,  and 
stopping  at  the  villages  for  rest  and  food. 

FAUI8E  (Lat.  FaUiia),  a  town  of  Norman- 
dy, France,  in  the  depaKment  of  Calvados, 
22  m.  8.  8.  E.  of  Caen,  on  the  river  Ante,  and 
on  a  branch  of  the  'Western  railway;  pop.  in 
1866,  8,621.  It  is  built  upon  clifi^,  command- 
ed by  on  old  Norman  castle  and  sarronnded  by 
a  pictnresque  country.  It  has  a  commnnal 
college,  a  public  library,  several  ancient 
churches,  and  an  equestrian  statue  of  William 
the  Conqueror,  who  was  bum  here,  erected  in 


Fikln  perfonnlng  Penuc*. 

with  the  lowest  place;  he  yields  his  place  to 
whoever  wishes  it;  he  loves  whoever  beats 
him;  keeps  quiet  while  others  eat;  accom- 
panies his  master  without  ever  thinking  of  re- 
turning to  the  place  he  has  left;  ana  leaves  ^ 
no  heritage  after  death.  The  number  of  Mus-  i 
Bulman  and  Hindoo  fakirs  in  India  is  estimated 
at  more  than  1,000,000 ;  besides  whom  there 
are  many  other  religious  ascetics.  Some  fa- 
kirs remain  isolated,  go  entirely  naked,  and 
sleep  on  the  ground  with  no  covering.  They 
never  use  wood  for  making  fire,  bnt  employ  the 
dried  dung  of  cows;  regarding  this  as  an  act 
of  devotion,  since  the  cow  is  a  sacred  animal 
in  India.  They  carry  a  cudgel,  a  battle  axe,  or 
spear,  on  which  are  hung  rags  of  various  col- 
ors, and  they  traverse  the  country  beg^ng  and 
instructing  credulous  people  in  religion.  It  is 
dangerous  both  to  his  money  and  life  for  an 
unprotected  person  to  meet  them.  Another 
class  of  fakirs  unite  Into  companies,  and  wear 
fantastic  and  many-colored  robes.  They  choose 
a  chief,  who  is  distinguished  by  having   a 

Crer  dress  than  the  others,  and  who  has  a 
J  chain  attached  to  one  of  his  legs.  When 
he  prays  he  shakes  his  chain,  and  the  multi- 
tude press  around  him,  embrace  his  feet,  and 
receive  his  counsel  and  precepts.  He  has 
formulas  for  the  cure  of  the  paralytic,  and  es- 
pecially of  sterile  women.     One  dass  of  fakirs 


CuUe  or  FiliJse. 

1861.  The  celebrated  fair  of  Guibray,  insti- 
tuted in  the  11th  century,  is  annually  held 
here  in  AujruBt  in  a  suburb  of  that  name.  The 
town  has  manufactures  of  cotton  and  hosiery, 

FlLlSHiS,  the  Jewish  population  of  Abys- 
sinia, nnmbcring  about  260,000,  who  have  in- 
habited that  country  from  time  immemorial. 
Their  name  signifies  exiles  or  wanderers,  and 
they  profess  to  have  come  originally  from  Pal- 


cstioe  and  to  hnve  belonged  to  the  tribe  of 
Levi  They  are  Jewish  in  thoir  modea  of  life, 
tlioQgh  nut  in  their  appearanoe,  and  differ  from 
tbeir  co-re] igiouists  in  regarding  oommerce  aa 
incompatible  with  the  Mosaic  law.  Thej  col- 
tirate  the  soil,  and  excel  io  vorioua  trades,  ea- 
p«ciallj  BH  STohiteota.  They  are  laborious  and 
well  behaved,  bnt  unable  or  unwilling  to  per- 
form militarj  duty,  from  wliich  they  are  oim- 
eeqneatly  exempt.  They  are  ao  rigid  in  tlie 
obserrsnce  of  the  eabbath  that  tbey  ftbstuD 
even  from  dressing  themselves  on  that  day. 
They  constituted  in  the  higher  regions  of 
ttie  country  an  independent  tribe  ooder  tbe 
rule  of  their  own  liings  and  qneone  until 
the  beginning  of  the  ITth  century,  when  they 
were  driven  from  tbeir  mountain  homts  and 
ijumpelled  to  reside  amon;^  their  enemies  the 
Ambaras.  They  Hre  at  present  in  the  prov- 
inces of  Dembea,  Godjam,  Qaara,  Tcbelga,  and 
Weggera;  and  their  villages  are  easily  recog- 
niied  by  the  red  clay  pots  at  the  top  of  their 
BTDagognes.  They  have  the  Old  Testament  in 
Uie  (leaz  language,  and  the  apocryphal  books 
which  are  accepted' by  the  Abyssinian  church, 
—See  articles  by  Joseph  Hal^vy  in  the  Bal- 
Ulin  of  the  French  geographical  society,  Uarch 
and  April,  18fl9. 

FILOOX,  a  bird  of  prey,  belonging  to  the  or- 
der raptoret,  family  Jaleonida,  subfamily  ^I- 
cmtina,  and  to  tbe  typical  genus  faleo  (Linn.). 
This  snbfamily  contains  the  following  genera, 
ID  addition  to  falco^  of  which  about  a  dozen 
species  are  described;  Aypotriorehu  (Boie), 
with  as  many  species ;  ieraeidea  (Gould),  with 
t*D  oMcies,  found  in  Anstralia;  tinnuneulus 
(VimU.),  with  S  dozen  species ;  ierax  (Vigors), 
witb  six  species,  in  India  and  its  islands ;  and 
harpofpu  (Vigors),  in  Sonth  America,  with  a 
single  species,  oboracterized  by  having  the 
lateral  margin  of  the  bill  armed  with  two  dis- 
^Qct  teeth  on  each  side.  The  birds  of  these 
genera  may  oil  be  called  falcons,  from  the 
nmunon  characters  of  a  short  bill,  much  ourved 
from  tbe  base  to  the  tip,  with  its  sides  more  or 
I«a  ramiahed  with  serrations  called  teeth ;  the 
cere  covering  the  nostrils,  which  are  rounded 
or  linear;  the  wings  lengthened  and  pointed, 
the  second  and  third  quilla  generally  the  long- 
cat;  the  tail  lengthened  and  rounded ;  the  toes 
long  sad  dender,  and  claws  curved  and  acnte. 
The  birds  of  tbe  gennsyaJa),  which  only  will 
be  treated  in  this  article,  are  called  noble  birds 
of  prey,  because  in  proportion  to  their  size 
they  are  the  most  courageous  and  powerful ; 
they  are  also  more  docile,  and  were  formerly 
mach  used  in  the  sport  of  falconry  to  pursue 
tnd  till  game,  returning  to  their  masters  when 
called.  The  pigeon  hawk  (B.  eolianiaritu), 
Md  the  sparrow  bawk  (T.  ^arveriut),  though 
both  &lcons,  will  be  described  under  these 
Dimes.    Tbe  falcons  ore  found  throughout  the 

"orld,  regardless  of  climate ;  they  are  power- 
ful and  rapid  fliers,  hovering  over  their  prey 
md   darting   perpendicularly  upon   it ;    they 

pnrsoe  tarda  chiefly,  bnt  attack  also  the  smaller 


;0N  67 

quadmpeds.  The  common  or  peregrine  falcon 
(J^.  ptregrinui,  Linn.)  has  a  large  and  ronnd 
Lead,  a  short  thin  neok,  a  robust  body  broad 
in  front,  stout  short  tarsi,  covered  with  imbri- 
cated scales  largest  in  front,  the  tibial  feathers 
covering  the  knee,  long  and  strong  toes  and 


,n  (|.-.k 


sharp  claws.  The  plumage  is  compact  and 
imbricated,  the  feathers  rounded  on  the  back, 
broad  on  tbe  breast,  long  and  pointed  on  the 
sides;  between  the  eye  and  bill  and  on  the 
forehead  they  are  bristly.  Tbe  bill  is  blackish 
blue  at  the  tip  and  pale  green  at  the  base,  tlie 
iris  hazel,  the  f^t  bright  yellow,  and  the  claws 
block.  The  head  and  hind  neck  in  the  adult 
male  are  grayish  block  tinged  with  blue,  the 
rest  of  the  upper  parts  dark  bluish  gray  with 
indistinct  dark  brown  bars;  the  quills  dark 
brown,  with  transverse  reddish  white  spots  on 
the  inner  webs;  the  grayish  brown  tail  has 
about  12  blackish  bars,  diminishing  in  breadth 
and  intensity  from  tbe  tip ;  tbe  throat  and 
front  of  neck  white;  a  broad  triangnlor  mark 
of  blackish  bine  extends  downward  on  the 
white  of  the  cheeks  from  the  corner  of  the 
mouth;  the  sides,  breast,  and  thighs  are  red- 
dish white,  with  transverse  dark  brown  spota; 
the  nnder  wing  feathers  are  whitish,  with 
transverse  darker  bars.  The  length  is  abont 
16)  in.,  the  extent  of  wmgs  30,  bill  11,  tarsus 
1),  and  middle  toe  2\.  In  old  males  the  tinta 
of  the  back  become  lighter,  sometimes  ssh- 
gray ;  the  young  males  are  dorker,  with  mfons 
tips  and  edges  to  the  feathers,  and  the  tail  is 
blacker,  with  reddish  white  tips  and  bars; 
there  is  considerable  variety  at  the  different 
ages  in  the  birds  of  the  United  States  and  of 
Europe.  Bonaparte  colls  tbe  American  bird 
F.  anatum.  The  adult  female,  as  in  birds  of 
prey  generally,  is  nearly  one  third  larger  than 
the  male,  being  about  20  in.  in  length,  86  in 
extent  of  wings,  with  the  beak,  tarsus,  and 
toes  longer;  the  color  of  the  upper  parts  is 
deeper  brown,  with  the  tips  of  the  secondaries 
and  tail  whitish ;  the  transverse  markings  run 
higher  up  on  the  breast,  and  are  broader  and 


68 


FALCON 


of  deeper  hue  on  the  other  parts;  the  color 
below  is  more  yellowish,  and  the  vent  feathers 
are  reddish.  This  falcon,  which  is  also  called 
the  great-footed  and  the  duck  hawk^  according 
to  Audnbon,  was  formerly  rare  in  the  United 
States,  wbich  it  now  can  nardlj  be  said  to  be. 
It  flies  with  astonishing  rapidity,  turning  in  its 
course  in  the  most  surprising  manner.  A  fa- 
vorite prey  is  the  duck,  which  it  seizes  on  the 
wing,  on  the  surface  of  the  water,  or  on  land ; 
when  within  a  few  feet  of  its  victim,  it  stretches 
out  the  legs  and  claws  and  drops  upon  the 
trembling  bird  almost  perpendicularly ;  if  the 
victim  is  light,  it  flies  off.  with  it  immediately 
to  some  quiet  place ;  if  too  heavy,  it  kills  and 
devours  it  in  the  nearest  convenient  place. 
It  has  been  known  to  attack  a  mallard  on 
the  wing,  and  even  to  pounce  upon  a  wound- 
ed teal  within  a  few  yards  of  the  sportsman. 
Pigeons,  blackbirds,  water  fowl,  and  beach 
birds,  and  even  dead  fish,  are  eaten  by  this 
falcon.  Turning  the  bird  it  has  caught  belly 
upward,  it  clears  oflT  the  feathers  from  the 
breast  and  tears  the  flesh  to  pieces  with  great 
avidity.  This  species  is  solitary,  except  during 
the  pairing  of  the  breeding  season,  which  is  in 
very  early  spring ;  it  is  found  in  all  parts  of 
the  United  States  and  in  Cuba,  coming  to  the 
south  in  the  winter  months.  The  nest  is  made 
of  coarse  sticks,  generally  on  the  shelf  of  some 
precipitous  rock ;  Audubon  is  of  opinion  that 
they  breed  in  the  United  States;  they  are 
common  on  the  shores  of  Hudson  bay  and 
arctic  America  in  summer,  according  to  Rich- 
ardson ;  the  eggs  are  rounded,  reddish  brown, 
with  irregular  markings  of  a  aarker  tint.  The 
peregrine  falcon  is  distributed  over  temperate 
Europe,  where  the  country  is  mountainous  and 
the  seacoast  precipitous.  When  in  full  plu- 
mage and  good  condition,  for  its  compact  mus- 
cular form,  great  strength,  boldness,  and  fero- 
city, it  may  be  taken  as  the  very  type  of  a  bird 
of  prey ;  it  is  among  birds  what  the  lion  and 
tiger  are  among  mammals ;  fearless  in  attack, 
swift  in  pursuit,  strong  and  flerce,  it  justly 
daims  the  flrst  rank  among  the  noble  birds  of 
prey. — ^Before  the  invention  of  gunpowder,  fal- 
cons were  very  frequently  trained  to  pursue 
herons  and  various  kinds  of  game,  and  falconry 
was  a  favorite  sport  of  kings  and  nobles ;  even 
now  falcons  are  occasionally  used  for  this  purpose 
in  Great  Britain.  Birds  of  prey  have  been 
trained  to  the  chase  from  remote  antiquity; 
the  custom  is  mentioned  by  early  writers,  but 
it  was  not  till  the  time  of  Hnber,  in  1784,  that 
the  distinction  between  birds  of  high  and  low 
flight,  which  had  long  been  understood  in  prac- 
tice, was  shown  to  exist  in  the  anatomical 
structure  of  the  wings  and  talons.  The  ffU- 
cons  belong  to  the  former  division ;  from  their 
long  and  slender  and  entire  wings,  when  they 
wish  to  rise  in  the  air  vertically  they  are 
obliged  to  fly  against  the  wind,  though  ob- 
liquely they  easily  mount  to  great  elevations, 
where  they  sport  rapidly  in  all  directions ;  they 
carry  the  head  straight ;  their  claws  are  long, 


supple,  and  sharp,  and  their  grasp  is  firm ;  they 
seize  their  prey  at  once  if  small  and  slow,  but 
strike  repeatedly  with  their  talons  to  weaken 
and  arrest  the  flight  of  heavier  and  swifter 
birds,  and  with  great  precision  attack  the  vital 
part  at  the  hollow  of  the  back  of  the  head  or 
between  the  shoulders  and  ribs.  These  birds 
have  been  called  rowers  from  their  mode  of 
flight.  The  ignoble  birds  of  prey,  ns  the  gos- 
hawk and  other  hawks,  are  called  sailers ;  their 
wings  are  shorter  and  thicker,  with  their  sur- 
face interrupted  by  the  unequal  lengths  of  the 
quills,  and  they  fly  to  best  advantage  with  the 
wind,  sailing  with  the  wings  extended  and 
motionless,  blowing  themselves  to  be  carried 
along  by  the  wind ;  their  talons  being  shorter, 
less  powerful,,  and  straighter  than  in  the  falcon, 
they  strike  with  less  force  and  precision,  and 
when  they  have  seized  a  bird  or  a  quadruped 
compress  it  to  death  or  strangle  it  with  their 
claws ;  their  beaks  are  not  toothed,  and  they 
can  seldom  penetrate  the  skulls  of  the  larger 
birds ;  they  prefer  to  hunt  in  thick  woods,  while 
the  falcons  pursue  their  prey  high  in  the  air. 
Falcons  and  hawks  are  best  trained  from  the 
nest;  they  have  bells  attached  to  their  feet, 
jesses  of  soft  leather  to  the  tarsi,  and  hoods 
on  the  head  which  prevent  them  from  seeing 
while  they  allow  them  to  eat ;  birds  taken  after 
they  have  left  the  nest,  or  which  have  been 
caught  in  snares,  are  the  most  difficult  to  train, 
and  confinement,  hunger,  fatigue,  and  purga- 
tives are  employed  to  subdue  them  to  a  point 
necessary  for  lessons ;  they  are  taught  to  leap 
upon  Uie  hand  of  their  master  to  receive  food, 
which  is  placed  on  a  rude  representation  of  the 
bird  or  animal  which  they  are  to  be  taught  to 
pursue ;  from  an  effigy  tJiey  are  advanced  to 
living  animals,  with  more  or  less  length  of 
tether,  until  left  at  perfect  liberty.  The  larger 
and  older  the  bird,  the  more  difficult  the  train- 
ing, and  the  most  ignoble  are  generally  the 
most  rebellious ;  in  the  order  of  docility  these 
birds  are  the  merlin,  the  hobby,  the  common 
falcon,  and  the  gerfalcon  (all  noble  birds) ;  and 
the  ignoble  hawks  are  the  least  docile,  though 
the  goshawk  is  said  to  be  very  easily  trained. 
They  are  fed  with  beef  and  mutton,  deprived 
of  all  fat  and  tendon,  and  scrupulously  cleaned 
of  aU  dirt ;  they  are  taught  to  pursue  other 
birds  of  prey,  the  heron,  the  crow,  the  pie, 
larks,  quails,  partridges,  the  hare,  and  other 
game.  Descriptions  of  the  lordly  sport  of  fal- 
conry can  be  found  in  the  romances  of  Walter 
Scott  and  other  delineators  of  the  days  of  chiv- 
alry. (See  Falconbt.)  The  falcon  is  a  very 
long-lived  bird ;  there  is  a  tale  that  one  which 
belonged  to  James  I.  in  1610,  with  a  gold  collar 
bearing  that  date,  was  found  at  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope  in  1793,  and,  though  more  than 
180  years  old,  was  said  to  be  possessed  of  con- 
siderable vigor ;  but  the  natural  term  of  life  of 
this  species  must  be  much  less.  The  falcon  of 
Henry  IV.  of  France  flew  from  Fontainebleau 
to  Malta,  1,000  miles,  in  a  day ;  and  many  sim- 
ilar instances  of  their  speed  are  on  record. — 


The  lonner  (F.  lanaritu,  Linn.)  seema  to  be 
BH  nDdoDbted  speoies  of  nortliern  Europe  and 
Asia,  and  inleriuedlate  between  Qie  gMfuIcon 
and  the  peregrine;  it  it  about  1}  ft.  long,  with 
rnnga  two  thirda  as  long  aa  the  toil ;  its  colors 
resemble  thoae  of  the  jonog  peregrine,  and  the 


I^niwr  Fulcon  (T.  Lmului). 

lume  haa  even  been  applied  to  immatnre  birde 
of  this  species;  but  Mr.  Gould,  in  his  "  Birds 
of  Europe,"  figoraa  and  deacribes  it  as  distinct. 
It  has  not  the  black  spots  on  the  cheeks,  and 
the  markinga  of  the  breast  are  longitodinal 
ioitesd  of  transTsrse. — The  Iceland  falcon  or 
prblcon  {F.  gyrfalco,  Linn.)  ia  the  largest  of 
the  genus,  ana  variea  much  in  its  appearance  at 
diflerent  agea.  In  the  adult  the  head  is  nearl7 
white,  the  feathers  of  the  crown  having  hair- 
brown  shafta,  those  of  the  nape  having  the 
brown  more  extensive ;  the  nnder  parte  are 
shite,  the  breast,  thighs,  and  tail  coverts  pore 
white,  bat  the  sides  and  abdomen  are  often 


OorftkoD  (riico  Kriftiea). 

spotted  and  lined  with  hrown ;  the  upper  ports 
have  the  centre  of  the  feathers  hair-brown, 
vith  a  white  maivin ;  the  greater  coverts,  sec- 
oadariea,  and  qaills  ore  barred  with  brown  and 
edged  with  white,  and  the  two  central  feath- 


ers of  the  otherwise  white  tail  are  barred  with 
brown;  the  bill  is  pale  bluish  gray,  with  the 
upper  tooth  and  the  lower  notch  strongly  de- 
veloped ;  the  legs  and  feet  are  colored  luce  tiie 
bill.  Some  specimena  are  almost  entirely  white. 
The  length  is  from  20  to  24  in.,  the  extent  of 
wings  a  little  over  4  ft.,  the  bill  li  and  the 
tarsDB  2  in. ;  according  to  Audnbon,  in  the  im- 
mature state,  as  observed  b;  him  in  Labrador, 
the  female,  though  the  larger  and  heavier  bird, 
has  the  extent  of  wings  less  by  an  inch  than 
the  male;  the  weight  of  the  male  is  a  few 
ounces  less,  and  that  of  the  female  a  few  ounces 
more  than  8  lbs.  The  form  is  that  of  a  very 
powerful  bird,  the  t^  being  longer  in  propor- 
tion than  that  of  the  peregrine,  and  the  tarti 
feathered  11  in.  downward.  It  ranges  over 
the  northern  regions  of  Europe  and  America; 
Iceland  is  one  of  its  favorite  resorts,  so  much  so 
that  the  bird  has  received  one  of  ito  most  com- 
mon names  from  this  island ;  it  in  foand  along 
the  precipitous  shores  of  Norway  and  Sweden, 
and  in  Greenland,  the  arctic  regions,  and  the 
Hudson  bay  district,  extending  as  far  south  as 
Labrador,  where  Audnbon  found  it  breeding; 
it  is  Tare  in  Great  Britain,  and  is  a  northern 
and  maritime  speoiea,  especially  frequent  near 
the  breeding  places  of  sea  fowl.  In  manner, 
flight,  and  cry  it  resembles  the  peregrine,  be- 
ing if  possible  more  daring.  In  falconry  this 
species  was  highly  prized,  and  extraordinary 
prices  were  formerly  paid  for  individuals;  they 
were  brought  chiefly  from  Iceland  and  Nor- 
way. There  is  still  much  uncertainty  about 
the  varieties  of  this  bird ;  naturalists  generally 
make  but  one  ^ecies,  bat  falconers  are  of 
opinion  that  the  Iceland  and  the  Norway  birds 
are  distinct  species ;  if  the  latter  be  true,  the 
American  bird  may  alao  prove  different  from 
any  of  the  European  species.  The  American 
bird  is  sometimes  called  F.  hlandwu  (Gmel.). 
Andubou  describes  and  flgnres  a  pair  of  im- 
mature birds  which  he  obtdned  in  Labrador 
in  Aognst.  The  general  color  of  the  plumage 
in  this  condition  is  brownish  gray  above,  the 
feathers  having  a  narrow  paler  margin;  thd 
upper  tail  coverts,  quills,  and  tail  are  tipped, 

Sotted,  and  barred  with  brownish  white;  the 
roat  is  brownish  white,  with  flve  streaks  of 
brown,  and  the  lower  parts  generally  are  of 
the  former  color,  lonf^tudinally  patched  with 
dark  brown ;  the  under  tail  coverts  are  striped 
alternately  brown  and  white.  The  female  has 
the  same  colors,  except  in  havingthetwo  mid- 
dle tail  feathers  spotted  with  white  like  the 
others,  these  in  the  male  being  without  the 
spots.  The  nest  found  by  Audubon  was  about 
a  ft.  in  diameter,  fiat,  made  of  sticks,  sea- 
weed, and  mosses.  The  eggs,  according  to 
Mr.  Yarrell,  are  dull  white,  mottled  all  over 
with  pale  reddish  brown.  They  feed  in  Lab- 
rador on  pufiBns,  grouse,  partridges,  ducks, 
bares,  and  other  animals  of  this  size,  and 
alsoon  flsh.    Mr.  Hancock  ("Annals and  Mag- 

nTJnn  nf  Nfltnml    HintnpT  "  to]    >iii..  1864,  p. 


TO 


FALCONE 


FALCONRY 


Gro^landieuSy  Hanc.)  as  a  distinct  species, 
says  it  is  never  dark-colored  like  the  young  of 
the  Iceland  falcon,  its  plamage  from  the  nest 
being  whiter  than  the  mature  livery  of  the  lat- 
ter, and  not  unfrequently  as  white  as  that  of  the 
adults  of  its  own  species.  The  mature  Green- 
land bird  is  distinguished  from  the  young  by 
the  cordate  and  arrow-head  markings  of  the 
back  and  scapulars;  the  young  have  above 
large  oblong  spots,  with  long  narrow  dashes  on 
the  head  and  lower  parts,  the  marking  from 
dark  gray  becoming  with  age  almost  black ;  the 
cere,  feet,  and  toes  also  change  from  light  livid 
blue  to  pale  yellow.  Like  other  falcons,  it  gets 
the  mature  plumage  at  the  first  moult,  in  fact, 
the  Greenland  falcon  may  be  said  to  have  a 
white  plumage  with  dark  markings,  and  the 
Iceland  bird  dark  plumage  with  w^hite  mark- 
ings ;  whether  they  are  distinct  species  will  be 
determined  by  the  definition  of  what  consti- 
tutes specific  characters.  Both  species  occur 
in  America ;  the  Greenland  bird  probably  does' 
not  breed  in  Iceland,  and  is  only  occasional- 
ly seen  there,  driven  from  its  more  northern 
haunts  by  severe  weather ;  the  Iceland  bird 
sometimes  breeds  in  Greenland.  The  weight 
of  evidence  seems  to  be  in  favor  of  these  birds 
being  distinct  species. — Other  falcons,  which 
have  been  trained  to  pursue  game,  are  the  ff. 
suhhuteo,  H.  cBsalon,  and  T,  alaudartus^  which 
will  be  described  respectively  under  the  popu- 
lar names  of  Hobbt,  Mbblin,  and  Kestbel. 

FALCONI!,  Anlello,  an  Italian  painter,  bom  in 
Naples  in  1600,  died  in  France  in  1665.  He 
was  a  pupil  of  Spagnoletto,  and  set  up  an  acad- 
emy of  his  own.  At  the  time  of  Masaniello's 
revolt  he  formed  his  pupils  into  a  secret  band 
for  retaliation  upon  the  Spaniards.  When  the 
insurrection  was  ended  ne  fled  to  France, 
where  he  was  employed  by  Colbert.  He  is 
especially  famous  for  his  battle  pieces.  They 
are  not  numerous,  and  command  great  prices. 
Their  excellence  is  in  their  extreme  fidelity  to 
nature,  and  their  brilliant  coloring.  Salvator 
Bosa  was  one  of  his  numerous  pupils. 

FALCONES,  High,  a  British  palaeontologist, 
bom  at  Forres,  Scotland,  Feb.  29,  1808,  died 
in  En^and,  Jan.  81,  1865.  He  studied  at  the 
universities  of  Aberdeen  and  Edinburgh,  re- 
ceived his  diploma  as  physician  in  1829,  was 
employed  as  surgeon  by  the  East  India  com- 
pany, and  in  1882  as  director  of  a  botanical 
garden  in  one  of  the  Anglo-Indian  towns, 
whence  he  explored  the  Himalaya.  He  pub- 
lished "  Selections  from  the  Bostan  of  Saadi " 
(London,  1838),  and  (jointly  with  T.  Proby 
Oautley)  Fauna  Antigua  SitalenHs  (1846),  a 
laborious  work,  with  descriptions  of  numerous 
fossils  in  the  Sivalik  hills.  The  "  Palseontolo- 
gical  Memoirs  of  Hugh  Falconer  "  (2  vols.,  1868) 
include  a  sketch  of  his  life. 

FiUM^NiaK,  WlUtaB,  a  British  poet,  bom  in 
Edinburgh  about  1730,  lost  at  sea  in  1769.  He 
was  the  son  of  a  barber,  whose  other  children 
were  all  deaf  and  dumb.  At  the  age  of  18, 
being  second  mate  of  the  Britannia,  he  was 


shipwrecked  off  Cape  Colonna^  on  the  coast 
of  Greece,  and  was  one  of  the  three  who  sur- 
vived the  wreck,  which  aiterward  became  the 
subject  of  his  principal  poem,  ^^The  Ship- 
wreck." This  was  published  in  1762.  He 
compiled  a  "  Universal  Marine  Dictionary " 
(republished  in  1815,  enlarged  and  modernized 
by  W.  Buraey,  LL.  D.),  and  wrote  several 
poems,  including  a  political  satire  directed 
against  Lord  Chatham,  Wilkes,  and  Churchill. 
In  1769  he  sailed  for  India  in  the  frigate  Au- 
rora, which,  after  touching  at  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope,  was  never  heard  from  again. 

FALCOBiET,  Etknne  Htirice,  a  French  sculptor, 
bom  in  Paris  in  1716,  died  in  1791.  He  was  a 
pupil  of  Lemoine,  and  early  gained  distinction 
by  a  statue  of  Milo  of  Crotona.  Many  of  his 
works  w^ere  destroyed  at  the  time  of  the  revolu- 
tion. None  of  them  were  equal  in  merit  to  the 
immense  bronze  equestrian  statue  of  Peter  the 
Great,  which  he  executed  at  St.  Petersburg, 
by  order  of  Catharine  11. ,  in  1776-8. 

FALOONRT)  the  art  of  training  falcons  or 
other  birds  of  prey  for  the  chase,  the  sport  it- 
self being  called  in  English  hawking,  in  French 
le  vol.  A  falconry  is  also  the  place  where  such 
birds  are  kept.  The  practice  is  very  ancient 
in  Europe,  and  yet  more  so  in  Asia.  We  have 
no  mention  of  it  among  the  Romans  till  after 
the  time  of  Vespasian.  It  was  certainly  in 
existence  in  the  4th  and  6th  centuries.  In 
Britain  it  appears  to  have  been  a  favorite  rec- 
reation in  the  reign  of  Ethelbert  11.  of  Kent, 
A.  D.  760.  King  Alfred  had  his  falconers,  and  a 
book  on  falconry  is  still  extant  attributed  to  Ed- 
ward the  Confessor.  Harold  II.  is  represented 
in  the  Bayeux  tapestry  as  visiting  the  court 
of  Duke  William  of  Normandy  with  a  hawk  on 
his  fist.  The  Domesday  book  makes  frequent 
mention  of  falconries  and  eyries  for  breeding. 
In  the  time  of  Henry  II.,  William  Knot,  the 
king^s  tenant,  paid  his  rent  at  the  exchequer  in 
three  hawks  and  three  gerfalcons.  King  John 
was  devoted  to  the  spoil.  Nicholas,  a  Dane, 
was  to  give  the  king  a  hawk  every  time  he 
came  trading  to  England.  The  sport  died  out 
in  England  in  the  time  of  the  Stuarts.  In 
France  falconry  was  most  practised  in  the  time 
of  Francis  I.  (1515-'47).  His  grand  falconer 
had  an  annual  revenue  of  4,000  florins,  and  had 
under  him  50  gentlemen  and  50  falconers,  the 
whole  establishment  costing  annually  40,000 
florins.  Under  Loub  XIV.  the  institution  was 
yet  more  expensive.  Louis  XVI.  tried  in  vain 
to  reduce  the  expense  of  the  royal  falconry ; 
but  finally  the  revolution  swept  it  away.  In 
Germany  the  sport  was  honored  in  the  reign 
of  Frederick  II.,  and  in  the  14th  century  fiefs 
called  HahichUlehen^  or  hawk  tenures,  were 
granted  on  condition  of  payment  in  trained 
hawks.  The  sport  retained  its  existence  in 
Germany  till  toward  the  close  of  the  18th  cen- 
tury. In  Italy  falconry  was  a  favorite  pastime. 
In  the  East,  the  Persians  are  skilful  in  training 
falcons  to  hunt  all  manner  of  birds,  and  even 
gazelles. — The  vocabulary  of  hawking  in  Eng- 


FALEPwII 


FALIERI 


71 


land  was  as  extensive  as  its  ordinances,  and 
several  of  its  terms  have  been  adopted  into  the 
langoage.  Hawks'  legs  were  their  arms;  their 
talons,  pounces;  wings,  sails;  the  long  feathers 
of  the  wings,  beams ;  tail,  the  train ;  breast 
feathers,  the  mails;  crop,  the  gorge.  A  cover 
for  the  bird's  head  was  the  hood.  When  the 
hawk  flattered  to  escape,  it  bated;  to  sleep 
was  to  jouk ;  to  stretch  one  wing  back  was  to 
mantle ;  to  shake  itself  was  to  rouse ;  to  recross 
its  wings  again  was  to  warble;  to  tear  the 
feathers  from  its  prey  was  to  plume ;  to  raise 
its  prey  aloft  before  descending  was  to  truss ; 
to  descend  on  its  prey  was  to  stoop ;  to  fly  off 
after  crows  was  to  check.  A  living  prey  was 
qnarry;  when  dead,  pelt.  Taming  a  bird  was 
called  reclaiming,  by  the  French  affaitage; 
and  an  old,  stanch,  pattern  hawk  was  called  a 
make-hawk.  No  rank  was  excluded  from  the 
enjoyment  of  hawking,  but  each  condition  of 
men  must  confine  themselves  to  their  peculiar 
grade  of  hawk  and  quarry.  The  sinecure  oflSce 
of  grand  falconer  of  England  is  hereditary  in 
the  family  of  the  duke  of  St.  Albans. — Among 
the  most  noted  treatises  on  falconry  is  one 
written  by  Frederick  11.  of  Germany  (died  in 
1250),  annotated  by  his  son  Manfred,  and  re: 
published  with  several  other  treatises  by  J.  G. 
Schneider  in  1788  (2  vols.,  Leipsic).  Others 
are:  the  famous  "Boke  of  St.  Albans,"  by 
Lady  Jnliana  Bemers  (foL,  1481),  containing 
the  "  Treatyses  perteynyng  to  Hawkynge, 
Hnntyiige,  and  Fysshynge  with  an  Angle;" 
Ilieraeofophian,  vel  de  lie  Aeeipitraria,  a  poem 
in  three  books,  by  De  Thou  (1684);  La  fan- 
ftwiTiertd,  by  Charles  d^Esperon  (Paris,  1605); 
Latham  on  "Falconry"  (1615-'18).  Among 
the  more  recent  works  on  the  subject  are  "  Fal- 
conry in  the  British  Isles,"  by  Salvin  and  Brod- 
rick  (London,  1855),  and  "Falconry,  its  Claims, 
History,  and  Practice,"  by  G.  E.  Freeman 
(London,  1859). 

FALERII  (also  called  jEquum  Faliicum  or  Fa- 
liica\  an  ancient  city  of  Italy,  one  of  the  12 
Etruscan  cities,  a  few  miles  W.  of  the  Tiber,  and 
X.  W.  of  Mount  Soracte,  near  Civitd  Castellana. 
It  was  the  capital  and  perhaps  the  only  city  of 
the  Falisci,  a  people  of  Pelasgic  origin,  whose 
territory  extended  from  the  Tiber  to  Lake  Vico, 
and  who  in  the  early  ages  of  Rome  were  reck- 
oned among  the  most  dangerous  enemies  of  the 
republic.  It  is  first  mentioned  in  487  B.  C, 
when  the  Falisci  lent  their  support  to  the  Fi- 
denatea,  who  had  revolted  against  Rome.  It 
was  besieged  and  taken  by  Camillus  about  394. 
The  inhabitants  again  joined  the  enemies  of 
Rome  in  856 ;  made  a  treaty  in  852 ;  revolted 
anew  about  312,  and  were  subjugated;  rose  in 
rebellion  again  in  293,  and  again  in  241,  when 
they  were  punished  by  the  destruction  of  their 
town.  They  were  removed  to  a  less  defensible 
Mte,  where  a  colony  was  estabUshed  named 
Jononia  Faliscorum,  from  a  famous  temple  of 
Juno.  The  latter  site  is  now  occupied  only  by 
a  farm  house  and  a  ruined  church,  known  as 
Sta.  Maria  di  Falari,  but  a  large  portion  of  the 


ancient  walls,  with  their  gates  and  towers, 
still  exists. 
FALERMIJS  ACER,  a  district  in  the  northern 

Sart  of  ancient  Campania,  extending  from  the 
[assican  hills  to  the  bank  of  the  Vultumus, 
from  which  the  ancient  Romans  obtained  one 
of  their  choicest  wines.  The  Falemian  wine 
was  red,  very  spirituous,  and  most  powerful 
when  from  15  to  20  years  old.  Its  excellence 
is  celebrated  by  the  Roman  poets,  particularly 
by  Horace.  It  was  declining  in  quality  in  the 
time  of  Pliny,  from  want  of  care  in  the  culti- 
vation, and  the  vineyards  disappeared  in  the 
6th  century. 

FALIERI,  HariBO,  doge  of  Venice,  the  most 
celebrated  of  the  several  doges  of  the  same 
family,  born  about  1275,  beheaded  April  17, 
1855.  In  1346  he  rendered  eminent  services 
to  the  republic  as  commander-in-chief  at  the 
siege  of  Zara  in  Dalmatia,  which  was  taken 
after  a  splendid  victory  over  Louis  the  Great 
of  Hungary.  Subsequently  ho  was  Venetian 
ambassador  at  Genoa  and  Rome.  In  1354  he 
was  summoned  home  from  Rome,  and  elected 
doge  although  nearly  an  octogenarian.  With- 
in a  month  the  entire  Venetian  fleet  of  61 
vessels  was  captured  by  the  Genoese,  with 
a  loss  to  the  former  of  4,000  men  killed  and 
nearly  6,000  prisoners.  Hardly  had  the  new 
doge  succeeded,  Jan.  5,  1355,  in  concluding  a 
four  months*  truce  with  Genoa,  when  a  con- 
test broke  out  in  his  own  palace,  which  proved 
fatal  to  himself.  A  young  nobleman  of  Venice, 
Michele  Steno,  enamored  of  one  of  the  dogessa^s 
maids  of  honor,  on  occasion  of  one  of  the  balls 
given  during  carnival,  took  liberties  with  her 
which,  although  excusable  under  the  excite- 
ment of  the  season,  gave  umbrage  to  the  doge, 
who  ordered  Steno  to  leave  the  palace.  The 
young  man,  exasperated  by  this  treatment, 
avenged  it  by  writing  upon  the  chair  of  the 
doge  the  following  words :  Marino  Falieri  dal- 
la  bella  moglie^  altri  la  gode  ed  egli  la  man" 
tiene  (**  Marino  Falieri's  beautiful  wife  is  sup- 
ported by  him,  but  enjoyed  by  others  ").  The 
doge's  wrath  knew  no  bounds,  and  as  the  senate 
and  the  councils  refused  to  treat  the  affair  as  a 
question  of  state,  and  the  criminal  court  sen- 
tenced Steno  to  only  a  brief  term  of  imprison- 
ment and  a  year's  exile,  Falieri  determined  to 
wreak  vengeance  by  exterminating  the  whole 
body  of  the  nobility,  who  were  hated  by  the 
populace  as  tyrants.  The  day  fixed  for  the 
consummation  of  this  design  was  April  15, 
1355,  but  the  conspiracy  was  discovered  on  the 
evening  previous ;  the  doge  was  arrested,  and 
after  a  full  confession  of  his  guilt,  he  was  sen- 
tenced to  death  and  beheaded.  In  the  council 
hall  of  the  palace,  where  the  portraits  of  the 
doges  of  Venice  are  religiously  preserved,  a 
black  drapery  covers  the  spot  intended  for  that 
of  Falieri,  bearing  the  inscription :  Spazio  di 
Marino  Falieri^  deeapitato.  The  fate  of  the 
doge  has  been  a  favorite  theme  with  poets. 
Byron  made  it  the  subject  of  a  tragedy,  giving 
in  the  notes  a  fall  account  of  Falieri's  life. 


Feb.  14,  1826.    He  entered  tbe  universitj  of 
Halle,  where  he  produced  several  satirical  po- 
ems, which  attracted  the  notice  of  Wieland, 
vho  iotrodDced  bin  into  tbe  literarj  circles 
of  Weimar,     He  wrote 
an  account  of  bis  per- 
sonal  interoonrse  with 
Goethe,  which  appeared 
after  the  death  of  both 
( Gotthe    ait*    ndhtrrm 
peTtonliehtm   Umgange 
dargetUllt,  3d  ed.,  Leip- 
sic,  1836).    A  selection 
of  Falk's  writings  ap- 
peared in  1B18,  aDd  a  ' 
uew  collection  of  bis  ' 
satirioal  works  in  1626.  , 
He  wrote  for  the  Tb-  I 
tehenhveh,  of  which  he 
was  the  editor  (1797- 
1803),  an  article  on  tbe  I 
condition  of  hospitals  in  I 
Berlin,   which   mduced  { 
the  gorernment  to  re-  ' 
fonn  them.    Id  1813  he 
founded  at  'Weimar  an 
institution  for  the  edu- 
cation of  poor  children, 
which  bears  the  name  of  Falki*ek«$  InttUtit. 

FA  LI  IKK,  a  monicipoL  and  parliamentary 
burgh  of  Stirlingshire,  Scotland,  on  a  com- 
manding eminence,  24  m.  W.  of  Edinburgh  ; 
pop.  in  1871,  9,547.  Its  name,  Fallow  Kirk,  is 
a  translation  of  tbe  obsolete  English  l>Tcek, 
lioth  signifying  speckled  chnrch.  It  has  a  fine 
parish  church,  several  cbnrcbes  of  dissenting 
congregations,  a  school  of  art,  and  a  horticnl- 
tarol  societ;.  There  are  in  Falkirk,  and  in 
the  connected  villages  of  Grahamston,  Bains- 
ford,  and  Carrou,  printing  establishments,  tan- 
neries, breweries,  a  manufactory  of  pyrolig- 
neouB  Bcid,  the  immense  iron  works  of  Carron, 
a  foundery  employing  SOO  men,  and  branches 
of  the  banks  of  Scotland  and  England.  Its 
chief  celebrity  is  due  to  its  cattle  fairs,  tlie 
most  important  in  Scotland,  which  take  place 
annually  in  August,  September,  and  October, 
each  lasting  from  two  days  to  a  week.  The 
last  is  the  largest.  These  CryiU,  as  the  Scots 
coll  the  fairs,  have  flourished  more  then  200 
years.  Falkirk  was  a  place  of  note  in  the 
11th  century.  The  ancient  parish  church, 
built  by  Malcolm  Canmore  in  lOoT,  was  de- 
molished in  1810  to  give  place  to  the  present 
one.  Here  Edward  I.  in  12B8  conquered  Wil- 
liam Wallace,  and  in  1746  the  young  pretend- 
er, Charles  Edward,  defeated  the  English  army 
under  Gen.  Hawley. 

FILEUIID,  a  royal  burgh  of  Fifoshire,  Scot- 
land, at  the  base  of  the  Lomond  hills,  22  m.  N. 
of  Edinburgh;  pop.  in  1871,  1,144.  The  E. 
Lomond  hill  rises  so  abruptly  behind  it  as  to  in- 
tercept the  rays  of  the  sun  during  several  weeks 
in  the  winter.    Tbe  town  consists  principally 


FALKLAND 

of  a  single  street,  and  many  of  the  honses  have 
an  antique  appearance.  Tbe  chief  object  of 
interest  is  the  ancient  palace,  now  in  ruins, 
begun  about  1500  and  completed  by  James  V., 
who  died  in  it  in  1642.  It  ceased  to  bearoyaJ 
reridence  on  the  accession  of  James  VI.  to  the 


English  throne,  but  was  visited  by  both  Char1e<i 
I.  and  Charles  II.  No  traces  now  exist  of  the 
more  ancient  castle  in  which  David,  dulce  of 
Rothesay,  was  starved  to  death  in  1402.  The 
English  family  of  Cory  derive  from  this  place 
tbe  title  of  viscount. 
FiLIXAKD,  Ladu  Cary,  viscount,  an  English 

Solitician  and  man  of  letters,  bom  at  Barford, 
ixfordshire,  in  1610,  killed  Sept.  20,  1643. 
His  father.  Sir  Henry  Gary,  who  was  made 
Viscount  Falkland  in  the  peerage  of  Scotland 
in  1620,  held  various  offices  under  James  1. 
Lucius  was  educated  at  Trinity  college,  Dub- 
lin, and  at  St.  John's  college,  Cambridge,  and 
at  the  age  of  10  inherited  the  estate  of  his 
grandmother,  wife  of  Chief  Baron  Tanfleld, 
worth  more  than  £2,000  per  annum.  He 
afterward  married  and  settled  at  Great  Tew, 
near  Oxford,  and  in  1683  became  Lord  Falk- 
land by  the  death  of  his  father.  In  his  country 
life  be  had  for  his  associates  learned  men  from 
Oxford  and  London,  and  was  distinguished  lor 
hospitality  and  considerate  benevolence.  Falk- 
land wrote  both  in  prose  and  verse.  He  studied 
theology  deeply,  pnWished  a  "  Discoarso  of 
the  Infallibility  of  the  Church  of  Rome,"  and 
was  the  author  of  other  works,  now  little 
known.  He  was  chosen  a  member  of  the 
short  parliament  in  April,  1640,  for  Newport, 
Isle  of  Wight,  and  afterward  of  the  long  par- 
liament, and  shared  deeply  in  the  determina- 
tion to  establish  the  government  on  a  con- 
stitutional basis.  He  was  a  strenuous  sdvo- 
cate  of  the  bill  of  attainder,  even  when  it  was 
Opposed  by  Pym  and  Hampden,  who  prefi.'Tred 
proceeding  by  impeachment.   He  moved  the  im- 


FALKLAND  ISLANDS 


73 


peachment  of  the  lord  keeper  Finch.  He  dis- 
tingaished  himself  in  the  attacks  that  were  made 
on  ship  money,  and  on  the  jndf^s  who  had  pro- 
nounced the  levying  of  it  legal,  and  in  those 
which  were  directed  against  the  church.  But 
suddenly,  without  apparent  cause,  he  left  the 
reform  party,  and  he  who  had  said  the  hishops 
were  stark  mad,  and  therefore  should  be  sent 
to  Bedlam,  was  soon  heard  to  complain  that 
they  who  hated  the  bishops  hated  them  worse 
than  the  devil,  and  they  who  loved  them  did 
not  love  them  so  well  as  their  dinners.  In 
the  memorable  debate  on  the  grand  remon- 
strance, Falkland  was  the  second  speaker,  fol- 
lowing Hyde,  and  against  the  remonstrance. 
His  course  on  this  occasion,  with  his  earlier 
opposition  to  the  abolition  of  the  church,  led 
the  king  to  make  him  the  offer  of  the  post  of 
secretary  of  state,  which  he  accepted.  Of 
the  exact  part  which  Falkland  had  m  the  gov- 
ernment scarcely  anything  is  known,  but  he 
and  his  two  associates  in  the  administration, 
Colepeper  and  Hyde,  received  marks  of  hos- 
tility in  the  commons.  He  wrote  the  royal 
answer  to  the  parliament's  19  propositions, 
then  joined  the  king  at  York,  and  signed  his 
declaration  that  he  did  not  mean  to  make  war 
on  the  parliament.  Shortly  afterward  Falk- 
land was  removed  from  the  commons,  and 
placed  on  the  list  of  those  whom  the  parlia- 
mentfary  commander  was  ordered  to  exclude 
from  mercy.  He  behaved  with  gallantry  at 
the  battle  of  Edgehill,  and  had  his  advice 
been  taken  the  king  would  have  won  a  com- 
plete victory.  In  some  negotiations  that  fol- 
lowed, he  labored  earnestly  for  peace.  The 
campaign  of  1648  was  for  a  long  time  favor- 
able to  the  king,  and  Falkland  accompanied 
him  to  Bristol,  and  thence  to  the  siege  of 
Gloucester.  The  ad  vance  of  the  parliamentary 
army  compelled  the  king  to  raise  the  siege. 
In  the  first  battle  of  Newbury  Falkland  placed 
himself  at  the  head  of  Sir  John  Byron's  regi- 
ment Receiving  an  order  to  charge  a  body 
of  foot,  he  advanced  between  hedges  lined 
with  musketeers,  and  received  a  ball  in  the 
stomach,  from  which  he  died  instantly.  The 
body  was  found  the  next  day,  and  buried  in 
Great  Tew  church.  He  left  a  wife  and  three 
sons.  Among  the  best  works  which  treat  of 
him  is  Forster's  "  Historical  and  Biographical 
Essays"  (London,  1868). 

FALKLAND  ISLANDS  (Fr.  Malouines ;  Sp. 
Mahina%\  a  group  in  the  S.  Atlantic,  belong- 
ing to  Great  Britain,  and  consisting  of  about 
200  islands,  300  m.  £.  of  the  entrance  to  the 
strait  of  Magellan,  between  lat.  61°  and  52**  45' 
S.,  and  Ion.  57**  and  62°  W. ;  area,  about 
7,600  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  812.  All  but  two 
are  very  small.  Fast  Falkland  is  about  90  m. 
long,  40  m.  broad,  and  8,000  sq.  m.  in  area ; 
West  Falkland,  separated  from  the  former  by 
a  channel  from  2^  to  18  m.  wide,  called  Falk- 
land sound,  is  80  m.  long,  25  m.  broad,  and 
about  2,300  sq.  m.  in  area.  The  other  princi- 
pal islands  are  Great  Swan,  Saunders,  Pebble, 


Keppel,  Eagle,  Weddell,  and  Lively.  The 
coasts  are  very  irregular,  in  some  places  rocky 
and  precipitous,  in  others  low.  Bays  and  in- 
lets are  numerous,  and  East  and  West  Falk- 
land are  nearly  divided  by  several  deep  inden- 
tations. There  are  few  rivers,  the  San  Carlos, 
80  m.  long,  which  flows  into  the  sea  on  the 
N.  W.  coast  of  East  Falkland,  being  the  largest. 
There  are  many  fresh- water  ponds  and  brooks. 
The  surface  is  broken  by  ridges  of  bleak  hills, 
the  highest  of  which  are  in  East  Falkland, 
though  the  average  elevation  of  West  Falk- 
land is  the  greater.  Mt.  Usborne,  one  of  the 
Wickham  hills,  in  the  E.  island,  is  2,800  ft. 
above  the  sea;  the  other  summits  are  from 
800  to  2,000  ft.  high.  The  country  south 
of  the  Wickham  hills  is  a  level  plain.  The 
whole  aspect  of  the  group  is  dreary  and  un- 
inviting. The  commonest  geological  formation 
is  quartz,  which  in  some  places  is  seen  cov- 
ering the  bottoms  of  the  valleys,  broken  into 
sharp  fragments,  and  disposed  in  level  sheets 
or  streams  like  rivers  of  stone.  Sandstone  and 
clay  slate  also  occur.  The  soil  of  such  por- 
tions as  have  been  explored  is  mostly  peat  or 
sandy  clay  covered  thinly  with  vegetable  mould. 
The  valleys  of  the  streams  are  exceedingly 
rich.  The  climate  is  like  that  of  England, 
but  more  equable.  The  temperature  of  sum- 
mer ranges  from  46°  to  70°  F.,  and  that  of 
winter  from  80°  to  50°  ;  mean  temperature  of 
the  year,  47°.  Severe  and  destructive  snow 
storms  occasionally  occur.  There  are  no  trees 
on  the  islands.  The  most  important  production 
is  grass,  which  grows  to  a  great  length  and  pos- 
sesses remarkably  nutritious  properties.  Three 
or  four  kinds  of  bushes  are  found ;  the  com- 
mon garden  vegetables  of  England  thrive; 
barley  and  oats  are  cultivated,  but  wheat  is 
raised  with  difficulty.  The  only  quadruped 
indigenous  to  the  islands  is  the  warrah  or 
wolf  fox,  which  is  peculiar  to  this  archipelago. 
Other  animals  have  been  loft  here  by  Euro- 
peans, and  in  East  Falkland  there  are  many 
thousand  wild  cattle  sprung  from  stock  thus 
in1n*oduced.  Horses,  sheep,  wild  hogs,  rabbits, 
seals,  and  wild  fowl  are  found,  and  many  French 
and  American  vessels  hunt  the  black  whale 
off  the  W.  coast  of  West  Falkland.  In  1871 
the  value  of  imports  was  £23,715,  of  exports 
£24,692 ;  the  revenue  was  £6,940  (about  half 
of  which  is  a  parliamentary  grant),  the  expen- 
ditures £6,824.  The  fineries  and  the  guano 
deposits  on  West  Falkland  are  considerable 
sources  of  wealth.  A  British  colony  called 
Stanley,  at  the  head  of  Port  William  inlet  on 
the  N.  E.  coast  of  East  Falkland,  has  an  ex- 
cellent harbor,  and  is  the  only  settlement  in  the 
whole  group.  Since  1869  the  Falkland  islands 
have  been  the  seat  of  an  Anglican  bishop. 
The  main  object  of  the  British  government  in 
keeping  up  the  establishment  here  is  to  afford 
ships  a  place  of  call  for  water  and  fresh  pro- 
visions. The  total  tonnage  of  vessels  entered 
and  cleared  in  1871  was  59,979  tons. — The  isl- 
ands were  discovered  by  John  Davis,  in  August, 


74 


FALK  LAWS 


FALLOUX 


1592,  and  were  visited  a  oentary  later  by  Strong, 
who  called  the  sound  Falkland,  and  the  islands 
afterward  took  the  same  name.  The  French 
planted  a  colony  on  Berkeley  sound,  East  Falk- 
land, in  1763,  and  -the  English  established 
themselves  at  Port  Egmont,  West  Falkland, 
about  two  years  later.  The  French  in  1767 
ceded  their  settlement  to  the  Spaniards,  who 
drove  away  the  English  in  1770.  They  after- 
ward restored  Port  Egmont  to  the  British,  and 
some  time  later  the  islands  were  abandoned 
by  both  parties.  Buenos  Ayres  founded  a  col- 
ony in  East  Falkland  in  1823,  which  in  conse- 
quence of  a  dispute  was  destroyed  in  1831  by 
a  United  States  man-of-war.  It  was  shortly 
afterward  given  up  to  the  British. 

FILK  LAWS.    See  supplement. 

FALKNER,  ThOBM,  an  English  missionary, 
born  in  Manchester  in  1710,  died  at  Plow- 
den  Hall,  Jan.  30,  1784.  He  was  the  son  of  a 
surgeon,  and  followed  the  same  profession  in 
South  America  and  other  countries.  While  ill 
at  Buenos  Ayres  he  was  attended  by  members 
of  the  society  of  Jesus.  He  abjured  the  Pres- 
byterian faith  to  join  that  order,  m  which  he  dis- 
tinguished himself  by  missionary  labors  during 
40  years,  and  he  was  also  employed  by  the 
Spanish  authorities  in  surveying  part  of  the 
South  American  coast.  On  the  dissolution  of 
the  order  he  went  to  Spain,  where  he  became 
chaplain  to  one  of  his  countrymen,  whom  he 
accompanied  to  the  vicinity  of  Worcester, 
England.  He  wrote  a  number  of  works  in 
different  languages,  chiefly  relating  to  the  Amer- 
ican continent.  His  principal  publication,  *^  A 
Description  of  Patagonia  and  the  acyoining 
Parts  of  South  America,  and  some  Particulars 
relating  to  Falkland  Islands,"  &c.  (Hereford 
and  London,  1774 ;  abridged,  "  A  Treatise  of 
the  Patagonians,"  &c.,  Darlington,  1788),  was 
translated  into  German  and  French. 

FILLING  8TAES.    See  Meteobs. 

FALLKEIUYEB,  PiilUpp  Jak^b,  a  German  his- 
torian and  traveller,  born  at  Tschdtsch,  near 
Brizen,  in  the  Tyrol,  Dec.  10,  1791,  died  in 
Munich,  April  26,  1862.  He  served  as  a  sub- 
lieutenant in  the  campaigns  of  1813-15,  and 
subsequently  became  a  professor  in  the  college 
of  Augsburg  and  in  the  lyceum  at  Landshut. 
He  travelled  in  the  East  from  1831  to  1836, 
spent  several  years  in  southern  France,  Itfdy, 
and  Geneva,  made  a  second  tour  through  Asia 
Minor  in  1840,  published  the  results  of  his 
ethnological  and  historical  researches  in  Frag- 
mente  aus  dem  Orient  (2  vols.,  Stuttgart, 
1845),  visited  Palestine  and  Syria  in  1847,  was 
a  member  of  the  German  parliament  in  1848, 
and  became  a  professor  in  the  university  of 
Munich,  but  was  dismissed  in  1849  on  account 
of  his  liberal  views.  The  most  important  of 
his  historical  writings  are  Geichiehte  des  Kai- 
serthunu  Trapezunt  (Munich,  1831),  and  Oe- 
schichte  der  ffalbinsel  Morea  im  Mittelalter 
(2  vols.,  Stuttgart,  1830-'36).  In  the  latter 
work  he  maintains  that  the  present  inhabi- 
tants of  Greece  have  little  or  no  affinity  of  race 


with  the  ancient  Hellenes,  and  may  be  con- 
sidered, notwithstanding  their  language,  a 
branch  of  the  Slavic  family.  Many  of  his  es- 
says published  in  the  Augsburg  Allgemeine 
Zeitung  belong  to  the  best  writings  of  their 
kind.  His  Gesa/mmelte  Werke,  published  after 
his  death  by  Thomas,  contains  the  Heue  Frag- 
mente  ata  dem  Orient^  and  a  large  number 
of  political,  historical,  and  critical  essays.  His 
works  exhibit  a  rare  combination  of  profound 
scholarship  and  philosophical  deptli  with  the 
faculty  of  presenting  the  results  of  scientific 
researches  in  a  perspicuous  and  graceful  form. 

FALLOPPIO,  or  Falloplu,  GabrieUo,  an  Italian 
anatomist,  born  inModena  about  1523,  died  in 
1662.  He  was  one  of  the  three  naturalists 
who,  according  to  Cuvier,  contributed  to  the 
revival  of  the  study  of  anatomy  in  the  16th 
century,  the  other  two  being  Vesalius  and 
Eustachi.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Yesalius,  and 
after  travelling  through  Europe  was  for  a  time 
professor  of  anatomy  at  Ferrara,  and  afterward 
for  several  years  at  Pisa.  In  1551  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  anatomy  and  surgery 
at  Padua,  where  he  also  devoted  himself  to 
the  study  of  botany,  and  became  director  of 
the  botanical  garden.  He  published  in  1561 
his  principal  work,  ObMrvatioTies  Anatomicm^ 
which  was  one  of  the  best  anatomical  treatises 
of  his  century,  and  has  been  several  times 
reprinted.  He  gave  an  exact  description  of 
the  structure  of  the  ear,  one  of  the  canals  of 
which  still  bears  his  name.  He  also  first  indica- 
ted the  use  of  the  two  ducts  extending  from 
the  ovaria  to  the  womb  on  each  side  of  the 
fundus,  which  are  called  from  him  Fallopian 
tubes.  After  a  short  but  brilliant  career,  in 
which  he  became  distinguished  as  a  professor, 
botanist,  and  surgeon,  as  well  as  anatomist,  he 
died  and  left  his  chcdr  to  Fabricius,  his  pupil. 

FiLLOUX,  FrM^ric  AUM  Ptorre,  viscount  de,  a 
French  author  and  statesman,  bom  in  Angers, 
May  7,  1811.  He  first  made  himself  known 
by  a  history  of  Louis  XVI.  (Paris,  1840;  2d 
ed.,  1848),  and  by  his  ffistoire  de  SL  Fie  V.  (2 
vols.,  1844;  8d  ed.,  1859),  the  former  of  which 
showed  his  legitimist,  the  latter  his  Catholic 
sentiments.  In  1846  he  was  elected  a  member 
of  the  chamber  of  deputies,  where  he  took  his 
seat  among  the  legitimists.  After  the  revolu- 
tion of  February,  1848,  Falloux  was  returned 
to  the  constituent  assembly,  where  he  boldly 
displayed  his  anti-revolutionary  views.  Ap- 
pointed reporter  in  the  question  of  national 
workshops,  he  moved  the  dissolution  of  the 
chamber,  which  was  the  signal  for  the  uprising 
of  the  red  republicans  in  June.  On  Dec.  20, 
1848,  he  was  made  by  Louis  Napoleon  minister 
of  worship  and  public  instruction,  which  post 
he  resigned  in  October,  1849,  in  consequence 
of  having  been  censured  for  submitting  to  the 
legislative  assembly  an  organic  measure  rela- 
ting to  education  without  having  brought  it 
before  the  notice  of  the  council  of  state.  He 
then  took  his  place  in  the  legislative  assembly. 
A^r  the  coup  d^etat  of  Dec.  2,  1851,  he  re- 


FALLOW  DEER 

tired  rrom  public  life.  la  18S5  he  became  as- 
sistant editor  of  the  Corrttpondant,  the  lead- 
ing Cfttholic  review,  and  took  an  active  part 
in  the  violent  controversy  which  that  jonraal, 
in  the  name  of  the  moderate  seotion  of  the 
Catholic  party,  Hnatwned  agwnst  the  Uninen 
neirspapcr.  Falloaz  published  on  behalf  of 
his  friends  the  pamphlet  Le  parti  eatholique. 
lie  also  took  an  active  part  in  the  Catholic 
congress  held  at  Mechlin  in  ISBT,  and  with 
Uirr.  Dapanlonp  sapported  the  doctriuee  of  tho 
srllabns.  Among  hia  later  pnblicationa  ore : 
Jfm«.  Svietehine,  «a  vit  et  te»  auzrei  (2  vols,, 
1S69) ;  La  convention  du  15  uplembre  (1864) ; 
wd  Ltttret  iniditet  dt  Mine,  ^etchint  (1866). 
FALLOW  DEEB  {dama  vulgaru),  a  cervine 
uiimal,  distingnished  from  the  etag  or  red  deer 
bi  its  smaller  uze,  spotted  coat,  aod  palmated 
horna.  There  are  two  varieties,  the  one  spot- 
ted, -laid  to  be  descended  trom  the  spotted  axis 
of  India,  the  other  deep  brown,  said  to  have 
been  iDtrodoced  into  England  from  Norway  by 


FALL  KIVEB 


75 


Sanan  Dear  (Daial  inlgorii), 

Jsmes  I,  It  ia  remarkable  that  where  fallow 
and  red  deer  are  kept  together  in  the  same 
parks,  B3  often  in  Great  Britain,  tliey  never  as- 
Moiste  in  companies,  much  less  are  ever  known 
to  breed  in  common,  but  careftilly  avoid  each 
other,  even  so  far  as  to  shun  the  places  which 
either  species  may  have  chanced  to  frequent. 
The  bucks  of  the  follow  deer  are  much  smaller 
ihsD  the  harts  of  the  red  deer,  and  are  easily 
diitiugnished  by  their  horns  or  antlers,  which, 
instead  of  being  round  and  pointed  at  the  upper 
enremity,  with  several  forward  tines  or  branch- 
es- are  round  only  at  the  base  near  the  head, 
bvinir  fl  single  pair  of  brow  antlers,  and  a  sin- 
k'1^  |iair  of  anterior  points  a  little  higher  up  the 
"eni,  above  which  tho  horns  spread  ont  into 
Sat  palmated  surfaces,  projecting  alittleforward 
SI  the  top,  and  having  several  posterior  sharp 
snags  or  processes.  The  buck  daring  his  first 
year  i«  called  a  fawn;  the  second,  a  pricket; 
tbe  third,  a  sorrel;  the  fourth,  a  sore;  the  fifth, 
a  buck  of  the  first  head;  the  siJtth,  a  great 


bnck.  The  fallow  deer  breed  at  two  years 
old,  and  bring  forth  one,  two,  or  three  fawns; 
lliey  come  to  their  matnrity  at  three  years,  and 
live  to  about  20.  The  ratling  time  of  the  buck 
commences  about  the  middle  of  September,  af- 
ter which  he  is  out  of  seaaon,  his  Hesh  being 
no  longer  eatable.  He  sheds  his  horns  in  April 
or  May,  and  his  now  ones  are  fully  grown 
about  the  end  of  Angust,  He  is  In  height  of 
season  in  July,  The  doe  comes  into  season 
when  the  buck  goes  out,  and  continues  until 
twelfthtide.  8he  begins  to  fawn  in  Hay,  and 
continues  until  midsummer.  The  bucks  herd 
together,  and  are  easy  to  be  tamed,  when  they 
become  impudently  familiar  and  intimate.  The 
cry  of  the  buck  is  called  braying  or  grunting, 
sometimes  prowling,  as  that  of  the  hart  la 
termed  belhng.  Tlie  fallow  deer  are  kept  in 
England  merely  as  ornaments  to  park  scenery 
and  for  sapplying  venison  to  the  table;  never 
any  longer,  as  of  old,  for  sporting  purposes. 
Therenison  is  more  succulent,  tender,  and  Juicy 
than  that  of  the  red  deer,  and  it  is  not  nnusnu 
to  find  the  buck,  in  high  season,  with  three  and 
fonr  inches  of  fat  on  the  brisket,  Varions  pas- 
tures produce  various  degrees  of  excellence  in 
the  venison.  Wtere  the  wild  thyme  is  abun- 
dant, the  flesh  is  noted  for  its  delicious  aromatio 
fiavor;  and  it  is  remarked  that  the  more  level 
and  luxuriantly  pastured  parks  of  the  south 
of  England  produce  the  fattest  venison,  while 
those  of  the  north,  abonndingin  broken  ground, 
glena,  and  knolls,  covered  with  broom  and  fern, 
yield  it  of  the  highest  fiavor.— So  late  as  the 
reigns  of  the  Stuart  monarcbs,  shooting  the 
fallow  deer  with  the  orossbow,  coursing  it  with 
greyhonnds  in  the  royal  porks  and  chases,  and 
toming  it  ont  to  hunt  with  the  buckhounds, 
were  royal  amusements.  The  buckhounds  are 
still  kept  up,  and  the  "master  of  the  buck- 
hounds*' is  a  high,  honorary  court  office,  held 
by  some  sporting  nobleman;  but  they  no  longer 
hunt  the  buck,  the  hart  or  st^  of  the  red  deer 
having  been  for  many  years  substituted  for  the 
fallow  bnck,  as  being farmore  cunning,  strong- 
er, fleeter,  and  capable  of  supporting  longer 
chases.  In  many  parts  of  Germany,  in  Den- 
mark, Norway,  and  Sweden,  the  fallow  deer 
runswildin  the  forests,  and  is  strictly  preserved 
for  the  use  of  royalty  and  the  territorial  nobles. 
It  is  usually  driven  with  hounds  or  beaters,  and 
killed  with  fowling  pieces  and  buckshot.  Tha 
height  at  the  shonlders  is  about  8  ft.  The  xkin 
affords  a  valuable  leather,  and  the  horns  are 
used  for  knife  handles  and  similar  purposes, 

FALL  BlVOt,  a  city  and  port  of  entry  of 
Bristol  CO.,  Hassacbnsetta,  on  Mount  Hope  bay, 
an  arm  of  Narrogansett  bay,  at  the  mouth  of 
Taunton  river,  45  ra,  S.  by  W.  of  Boston;  pop. 
in  1850, 11,524;  in  I860,  14,02fl;  inIB70,2fi,- 
Tflfl,  of  whom  11,478  were  foreigners.  It  is 
on  high  gronnd,  with  well  shaded  streets,  hand- 
some churches,  and  many  granite  edifices,  Iha 
stone  being  obtained  from  targe  quarries  in 
the  vicinity.  It  contains  two  handsome  parks, 
and  includes  the  localities  popularly  known  as 


76 


FALL  RIVER 


FALMOUTH 


Gopicnt,  Globe  village,  Mechanicsville,  Moaiit 
Hope  village,  New  Boston,  and  Steep  Brook. 
The  Old  Colony  and  Newport  railroad  furnishes 
commonication  with  Boston,  and  the  Provi- 
dence, Warren,  and  Bristol  line  connects  the 
city  with  Providence;  while  daily  lines  of 
steamers  ran  to  Providence,  Newport,  and 
New  York.  The  harbor  is  safe,  commodious, 
easy  of  access,  and  deep  enough  for  the  largest 
vessels.  The  value  of  the  foreign  commerce 
for  the  year  ending  June  80,  1873,  was  $217,- 
028 ;  58  vessels  of  11,888  tons  entered  from, 
and  27  of  4,542  tons  cleared  for  foreign  ports ; 
entered  in  the  coastwise  trade,  418  steamers 
of  870,592  tons,  and  47  sailing  vessels  of  8,208 
tons;  cleared,  815  steamers  of  828,081  tons, 
and  25  sailing  vessels  of  6,075  tons ;  employed 
in  the  cod  and  mackerel  fishery,  87  vessels  of 
654  tons;  belonging  to  the  port,  14  steamers 
of  2,811  tons,  and  127  sailing  vessels  of  11,411 
tons.  Fall  river,  from  which  the  city  derives 
its  name,  is  a  small  stream  emptying  into  the 
Taunton  near  its  mouth.  It  rises  in  a  chain  of 
ponds  connected  by  a  narrow  channel  and  cov- 
ering an  area  of  5,000  acres,  which  lie  about 
2  m.  from  the  bay  and  receive  the  outlets  of 
several  other  sheets  of  water  embracing  an 
area  of  2,000  acres  more.  The  river,  having 
a  descent  of  180  ft.  in  less  than  half  a  mile, 
and  furnished  with  an  unfailing  supply  of  wa- 
ter, possesses  remarkable  advantages  as  a  mill 
stream,  w^hich  have  been  improved  by  the 
erection  of  a  dam  at  the  outlet  of  the  ponds. 
The  lower  banks  are  entirely  built  up  with 
manufactories,  which  are  now,  however,  most- 
ly run  by  steam.  The  manufacture  of  cotton 
goods,  which  has  increased  with  remarkable 
rapidity  within  the  last  10  years,  is  the  chief 
industry.  Fall  River  containing  more  spindles 
than  any  other  city  in  the  United  States.  Print 
cloths  are  the  principal  item  of  production. 
The  number  of  corporations  is  84,  of  which  16 
have  been  formed  since  1870,  having  a  capital 
of  $14,870,000,  and  owning  41  mills  with 
29,521  looms  and  1,269,788  spindles;  hands 
employed,  15,145;  monthly  wages,  $492,250; 
bales  of  cotton  Consumed  annually,  182,775; 
production,  881,875,000  yards.  The  city  also 
contains  a  woollen  mill,  two  print  works,  a 
bleachery,  a  brass  founding  and  finishing  es- 
tablishment, several  iron  works  and  machine 
shops,  producing  steam  engines,  cotton  ma- 
chinery, turbine  water  wheels,  &c.,  4  manu- 
factories of  cotton  thread,  2  of  twine  and  wick- 
ing,  2  of  files,  6  of  carriages,  4  of  soap,  1  of 
soda,  6  of  oil,  8  of  weavers'  reeds  and  harness, 
a  ship-building  establishment,  and  several  pla- 
ning mills.  There  are  seven  national  banks, 
with  an  aggregate  capital  of  $2,250,000,  and 
four  savings  banks,  'having  in  October,  1878, 
21,190  depositors  and  deposits  to  the  amount 
of  $8,891,002  95.  The  Fall  River  savings  bank, 
incorporated  in  1828,  had  11,128  depositors 
and  deposits  to  the  amount  of  $5,274,998  09. 
Fall  River  is  divided  into  six  wards,  and  is 
governed  by  a  mayor,  a  board  of  aldermen  of 


one  member,  and  a  common  council  of  three 
members,  trom  each  ward.  There  is  a  police 
court,  and  a  police  force  of  about  80  men  under 
the  city  marshal.  In  1872  there  were  a  high 
school,  29  grammar,  29  primary,  and  8  evening 
schools,  having  99  teachers  and  an  average  at- 
tendance of  4,277  pupils.  The  total  expendi- 
ture for  school  purposes  was  $145,477  80,  of 
which  $44,412  46  was  for  teachers'  wages. 
The  public  library  contains  10,678  *volume8. 
Two  daily  and  two  weekly  newspapers  are 
published.  There  are  24  churches,  viz.:  8 
Baptist,  8  Congregational,  2  Christian,  1  Epis- 
copal, 1  Friends^  5  Methodist,  1  New  Jerusa- 
lem, 1  Presbyterian,  6  Roman  Catholic,  and  1 
Unitarian. — Fall  River,  formerly  a  part  of 
Freetown,  was  incorporated  as  a  separate  town 
in  1808.  Its  name  was  soon  after  changed  to 
Troy,  but  in  1834  the  old  appellation  was  re- 
stored. It  received  a  city  charter  in  1854,  and 
in  1862  the  town  of  Fall  River,  Newport  co., 
R.  I.,  with  8,877  inhabitants,  was  annexed  to  it. 

FILLS,  a  centra]  county  of  Texas,  intersected 
by  Brazos  river ;  area,  795  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  9,851,  of  whom  4,681  were  colored. 
Most  of  the  surface  is  occupied  by  rolling 
prairies,  the  soil  of  which  is  a  rich  black  loam. 
The  river  bottoms  are  still  more  fertile,  and 
produce  good  crops  of  Indian  com  and  cotton, 
with  plenty  of  oak,  pecan,  cedar,  cottonwood, 
and  other  timber.  Limestone  underlies  a  large 
part  of  the  county,  and  a  vast  ledge  of  it  cross- 
ing the  bed  of  Brazos  river  causes  the  falls 
from  which  the  county  derives  its  name.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  408,094  bushels 
of  Indian  com,  81,424  of  sweet  potatoes,  and 
14,126  bales  of  cotton.  There  were  6,269 
horses,  2,405  milch  cows,  17,602  other  cattle, 
and  7,406  swine.    Capital,  Marlin. 

FILHOIITH,  a  parliamentary  borough  and 
seaport  of  Cornwall,  England,  beautifully  sit- 
uated on  the  S.  W.  side  of  a  harbor  on  the 
channel,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Fal,  45  m. 
S.  W.  of  Plymouth;  pop.  in  1871,  5,294.  It 
is  on  a  steep  acclivity,  reaching  to  the  water'* 
edge,  and  consists  mainly  of  one  long  narrow 
street.  It  has  many  good  stone  houses,  and  a 
plentiful  supply  of  water  in  the  N.  and  S. 
quarters,  where  the  ground  is  arranged  in  ter- 
races. The  harbor,  one  of  the  finest  in  Great 
Britain,  is  formed  by  the  estuary  of  the  Fal.  It 
is  12  to  18  fathoms  deep,  and  can  contain  500 
vessels.  It  is  defended  on  the  west  by  Pen- 
dennis  castle,  and  on  the  east  by  St.  Mawes 
CMtle,  both  built  by  Henry  VIII.  and  im- 
proved by  Elizabeth.  Pendennis  castle  under- 
went a  long  siege  by  Cromwell,  traces  of  whose 
encampment  near  by  are  still  visible.  It  now 
contains  barracks,  storehouses,  magazines,  &c. 
Sir  Walter  Raleigh  visited  the  harbor  on  his 
return  from  the  coast  of  Guiana,  and  first  called 
attention  to  its  great  advantages,  which  had 
till  then  been  altogether  overlooked.  The  en- 
trance is  about  1  m.  wide,  and  the  bay,  which 
runs  6  or  7  m.  inland,  is  a  favorite  resort  of 
British  vessels  in  time  of  war.    Before  the  in- 


FALSE  IMPRISONMENT 


FALSEN 


77 


trodaotion  of  mail  steamers  it  was  the  principal 
station  for  the  Spanish,  Portugaese,  and  Amer- 
ican packet  service,  and  carried  on  an  exten- 
sive trade  with  those  comitries.  It  exports 
pilchards,  which  are  taken  off  its  coast,  tin, 
aad  copper,  and  imports  timber,  hemp,  tallow, 
ram,  sugar,  grain,  wine,  and  fmits.  It  has 
l£ffge  ship-building  yards,  roperies,  breweries, 
and  a  flourishing  trade  in  maritime  supplies. 
The  number  of  vessels  registered  as  belonging 
to  the  port  is  160.  The  royal  Cornwall  poly- 
technic society,  the  first  institution  of  the  kind 
established  in  England,  founded  in  1838  for  the 
encouragement  of  the  sciences,  art,  and  indus- 
try, meets  annually  at  Falmouth. 

FALSE  UPRISOBniENT.  The  jealous  watch- 
fulness  of  ^e  common  law  of  England  for  the 
protection  and  preservation  of  personal  liberty 
is  nowhere  proved  more  distinctly  than  in  the 
provisions  of  the  law  respecting  what  is  techni- 
cally called  false  imprisonment.  In  their  ex- 
tent and  fulness  they  are  <][uite  peculiar  to  that 
law ;  and  while  the  principles  on  which  they 
rest,  and  some  of  the  rules  derived  from  them, 
may  be  discerned  even  in  Saxon  times,  they 
have  certainly  been  developed  and  systematized 
in  later  ages,  as  the  worth  of  personal  liber- 
ty became  more  accurately  estimated  and  the 
means  of  preserving  it  better  understood.  False 
imprisonment,  in  the  law  of  England  and  the 
United  States,  may  now  be  defined  as  any  in- 
tentional and  unlawful  restraint  of  a  person. 
It  may  be :  1,  the  restraint  or  arrest  of  a  per- 
son under  color  of  law,  by  means  of  an  illegal 
or  insufficient  process ;  2,  such  restraint  or 
arrest  by  means  of  a  legal  instrument,  but  at 
an  illegal  time,  as  on  Sunday  or  any  other  day 
generally  prohibited,  or  at  any  time  which  is 
illegal  and  unauthorized  in  respect  to  the  per- 
son restrained ;  8,  without  color  or  pretence 
of  law,  as  when  one  confines  another  to  his 
room  or  house  without  legal  authority  to  do 
so.  False  imprisonment  may  be  with  force  or 
wholly  without  force ;  as  if  one,  without  touch- 
ing another,  by  words  only,  or  even  by  gestures 
only,  compels  him  by  fear  to  abstain  from  go- 
ing where  he  has  a  right  to  go,  or  to  go  where 
he  wishes  not  to  go  and  is  under  no  obligation 
to  go.  It  is  false  imprisonlhent  to  confront  a 
man  in  the  street,  and,  without  touching  him, 
constrain  him  to  arrest  his  course  or  change  it 
against  his  will. — The  remedies  for  false  impris- 
onment are  threefold :  1,  an  action  for  tre^ass 
oi  et  armis,  when  the  party  imprisoned  may 
recover  not  only  such  dfamages  as  are  capable 
of  being  estimated  on  the  evidence,  but  such 
farther  sum  as  the  jury,  in  cases  where  the  party 
had  no  reason  to  believe  his  conduct  lawflil, 
may  consider  proportioned  to  the  character  of 
the  wrong;  2,  the  writ  of  habeas  corpus  for 
immediate  relief  from  the  restraint ;  8,  indict- 
ment at  common  law  for  false  imprisonment 
of  any  kind,  for  which  the  guilty  party  may  be 
severely  punished.  In  some  of  the  United 
States  there  are  various  statutory  provisions 
respecting  certain  kinds  of  false  imprisonment. 


FAI^  FBliTENCJdS.  Any  one  who  acquires 
property  by  means  of  false  pretences  has  no 
legal  title  to  it,  and  it  may  be  recovered  by 
the  party  from  whom  it  was  thus  obtained, 
and  who  is  still  the  legal  owner.  (See  Fbaud.) 
But  besides  this  civil  remedy,  the  statutes  of 
England  and  of  the  United  States  make  the  ob- 
taining of  property  by  false  pretences  an  in- 
dictable offence.  The  expressions  in  our  state 
statutes  are  various ;  but  in  general,  any  one 
who  by  means  of  false  pretences,  and  with  a 
fraudulent  design,  obtains  possession  of  money, 
merchandise,  goods,  or  wares  of  any  descrip' 
tion,  or  obtains  the  signature  of  another  to  a 
deed,  note,  or  other  contract  or  writing  for  the 
transfer  of  property  or  the  payment  of  money, 
becomes  liable  under  the  statute.  It  is  impos- 
sible to  define  precisely  the  false  pretences 
which  expose  one  to  this  punishment.  It  is 
obvious  that  they  cannot  be  slight  suggestions 
which  are  without  foundation,  or  open  and  ob- 
vious falsehoods  by  which  no  man  in  his  senses 
would  be  deceived.  In  the  first  place,  they 
must  be  intended  to  produce  an  .  injurious 
effect ;  and  in  the  next  place,  they  must  be 
such  as  would  be  likely  to  deceive  a  person  of 
ordinary  discretion,  who  is  to  a  reasonable  ex- 
tent on  his  guard.  They  must  relate  to  exist- 
ing facts,  and  not  be  mere  promises  of  some- 
thing to  be  done  in  the  future.  If  the  pretences 
or  misrepresentations  are  numerous,  and  most 
of  them  are  honest,  but  some  one  of  them  is  at 
once  material,  false,  and  fraudulent,  the  offence 
is  committed;  and  this  is  so,  although  the 
statements  which  were  true  exercised  the  prin- 
cipal infiuence  in  obtaining  the  property  for  the 
guilty  party,  provided  it  would  not  have  been 
given  him  but  for  the  statement  also  which  was 
false.  It  may  be  remarked  that  no  false  pre- 
tences made  after  the  contract  was  completed 
will  constitute  the  offence,  even  if  they  were 
made  before  the  property  was  delivered,  unless 
the  delivery  or  execution  was  at  first  withheld, 
and  then  brought  about  by  the  false  pretences. 
At  common  law  the  nearest  provision  to  this 
of  the  modem  statutes  was  one  which  exposed 
to  indictment  and  punishment  as  a  cheat  a 
person  who  obtained  possession  of  money  or 
goods  by  means  of  what  were  called  false 
tokens,  by  which  was  meant  forged  papers,  or 
other  counterfeit  symbols  or  evidence  of  own- 
ership or  authority.  Language  similar  to  this 
ancient  rule  is  used  in  some  of  our  statutes, 
as  in  those  of  Pennsylvania.  The  first  statute 
against  false  pretences  in  England  was  SO 
George  II.,  c.  24 ;  and  this  has  been  followed 
by  the  different  states  of  the  Union,  more  or 
less  exactly.  The  most  common  instances  of 
indictments  under  these  statutes  are  for  the 
obtaining  of  goods  by  buyers  under  false  pre- 
tences as  to  their  responsibility  or  resources ; 
and  it  was  mainly  to  suppress  these  that  the 
statutes  were  intended. 

FALSEN,  Knntsen  nagau,  a  Norwegian  his- 
torian, bom  at  Opslo,  Sept.  17,  1782,  died  in 
Christiania,  Jan.  18,  1880.    He  was  a  son  of 


78 


FALSTER 


FAN 


the  poet  Enevold  von  Falsen,  was  educated  in 
Copenhagen,  became  a  lawyer  and  judge  in 
Norway,  and  was  a  member  of  the  constituent 
diet  of  Eidsvold  (1814),  and  deputy  to  the 
storthing  (1816-22).  He  voluntarily  gave  up 
his  title  of  nobility,  but  became  unpopular  in 
1822,  when,  as  attorney  general,  he  defended 
such  measures  of  the  government  as  conflict- 
ed with  his  formerly  enunciated  views.  The 
storthing  in  1824  withdrew  the  appropriation 
for  his  office,  upon  which  the  king  appointed 
him  governor  of  Bergen,  and  in  1827  he  re- 
moved to  Christiania  as  justice  of  the  supreme 
court.  His  principal  work  is  Narges  Historie 
(4  vols.,  Christiania,  1828-'4). 

FALSTER,  an  island  of  Denmark,  in  the  Bal- 
tic, 8.  of  Seeland,  separated  from  the  island 
of  Mden  on  the  northeast  by  Grdn  sound,  and 
from  that  of  Laaland  on  the  west  by  Guld- 
borg  sound,  and  forming  part  of  the  bailiwick 
of  Maribo ;  area,  including  the  little  island  of 
Hasseld,  181  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  26,000.  In 
the  northeast  it  is  mountainous,  an^  elsewhere 
entirely  flat.  On  account  of  its  abundant  fruits, 
it  is  called  the  orchard  of  Denmark.  Grain, 
flax,  hemp,  hops,  honey,  and  wax  are  the  princi- 
pal products.  Cattle,  hogs,  and  poultry  abound, 
and  peat,  chalk,  and  buUding  stone  are  found. 
The  chief  town,  Nykidbing,  contains  a  castle 
and  cathedral,  and  has  an  active  trade ;  pop. 
in  1870,  8,646.  Originally  in  possession  of 
Danish  nobles,  the  island  passed  into  that  of  the 
royal  family,  and  a  number  of  Danish  queens 
resided  in  its  capital  in  the  16th  and  m  the 
early  part  of  the  17th  century. 

FlMAGOSTi,  or  FiBagnsU  (anc.  Arainoi ; 
Turk.  Mau9a\  a  seaport  town  of  the  island 
of  Cyprus,  on  the  E.  coast,  about  12  m.  N.  W. 
of  Cape  Grego ;  pop.  about  800.  It  is  about 
two  miles  in  circumference,  and  is  little  more 
than  a  confused  mass  of  ruins,  the  ancient 
streets  being  choked  up  and  the  buildings 
fallen  into  decay ;  but  the  fortifications  erected 
by  the  Genoese  and  Venetians  are  in  a  good 
state  of  preservation,  and  the  cannon  mounted 
by  the  latter  still  defend  its  walls.  Of  the  200 
churches  which  it  formerly  contained,  but  a 
few  ruined  ones  remain.  The  Latin  cathedral 
of  St.  Nicholas,  now  a  mosque,  is  a  fine  speci- 
men of  medisBval  architecture.  In  it  the  Lu- 
signans  were  crowned  kings  of  Jerusalem,  and 
many  interesting  monuments  are  still  to  be 
seen  in  its  interior.  On  the  N.  side  of  the 
town  are  bomb-proofs  and  cannon  founderies. 
There  are  but  two  gates,  one  on  the  south  and 
one  opening  toward  the  port.  The  harbor  is 
narrow  and  its  entrance  is  shallow,  but  Uiere 
is  good  anchorage  before  the  town  in  eight 
fathoms  of  water.  Without  the  walls  is  the 
suburb  of  Varoskia,  which  contains  most  of 
the  population.  The  surrounding  country  is 
bleak  and  barren.  About  6  m.  to  the  north 
are  the  ruins  of  ancient  Salamis. — The  original 
city  was  one  of  those  built  by  Ptolemy  Phila- 
delphus  in  honor  of  his  sister  Arsino6.  After 
the  battle  of  Actium  it  was  called  by  Augustus 


Fama  Augusta.  It  was  of  great  impoiiiance  du- 
ring the  crusades,  and  it  was  there  that  Guy  de 
Lusignan  received  the  crown  of  Cyprus  in  1191 
from  Richard  I.  of  England.  It  was  taken  by 
the  Genoese  in  1373,  and  in  1489  by  the  Vene- 
tians, under  whom  it  became  a  rich  and  pow- 
erful city.  In  1671  it  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  Turks,  after  a  siege  of  four  months,  in 
which  it  was  nearly  destroyed ;  and  in  1786  an 
earthquake  completed  its  ruin. 

FilV,  an  implement  used  to  produce  coolness 
by  agitating  the  air.  Its  origin  is  traced  to  re- 
mote antiquity,  and  is  ascribed  by  some  histo- 
rians to  Kan-si,  daughter  of  a  Chinese  mandarin. 
On  the  walls  of  the  tombs  at  Thebes,  the  king 
is  represented  surrounded  by  his  fan-bearers, 
who  bore  the  instruments  as  standards  in  war, 
while  in  times  of  peace  they  waited  upon  the 
monarch  in  the  temple,  refreshing  him  with 
the  fans,  and  at  the  same  time  driving  away 
insects  from  the  sacred  oflerings.  The  fashion 
spread  from  Persia  to  Asia  Minor,  and  in 
Greece  we  find  traces  of  fans  as  eoi'ly  as  600 
B.  C.  The  wings  of  a  bird  joined  laterally  and 
fastened  to  a  delicate  handle  constituted  a  most 
beautiful  fan.  The  fan  of  the  priest  of  Isis, 
when  the  worship  of  that  divinity  began  to 
prevail  in  Greece,  was  semicircular,  made  of 
feathers  of  dififerent  lengths,  pointed  at  the 
top,  and  waved  by  a  female  slave.  In  one  of 
the  tragedies  of  Euripides  a  eunuch  is  intro- 
duced, who  says  that,  in  accordance  with 
Phrygian  custom,  he  had  used  his  fan  to  pro- 
tect Helen  against  the  efl*ects  of  the  heat.  In 
Rome  fans  became  popular  among  the  ladies, 
and  at  dinner  parties  slaves  with  fans  stood 
behind  the  guests.  The  Roman  poets,  Ovid, 
Terence,  and  Propertius,  frequently  allude  to 
their  use,  and  the  pictures  on  the  ancient  vases 
also  indicate  the  wide  prevalence  of  the  fash- 
ion. In  the  middle  ages  fans  made  of  eagle  or 
peacock  feathers,  in  various  forms,  and  fastened 
with  a  handle  of  gold,  silver,  or  ivory,  were  a 
lucrative  article  of  trade  in  the  Levantine  mar- 
kets, whence  they  were  exported  to  Venice 
and  other  Italian  cities.  Catharine  de'  Medici 
introduced  into  France  fans  which  could  be 
folded  in  the  manner  of  those  of  the  present 
day.  Having  been  favorably  received  by  the 
court  of  Henry  II.,  they  became  objects  of 
great  luxury  during  the  reigns  of  Louis  XIV. 
and  Louis  XV.  No  toilet  was  considered 
complete  without  a  fan,  the  cost  of  which  fre- 
quently exceeded  $70.  Picturesque  landscapes, 
the  most  exquisite  paper  of  China,  the  most 
elegant  tafifeta  of  Florence,  precious  stones  and 
diamonds,  all  in  turn  were  put  in  requisition  to 
enhance  the  appearance  and  the  value  of  the 
fan.  Manufacturers  of  fans  soon  became  nu- 
merous in  Paris;  and  previous  to  1678,  when 
a  charter  was  granted  to  them  by  Louis  XIV., 
they  had  organized  themselves  into  a  corpora- 
tion. In  England,  fans  were  in  fashion  in  the 
time  of  Henry  VIII,  In  Shakespeare's  "  Mer- 
ry "Wives  of  Windsor"  an  allusion  to  fans  is" 
made  by  Falstafif  to  Pistol.    A  superb  fan  set 


FAN 


FANEUH 


79 


with  diamonds  was  presented  to  Qaeen  Eliza- 
beth on  New  Year's  day.  Among  the  articles 
received  by  Cortes  from  Montezuma  were  five 
fans  of  variegated  feathers,  four  of  them  with 
10  and  one  with  13  rods  embossed  with  gold, 
and  one  fan,  aIs«o  with  variegated  featherwork, 
vr\th  37  rods  plated  with  gold.  In  Spain  at 
an  early  day  fans  were  special  favorites  with 
ladles,  and  the  Spanish  lady,  as  well  as  the 
ladies  of  Spanish  extraction  in  the  new  world, 
are  inimitable  in  their  management  (manejo) 
of  the  fan  (abanico.)  They  carry  on  conversa- 
tions with  it,  and  a  book  might  be  written  to 
explain  the  complicated  code  of  signals  by  which 
they  express  their  feelings  with  the  fan. — The 
best  and  cheapest  lacquered  fans  are  produced 
in  China.  Those  made  of  i  vory ,  bone,  and  feath- 
ers are  destined  chiefly  for  the  European  and 
American  markets.  The  fans  which  the  Chinese 
use  are  of  polished  or  japanned  bamboo,  cov- 
ered with  paper,  and  vary  in  price  from  20  to 
SO  cents  a  dozen.  The  state  fan  which  is  used 
on  great  occasions  in  China  and  India  is  pre- 
cisely of  the  same  semicircular  form  and  point- 
ed top  which  was  in  fashion  among  the  ancient 
Greeks.  In  Japan  the  fan  is  to  be  seen  on 
all  occasions,  among  all  classes  of  society,  and 
in  the  hands  of  men,  women,  and  children. 
Where  the  European  takes  oflT  his  hat  in  token 
of  politeness,  the  Japanese  performs  the  same 
courtesy  by  waving  his  fan.  In  the  schools  dili- 
geut  scholars  receive  fans  in  reward  for  their 
zeal.  A  gentleman,  in  giving  alms  to  a  beggar, 
puts  the  money  upon  his  fan.  When  a  criminal 
of  rank  is  sentenced  to  death,  his  doom  is  pro- 
claimed to  him  by  presenting  him  with  a  fan, 
and  his  head  is  taken  off  while  he  bows  and 
stretches  out  his  hand  to  receive  the  fatal  gift. 
Japanese  fans,  generally  ornamented  with  gro- 
tesque pictures,  are  exported  in  large  quanti- 
ties to  the  United  States,  where  they  are  as 
popular  as  those  of  China  for  their  cheapness 
und  neatness. — Fans  were  used  for  allegorical 
porposes  in  the  mythology  of  Greece,  and  the 
Egyptian  custom  of  employing  them  in  temples 
and  for  religious  purposes  has  also  been  per- 
petuated in  the  ritual  of  the  modem  Greek 
charch,  which  places  a  fan  in  the  hands  of  its 
deacons.  They  are  used  to  this  day  in  Rome 
on  public  occasions,  especially  at  tlie  festa  di 
eattedra^  when  the  pope  is  escorted  by  two  men 
who  carry  feather  fans  with  ivory  handles,  but 
do  not  use  them. — Next  to  China  and  Japan, 
France  is  most  celebrated  for  the  manufacture 
of  fans,  but  beautiful  fans  are  also  made  in  the 
United  States,  in  England,  at  Brussels,  Geneva, 
Vienna,  and  at  various  other  places.  The  manu- 
facture in  France  presents  an  interesting  in- 
stance of  the  subdivision  of  labor,  20  different 
processes  being  required  to  produce  a  fan  which 
sells  for  less  than  three  cents,  as  well  as  one 
worth  several  thousand  francs.  This  industry 
gives  employment  to  thousands  of  persons,  and 
its  aggregate  value  for  Paris  alone  is  estimated 
at  7,000,000  francs  annually.  In  France,  the 
fan  is  occasionally  used  by  gentlemen  at  the 

813  VOL.  VII.— 6 


theatres,  having  first  appeared  on  a  warm  sum- 
mer evening  of  1828,  during  the  representa- 
tion of  Corisandre  at  the  comic  opera.  Hence 
the  name  of  corisandre  applied  in  France  to 
fans  used  by  gentlemen. 

FANARIOTES,  or  Pbanariotes,  the  Greeks  who 
reside  in  the  Fanar  or  Phanar  district  of  Con- 
stantinople, whose  ancestors  had  escaped  the 
fiiry  of  the  Turkish  conquerors  after  the  capture 
of  that  city  by  Mohammed  II.  (1463).  Origi- 
nally employed  as  translators  of  public  docu- 
ments and  as  secretaries  and  stewards  of  distin- 
guished personages,  they  gradually  acquired  by 
their  wealth,  as  well  as  by  their  abilities  and 
intrigues,  great  political,  financial,  and  social 
importance  in  Turkey.  The  office  of  dragoman 
'  of  the  divan  was  for  the  first  time  intrusted  to 
a  Greek  in  the  17th  century,  under  Mohammed 
IV.,  and  has  since  been  uniformly  conferred 
upon  Fanariotes.  Most  of  the  hospodars  of 
Moldavia  and  Wallachia  from  the  latter  part 
of  the  17th  century  to  the  beginning  of  the 
19tb  were  also  members  of  Fanariote  families 
(Callimachi,  Cantacuzene,  Cantemir,  Ducas, 
Kara^a,  Musuri,  Sutzo,  Ypsilanti,  &c.).  The 
Fanariotes  were  the  principal  bankers  of  Con- 
stantinople, and  as  such  dispensers  of  an  exten- 
sive patronage  in  the  bestowal  of  public  offices. 

FAXDANGO,  the  oldest  national  dance  of 
Spain,  especially  of  Andalusia.  Some  suppose 
it  to  have  been  introduced  by  the  Moors ;  others 
say  the  Moors  found  the  dance  already  estab- 
lished, and  trace  its  origin  to  the  most  an- 
cient times.  It  is  danced  in  three-four  time  by 
one  couple  only,  usually  to  the  accompaniment 
of  the  guitar,  and  occasionally  also  of  the 
tambourine,  the  dancers  beating  time  with  cas- 
tanets and  the  spectators  by  clapping  their 
hands.  The  Andalusian  villagers  dance  it  al- 
most every  evening,  and  always  on  Sunday. 
The  dancers  and  their  friends  sing  improvised 
couplets ;  and  the  lady  offers  her  cheek  to  the 
men  present  after  each  dance,  and  allows  her- 
self to  be  embraced  by  all  of  them.  The  fan- 
dango is  described  as  vivacious,  graceful,  and- 
^oluptuous.  Repeated  efforts  of  the  clergy  to« 
suppress  the  dance  have  proved  inadequate  tO' 
overcome  its  popularity  among  the  peasantry^ 

FlNEriL,  Peter,  the  founder  of  Faneuil  hall 
in  Boston,  born  of  a  French  Huguenot  family 
in  New  Rochelle,  N.  Y.,  in  1700,  died  in  Bos- 
ton, March  8, 1743.  He  became  a  merchant  in 
Boston,  and  in  1740,  after  the  project  of  erect- 
ing a  public  market  house  in  Boston  had  been 
discussed  for  some  years,  he  offered  at  a.  public 
meeting  to  build  a  suitable  edifice  at  his  own 
cost  as  a  gift  to  the  town ;  but  so  strong  was 
the  opposition  to  market  houses  that,  although 
a  vote  of  thanks  was  passed  unanimously,  the 
offer  was  accepted  by  a  mi^jority  of  only  seven. 
The  building  was  commenced  in  Dock  square  in 
September  of  the  same  year,  and  finished  in 
two  years.  It  comprised  a  market  house  on 
the  ground  floor,  and  a  town  hall  with  other 
rooms  (an  addition  to  the  original  plan)  over  it. 
In  1761  it  was  destroyed  By  fire ;  in.  176a  it 


80 


FANFANI 


FANNING 


was  rebuilt  by  the  town;  and  in  1776,  during 
the  British  occupation  of  Boston,  it  was  used 
for  a  theatre.  In  1805  it  was  enlarged  by  the 
addition  of  another  story,  and  was  increased  in 
width.  During  the  revolutionary  period  it  was 
the  usual  place  of  meeting  of  the  patriots,  from 
which  it  gained  the  name  of  the  cradle  of 
A.mencan  libertv 

FANFANI,  Pletr*,  an  Italian  philologist  and 
novelist,  bom^'at  Pistoja,  Tuscany,  in  1817. 
He  studied  medicine,  but  gave  his  attention 
chiefly  to  philology,  and  in  1847  founded  at 
Pistoja  a  magazine  relating  to  that  science 
(Rieordi  jfilologiei).  The  next  year  he  enlisted 
in  the  war  against  tlie  Austrians,  and  fell  into 
their  hands.  After  his  release  he  published 
(1849)  critical  comments  on  the  dictionary  of 
the  academy  della  Crusca,  which  involved  him 
in  an  acrimonious  and  successful  controversy 
with  that  institution.  Gioberti  obtained  em- 
ployment  for  him  in  the  ministry  of  education 
at  Turin.  Subsequently  he  held  an  office  under 
the  Tuscan  government  at  Florence,  where  in 
1859  he  became  director  of  the  famous  Maru- 
cellian  library,  which  post  he  still  held  in  1873. 
He  has  published  Etruria^  studi  di  Jilologia^ 
di  letteratura,  di  puhblica  utruzinne  e  di  belle 
arti  (2  vols.,  Florence,  1851-'2);  11  Borghini^ 
giomale  di  filologia  e  di  lettere  italiane  (3 
vols.,  1863-'5) ;  Vocdbolario  delV  u«o  toscano 
(2  vols.,  1863);  Commento  alia  Divina  Corn- 
media  d'Anonimo  Fiorentino  del  aeeolo  XIV. 
(8  vols.,  Bologna,  1866) ;  and  Lettere precettive 
di  eccellenti  scrittori  (2d  ed.,  1871).  Among 
his  other  writings  are :  La  Paolina,  a  novel  in 
the  Florentine  dialect  (2d  ed.,  1 868) ;  Una  bam- 
boluy  a  story  for  children  (1869) ;  and  Ceeeo  d? 
Aacoli^  a  historical  narrative  of  the  14th  cen- 
tury (1870;  Leipsic,  1871). 

FANNIEXE,  Fraif^  Aigisto  and  Fnnfols  Jo- 
seph, French  engravers  and  carvers,  brothers, 
the  former  born  at  Longwy  in  1818,  and  the 
latter  in  1822.  Adopting  the  profession  of 
their  father,  they  received  with  the  assistance 
of  their  grandfather,  M.  Fauconnier,  an  ex- 
cellent training,  and  reached  by  their  joint 
labors  a  greater  eminence  in  carving  and  em- 
bossing on  metals  than  any  artist  since  Ben- 
venuto  Cellini.  They  were  rewarded  with 
prizes  at  the  exposition  of  1849,  and  the  elder 
brother,  who  produced  large  works  in  gold 
with  bass  reliefs  at  that  of  1855,  was  made 
chevalier  of  the  legion  of  honor.  Their  sub- 
sequent joint  masterpieces  are  two  shields  rep- 
resenting incidents  from  Orlando  furioeo^  exe- 
cuted for  the  duke  de  Luynes. 

FANNIN.  I.  A  N.  W.  county  of  Georgia, 
bordering  on  Tennessee  and  North  Carolina ; 
area,  425  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1670,  6,429,  of  whom 
114  were  colored.  The  surface  is  mountain- 
ous. The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  8,947 
bushels  of  wheat,  7,027  of  rye,  113,754  of  In- 
dian corn,  and  6,210  of  oats.  There  were 
3,472  cattle,  5,123  sheep,  and  7,571  swine. 
Capital,  Morganton.  II.  A  N.  £.  county 
of  Texas,  separated  from  the  Indian  territory 


by  Red  river,  and  drained  by  Sulphur  fork  of 
that  stream,  and  by  Bois  d'Arc  creek ;  area, 
about  800  sq.  m.;  pop.  in  1870,  13,207,  of 
whom  2,484  were  colored.  It  consists  princi- 
pally of  highly  fertile  prairie  lands.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  17,648  bushels  of 
wheat,  476,668  of  Indian  corn,  63,472  of  oats, 
23,198  of  sweet  potatoes,  123,885  lbs.  of  butter, 
and  6,699  bales  of  cotton.  There  were  7,041 
horses,  20,486  cattle,  6,681  sheep,  and  18,845 
swine.    Capital,  Bonham. 

FANNIN,  Jams  W.,  an  officer  of  the  Texan 
revolution,  born  in  North  Carolina,  killed  at 
Goliad,  Texas,  March  27,  1886.  He  was  a 
captain  in  the  Texan  service  in  1835,  and  on 
Oct.  28,  at  the  head  of  90  men,  with  Capt. 
Bowie,  defeated  a  superior  Mexican  force  near 
Bexar.  Gen.  Houston  soon  afterward  made 
him  colonel  of  artillery  and  inspector  general. 
In  January,  1836,  he  set  out  to  reinforce  Dr. 
James  Grant,  commanding  an  unauthorized  ex- 
pedition to  Matamoros.  At  Refugio  he  learn- 
ed the  destruction  of  Grant^s  party  and  fell 
back  to  Goliad,  which  he  put  in  a  state  of 
defence.  But  by  Houston^s  order  he  marched 
toward  Victoria,  and  on  March  19  was  attacked 
at  the  Coleta  river  by  a  Mexican  force  under 
Gen.  Urrea.  Throwing  up  a  breastwork  of 
wagons,  baggage,  and  earth,  the  Texans  de- 
fended themselves  with  spirit  until  night  inter- 
rupted the  fighting,  Col.  Fannin  being  among 
the  wounded.  The  battle  was  renewed  on 
the  20th,  but  the  Mexicans  having  received 
a  reinforcement  of  500  men,  with  artillery, 
a  capitulation  was  signed,  by  which  it  was 
agreed  that  the  Texans  should  be  treated  as 
prisoners  of  war,  and  as  soon  as  possible  sent 
to  the  United  States.  Having  surrendered 
their  arms,  they  were  taken  to  Goliad,  where 
on  the  26tli  an  order  was  received  from  Santa 
Anna  requiring  them  to  be  shot.  At  daybreak 
the  next  morning  the  prisoners,  857  in  number 
(tlie  four  physicians  and  their  four  assistants 
being  spared),  were  marched  out  under  various 
pretexts,  and  fired  upon  in  divisions.  Fannin 
was  killed  last.  Many  attempted  to  escape, 
and  were  cut  down  by  the  cavalry,  but  27  are 
believed  to  have  eluded  pursuit. 

FANNING,  DiTld,  a  tory  and  freebooter  of 
North  Carolina  during  the  war  of  the  revolu- 
tion, bom  of  low  parentage  in  Wake  co.,  N.  0.,* 
about  1756,  died  in  Digby,  Nova  Scotia,  in 
1 825.  He  seems  to  have  been  a  carpenter,  but 
led  a  vagabond  life,  trafficking  with  the  Indians, 
and  being  connected  for  some  time  with  the 
notorious  Col.  McGirth  on  the  Pedee.  "When 
Wilmington  was  occupied  by  the  British  in 
1781,  Fanning,  having  been  robbed  by  a  party 
of  men  who  called  themselves  whigs,  attached 
himself  to  the  tories,  collected  a  small  band  of 
desperadoes,  and  scoured  the  country,  com- 
mitting frightful  atrocities,  but  doing  such  good 
service  to  the  British  that  Mi^or  Craig  rewarded 
him  with  the  royal  uniform,  and  gave  him  a 
commission  as  lieutenant  colonel  in  the  militia. 
He  captured  many  prominent  whigs,  hanging 


FASO 

tbose  who  had  inoorred  his  personal  resent- 
ment npon  the  nearest  tree.  His  name  was  a 
terror  to  the  whole  conntr; ;  he  was  excepted 
in  ever;  treatj  and  enactineDt  mode  in  favor  of 
the  royalists,  and  was  one  of  the  three  petBOna 
ticloded  by  name  from  tlie  benefits  of  the 
geoeral  "act  of  pardon  and  oblivion"  of  of- 
fences committed  dnring  the  revolution.  On 
tlie  other  hand,  his  romantic  tnodo  of  life  and 
personal  daring,  displayed  many  times  in  battle, 
drew  aronnd  him  numerons  followers,  whom 
he  discipiioed  with  great  strictness.  He  is  said 
to  have  commanded  at  one  time  200  or  300 
men.  When  the  whige  began  to  gain  the 
ascendancy  in  Iforth  Carolina,  he  went  to 
Florida,  and  afterward  to  St,  John's,  N,  B., 
where  he  assumed  a  respectable  deportment, 
and  became  meniber  of  the  assembly.  About 
1800  he  was  sentenced  to  be  hanged  for  rajw, 
but  escaped,  and  was  afterward  pardoned. 

FUO,  a  seaport  of  central  Italy,  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Pesaro,  on  the  Adriatic,  near  the 
month  of  the  Metaoro,  30  m.  N,  W,  of  Ancona; 
pop,  about  20,000,  It  is  sarrounded  by  old 
walls,  built  by  the  emperor  AugaatDs,  in  whose 
honor  was  erected  here  a  triumphal  arch  of 
white  marble,  which  is  still  standing.  Few 
cities  of  central  Italy  surpass  it  in  artistic  trea- 
snres  or  richness  of  the  surronoding  soil  and 
•ceaery.  The  cathedral  is  adorned  with  IS 
frescoes  by  Domenichino,  representing  events 
in  the  life  of  the  Virgin.  Many  of  the  13 
other  churches,  and  several  pablio  buildings 
and  private  man^ons,  contain  piuntinga  by  the 
great  Italian  masters,  marbles,  statues,  and 
fine  monuments.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop,  and 
hu  a  lyceuin,  a  gymnasium,  a  technical  school, 
a  pnblic  library,  and  a  theatre  considered  one 
of  the  finest  in  Italy.  The  mannfactnrea  are 
cbieity  of  »lk  stuffs  and  twist,  and  the  trade 
is  in  com,  oil,  &c.  The  port  was  once  much 
freqnent«d,  hut  is  now  choked  up  with  sand, 
and  viMted  only  by  small  coasting  vessels. — 
Fano  occupies  the  ^t«  of  the  ancient  Fannm 
Fortanie,  so  called  from  a  temple  of  Fortune 
bailt  by  the  Romans,  and  commemorative  of 
tJimr  victory  over  Hasdrubal  on  tlie  river  Me- 
tauros,  in  the  second  Fonio  war.  It  was  the 
scene  of  a  victory  by  Narses  over  the  Goths 
anderTotila.  In  ISll  Pope  Julius  II.  establish- 
ed here  the  first  printing  press  in  Europe  with 
movable  Arabic  types, 

FUSBlffE,  Sir  ElchaTd,an  English  poet  and 
diplomatist,  bom  at  Ware  Park,  Hertfordshire, 
inJune,  1608,  died  in  Madrid,  June  16,  1860, 
Ua  studied  in  Jesus  college,  Cambridge,  and  in 
the  Inner  Temple.  He  then  went  abroad  to 
itady  manners  and  langnages,  and  on  his  re- 
turn home  became  secretary  to  the  embassy  at 
Madrid,  where  he  remained  till  1638.  On  the 
ontbrealE  of  the  civil  war  he  declared  for  the 
crown,  and  was  made  secretary  to  the  prince 
pfWales.  In  1646  he  was  appointed  treasurer 
lo  the  navy  nnder  Prinoe  Rupert  and  two 
/ears  later  he  was  made  a  baronet^  and  sent 
lo  Madrid  to  implore  the  assistance  of  Spain, 


FANTEE     * 


81 


He  was  taken  prisoner  at  the  battle  of  Worces- 
ter, bnt  being  released  passed  several  years  {n 
retirement,  translating  the  "Lnsiad"  of  Oa- 

moSns,  and  npon  the  death  of  Cromwell  joined 
Cliarles  II.  at  Breda.  He  was  appointed  mas- 
ter of  requests  and  Latin  secretary  to  the  ex- 
iled monarch,  and  after  the  restoration  was 
elected  to  parliament,  and  was  sent  upon  diplo- 
matic missions  to  Madrid  and  Lisbon,  negotia- . 
ting  the  marriage  of  Charles  with  the  inl'anta 
Catharine  of  Portugal.  Besides  his  version  of 
the  "  Lusiad  "  (1 6Q5),  he  translated  the  Potior 
fiio  of  Guarini  and  the  odes  of  Horace,  and 
wrote  a  few  abort  original  poems.  The  "Origi-- 
nal  letters  and  Fegotiations  of  fiir  Bichard 
Fanahawe,  the  Earl  of  Sandwich,  the  Earl  of 
Sunderland,  and  Sir  William  Godolphin  "  (8vo, 
London,  1T34)  is  a  valuable  contribution  to 
history.  The  "  Memoirs  of  Lady  Fanshawe," 
written  by  herself,  with  extracts  from  the  cor- 
respondence of  her  husband,  edited  by  Sir  N, 
H,  Nicolas,  was  published  in  London  in  18S0. 
FiXTEE,  a  country  of  tlie  Gold  Coast,  W, 
Africa,  bounded  N.  W.  and  N,  by  Assin  and 
Bubbin,  E.  by  Aqnapim,  S.  by  thegulf  of  Guinea, 
and  W.  by  Wassaw  lying  near  lat,  6°  80'  N., 
Ion,  1°  W,  Capital,  Maukasim.  It  is  watered 
by  several  rivers,  is  aaid  to  be  fertile  and  popn- 
lous,  and  has  several  important  trading  stations 
along  its  coaat.  The  inhabitants  are  remark- 
ably cleanly,  are  more  mnscolar  than  the  Ash- 
anteea,  and  may  be  distinguished  fhim  other 


African  tribes  by  small  scarifications  on  the 
back  of  the  neck  and  the  upper  part  of  the 
cheek  bones.  Their  heads  are  nigh  and  round, 
and  tbeir  color  is  a  dull  brownish  black.  They 
have  long  faces  with  jaws  protruding  to  an 
nnnsnal  eitent,  flat  noses,  thick  lips,  and  very 
large  ears.    The  dress  of  both  sexes  consists 


82 


FANTI 


FARADAY 


of  a  single  piece  of  cloth  wrapped  loosely 
around  the  body.  They  pay  a  nominal  obedi- 
ence to  chiefs  called  caboceers,  besides  whom 
every  village  has  its  local  magistrate.  They 
formerly  governed  or  influenced  a  seaboard 
district  extending  about  100  m.  along  the  coast. 
About  1807,  becoming  involved  in  a  war  with 
the  king  of  Ashantee,  they  obtained  the  active 
interference  of  the  English,  who  had  a  small 
fort  in  Anamboe,  one  of  their  towns ;  but  this 
alliance,  while  it  plunged  the  British  into  a 
disastrous  quarrel,  proved  of  no  benefit  to  the 
Fantees,  whose  territory  after  a  long  struggle 
was  occupied  by  the  victorious  Ashantees.  In 
1823  the  Fantees,  encouraged  by  the  British, 
rebelled,  but  were  again  subdued,  the  British 
being  defeated  by  the  Ashantees,  and  tlieir 
commander.  Sir  Charles  McCarthy,  captured 
and  put  to  death.  In  1826,  however,  the  Brit- 
ish defeated  the  Ashantees  and  compelled  them 
to  retire  to  their  own  territories.  From  that 
time  for  nearly  half  a  century  the  Fantees 
were  unmolested  under  British  protection. 
But  in  1872  the  Dutch  possessions  on  the  Gold 
Coast  were  transferred  by  treaty  to  Great 
Britain,  and  in  1873  Koffee  Calcalli,  king  of 
Ashantee,  complaining  that  some  of  the  stipula- 
tions of  his  treaties  with  the  Dutch  had  been 
violated  by  the  British,  declared  war  against 
them,  overran  and  ravaged  the  Fantee  terri- 
tories, and  in  September  was  threatening  Cape 
Coast  Castle  with  a  numerous  army.  The 
British  government,  holding  itself  boimd  to 
protect  its  allies,  the  Fantees,  sent  a  powerful 
force  to  the  Gold  Coast  under  command  of 
Gen.  Wolseley,  who  in  November  was  advan- 
cing toward  Coomassie,  the  Ashantee  capital, 
driving  before  him  the  army  of  Koffee  C^calli, 
which  was  estimated  to  be  about  40,000  strong. 
(See  Gold  Coast.) 

FiNTl,  HaifM*,  an  Italian  general,  born  in 
Carpi,  Modena,  about  1810,  died  April  5, 1865. 
He  took  part  in  1681  in  the  unsuccessful  insur- 
rection against  tb«  Austrians,  served  afterward 
in  the  French  army,  passed  into  the  royal  ser- 
vice of  Spain  in  1835,  and  returned  at  the  out- 
break of  the  revolution  of  1848  to  Italy,  where 
he  became  a  m^jor  general  in  the  Scu^inian 
army.  In  1855  he  commanded  one  of  the  four 
brig^es  sent  to  the  Crimea,  and  in  the  war 
of  1859  took  part  as  lieutenant  g^eral  in  the 
battles  of  Magenta  asd  Solferino.  In  January, 
1860,  he  accepted  the  portfolios  of  war  and  of 
marine  in  the  cabinet  of  Count  Cavour,  in  Feb- 
ruary became  senator,  and  in  September  com- 
manded the  expedition  against  the  Papal  States. 
He  left  the  cabinet  in  1861,  and  in  1862  be- 
came commandant  general  of  the  military  de- 
partment of  Florence. 

FAEADiT,  Michael,  an  English  chemist  and 
ziAtaral  philosopher,  born  at  Newington,  Sur- 
rey, Sept.  22,  1791,  died  at  Hampton  Court, 
Aug.  25,  1867.  His  father  was  a  blacksmith, 
of  ^ble  health,  and  very  poor.  A  short  dis- 
tance from  their  home  in  I>ondon  was  a  book- 
•eller^a  and  bookbinder^s  shop  kept  by  George 


Riebau,  and  there  Faraday  went,  when  18  years 
of  age,  as  an  errand  boy,  on  triaJ,  for  one  year. 
It  was  a  part  of  his  duty  at  first  to  carry  round 
the  newspapers  that  were  lent  out  by  his  mas- 
ter. At  the  end  of  a  year  he  became  an  ap- 
prentice to  Riebau,  the  indentures  to  continue 
seven  years.  "  In  consideration  of  his  faithful 
service,"  no  premium  was  given  to  the  master. 
Faraday  says  of  himself:  "  While  an  apprentice 
I  loved  to  read  the  scientific  books  which  were 
under  my  hands,  and  among  them  delighted  in 
Marcet^s  ^Conversations  on  Chemistry'  and 
the  electrical  treatises  in  the  *  Encyclopsedia 
Britannica.'  I  made  such  simple  experiments 
as  could  be  defrayed  in  their  expense  by  a  few 
pence  per  week,  and  also  constructed  an  elec- 
trical machine,  first  with  a  glass  vial,  and  after- 
ward with  a  real  cylinder,  as  well  as  other 
electrical  apparatus  of  a  corresponding  kind." 
"  My  master,"  he  says,  "  allowed  me  to  go  occa- 
sionally of  an  evening  to  hear  the  lectures  de- 
livered by  Mr.  Tatum  on  natural  philosophy  at 
his  house,  58  Dorset  street  The  charge  was 
one  shilling  per  lecture,  and  my  brother  Kobert 
.(who  was  a  blacksmith)  made  me  a  present 
of  the  money  for  several."  That  he  might  be 
able  to  illustrate  scientific  lectures,  he  took 
lessons  in  drawing  of  a  Mr.  Masquirier,  who 
also  lent  him  Taylor's  **  Perspective,"  **  which 
I  studied  closely,"  he  says,  *^  copied  all  the 
drawings,  and  made  some  other  simple  ones." 
Among  the  notes  Faraday  has  left  of  his  own 
life  occurs  the  following:  "During  my  ap- 
prenticeship I  had  the  good  fortune,  through 
the  kindness  of  Mr.  Dance,  who  was  a  cus- 
tomer of  my  master's  shop,  and  also  a  member 
of  the  royal  institution,  to  hear  four  of  the  last 
lectures  of  Sir  Humphry  Davy  in  that  locality. 
Of  these  I  made  notes, .and  then  wrote  out 
the  lectures  in  a  fuller  form,  interspersing 
them  with  such  drawings  as  I  could  make.  I 
wrote  to  Sir  Humphry  Davy,  sending  as  a 
proof  of  my  earnestness  the  notes  I  had  taken." 
He  was  invited  by  Davy  to  call  upon  him, 
which  resulted  in  his  appointment  as  assistant  in 
the  laboratory  of  the  royal  institution,  whither 
he  went  in  March,  1813.  In  October  of  the 
same  year  he  went  with  Davy  abroad,  as  amanu- 
ensis and  assistant  in  experiments.  The  tour 
lasted  only  a  year  and  a  half,  but  was  full  of 
the  most  vivid  interest  to  young  Faraday.  In 
the  latter  part  of  April,  1816,  they  returned  to 
England,  and  Faraday,  now  23  years  of  age, 
resumed  his  place  as  assistant  in  the  labora- 
tory, and  was  also  made  assistant  in  the  mine- 
ralogical  collection,  and  superintendent  of  the 
apparatus,  at  a  salary  of  SO  sliillings  per  week. 
During  the  year  1816  he  gave  seven  lectures 
before  the  "  City  Philosophical  Society :"  1,  on 
the  general  properties  of  matter ;  2,  on  the  at- 
traction of  cohesion ;  8,  on  chemical  affinity ; 
4,  on  radiant  matter ;  5,  6,  and  7,  on  oxygen, 
chlorine,  iodine,  fiuorine,  hydrogen,  and  nitro- 
gen. H^  first  paper  appeared  in  the  "  Quar- 
terly Journal  of  Sciences,"  and  was  an  analy- 
sis of  some  caustic  lime  f^om  Tuscany,  which 


FARADAY 


83 


had  been  sent  to  Davy  by  the   duchess  of 
Uontroee.     In  1817  he  gave  a  second  coarse 
of  lectares  before  the  city  philosophical  so- 
ciety, at  the  tenth  of  which,  on  curhon,  he 
used  notes  for  the  first  time,  instead  of  read- 
ing his  lectures.    In  1818  he  investigated  the 
subject  of  sounding  flames,  showing  that  they 
were  not  dependent,  as  De  la  Rive  had  sup- 
posed, upon  the  sudden  expansion  and  con- 
densation of  vapor,  but  that  they  were  con- 
nected with  musical  vibrations  produced  in  a 
manner  similar  to  the  tones  of  a  flute  or  of 
an  organ  pipe.     He  obtained  the  sounds  as 
well  when  using  a  flame  of  carbonic  oxide  gas 
as  when  using  one  of  hydrogen.     In  1819  he 
made  a  tour  on  foot  through  Wales,  and  kept  a 
journal  in  which  there  are  many  passages  man- 
Uesting  his  intense  love  of  nature  and  his  vivid 
powers  of  description.    In  1820  he  published 
a  paper  on  two  new  compounds  of  chlorine 
and  carbon,  and  on  a  compound  of  iodine, 
carbon,  and  hydrogen.    It  was  read  before 
the  royal  society,  and  was  the  first  which  was 
published  in  the  ^^  Philosophical  Transactions.'' 
On  Jane  12,  1821,  he  was  married  to  Miss  Sa- 
rah Barnard,  a  daughter  of  an  elder  in  the 
Sandemanian   church,  and,  having   obtained 
leave,  took  his  wife  to  reside  at  the  royal  in- 
stitution,  where    they   remained    until    they 
moved  to  the  house  assigned  them  in  Hampton 
Court  by  the  queen  in  1858.    A  month  after 
his  marriage  he  became  a  member  of  the  San- 
demanian church.     His  ideas  of  religion  are 
indicated  by  the  following  quotation  from  a 
lectore  delivered  on  medical  education  in  1854 : 
"High  as  man  is  placed  above  the  creatures 
around  him,  there  is  a  higher  and  far  more 
exalted  position  within  his  view ;  and  the  ways 
are  in6nite  in  which  he  occupies  his  thoughts 
about  his  fears,  or  hopes,  or  expectations  of  a 
fatore  life.     I  believe  that  the  truth  of  the  fn- 
tare  cannot  be  brought  to  his  knowledge  by 
any  exertion  of  his  mental  powers,  however 
exalted  they  may  be ;  that  it  is  made  known 
to  him  by  other  teaching  than  his  own,  and  is 
received  through  simple  belief  of  the  testimony 
given.    Let  no  one  suppose  for  a  moment  that 
the  self-education  I  am  about  to  commend,  in 
respect  to  the  things  of  this  life,  extends  to  any 
consideration  of  the  hope  set  before  us,  as  if 
man  by  reasoning  could  find  out  God."    In 
1821  there  occurred  the  only  unpleasant  cir- 
cumstance that  seems  ever  to  have  been  con- 
nected with  his  life.    Dr.  Wollaston  was  the 
first  person  to  entertain  the  idea  of  causing  a 
wire  to  revolve  around  a  magnet,  or  upon  its 
own  axis,  and  in  a  visit  to  Davy  at  the  royal 
institution  made  some  experiments  and  con- 
versed upon   the  subject,  during  a  part  of 
which  time  Faraday  was  present.     It  greatly 
excited  his  interest,  and  he  could  not  refrain 
from  making  experiments,  the  result  of  which 
was  that  in  the  months  of  July,  August,  and 
September  he  wrote  a  history  of  the  progress 
of  electro-magnetism,  which  was  published  in 
the  ^*  Annals  of  Philosophy."    In  the  latter 


month  he  made  the  discovery  of  the  rotation 
of  a  wire  in  a  voltaic  circuit  round  a  magnet, 
and  of  a  magnet  round  a  wire.  He  says:  *^I 
did  not  realize  Dr.  Wollaston^s  expectation 
of  the  rotation  of  the  electro-magnetic  wire 
round  its  axis;  that  fact  was  discovered  by 
Ampere  at  a  later  date."  These  experiments 
and  publications  of  Faraday  created  consider- 
able feeling,  so  much  that  the  matter  was  dis- 
cussed two  years  afterward,  when  he  was  pro- 
I)OBed  as  a  member  of  the  royal  society.  He 
was  charged  with  trespassing  upon  the  prov- 
ince of  another,  and  with  using  another^s  im- 
plements in  cultivating  the  field ;  but  his  un- 
blemished character  in  all  other  relations,  and 
the  great  discoveries  which  he  made  in  this 
abstruse  department  of  electro-chemistry  and 
electro-magnetism,  at  last  removed  all  tinge 
of  imputation  of  wrong  intention;  and  long 
before  he  closed  his  labors  all  men  of  science 
were  heartily  glad  that  Faraday  had  followed 
his  inclinations.  About  the  year  1822  and  for 
some  time  after  he  investigated  the  subject  of 
the  liquefaction  of  vapors  and  gases,  and  in 
1823  examined  a  substance  which  had  been 
regarded  as  pure  chlorine,  but  which  Davy  in 
1810  had  proved  to  be  a  hydrate.  Faraday 
first  analyzed  this  hydrate,  and  then  at  the 
instance  of  Davy  subjecte<l  it  to  the  action  of 
its  own  pressure  on  being  heated  in  a  strong 
sealed  tube,  by  which  means  he  obtained  liquid 
chlorine.  Extending  his  experiments  to  other 
gases,  he  succeeded  in  reducing  a  number  of 
them  to  a  liquid  state.  His  first  memoir  was 
read  before  the  royal  society  April  10,  1823, 
and  the  second  on  Dec.  19,  1844.  Prof.  Tyn- 
dall  says  that  while  making  his  first  series  of 
experiments  an  explosion  occurred  by  which 
13  pieces  of  glass  were  driven  into  his  eyes. 
In  1825  he  published  a  paper  in  the  ^^Philo- 
sophical Transactions  "on  new  compounds  of 
carbon  and  hydrogen,  in  which  he  announced 
the  discovery  of  benzole.  But  his  mind  contin- 
ually reverted  from  chemistry  to  physics,  and 
in  1826  he  was  again  engaged  upon  the  subject 
of  vaporization,  in  w^hich  he  came  to  the  con- 
clusion that  a  limit  exists,  and  that  our  atmos- 
phere does  not  contain  the  vapors  of  what  are 
usually  denominated  the  fixed  constituents  of 
the  earth^s  crust.  During  the  year  he  had  ten 
papers  in  the  ^*  Quarterly  Journal,"  one  of  the 
principal  being  on  pure  caoutchouc,  his  analy- 
sis of  which  is  given  in  the  article  on  that 
substance  in  this  work.  In  1825  Faraday  was 
appointed  with  Sir  John  Herschel  and  Mr. 
Dolland  on  a  committee  to  examine  the  manu- 
facture of  glass  for  optical  purposes.  Their 
experiments  continued  for  four  years,  when 
Faraday  delivered  his  first  Bakerian  lecture 
**0n  the  Manufacture  of  Glass  for  Optical 
Purposes."  This  paper  required  three  succes- 
sive sittings  of  the  royal  society,  and  although 
the  investigation  had  not  much  immediate 
practical  use,  it  led  to  other  and  very  impor- 
tant discoveries.  In  1831  he  published  a  paper 
on  vibrating  surfaces,  in  which  he  solved  the 


84 


FARADAY 


problem  of  the  canse  of  the  collection  of  lyco- 
podiam  seeds  and  other  light  bodies  upon  the 
vibrating  parts  of  sounding  plates,  instead  of 
upon  the  nodal  lines  where  sand  is  collected,  by 
snowing  that  tlie  light  bodies  are  prevented 
from  settling  on  the  nodal  lines  by  minute 
whirlwinds  formed  in  the  air  over  the  vibrating 

Sarts.  In  1827  he  published  his  "Chemical 
[anipulations  ^*  (1  vol.  8vo;  2d  ed.,  1880;  dd 
ed.,  1842).  In  April  of  this  year  he  gave  his 
first  course  of  six  lectures  before  the  royal 
institution  upon  the  atmosphere,  gases,  vapor, 
chemical  affinity,  definite  proportions,  flame, 
galvanism,  and  magnetism  as  evolved  by  elec- 
tricity. Between  February  and  May  be  de- 
livered twelve  lectures  at  the  London  institution 
on  the  subject  of  chemical  manipulation.  In 
December  he  commenced  a  course  of  lectures 
on  chemistry  to  juvenile  audiences.  His  power 
of  imparting  the  elementary  principles  of  science 
to  youthful  minds  was  wonderful,  owing  not 
only  to  the  logical  simplicity  of  his  mind,  but 
to  his  happy  choice  of  and  manner  of  making 
experiments.  These  courses  of  lectures  suc- 
ceeded each  other  from  year  to  year,  and  it 
was  also  his  habit  to  deliver  popular  lectures 
on  Friday  evenings  at  the  royal  institution 
throughout  nearly  his  whole  scientific  career. 
In  1829  he  was  appointed  lecturer  on  chemis- 
try in  the  royal  academy  at  Woolwich.  In 
1881  he  commenced  his  celebrated  series  of 
electrical  researches,  which  were  continued 
through  a  great  number  of  years.  He  investi- 
gated the  induction  of  electric  currents  and  the 
evolution  of  electricity  from  magnetism ;  and 
although  Oersted  was  the  discoverer  of  electro- 
magnetism,  and  Ampere  its  expounder,  Faraday 
made  the  science  of  magneto-electricity  sub- 
stantially what  it  is  at  the  present  day.  In 
this  year  he  also  began  to  develop  his  theory 
of  lines  of  magnetic  force. .  In  1888  he  was 
appointed  the  first  Fullerian  professor  of  chem- 
istry at  the  royal  institution,  and  during  the 
same  and  the  succeeding  year  he  studied  the 
laws  of  electro-chemical  decomposition,  and 
applied  the  word*  electrode  in  place  of  pole  to 
the  conductors  connected  with  a  decomposing 
cell,  the  fluid  in  which  he  called  an  electrolyte, 
and  the  act  of  its  decomposition  electrolysis. 
The  positive  electrode  he  called  the  anode,  and 
the  negative  the  cathode,  and  also  applied  the 
terms  anions  and  cations  to  the  chemical  ele- 
ments of  the  electrolytes  which  pass  respec- 
tively to  the  anode  and  cathode.  He  now 
applied  himself  to  the  determination  of  elec- 
tric quantity,  and  for  this  purpose  devised 
his  voltameter,  by  which  he  showed  that  the 
amount  of  electricity  generated  in  a  voltaic 
battery  depends  upon  the  amount  of  chemical 
decomposition,  thus  establishing  the  doctrine  of 
"  definite  electro- chemical  decomposition."  He 
investigated  the  contact  theory  of  Volta,  and 
in  doing  so  developed  the  ideas  which  he  al- 
ways afterward  entertained  on  the  conservation 
of  force,  illustrating  the  fallacy  of  the  contact 
theory  of  galvanism  by  showing  that  if  true  a 


force  could  be  produced  without  drawing  its 
supply  irom  any  consuming  source.  His  first 
great  paper  on  frictional  electricity  was  sent  to 
the  royal  society  Nov.  80,  1837.  In  his  inves- 
tigation of  this  subject  he  developed  his  induc- 
tive theory  of  electricity,  and  by  numerous 
memorable  experiments  illustrated  the  "  specific 
inductive  capacity  "  of  dielectrics,  in  which  he 
supposed  the  molecules  of  the  dielectric  to  form 
a  chain  of  communication  between  the  inducing 
and  the  induced  body.  He  also,  during  the 
years  1836-'8,  made  experiments  for  the  Trinity 
house  on  electric  light  for  lighthouses,  a  subject 
which  again  in  the  latter  part  of  his  life  en- 
gaged much  of  his  attention.  In  1840  he  was 
elected  an  elder  in  the  Sandemanian  church, 
but  held  the  ofiSce  only  for  S^  years,  during 
which  period,  when  in  London,  he  preached  on 
alternate  Sundays.  His  great  labors  had  im- 
paired his  health,  and  in  1841  he  went  with 
his  wife  to  Switzerland,  spending  much  of  the 
time  at  Interlaken  and  at  the  falls  of  Giessbach, 
returning  at  the  end  of  September  in  the  same 
year.  In  1842  he  made  experiments  upon  the 
generation  of  electricity  by  steam,  prompted 
thereto  by  the  invention  of  the  celebrated 
hydro-electric  machine  of  Sir  William  Ann- 
strong,  and  showed  that  it  was  caused  by  fric- 
tion, and  not  by  vaporization,  as  had  been 
supposed.  He  performed  very  little  laboratory 
work  till  the  end  of  1844',  indulging  in  the 
mean  time  in  needful  rest.  In  the  beginning 
of  1846  he  made  a  second  series  of  experiments 
on  the  condensation  of  gases,  and  about  the 
first  of  September  began  the  investigation  of 
the  magnetic  relations  of  light,  which  led  him 
to  the  discovery  of  the  peculiar  phenomena  of 
magnecrystallic  action.  In  November  he  an- 
nounced his  discovery  of  the  ^^  Magnetization 
of  Light  and  the  Illumination  of  the  Lines  of 
Magnetic  Force."  Whatever  doubt  there  may 
be  as  to  the  soundness  of  his  theory  in  every 
particular,  his  paper  is  full  of  the  profoundest 
thought.  '*I  have  long,"  he  says,  ^^held  an 
opinion  almost  amounting  to  a  conviction,  in 
common  I  believe  with  many  other  lovers  of 
natural  knowledge,  that  the  various  forms 
under  which  the  forces  of  matter  are  made 
manifest  have  one  common  origin ;  in  other 
words,  are  so  directly  related  and  mutually 
dependent,  that  they  are  convertible,  as  it  wece, 
into  one  another,  and  possess  equivalents  of 
power  in  their  action."  He  always  held  that 
the  theory  of  gravitation,  not  as  it  existed  in 
the  mind  of,  Newton,  but  as  commonly  under- 
stood, embraced  an  absurdity,  by  supposing 
that  when  the  manifestation  of  attraction  be- 
tween two  bodies  decreased  in  proportion  to 
the  square  of  their  distance  from  each  other, 
an  equivalent  of  energy  was  lost ;  thus  denying 
the  doctrine  of  "  conservation  of  force,"  which 
he  considered  as  established.  In  December 
of  the  same  year  he  published  a  memoir  ad- 
dressed to  the  royal  society  on  the  '*  Mag- 
netic Condition  of  all  Matter,"  in  which  he 
discussed  the  phenomena  presented  by  diamag- 


FARADAY 


FAB£HAM 


85 


netio  bodies,  or  rach  as  are  repelled  by  the 
poles  of  a  mognet  instead  of  being  attracted, 
like  iron  or  other  paramagnetic  bcndies,  as  he 
termed  them.  Between  this  time  and  1851 
he  was  much  occupied  with  the  magnetic 
condition  of  gases,  finding,  among  other  facts, 
ozjgen  to  be  powerfnlly  paramagnetic.  Among 
the  papers  published  is  one  on  the  diamag- 
netic  condition  of  flame  and  gases  in  the  *^  Phi- 
losophical Magazine''  for  December,  1847,  and 
two  elaborate  memoirs  on  atmospheric  mag- 
netism sent  to  the  royal  society  on  Oct.  9  and 
Nov.  19,  1850.  lie  applies  his  theory  of  the 
lines  of  magnetic  force  to  the  solution  of  the 
cause  of  the  distribution  of  magnetism  in  the 
earth's  atmosphere,  and  of  annual  and  diurnal 
variations ;  and  although  it  has  been  found  that 
the  variation  in  the  declination  of  the  magnetic 
needle  is  connected  with  solar  spots,  it  can 
scarcely  be  doubted,  as  Tyndall  remarks,  ^^  that 
a  body  so  magnetic  as  oxygen,  swathing  the 
earth  and  subject  to  variations  of  temperature, 
diurnal  and  annual,  must  affect  the  manifesta- 
tions of  terrestrial  magnetism."  Faraday  was 
opposed  to  the  atomic  theory,  ancl  it  is  very 
difficult,  perhaps  impossible,  to  comprehend 
his  idea  of  the  subject.  In  the  place  of  an 
atom  as  a  particle  of  matter  he  substituted  a 
point  or  centre  of  force,  and  connected  points 
of  force  with  lines  of  force.  He  says  :■  ^^  This 
view  of  the  constitution  of  matter  would  seem 
to  involve  necessarily  the  conclusion  that  mat- 
ter fills  all  space,  or  at  least  all  space  to  which 
gravitation  extends ;  for  gravitation  is  a  prop- 
erty of  matter  dependent  on  a  certain  force, 
and  it  is  this  force  which  constitutes  the  mat- 
ter. In  that  view  matter  is  not  mutually 
penetrable ;  but  each  atom  extends,  so  to  say, 
throughout  the  whole  of  the  8(»lar  system,  yet 
always  retaining  its  own  centre  of  force."  In 
1853,  at  the  request  of  many  friends,  he  was 
induced  to  investigate  the  phenomena  of  *^  ta- 
ble-turning," and  he  prepared  apparatus  with 
which  to  test  the  reality  of  the  phenomena  in 
qnestion.  The  investigations  were  conducted 
with  great  care,  but  he  discovered  no  manifes- 
tations of  any  of  the  forces,  natural  or  super- 
natnral,  which  had  been  suggested  as  possibly 
concerned  in  the  phenomena.  In  1854  he  made 
a  series  of  experiments  connected  with  subma- 
rine telegraphy,  which  were  of  great  value.  In 
1855  he  brought  his  experimental  researches 
on  electricity  to  a  close,  having  followed  them, 
along  with  his  other  investigations,  during  a 
qnarter  of  a  century.  "The  record  of  this 
work  which  he  has  left  in  his  manuscripts  and 
republished  in  his  three  volumes  of  *  Electrical 
Researches'  will  ever  remain,"  says  his  biog- 
rapher. Dr.  Bence  Jones,  "  as  his  noblest  monu- 
ment :  full  of  genius  in  the  conception ;  full  of 
finished  and  most  accurate  work  in  the  execu- 
tion ;  in  quantity  so  vast  that  it  seems  impos- 
sible that  one  man  could  have  done  so  much. 
Lastly,  the  circumstances  under  which  this 
work  was  done  were  those  of  penury.  During 
i  great  part  of  these  26  years  the  royal  institu- 


tion was  kept  alive  by  the  lectures  which  Fara- 
day gave  for  it.  He  had  no  grant  from  the 
royal  society,  and  throughout  almost  the  whole 
of  this  time  the  fixed  income  which  the  insti- 
tution could  afford  to  give  him  was  £100  a 
year,  to  which  the  Fullerion  professorship 
added  nearly  £100  more."  In  1856  he  was 
again  engaged  in  experimenting  for  the  Trinity 
house  with  electric  light  for  lighthouses,  and  it 
is  thought  that  his  frequent  journeys  and  night 
excursions  in  the  channel  during  the  winter, 
when  he  was  70  years  of  age,  were  the  remote 
causes  of  his  last  illness.  In  1858  the  queen 
assigned  him  a  house  in  Hampton  Court.  In 
1860  he  resumed  his  eldership  in  the  Sande- 
manian  church,  and  held  it  for  the  same  period 
as  before,  resigning  in  consequence  of  not  be- 
ing able  conscientiously  to  perform  the  duties 
of  the  office.  On  June  20,  1862,  he  gave  his 
last  Friday  evening  lecture,  which  was  on  the 
subject  of  gas  furnaces ;  in  the  notes  for  the  lec- 
ture he  mentions  his  loss  of  memory.  He  was 
the  ^^  prince  of  popular  lecturers,"  and  drew 
crowds  from  the  theatres  to  the  lecture  room 
of  the  royal  institution  on  Friday  evenings.  It 
was  here  that  he  appeared  in  his  glory,  absorbed 
and  earnest  as  a  child  over  his  toys,  repeating 
his  experiments,  in  which  none  were  more  in- 
terested than  the  lecturer  himself.  His  facility 
in  experimenting  was  a  gift  of  genius,  and 
his  lectures  to  children  are  said  to  have  been 
the  most  perfect  examples  of  extemporaneous 
speaking.  He  was  an  honorary  member  of  72 
societies,  in  almost  every  part  of  the  world. 
Besides  his  voluminous  manuscripts,  papers  in 
the  ^*  Philosophical  Transactions,"  and  jour- 
nals, the  following  works  have  been  pub- 
lished: ''Chemical  Manipulations"  (1827); 
"  Researches  in  Electricity  "  (1831-'55);  "Lec- 
tures on  Non-Metallic  Elements  "  (1858) ;  "  Re- 
searches in  Chemistry  and  Physics"  (1859); 
''  Lectures  on  the  Forces  of  Matter  "  (I860) ; 
and  ''Lectures  on  the  Chemical  History  of  a 
Candle"  (1861).  The  chief  biographies  of 
Faraday  are:  a  small  memoir  by  Dr.  J.  H. 
Gladstone;  "Faraday  as  a  Discoverer,"  by 
Prof.  Tyndall  (1868) ;  and  "  Life  and  Letters  of 
Faraday,"  by  Dr.  Bence  Jones  (1869). 

FARADIZATlOBr,  a  term  applied  to  the  pro- 
duction of  induced  currents  of  electricity,  and 
particularly  their  employment  in  electro-thera- 
peutics. The  generation  of  this  form  of  elec- 
tricity was  discovered  by  Faraday  in  1831,  and 
is  produced  by  suddenly  magnetizing  and  de- 
magnetizing a  soft  bar  of  iron,  or  interrupting 
the  flow  of  the  galvanic  current  through  a 
helix,  around  which  bar  or  helix  a  secondary 
coil  of  wire  is  placed.  Secondary  currents  are 
induced  in  the  latter  at  every  interruption  of 
the  galvanic  or  magnetic  force.  (See  Galvan- 
ism, and  Maqneto-Electricitt.) 

FARfllAJI,  a  market  town  of  Hampshire, 
England,  a  station  on  the  Southwestern  rail- 
way, on  slightly  elevated  ground,  at  the  head 
of  a  short  arm  of  the  sea,  5  m.  N.  W;  of  Ports- 
mouth; pop.  in  1871,  7,028.    It  contains  a 


86 


FAREL 


FARINELLI 


handsome  parish  church,  and  Independent  and 
Wesieyan  Methodist  churches,  free  schools,  and 
a  hall  for  a  philosophical  institution.  Ship 
bailding  was  once  actively  carried  on,  but  has 
declined.  Earthen  ware,  bricks,  and  terra  cotta 
are  manufactured  in  large  quantities,  and  the 
latter  is  largely  exported.  There  is  also  a 
considerable  trade  in  grain,  canvas,  rope,  and 
timber.     Fareham  is  a  resort  for  sea  bathing. 

FAREL,  GalllaBiie,  a  French  reformer,  born 
near  Gap,  in  Dauphiny,  in  1489,  died  in  Neuf- 
ch&tel,  Sept.  IS,  1565.  While  studying  at  Paris 
he  embraced  the  new  doctrines,  and  went 
with  his  friend  Lef^vre  d'£taples  to  Meauz, 
where  he  began  to  preach,  lie  returned  to 
Paris  in  1523,  went  to  Basel  the  next  year,  be- 
came intimate  with  ZwingH,  Haller,  Grebe], 
and  other  reformers,  quarrelled  with  Erasmus, 
and  was  banished  from  Basel,  all  within  a  few 
weeks,  and  then  retired  to  Strasburg,  where 
he  was  intimate  w^ith  Bucer.  Preaching  after- 
ward at  Montb^Iiard  and  other  places,  nis  in- 
temperate zeal  drew  him  into  many  troubles. 
One  day  he  interrupted  a  procession  in  honor 
of  St.  Anthony  by  snatching  the  statue  of  the 
saint  and  throwing  it  into  the  river.  To  es- 
cape the  consequences  he  fled,  and  travelled  in 
Alsace  and  Switzerland.  In  1527  he  went  to 
Aigle  and  taught  school  under  an  assumed 
name.  In  1582,  with  Antoine  Saunier,  he  rep- 
resented the  reformed  churches  in  the  svnod 
convened  by  the  Vaudois  of  Piedmont  at  Chan- 
forans,  and  on  his  return  was  invited  to  a  con- 
ference with  the  Catholics  at  Geneva,  where 
the  controversy  became  stormy,  blows  were 
exchanged,  and  the  magistrates  had  to  inter- 
fere. He  was  ordered  to  leave  the  city,  re- 
turned in  1533,  was  again  banished,  came  back 
in  1534  with  letters  from  the  seigniory  of  Bern, 
and  in  1536  persuaded  Calvin  to  aid  him  in 
the  organization  of  the  reformed  church  at 
Geneva.  The  party  of  "Libertines"  gaining 
the  upper  hand  in  the  election  of  1588,  Farel 
and  Calvin  were  banished.  Fare!  went  to 
Strasburg,  and  organized  the  Protestants  there 
amid  much  opposition.  In  March,  1543,  a 
body  of  troops  under  Claude  de  Guise  fell  upon 
a  congregation  gathered  around  him  at  Gorze 
in  France.  Farel  was  wounded,  and  narrowly 
escaped  with  ^his  life.  He  then  settled  as 
pastor  at  Neufch&tel.  In  1557  he  was  sent  to 
the  Protestant  princes  of  Germany  to  ask 
their  assistance  for  the  Vaudois,  and  soon  after 
he  incurred  the  displeasure  of  Calvin  and  others 
by  marrying  a  young  girl.  In  1561  he  preached 
at  Gap  with  all  the  violence  of  his  youth,  and 
was  thrown  into  prison,  from  which  his  follow- 
ers released  him,  letting  him  down  from  the 
rampart  in  a  basket.  Farel  was  a  fine  scholar 
and  excited  great  admiration  by  the  brilliancy 
of  his  oratory.  His  writings  were  numerous, 
but  mostly  of  temporary  interest. 

FARIA  Y  SOrSA,  Hanoel  de,  a  Portuguese  and 
Spanish  historian  and  poet,  bom  in  Portugal, 
March  18,  1590,  died  in  Madrid,  June  8,  1649. 
He  was  a  son  of  Amador  Perez  de  Erro,  and 


assumed  the  name  of  his  mother,  who  belonged 
to  the  ancient  Portuguese  Faria  family.  He 
was  incited  to  poetical  composition  by  his  ad- 
miration for  Albania,  as  he  called  Catharina 
Machado,  who  became  his  wife.  After  his 
marriage  he  settled  in  Madrid,  and  from  1680 
to  1634  he  was  special  envoy  to  Rome.  On 
his  return  he  was  placed  for  some  time  under 
arrest,  the  pagan  allusions  and  inferences  in 
his  Comentarios  sobre  la  Lvaiada  (2  vols., 
Madrid,  1689)  having  given  offence  to  the  in- 
quisition, though  he  regarded  himself  as  a  de- 
vout Roman  Catholic.  His  subsequent  effu- 
sions, collected  under  the .  title  of  Fuents  de 
Aganipe  (4  vols.,  Madrid,  1644-'6),  are  in 
Spanish,  excepting  200  sonnets  and  a  few  other 
pieces  in  Portuguese.  His  Discttrsoe  morales  y 
polUicos,  published  under  the  title  of  Noehea 
claraa,  consist  of  dialogues,  divided  into  seven 
nights.  His  principal  historical  works  are : 
Epitome  de  las  kistorias  portvguesas  (Madrid, 
1628;  enlarged  ed.,  Brussels,  1730);  Asia 
Portvguesa  (8  vols.,  Lisbon,  1666-'75);  Euro- 
pea  Portugvesa  (8  vols.,  Lisbon,  1667-'78) ; 
and  Africa  Portvguesa  ( 1 681 ).  He  was  among 
the  first  trustworthy  writers  on  China,  and  his 
Jmperio  de  China,  edited  by  Father  Semmedo 
(Madrid,  1842),  has  been  translated  into  French 
and  Italian.  Lope  de  Vega  called  him  the 
prince  of  critics. 

FARlBArLT,  a  S.  county  of  Minnesota,  bor- 
dering on  Iowa,  and  drained  by  Blue  Earth 
river  and  its  branches ;  area,  720  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1870,  9,940.  The  surface  is  mostly  prairie ; 
the  soil  is  fertile.  The  Minnesota  and  North- 
western and  the  Southern  Minnesota  railroads 
pass  through  the  county.  The  chief  produc- 
tions in  1870  were  552,940  bushels  of  wheat, 
137,496  of  Indian  com,  394,992  of  oats,  25,786 
of  bariey,  29,321  of  potatoes,  15,898  tons  of 
hay,  and  259,645  lbs.  of  butter.  There  were 
2,995  horses,  8,235  milch  cows,  4,864  other 
cattle,  4,127  sheep,  and  3,894  swine.  Capital, 
Blue  Earth  City. 

FABIBAULT,  a  town  and  the  capital  of  Rice 
CO.,  Minnesota,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Can- 
non and  Straight  rivers,  and  on  the  Iowa  and 
Minnesota  division  of  the  Chicago,  Milwau- 
kee, and  St.  Paul  railroad,  46  m.  S.  of  St. 
Paul;  pop.  in  1870,  8,046.  It  is  the  seat  of 
the  state  asylum  for  the  deaf,  dumb,  and  blind, 
and  of  an  Episcopal  academy,  and  contains  sev- 
eral other  schools,  six  or  eight  churches,  two 
weekly  newspapers,  two  national  banks,  and 
severid  flour  mills,  saw  mills,  founderies,  &o. 

FARINELLI  (originally  Broschi),  CariA,  an 
Italian  singer,  bom  in  Naples  or  in  Andria, 
Jan.  24,  1705,  died  in  Bologna,  July  15,  1782. 
The  extraordinary  beauty  of  his  soprano  voice 
was  attributed  to  his  having  been  emasculated. 
He  was  a  favorite  pupil  of  Porpora,  and  met 
with  brilliant  success  at  the  principal  theatres 
of  Italy.  In  1784  he  went  to  London,  where 
he  soon  created  an  excitement.  He  performed 
three  years  in  England,  and  netted  every  year 
£5,000.     In  France  his  success  was  equally 


FARJEON 


FARNESE 


87 


great  In  Madrid  he  dissipated  the  melancholy 
of  Philip  v.,  became  the  king^s  chief  favorite, 
and  after  his  death  was  similarly  honored  by 
Ferdinand  VI.,  receiving  an  annnal  salary  of 
$10,000,  on  condition  that  he  should  sinj;  only 
for  the  royal  ears.  He  prevailed  upon  Ferdi- 
nand to  organize  a  theatre  in  the  palace,  for 
which  he  engaged  eminent  artists  from  Italy, 
and  of  which  he  became  the  director.  For  20 
years  he  ruled  the  court  of  Spain,  not  only  by 
the  charms  of  his  voice,  but  gradually  by  his 
influence  in  political  affairs.  In  1759,  on  the 
accession  of  Charles  III.,  Farinelli  fell  into  dis- 
grace, and  three  years  later  was  ordered  to 
leave  the  kingdom.  He  then  went  to  Bologna, 
and  bnilt  a  splendid  palace  in  its  vicinity,  in 
which  he  passed  the  rest  of  his  life. 

FAIJEON,  Beidaoila  U    8ee  supplement. 

FAIMEB,  0*9^9  an  English  theologian,  bom 
in  Shropshire  in  1714,  died  in  Tendon,  Feb.  5, 
1787.  Ho  was  educated  at  the  academy  in 
Northampton  under  Dr.  Doddridge,  and  be- 
came pastor  of  a  dissenting  congregation  at 
Walthamstow,  Essex,  where  he  wrote  several 
theological  treatises.  He  removed  to  London  in 
1761 ,  and  became  afterward  preacher  to  the  con- 
gregation of  Sal  ters^  hall,  and  one  of  the  Tuesday 
lecturers  at  the  same  place.  He  published  an 
"  Inquiry  into  the  Nature  and  Design  of  our 
Lord's  Temptation  in  the  Wilderness"  (1761), 
a  ^* Dissertation  on  the  Miracles"  (1771),  an 
'* Essay  on  the  Demoniacs  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment" (1775),  and  a  work  entitled  "The Gen- 
eral Prevalence  of  the  Worship  of  Human  Spir- 
its in  the  ancient  Heathen  Nations"  (1783). 
He  ooDsidered  miracles  to  be  absolute  proofs 
of  a  divine  mission. 

FAIHEB9  ^^^^  ftn  American  genealogist, 
bom  in  Chelmsford,  Mass.,  June  12,  1789,  died 
ia  Concord,  N.  H.,  Aug.  1 3, 1838.  After  teach- 
ing school  for  ten  years,  he  studied  the  early 
settlement  of  New  England,  and  his  "  Gene- 
alogical Register,"  published  in  1829,  is  thought 
to  contain  the  names  of  nearly  all  the  first 
European  settlers  in  that  region.  A  new  and 
enlarged  edition  of  this  work,  by  James  Sav- 
age of  Boston,  was  published  in  1860-'62.  Mr. 
Farmer  superintended  an  edition  of  Belknap's 
"History  of  New  Hampshire,"  to  which  he 
Added  many  valuable  notes;  and  he  con- 
tributed various  papers  to  historical  and  anti- 
quarian societies^  ^nd  to  periodicals. 

FASMSB8  Qmskkhf  in  France,  financial  and 
privileged  associations  which  before  the  revo- 
lution of  1789  took  upon  lease  various  branches 
of  the  public  revenue.  This  system  origina- 
ted in  the  18th  century,  when  Philip  the  Fair, 
in  consideration  of  certain  sums  paid  to  him, 
several  times  permitted  Lombard  bankers  and 
Jews  to  collect  the  taxes.  The  consequent 
exactions,  cruelties,  imprisonments,  and  even 
executions,  often  caused  popular  rebeUions; 
jet  in  the  reign  of  Louis  XIII.  the  lessees  had 
become  a  power  in  the  state,  and  often  trans- 
ferred their  leases  to  still  more  unscrupulous 
nbordinates.    In  1720,  under  the  regency,  the 


individual  leases  were  united  in  aferme  genSraUy 
which  was  let  to  a  company,  whose  members 
w^ere  called /ermwr«  generaux.  Their  number 
was  originally  40,  afterward  increased  to  60. 
'In  consideration  of  an  annual  payment  of  65,- 
000,000  livres,  they  had  the  privilege  of  levying 
the  taxes  on  articles  of  consumption ;  and  on 
the  renewal  of  this  privilege  in  1726,  80,000,- 
000  livres  annually  were  paid.  In  1774  the 
farmers  paid  135,000,000  francs  for  this  right, 
and  in  1789,  180,000,000,  and  yet  made  im- 
mense fortunes.  In  1759  the  contracts  of  the 
farmers  general  were  quashed  by  Silhouette, 
but  the  system  soon  revived,  as  it  was  favor- 
able to  the  court  and  ministers.  The  constitu- 
ent assembly  in  1790  suppressed  the  associa- 
tion. In  1794  all  the  farmers  general  then  liv- 
ing were  brought  before  the  revolutionary  tri- 
bunal, and  condemned ;  28,  including  Lavoisier 
the  chemist,  were  executed  May  8,  1794,  and 
the  remaining  three  some  days  afterward. 

FARNE,  FearM,  or  Fen  bluids,  several  small 
islands  and  rocks  in  the  North  sea,  from  2  to  5 
m.  from  the  English  coast,  and  nearly  oppo- 
site Bamborough.  Two  lighthouses  have  been 
erected  on  the  largest.  In  rough  weather  the 
passage  between  the  isles  is  very  dangerous, 
and  several  disastrous  shipwrecks,  attended 
with  great  loss  of  life,  have  occurred  here. 

FARNESE9  a  family  of  Italian  princes,  who 
derived  their  name  from  their  ancestral  castle 
of  Farneto  near  Orvieto,  and  whose  genealogy 
is  traced  to  the  middle  of  the  Idth  century. 
Prominent  as  a  soldier  among  the  early  mem- 
bers of  the  family  was  Pietro,  who  commanded 
the  Florentine  army  in  their  victorious  battle 
against  the  Pisans  at  San  Piero,  in  May,  1868, 
and  died  of  the  plague  within  a  few  weeks. 
The  historical  celebrity  of  the  house  dates 
from  1534,  when  Cardinal  Alessandro  Famese 
became  pope  under  the  name  of  Paul  III.  In 
1545  he  erected  Parma  and  Piacenza  into  a 
duchy  for  the  benefit  of  his  natural  son,  Pie- 
TKO  LviGi,  a  dissolute  and  cruel  ruler,  against 
whom  many  nobles  revolted  in  concert  with 
Gonzaga,  the  imperial  governor  of  MHan,  at 
whose  instigation  he  was  assassinated  Sept.  10, 
1647. — His  son  Ottavio  (1520-'86)  was  recon- 
ciled with  Austria  through  his  wife,  the  famous 
Margaret  of  Parma,  natural  daughter  of  Charles 
v.,  and  his  reign  of  over  30  years  was  peace- 
ful and  happy. — He  was'  succeeded  by  his  son 
Alessandbo  (1546-^92).  He  was  educated  by 
his  mother,  and  enlisted  in  the  service  of  Spain 
in  early  youth.  He  fought  in  the  naval  battle 
of  Lepanto  in  1671,  and  was  sent  in  1577  to  the 
Netherlands,  where  in  the  foUowing  year  he 
took  part  in  the  victory  of  Gembloux,  won  by 
Don  John  of  Austria  over  the  Dutch.  He  suc- 
ceeded Don  John  as  governor  of  the  Low 
Countries,  and  forced  the  Belgian  provinces 
into  submission,  successively  taking.Maestricht, 
Breda,  Tournay,  Dunkirk,  Bruges,  Ypres, 
Ghent,  and  Antwerp  (1579-*86),  the  latter  city 
after  one  of  the  most  memorable  sieges  re- 
corded in  history.    On  his  father's  death  in 


88 


FARNESE 


FARNHAM 


1586  he  inherited  the  dnchy,  hnt  did  not  even 
visit  his  dominions.  In  1588  he  was  put  in 
command  of  the  armada  which  Philip  II.  of 
Spain  sent  a^inst  England ;  hut  heing  shut  up 
witii  his  army  in  Antwerp  by  the  Dutch  flo- 
tilla, he  was  only  a  spectator  of  its  disastrous 
failure.  In  lo90  he  invaded  France  at  the 
head  of  the  Spanish  army  and  relieved  Paris, 
which  was  then  besieged  by  Henry  IV.  In 
1592  he  marched  into  Normandy,  and  obliged 
Biron  to  raise  the  siege  of  Rouen,  one  of  the 
principal  cities  held  by  the  leaguers;  but  he 
received  here  a  wound  which  afterward  proved 
fatal.  Being  attacked  by  Henry  IV.,  who 
hemmed  in  his  army  between  the  Seine  and 
the  English  channel,  he  foiled  the  efforts  of  his 
opponent,  and  succeeded  in  landing  his  troops 
on  the  opposite  bank  of  the  river,  when  they 
returned  to  the  Netherlands.  As  for  himself, 
he  was  unable  to  proceed  further  than  Arras, 
where  he  breathed  his  last.  He  was  a  man 
of  consummate  military  and  diplomatic  genius. 
A- bronze  equestrian  statue  of  him  by  John  of 
Bologna  adorns  the  principal  public  square  at 
Piacenza. — His  successor  was  his  son  by  the 
princess  Mary  of  Portugal,  Ranuzio  I.  (1569- 
1622).  He  was  a  lover  of  science  and  art,  but 
notorious  for  his  ferocity  against  noble  families, 
a  number  of  whom  he  had  executed,  confis- 
cating their  property  for  alleged  conspiracy. 
He  married  a  niece  of  Pope  Clement  VIII. — 
His  son  and  successor  Odoardo  (1612-^46)  was 
fond  of  magnificence  and  lavish  in  the  expen- 
diture of  money,  and  possessed  various  accom- 
Elishments.  But,  insatiable  in  his  ambition, 
e  entered  into  an  alliance  with  France  against 
Spain  and  Austria  in  1683,  by  which  he  nearly 
lost  his  duchies.  In  1689  Pope  Urban  VIII. 
deprived  him  of  the  duchy  of  Castro,  upon 
which  Odoardo  had  raised  money  which  he 
was  unable  to  pay.  ■  After  Ave  years  of  wran- 
gling Castro  was  restored  to  him  through  the 
intervention  of  France  and  Venice. — Ranuzio 
II.,  his  son  and  successor,  was  the  fattest  of  a 
family  noted  for  obesity.  He  died  in  1694,  and 
waB  succeeded  by  his  son  Franoesco,  who  died 
in  1727,  and  was  followed  on  the  throne  by 
his  brother  Antonio.  This  prince,  bom  in 
1670,  was  likewise  exceedingly  corpulent,  and 
oared  for  little  besides  eating  and  sleeping. 
Leaving  no  issue,  he  designated  as  liis  succes- 
sor Don  Carlos,  son  of  Phihp  V.  of  Spain  and 
of  his  niece  Elizabeth  Farnese.  The  Famese 
family  became  extinct  with  him  in  1731,  and 
the  rule  of  Parma  and  Piacenza  passed  into 
the  hands  of  the  infante  of  Spain,  consequent 
upon  a  convention  signed  in  Vienna  in  the 
same  year. — The  Farnese  palace  in  Rome, 
now  belonging  by  inheritance  to  the  deposed 
king  of  Naples,  was  flnisbed  under  the  di- 
rection of  Michel  Angelo,  who  designed  the 
whole  upper  part  of  the  building  with  its 
imposing  entablature.  It  is  regarded  as  the 
finest  piece  of  architecture  in  Rome,  and  was 
constructed  of  blocks  of  travertine  which  were 
taken  by  the  nephews  of  Pope  Paul  III.  from 


the  theatre  of  Marcellus  and  the  Colosseum. 
The  grounds  are  adorned  by  two  fountains, 
whose  granite  basins,  17  ft.  long  and  4  ft. 
wide,  were  taken  from  the  baths  of  Caracalla. 
The  most  celebrated  statuary  has  been  removed 
to  the  museum  of  Naples,  including  the  torso 
Farnese,  or  Famese  bull,  and  the  Famese 
Hercules,  or  the  Hercules  of  Glycon.  Among 
the  few  monuments  which  remain  in  the  pal- 
ace is  a  colossal  one  representing  Alessandro 
Farnese  crowned  by  Victory,  sculptured  out 
of  a  column  taken  from  the  basilica  of  Con- 
stantine.  The  most  exquisite  paintings  are 
the  frescoes  of  Annibale  Carracci  and  his 
pupils  in  the  gallery  on  the  upper  floor. — 
The  villa  Farnesina,  in  the  Lungara  of  the 
Trastevere,  opposite  the  Corsini  palace,  was 
designed  by  Baldassare  Peruzzi  for  Agosti- 
no  Chigi  (1506),  who  gave  here  in  1518'  an 
extravagant  entertainment  in  honor  of  Leo 
X. ;  the  plate,  on  being  removed  from  the 
table,  was  thrown  into  the  Tiber.  This  palace, 
mainly  celebrated  for  its  frescoes  by  Raphael 
and  his  pupils,  became  tlie  property  of  the 
Famese  family,  and  passed  with  its  other 
possessions  to  the  Neapolitan  Bourbons.  The 
kings  of  Naples  supported  here  an  academy  of 
painting,  and  eventually  sold  the  palace  to  the 
Spanish  duke  Ripalda,  who  still  owns  it. — The 
Famese  gardens  {Orti  Famesiani)  occupy  the 
whole  northwestern  summit  of  the  Palatine 
hill,  and  contain  interesting  ruins  of  the  pal- 
aces of  the  Ceesars.  Napoleon  III.  purchased 
these  grounds  in  1861  from  the  king  of  Naples 
for  250,000  francs,  and  spent  750,000  francs  on 
the  excavations  alone,  designed  to  aid  in  his 
work  on  J.ulius  Ceesar.  In  1870  he  sold  them 
for  650,000  francs  to  the  city  authorities  of 
Rome,  on  condition  of  their  continuing  the 
excavations  under  the  direction  of  Pietro  Rosa. 
FARMHAM,  Eliza  W.,  an  American  philanthro- 
pist and  author,  born  at  Rensselaerville,  Al- 
bany CO.,  N.  Y.,  Nov.  17,  1815,  died  in  New 
York,  Dec.  15,  1864.  Her  maiden  name  was 
Burhans.  In  1885  she  went  to  Illinois,  and 
in  1886  married  Thomas  J.  Famham.  In  1841 
she  returned  to  New  York,  where  she  visited 
prisons  and  lectured  to  women  till  the  spring 
of  1844,  when  she  became  piatron  of  the  fe- 
male department  of  the  state  prison  at  Sing 
Sing,  hoping  to  govern  such  an  institution  by 
kindness  alone.  She  remained  four  years,  and 
while  there  published  ^^Life  in  Prairie  Land," 
and  edited  an  edition  of  Sampson's  ^^  Criminal 
Jurisprudence."  In  1848  she  removed  to  Bos- 
ton, and  was  connected  for  some  time  with 
the  institution  for  the  blind  in  that  city.  In 
1849  she  went  to  California,  and  in  1856  re- 
turned to  New  York,  and  published  ^^  Califor- 
nia Indoors  and  Out."  For  the  next  two 
years  she  studied  medicine.  In  1859  she  or- 
ganized a  society  to  aid  and  protect  destitute 
women  in  emigrating  to  the  west,  and  went 
at  different  times  to  the  westem  states  with 
large  numbers  of  such  persons.  The  same 
year  she  published  "My  Early  Days."    She 


FARNHAM 


FARO 


89 


again  visited  California,  and  in  1864  published 
^^  Woman  and  her  Era"  (2  vols.  12mo,  New 
York),  a  work  on  the  position  and  rights  of 
woman.  In  1865  appeared  a  posthumous 
work,  "  The  Ideal  Attamed." 

FARHHAM,  ThMUH  JeftrMB,  an  American 
traveller,  husband  of  the  preceding,  born  in 
Vermont  in  1804,  died  in  California  in  Sep- 
tember, 1848.  In  1889  he  organized  and  head- 
ed a  small  expedition  across  the  continent  to 
Oregon.  He  went  to  California  the  same  year, 
and  took  an  active  part  in  procuring  the 
release  of  a  large  number  of  Americans  and 
English  who  had  been  imprisoned  by  the  Mex- 
ican government.  In  1 842  he  published  * *•  Tra v- 
eb  in  Oregon  Territory ;"  in  1845,  "  Travels 
in  California  and  Scenes  in  the  Pacific,'*  and 
'*  A  Memoir  of  the  Northwest  Boundary  Line;** 
and  in  1848,  ^*  Mexico,  its  Geography,  People, 
and  Institations." 

FAIO^  or  Pilars,  a  game  of  chance  at  cards, 
said  to  derive  its  name  from  the  figure  of  an 
Egyptian  Pharaoh  which  was  formerly  placed 
on  one  of  the  cards.  It  may  be  played  by  any 
nomber  of  persons,  who  sit  at  a  table  gene- 
rally covered  with  green  cloth.  The  keeper  of 
the  table  is  called  the  banker.  The  player, 
called  the  punter  (from  Ital.  puntare^  to  point), 
receives  a  liwet  or  small  book  from  which  to 
choose  his  cards,  upon  which  he  may  at  his 
option  set  any  number  of  stakes,  which  are 
limited  in  amount  in  ncoordance  with  the  capi- 
tal of  the  banker.  The  banker  turns  up  the 
oarda  from  a  complete  pack,  one  by  one,  lay- 
ing them  first  to  his  right  for  the  bank  and 
then  to  his  left  for  the  player,  till  all  the  cards 
are  dealt  out.  The  first  card  is  considered 
blank.  The  banker  wins  when  the  card  equal 
in  points  to  that  on  which  the  stake  is  set 
tarns  up  on  his  right  hand,  but  loses  when  it 
ia  dealt  to  the  left.  The  drawing  of  each  two 
cards  is  called  a  "turn."  The  player  loses 
balf  the  stake  when  his  card  comes  out  twice 
in  the  same  turn.  This  is  called  a  ^'snlit.** 
The  last  card  but  one,  the  chance  of  which  the 
banker  claims,  but  which  is  now  frequently 
given  up,  is  called  hocly  (a  certainty).  The 
last  card  neither  wins  nor  loses.  Where  a 
pnnter  gdns,  he  may  either  take  his  money  or 
paroli;  that  is  to  say,  double  his  chance  by 
venturing  both  his  stake  and  gains,  which  he 
intimates  by  bending  a  corner  of  his  card  up- 
ward. If  he  wins  again,  he  may  ]>lay  aept  et 
k  eo,  which  means  that  after  having  gained  a 
paroli  he  tries  to  win  seven  fold,  bending  his 
card  a  second  time.  Should  he  again  be  suc- 
cessful, he  can  paroli  for  quinze  et  le  va,  for 
trente  et  le  va,  and  finally  for  eaixante  et  le 
«a,  which  is  the  highest  chance  in  the  game. 
Faro  was  formerly  in  vogue  in  France,  Eng- 
land, and  Europe  generally,  and  still  retains 
its  popularity  in  various  parts  of  tiie  world. 
The  method  of  play  in  the  United  States.is  as 
foUows:  The  dealer,  with  a  large  array  of 
checks  at  bis  right  hand,  representing  $1,  |5, 
|20,  and  upward,  takes  his  seat  at  a  table.    In 


the  centre  of  the  table  is  a  suit  of  cards,  called 
*Hhe  lay-out,"  arranged  in  the  following  order: 


Ktng. 


Qneen.  Knave. 


10-Bp6t,  0-Bpot 


8-spot 


Aoe. 


Deuce. '  Trey. 


4-spot '  5-spot 


6-spot 


The  king,  queen,  and  knave  are  called  ^^  the 
big  figure  ;**  the  ace,  deuce,  and  trey,  *^  tiie  little 
figure;"  and  the  6,  7,  and  8,  "the  pot."  On 
thcHe  cards  the  player  places  the  sums  he 
wishes  to  bet.  The  dealer  shufiles  a  pack  of 
cards  (the  option  of  shufiling  resting  also  with 
any  of  the  players  who  call  for  it),  has  them 
out,  and  then  places  them  in  a  box,  from  which 
he  deliberately  slides  them  one  by  one.  The 
first  is  called  the  "  soda  card,"  and  is  set  aside ; 
the  next  is  the  banker's  card,  and  wins  for 
him  all  sums  bet  upon  it;  the  next  is.  the 
player's  card,  and  so  on  alternately.  It  is  in 
the  power  of  the  player,  by  placing  a  small 
copper  on  the  amount  he  places  on  the  curd, 
to  reverse  the  chance.  This,  which  is  caUed 
'*•  coppering,"  enables  the  player  to  bet  on  or 
against  whichever  card  he  pleases.  The  dealer 
stops  between  each  two  cards  while  new  bets 
are  being  made  as  checks  change  from  one 
card  to  another,  and  thus  the  game  proceeds 
to  the  close  of  the  pack,  when  a  fresh  deal  is 
made,  and  the  process  is  repeated.  The  bank 
wins  on  *^  splits,"  which  is  supposed  to  bo  the 
only  odds  in  its  favor ;  but  it  possesses  others 
in  its  superior  amount  of  capital,  and  in  the 
inclination  of  most  players  to  stake  heavier 
in  the  efibrt  to  recover  than  to  support  good 
luck.  When  but  two  cards  are  left  in  the  box, 
the  player  has  the  privilege  of  "calling  the 
last  tarn,"  that  is,  guessing  in  which  order 
they  will  appear ;  if  correct,  he  wins  four  times 
the  amount  of  his  stake.  In  Germany  the 
cards  are  not  dealt  from  a  box,  but  nailed  to 
a  pine  board  and  torn  off  one  by  one  by  the 
dealer.  Here  the  dealer  is  generally  assisted 
also  by  one  or  two  croupiers,  who  attend  to 
the  playing  and  receiving,  guarding  against 
errors,  and  shuffling  the  pack. 

FARO)  a  city  of  Portugal,  capital  of  the 
province  of  Algarve,  near  the  mouth  of  the 
Valfermoso,  62  m.  E.  of  Cape  St.  Vincent, 
and  140  m.  8.  E.  of  Lisbon;  pop.  about  8,500. 
It  was  destroyed  by  the  English  in  1696,  and 
by  earthquakes  in  1722  and  1755,  and  now 
presents  a  modem  appearance,  though,  with 
the  exception  of  the  principal  square  and  of  a 
fortress,  the  houses  are  generally  poor.  The 
town  has  a  cathedral,  a  theological  seminary, 
and  a  mathematical  school  for  the  army.  The 
cathedral,  said  to  have  been  a  mosque,  is  a 
time-worn  building.  In  the  E.  and  highest 
part  of  the  city  is  an  ancient  and  imposing 
castle  surrounded  by  Moorish  walls,  and  in 
the  same  direction  is  an  arch  with  a  statue 
of  St.  Thomas  Aquinas,    Blindness  prevails  to 


90 


FAROOHON 


FARRAGUT 


a  great  extent,  owing  to  the  light  sandj  soil. 
Sand  bars  render  the  port,  which  is  defended 
by  a  small  citadel,  almost  inaccessible;  but 
tolerable  anchorage  is  obtained  in  the  road- 
stead formed  by  three  small  islands  at  the 
mouth  of  the  river.  The  coasting  trade  is 
active,  especially  in  southern  fruit.  Figs  and 
oranges  are  the  most  important  products. 

FAROCHON,  Jeai  Btpdste  l^ie,  a  French 
medallist  and  sculptor,  bom  in  Paris  in  1807. 
He  studied  under  David,  early  executed  busts, 
small  statues,  and  medallions,  received  a  prize 
in  1835,  studied  in  Italy  as  a  pensioner  of  the 
academy,  and  on  his  return  to  Paris  gained 
reputation  by  his  medallions.  Devoting  him- 
self to  statuary,  he  produced  in  1859  his  mas- 
terpiece, *'The  Mother,"  which  was  again  ex- 
hibited in  1867.  Since  1868  he  has  been  pro- 
fessor at  the  school  of  fine  arts. 

FABOE,  or  flrS  bles  (Dan.  Fdrdeme),  a  group 
belonging  to  Denmark,  in  the  Atlantic  ocean, 
N.  of  Scotland,  between  lat.  61  °  20'  and  62°  25' 
N.,  and  Ion.  6°  10'  and  7°  85'  W. ;  area,  510 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  9,992.  They  are  22  in 
number,  17  of  the  larger  ones  being  inhabited. 
The  largest  of  them  are  StrOraO,  the  central 
island,  27  m.  long  and  7  m.  broad,  with  about 
2,600  inhabitants,  and  Osterd,  20  m.  long  and  10 
m.  broad,  with  a  population  of  about  2,100. 
Next  in  size  are  Syderd,  Sandd,  and  V aag5.  The 
interior  of  the  islands  is  generally  hilly,  the 
mountains  varying  in  height  from  1,000  to  2,800 
ft.  The  valleys  are  narrow,  and  the  rivulets 
flowing  through  them  are  so  swollen  during  the 
rainy  season  as  to  render  travelling  impossible. 
The  prevailing  rocks  are  greenstone  and  clay- 
stone  of  various  kinds.  Some  of  the  islands 
contain  coal  mines,  and  fine  opal  and  traces  of 
iron,  copper,  and  other  metals  are  found.  The 
soil  seldom  exceeds  a  foot  in  depth,  though  in 
some  places  it  is  4  ft.  deep.  Turnips,  potatoes, 
and  a  few  other  vegetables  flourish,  but  barley 
is  the  only  cereal  that  matures,  and  even  that 
often  fails  in  consequence  of  the  sudden  changes 
of  temperature.  There  is  no  timber ;  coal  and 
turf  are  used  for  fuel.  The  pasture  lands  are 
luxuriant,  and  the  wealth  of  the  islanders  con- 
sists chiefly  in  sheep,  which  yield  a  very  fine 
wool.  The  horses  are  small,  but  hardy,  active, 
and  sure-footed.  The  cows  are  also  small.  Sea 
fowl  valuable  for  their  flesh  and  feathers  abound 
on  the  coasts.  Ship  building  is  carried  on  with 
success.  There  are  cloth  and  stocking  manu- 
factories and  a  few  tanneries.  Fisheries  of  the 
whale,  seal,  cod,  and  herring,  and  the  collect- 
ing of  eider  down,  constitute  a  large  part  of 
the  resources  of  the  country.  Bread  and  salt 
are  luxuries.  The  population,  descendants  of 
the  old  Northmen,  are  vigorous  and  laborious, 
and  of  loyal  and  religious  character.  The 
common  language  is  a  dialect  of  the  Norse, 
but  the  official  language  is  Danish.  The  long- 
est day  of  summer,  including  the  long  twi- 
light, is  24  hours,  and  the  shortest  of  winter 
4  hoars. — ^Monks  from  the  Scottish  isles  first 
founded  in  the  Faroe  group  a  few  hermitages. 


In  the  9th  century  fugitive  Norwegian  pirates 
established  themselves  under  Grimr  Kamhan. 
The  islands  became  Danish  when  Norway  was 
united  with  Denmark  in  1880.  During  the 
18tli  century  they  were  notorious  as  the  seat 
of  smugglers.  They  were  occupied  by  the 
English  from  1807  to  1814.  The  administra- 
tion is  composed  of  a  Danish  amtmand  or  bai- 
liff, who  is  commander  of  the  armed  force, 
and  a  landfoged^  who  is  director  of  the  police ; 
and  they  are  represented  in  the  legislature  of 
Denmark  by  a  deputy  appointed  by  the  king. 
Commerce  with  the  Faroe  islands  is  a  monopoly 
of  government,  and  Danish  ships  are  permitted 
to  approach  them  only  between  May  and  Sep- 
tember. Capita],  Thorshftvn,  on  the  S.  £.  side 
of  Str5m5 ;  pop.  about  800. 

FARQUHIK,  Cearge,  a  British  comic  drama- 
tist, bom  in  Londonderry,  Ireland,  in  1678,  died 
in  London  in  April,  1707.  After  a  brief  career 
at  Trinity  college,  Dublin,  he  appeared  in  his 
17th  year  as  a  comedian  upon  the  Dublin  stage. 
While  performing  in  the  "  Indian  Emperor " 
of  Dryden,  he  accidentally  inflicted  a  serioua 
wound  upon  his  antagonist  in  fencing,  which 
caused  him  to  renounce  the  boards  foe  ever. 
He  went  to  London  in  1696,  obtained  a  com- 
mission in  the  army,  and  applied  himself  to 
dramatic  composition.  He  lived  gayly  and 
licentiously,  and  during  the  ten  years  before 
he  sank  a  victim  to  anxiety  and  ill  health  he 
produced  seven  comedies,  superior  in  vivacity 
and  ease  of  style,  and  in  clear  and  rapid  de- 
velopment of  intrigue,  to  any  that  had  before 
appeared  in  England.  The  last  and  best  of 
these  was  the  "Beaux  Stratagem"  (1707), 
which  still  keeps  the  stage.  He  also  left  a 
volume  of  "  Miscellanies,"  consisting  of  poems, 
essays,  and  letters.  His  works  have  much  of 
the  smartness  and  indelicacy  fashionable  in 
his  time,  but  are  written  in  better  language 
and  are  less  designedly  vicious  than  the  plays 
which  preceded  the  revolution  of  1688.  He 
passed  a  troubled  though  merry  life,  and  left 
two  daughters  in  indigence,  whom  in  a  brief 
and  touching  note  he  recommended  to  the 
kindness  of  his  friend  the  actor  Wilks.  A  com- 
plete edition  of  his  works  appeared  in  2  vols. 
12mo  in  1772. 

FARRAGUT,  Dtvld  Glisroe,  an  American  ad- 
miral, bom  at  Campbell's  station,  near  Knox- 
ville,  Tenn.,  July  5,  1801,  died  in  Portsmouth, 
N.  H,,  Aug.  14,  1870.  He  entered  the  navy 
as  midshipman  at  the  age  of  11,  and  his  first 
service  was  on  board  the  famous  Essex,  in 
which  he  participated  in  the  engagement  tJiat 
resulted  in  the  capture  of  the  British  ship  Alert, 
and  also  in  the  three  hours'  fight  in  the  bay  of 
Valparaiso,  March  28,  1814,  before  the  Essex 
surrendered  to  the  Phoebe  and  Cherub.  In 
his  report  of  the  battle  Commodore  Porter 
commended  "  the  lad  Farragut,"  and  regretted 
that,  he  was  too  young  for  promotion.  Under 
the  same  commander  Farragut  took  part  in  the 
attack  on  the  rendezvous  of  ])irates  at  Cape 
Cruz  on  the  southern  coast  of  Cuba  in  1823. 


FARRAGUT 


91 


The  fight  lasted  12  hours,  and  resnlted  in  the 
defeat  of  the  pirates  and  the  destraction  of 
their  hoats  and  village.    From  this  time  for 
nearly  40  years  he  was  sailing  about  the  world 
or  quietly  serving   at  naval  stations,  rising 
slowly  by  seniority.    He  was  commissioned 
lieutenant  in  1825,  commander  in  1841,  and 
captain  in  1855 ;  and  his  most  important  com- 
mand in  all  that  time  was  that  of  the  Mare 
Island  navy  yard,  California,  1854-^8.    When 
the  civil  war  began,  Farragut  was  60  years  of 
age,  and  had  been  in  the  service  more  than  48 
years.    He  was  living  at  Norfolk,  Va., ^^  waiting 
orders,"  on  the  day  when  intelligence  was  re- 
ceived that  Virginia  had  seceded.     He  hastily 
collected  a  few  valuables,  put  his  loaded  pistols 
in  his  pocket,  and  within  two  hoars  was  with 
his  family  on  board  a  steamer  bound  north. 
Leaving  his  family  at  Hastings-on-the-Hudson, 
he  reported  at  Washington,  where  he  remained 
nine  months  in  comparative  inactivity.    His 
first  orders  for  active  duty  appointed  him  com- 
mander of  the  expedition  for  the  capture  of  New 
Orleans  and  opening  of  the  Mississippi  river. 
These  orders  reached  him  Jan.  20,  1862,  and 
in  twb  weeks  he  was  under  way  in  his  flag  ship 
ihe  Hartford.    On  reaching  the  gulf  of  Mexico 
he  first  arranged  the  blockade  of  the  whole 
coast,  and  then  with  the  more  formidable  por- 
tion of  his  fleet  entered  the  Mississippi.    A 
mortar  flotilla  was  attached  to  the  expedition, 
but  Farragut  placed  no  reliance  upon  it.    The 
bombardment  of  the  forts  a  little  above  the 
mouths  of  the  river  was  kept  up  continuously 
for  six  days  and  nights;  but  the  enemy  daily 
added  to  their  defences,  and  beyond  the  burn- 
ing of  the  barracks  within  Fort  Jackson  the 
works,  mounting  120  guns,  were  as  formidable 
as  at  the  commencement  of  the  bombardment. 
Without  further  delay,  Farragut  in  the  night 
of  April  24  signalled  his  squadron  to  get  under 
way,  and,  delivering  broadsides  of  grape,  ran 
past  the  forts  ^^  under  such  a  fire  from  them,*' 
he  wrote,  *^  as  I  imagine  the  world  has  never 
seen."    Beyond  the  forts  he  encountered  and 
destroyed  a  fleet  of  20  armed  steamers,  4  iron- 
clad rams  (one  of  4,000  tons),  and  a  multitude 
of  fire  rafts.    Next  he  silenced  the  two  formi- 
dable Chalmette  batteries,  on  either  side  of 
tbe  river  three  miles  below  New  Orleans,  and 
at  noon  the  second  day  anchored  with  the  city 
beneath  his  guns.    In  the  passage  of  the  forts 
his  fleet  received  165  shots,  87  men  were  killed 
and  147  wounded,  and  one  vessel,  the  Varuna, 
was  sunk.     Farragut  next  proceeded  to  Vicks- 
bnrg  (attacking  Grand  Gulf  in  passing),  for  the 
parpose  of  reducing  that  stronghold,  and,  run- 
ning his  vessels  safely  past  the  powerful  bat- 
teries, communicated  withthe  squadron  brought 
down  from  the  upper  Mississippi ;  but  notwith- 
standing all  his  exertions,  the  attack  failed  from 
tbe  lack  of  a  cooperating  land  force.     He  then 
repassed  the  batteries  and  withdrew  his  fleet 
to  Pensacola  for  repairs.    On  July  11,  on  the 
recommendation  of  the  president,  he  received 
the  thanks  of  congress,  and  on  the  reorganiza- 


tion of  the  navy  in  the  same  month  was  placed 
first  on  the  list  of  rear  admirals.  In  the  fol- 
lowing autumn  the  capture  of  Corpus  Christi, 
Sabine  pass,  and  Galveston  was  effected  by 
his  squadron.  In  March,  1863,  Farragut  agfun 
advanced  against  Yicksburg,  but  encountered 
so  tremendous  a  fire  at  Port  Hudson  that  but 
two  vessels,  the  Hartford  and  the  Albatross, 
succeeded  in  passing  the  batteries.  All  the 
vessels  of  his  squadron  were  terribly  cut  up, 
and  the  fine  frigate  Mississippi  was  destroyed. 
With  his  flag  ship  and  her  small  consort  he 
kept  on  to  Yicksburg,  and  established  commu- 
nication with  the  upper  Mississippi  fleet  and 
with  the  army  under  Gen.  Grant.    By  this  ex- 

?loit  he  obtained  control  of  the  river  between 
*ort  Hudson  and  Yicksburg,  established  a 
blockade  of  the  Red  river,  and  thus  intercepted 
the  supplies  from  Texas  destined  for  the  con- 
federate armies.  About  the  last  of  May  he 
returned  and  engaged  the  batteries  at  Port 
Hudson,  and  from  that  time  till  July  9,  when 
the  garrison  surrendered,  efiSciently  cooperated 
with  the  army  in  its  investment  of  the  place. 
The  following  summer  Farragut  summoned  his 
squadron  to  the  attack  of  Mobile,  and  on  the 
morning  of  Aug.  5,  1864,  conducted  his  force 
past  Forts  Morgan  and  Gaines  guarding  the  en- 
trance, and  further  on  in  the  bay  engaged  and 
vanquished  the  confederate  fleet  of  iron-clads, 
winning,  after  a  desperate  flght  of  several  hours, 
a  victory  next  in  lustre  and  consequence  only 
to  that  of  New  Orleans.  In  this  battle,  just 
as  the  iron-dad  Tecumseh  was  opposite  Fort 
Morgan,  a  torpedo  was  exploded  under  her,  and 
in  three  minutes  she  had  sunk,  carrying  down 
her  commander,  T.  A.  Craven,  and  more  than 
100  of  her  crew.  The  Brooklyn,  the  leading 
ship  of  the  line,  supposing  it  to  have  been  the 
confederate  ram  Tennessee  which  had  blown 
up,  gave  three  hearty  cheers,  but,  soon  dis- 
covering the  mistake,  made  signal  to  the  ad- 
miral :  **  Our  best  monitor  is  sunk."  Shortly 
afterward  the  Brooklyn  discovered  a  nest  of 
torpedoes  close  ahead,  and  stopped,  to  avoid 
running  into  them.  Farragut,  who  had  had 
himself  lashed  to  the  Hartford^s  rigging,  seized 
upon  this  circumstance  to  dash  forwajnl  and 
assume  the  head  of  the  line ;  a  position  which 
he  had  reluctantly  yielded  to  the  Brooklyn  at 
the  earnest  solicitation  of  his  captains,  who 
felt  confident  that  the  leading  ship  would 
be  destroyed.  Again  congress  expressed  to 
Farragut  the  gratitude  of  the  country,  and 
created  for  him  the  grade  of  vice  admiral, 
in  which  office  he  was  confirmed  Dec.  21, 
1864;  and  on  July  25,  1866,  congress  again 
created  a  higher  office,  that  of  admiral,  and 
conferred  it  upon  him.  In  1867  Farragut  sailed 
from  Brooklyn  in  the  frigate  Franklin,  and 
commanded  the  European  squadron  until  1868. 
Wherever  he  touched  during  that  cruise  he  re- 
ceived most  distinguished  honors  alike  from 
sovereigns  and  people.  While  on  a  journey 
undertaken  for  the  improvement  of  his  failing 
health,  he  died  at  the  Portsmouth  navy  yard. 


92 


FARRAR 


FAST 


A  mural  tablet  in  his  honor  was  placed  in  the 
church  of  the  Incarnation,  New  York,  Nov.  10, 
1878.— See  his  "  Life  and  Naval  Career,"  by 
P.  0.  Headley  (New  York,  1865),  and  his  "  Life," 
by  his  son  Loyall  Farragut  (1879). 

FARRAK,  FnderidL  W,  See  supplement. 

FARRAR*  L  Jahi,  an  American  mathema- 
tician, born  in  Lincoln,  Mass.,  July  1,  1779, 
died  in  Cambridge,  May  8,  1858.  lie  gradu- 
ated at  Harvard  college  in  1808,  and  studied 
divinity  at  Andover,  but  accepted  the  appoint- 
ment of  Greek  tutor  at  Harvard  in  1805.  In 
1807  lie  was  chosen  Hollis  professor  of  mathe- 
matics and  natural  philosophy.  In  1818  he 
published  for  the  use  of  his  pupils  a  translation 
of  Lacroix^s  *^  Elements  of  Algebra,"  followed 
by  selections  from  Legendre,  Biot,  B^zout,  and 
others.  These  works  were  at  once  adopted 
as  text  books  by  Harvard  college,  and  by 
the  United  States  military  academy.  He  also 
contributed  to  the  scientific  periodicals,  to  the 
"North  American  Review,"  and  to  the  ''Me- 
moirs" of  the  American  academy.  In  1886 
he  resigned  his  chair  in  consequence  of  a  pain- 
ful illness  which  eventually  caused  his  death. 
II.  EHza  R«teh,  an  American  authoress,  second 
wife  of  the  preceding,  bom  at  New  Bedford, 
Mass.,  in  1792,  died  at  Springfield,  April  22, 
1870.  She  married  Prof.  Farrar  in  1828. 
Among  her  earliest  publications  are  "  The  Chil- 
dren's Robinson  Crusoe,"  "Life  of  Lafayette," 
"  Howard,"  and  "  Youth's  Letter  Writer."  Her 
most  popular  work,  "Young  Lady's  Friend" 
(1887),  passed  through  many  editions  in  the 
United  States  and  in  England.  In  1865  she 
published  "  Recollections  of  Seventy  Years." 

FARREN,  Ettza,  countess  of  Derby,  an  English 
actress,  bom  in  Liverpool  in  1769,  died  April 
28,  1829.  Her  father,  a  native  of  Cork,  who 
was  successively  a  surgeon,  an  apothecary,  and 
an  actor,  left  his  family  in  great  indigence. 
Eliza  made  her  d^but  in  Liverpool  in  1778,  and 
in  London  in  1777,  where  she  played  succes- 
sively at  the  Haymarket,  Covent  Garden,  and 
Drury  Lane.  Although  a  very  graceful  and 
lively  actress,  she  owed  her  reputation  chiefly 
to  her  remarkable  beauty,  which  received  the 
homage  of  the  most  illustrious  men  of  the  time. 
She  was  esteemed  as  much  for  her  virtues  as 
her  beauty,  and  on  May  1,  1797,  became  the 
wife  of  the  12th  earl  of  Derby,  then  a  widower. 

PARS,  or  FtrdsUii  (Pers.,  land  of  the  Per- 
sians; anc.  PersU)^  a  S.  W.  province  of  Persia, 
bounded  N.  W.  by  Khuzistan,  N.  by  Irak-Ajemi 
and  Khorasan,  E.  by  Kerman,  S.  by  Laristan 
and  the  Persian  gulf,  and  W.  by  the  Persian 
gulf;  area  estimated  at  about  60,000  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  between  1,000,000  and  1,500,000.  inclu- 
ding Turkomans,  Banians,  imd  a  small  num- 
ber of  Jews.  It  is  divided  into  the  6er- 
masir  and  Sirhud,  or  warm  and  cold  regions. 
The  former  extends  inland  from  the  coast,  its 
surface  being  a  sandy  plain,  wholly  dependent 
for  vegetation  on  the  periodical  rains.  The 
latter  comprises  the  more  elevated  region  be- 
longing to  the  great  range  of  mountains  which 


extend  from  the  Caucasus  to  the  gulf,  and  which 
in  this  part  are  exceedingly  steep  toward  the 
sea.  This  portion  of  the  province  consists  of 
fertile  valleys,  A  few  of  them,  as  Sliiraz,  Ea- 
zerun,  and  Merdusht,  are  cultivated,  but  many 
are  wooded  and  uninhabited.  The  southern 
part  of  the  coast  E.  of  Ras  Berdistan  is  occu- 
pied by  Arabs,  who  acknowledge  the  authority 
of  the  sultan  of  Muscat,  and  in  the  northern 
districts  there  are  some  tribes  of  Kurds.  East- 
ward the  country  is  more  open,  sandy,  and  ill 
supplied  with  water.  The  chief  rivers  are 
the  Sitaregyan,  flowing  into  the  Persian  gulf, 
and  the  Bendemir,  falling  into  the  salt  lake 
Bakhtegan.  Another  salt  lake,  near  Shiraz, 
supplies  the  province  with  salt.  The  general 
products  of  the  country  are  tobacco  in  large 
quantity,  wine,  rice,  dates,  opium,  linen,  cotton, 
silk,  cochineal,  and  roses  for  the  manufacture  of 
attar.  Iron  and  lead  mines  exist,  as  also  quar- 
ries of  marble  and  alabaster.  Borax  and  naph- 
tha are  among  the  chemical  products.  Atten- 
tion is  given  to  the  raising  of  horses,  camels, 
and  asses,  for  use  and  export.  The  inhabitants 
of  this  province  are  considered  the  most  indus- 
trious in  Persia.  They  manufacture  woollen, 
silk,  and  cotton  stuffs,  and  carry  on  an  extensive 
trade  with  India.  The  government  is  vested 
in  a  prince  of  the  sovereign's  family,  under 
whom  are  governors  of  districts.  There  are 
many  interesting  remains  of  antiquity.  The 
tomb  of  Cyrus  is  at  Murgab,  the  ancient  Pa- 
sargada ;  the  ruins  of  Persepolis  are  between 
that  town  and  Shiraz.  Inoculation  is  said  to 
have  been  known  among  the  tribes  of  Ears 
for  centuries.  Among  the  principal  towns  are 
Shiraz,  the  capital;  Eazerun,  with  excellent 
opium  produceil  in  the  vicinity ;  Darab  or  Da- 
rabgerd,  famous  for  its  date  trees ;  and  Bushire, 
the  chief  port  in  the  Persian  gulf.    (See  Pebsib.) 

FARTHUfGALE  (Fr.  tertvgadin.  It.  gvardin- 
fante^  Sp.  vertugado^  guardian  of  virtue),  a  pet- 
ticoat spread  to  a  wide  circumference  by  hoops 
of  willow,  whalebone,  or  iron,  introduced  into 
England  under  this  name  in  the  reign  of  Eliza- 
beth. In  the  reign  of  Anne  it  was  called  a  tub 
petticoat.  It  appeared  in  France  early  in  the 
reign  of  Louis  XV.  under  the  name  of  tertu- 
gadin  and  panier,  or  basket  petticoat,  its  great- 
est diameter  being  made  equal  to  the  height 
of  the  lady.  Its  abandonment  was  effected 
near  the  close  of  the  same  reign  by  Mile.  Clai- 
ron,  who  appeared  on  the  stage  without  it ;  but 
it  again  became  fashionable  under  Marie  Antoi- 
nette. In  England  the  hoop,  the  successor  of 
the  farthingale,  went  out  of  fashion  in  the  reign 
of  George  IV.,  who  forbade  it  at  court. 

FAST  (Sax. /o'tfton^  to  keep),  abstinence  from 
food,  especiaUy  as  a  religious  observance ;  ap- 
plied also  to  the  period  of  such  abstinence. 
Fasting  was  practised  in  all  the  old  religions 
known  to  history,  with  the  single  exception 
of  that  of  Zoroaster.  It  appears  to  have  been 
also  in  use  among  the  semi-civilized  and  savage 
tribes  in  both  hemispheres.  The  Mohamme- 
dans observe  strictly  the  fast  of  the  month  oi 


FASTI 


93 


Ramadan,  abstaining  from  all  food  daily  from 
sunrise  nntil  sunset.  On  the  Hebrews  the  law 
of  Moses  enjoined  one  annual  fast  on  the  day 
of  atonement ;  others  were  observed  by  the 
nation  in  course  of  time  in  memory  of  great 
calamities.  The  modern  Hebrews  observe  six 
fasts  of  obligation ;  the  most  fervent  keep  many 
more.  The  fast  consists  in  abstaining  from 
all  food  and  drink  from  suurise  till  nightfall, 
the  fast  of  atonement  alone  from  sunset  until 
nightfall  the  next  day.  Both  the  eastern  and 
western  churches  from  the  earliest  times  ob- 
served tl^  Lenten  fast  of  40  days  in  memory 
of  Ohrist^  fasting.  The  Greek  cliurch  enjoins 
fasts  on  all  Wednesdays  and  Fridays,  on  the  40 
days  before  Christmas,  and  the  40  days  before 
Easter,  the  period  extending  from  the  week 
after  Pentecost  until  June  29,  and  from  Aug.  1 
to  Ang.  14,  besides  numerous  other  fasts  as  a 
preparation  to  ecclesiastical  festivals;  in  all  ISO 
fast  days  in  the  year.  There  is  a  legal  dis- 
tinction made  by  both  the  Latin  and  eastern 
churches  between  *^  fasting,"  which  implies  the 
refraining,  from  all  food,  and  ^^  abstinence," 
which  is  the  refraining  from  flesh  meat,  eggs, 
milk,  butter,  and  cheese.  Thus,  Roman  Cath- 
olics abstain  from  flesh  meat  on  all  Fridays  ex- 
cept Christmas  day,  and  on  the  rogation  days, 
or  three  days  before  Ascension  Thursday. 
The  fasts  universally  observed  in  the  Catholic 
church  are  those  of  Lent,  of  the  ember  days, 
and  of  the  vigils  of  Christmas,  Pentecost,  the 
Assumption  (Aug.  15),  and  All  Saints  (Nov.  1). 
—Protestants  generally  admit  the  utility  of 
fasting,  while  denying  its  necessity.  They  do 
not  admit  the  legal  distinction  between  fasting 
and  abstinence.  The  English  church  and  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  church  of  America  main- 
tain on  their  ecclesiastical  calendar,  under  the 
name  of  fasts,  both  the  *^  days  of  abstinence  " 
and  the  "fast  days"  of  the  Catholic  church. 
The  Presbyterian  church  in  the  United  States 
follows  the  doctrine  of  the  Westminster  Con- 
fession, that  *^  solemn  fastings "  are  ^^  in  their 
times  and  seasons"  to  be  used  in  a  holy  and 
religious  manner.  The  Methodist  Episcopal 
church  enjoins  fasting  or  abstinence  on  the 
people,  and  advises  weekly  fasts  to  be  kept  by 
her  clergy.  The  New  England  Puritans,  while 
rejecting  ecclesiastical  fasts,  observed  them- 
selves ^^  seasons  of  fasting  and  prayer,"  and  ad; 
mitted  both  the  right  and  duty  of  the  civil  ruler 
to  set  apart  days  for  such  purpose.  In  New 
England  it  is  still  customary  for  the  governors 
of  states  to  appoint  in  the  spring  ^*  a  day  of 
fasting,  humiliation,  and  prayer,"  which  is  gen- 
erally observed  in  the  churches.  During  the 
civil  war  the  president  of  the  United  States 
recommended  by  proclamation  such  days  to  be 
observed  by  the  nation. 

F18T1,  in  RomaA  antiquity,  registers  of  the 
daya,  months,  and  other  divisions  of  the  yeaf, 
corresponding  to  modern  calendars.  The  term 
is  variously  derived  from  /m,  divine  law,  and 
/af  i,  to  speak,  as  it  properly  designated  those 
days  of  the  year  on  which  legal  busiBess  conld 


without  impiety  be  transacted,  or  legal  judg- 
ment be  given  by  the  magistrates.  The  fasti 
calendares  or  taeri^  the  chief  division  of  these 
registers,  contained  the  enumeration  of  all  the 
days,  divided  into  months  and  weeks  of  eight 
days  according  to  the  nundincB  (the  days  of 
each  of  the  latter  being  designated  by  the  first 
eight  letters  of  the  alphabet),  the  calends,  nones, 
and  ides.  Days  on  which  legal  busmess  could 
be  transacted  were  marked  by  F.  as/asti; 
those  from  which  judicial  transactions  were  ex- 
cluded by  N.  as  nefuuti  ;  the  days  on  which 
justice  could  only  be  administered  at  certain 
hours  were  called  ex  parte  fasti^  also  intereiei^ 
and  were  marked  in  the  calendar,  when  justice 
could  be  demanded  during  the  early  part  of 
the  day,  by  F.  P.,  fasto  prime ;  and  days  on 
which  the  assemblies  of  the  comitia  were  held 
by  C.  Primarily  these  registers  are  said  to 
have  been  intrusted  by  Numa  as  sacred  books 
to  the  care  of  the  pontifex  maximus,  and  for 
nearly  four  centuries  the  knowledge  of  the 
calendar  continued  to  be  in  exclusive  posses- 
sion of  the  priests,  one  of  whom  regularly  an- 
nounced the  new  moon,  and  the  period  inter- 
tervening  between  the  calends  and  the  nones. 
On  the  nones  the  rex  eacrorum  proclaimed  the 
various  festivals  to  be  observed  in  the  course 
of  the  month,  and  the  days  on  which  they 
would  fall.  This  knowledge,  previously  jeal- 
ously kept  to  themselves  by  the  priests  and  pa- 
tricians, was  first  made  public  in  304  B.  C.  by 
Cneius  Flavius,  by  some  believed  to  have  been 
a  scribe  to  Claudius  Csdcus.  Besides  the  above 
mentioned  divisions  of  time,  with  their  nota- 
tion, they  generally  contained  the  enumeration 
of  festivals  and  games,  w^hich  were  fixed  on 
certain  days,  astronomical  observations  on  the 
rising  and  setting  of  the  stars  and  on  the  sea- 
sons, and  sometimes  brief  notices  about  reli- 
gious rites,  as  well  as  of  remarkable  events.  In 
later  times  flattery  inserted  the  exploits  and 
honors  of  the  rulers  of  Rome  and  their  families. 
The  rural  fasti  {rustici^  distinguished  from  the 
urbani)  also  contained  several  directions  for 
rustic  labors  to  be  performed  each  month.  A 
difierent  kind  of  fasti  were  those  called  an- 
nates or  historiei^  also  magistrates  or  eonsu- 
tares,  a  sort  of  chronicles,  containing  the  names 
of  the  chief  magistrates  for  each  year,  and  short 
accounts  of  remarkable  events  noted  opposite 
to  the  days  on  which  they  occurred.  Hence 
the  meaning  of  historical  records  in  general 
attached  to  the  term  fasti  in  poets,  while  it  is 
used  in  prose  writers  of  the  registers  of  consuls, 
dictators,  censors,  and  other  magistrates,  be- 
longing to  the  public  archives.  Several  speci- 
mens of  fasti  of  different  kinds  have  been  dis- 
covered in  the  last  three  centuries,  none  of 
which,  however,  are  older  than  the  age  of  Au- 
gustus. The  fasti  Maffeani,  the  complete  mar- 
ble original  of  which  was  long  preserved  in  the 
Maffei  palace  at  Rome,  but  finally  disappeared, 
are  now  known  by  a  copy  prepared  by  Pighius ; 
the  Verrianit  known  as  the  Prsenestine  calen- 
dar, comprising  only  five  months,  are  histor- 


94 


FASTING 


FAUCHER 


ically  no  less  remarkable.  The  latter  appear 
to  have  coDtained  ample  iDfomiation  about  fes- 
tivals, and  details  of  tne  honors  bestowed  upon 
and  the  triumphs  achieved  by  Ceesar,  Octavia- 
nus,  and  Tiberius.  A  most  fremarkable  speci- 
men of  the  second  class  was  discovered  in  1546 
in  the  Forum  Romanum,  in  large  fragments, 
givinj^  the  list  of  consuls  from  the  250th  to  the 
765th  year  of  Rome,  and  is  known  under  the 
name  of  fasti  Capitolini,  New  fragments  were 
found  in  1817  and  in  1818.  Originally  they  con- 
tained tlio  records  of  Rome  from  the  expulsion 
of  the  kings  to  the  death  of  Augustus.  Labbe 
has  given  fasti  conaulares  out  oif  a  MS.  of  the 
college  of  Clermont  in  his  Bibliotheca  Nora. 
Several  modem  writers,  as  Sigonins,  Reland, 
and  Baiter,  have  published  chronological  tables 
of  Roman  magistrates  under  tlie  title  of  Fasti. 

FiSTUiG.    See  supplement 

FATt  See  Adipose  Substanoes,  Aliment, 
and  GoBPULENCE. 

FATA  MORGANA,  or  castles  of  the  fairy  Mor- 
gana, a  mirage  occasionally  seen  from  emi- 
nences on  the  Calabrian  shore,  looking  west- 
ward upon  the  strait  of  Messina.  It  occurs  in 
still  mornings,  when  the  waters  are  unruffled 
by  breeze  or  current,  and  the  sun,  rising  above 
the  mountains  of  Calabria,  strikes  down  upon 
the  smooth  surface  at  an  angle  of  45°.  The 
heat  then  acts  rapidly  upon  the  stagnant  air, 
the  strata  of  which  but  slowly  intermingling 
present  a  series  of  mirrors  which  variously  re- 
flect the  objects  upon  the  surface.  The  tides 
must  have  operated  to  raise  the  surface  into  a 
convex  form,  as  sometimes  occurs  at  this  lo- 
cality. Objects  on  the  Sicilian  shore  opposite, 
beneath  the  dark  background  of  the  mountains 
of  Messina,  are  refracted  and  reflected  upon 
the  water  in  mid  channel,  presenting  enlarged 
and  duplicated  images.  Gigantic  figures  of 
men  and  horses  move  over  the  picture,  as  sim- 
ilar images  in  miniature  are  seen  flitting  across 
the  white  sheet  of  the  camera  obscura.  Some- 
times the  sky  above  the  water  is  so  impreg- 
nated with  vapor  that  it  surrounds  these  ob- 
jects with  a  colored  hue.  The  wonderful  ex- 
hibition is  but  of  short  duration.  The  phe- 
nomenon is  not  peculiar  to  this  locality,  though 
the  configuration  of  the  coast  and  the  meteoro- 
logical conditions  of  the  region  concur  to  ren- 
der its  exhibition  more  frequent  and  more  beau- 
tiful here  than  elsewhere. 

FATES.    See  PARCiB. 

FATIHlTiS,  or  Fatlnldcs,  the  descendants  of 
Fatima,  the  daughter  of  Mohammed,  a  power- 
ful Arab  dynasty  which  for  two  centuries  ruled 
Egypt  and  Syria,  while  the  Abbasside  caliphs 
reigned  at  Bagdad.  They  claimed  as  their 
founder  Ismae^  the  6th  of  the  12  imams  who 
were  descended  from  Ali  and  Fatima;  but  this 
claim  was  disputed,  and  they  were  variously 
said  to  have  first  appeared  in  Persia,  in  Egypt, 
and  at  Fez,  and  to  have  been  descendants  of  a 
Jew,  a  locksmith,  and  an  eastern  sage.  They 
first  attained  to  empire  under  Abu  Obeidallah, 
who  in  A.  D.  909  announced  himself  in  Syria  as 


the  mahdi^  or  director  of  the  faithful,  foretold 
by  the  Koran,  and  expected  as  the  Messiah  by  a 
class  of  heterodox  Mussulmans.  Denounced  by 
the  caliph,  he  fled  to  Egypt,  was  imprisoned  for 
a  time  in  north  Africa,  but  was  afterward  rec- 
ognized as  a  messenger  from  heaven,  and  made 
himself  caliph  of  the  whole  country  from  the 
straits  of  Gibraltar  to  the  border  of  Egypt.  His 
successor  conquered  the  island  of  Sicily.  Moez, 
the  4th  caliph,  wrested  Egypt  from  the  Ab- 
bassides  in  970,  founded  Cairo,  fixing  his  resi- 
dence in  its  present  suburb  of  Fostat,  and  con- 
quered Palestine  and  a  large  part  of  Syria. 
Aziz,  his  successor  (975-996),  consohHated  and 
extended  his  conquests,  and  embellished  Cairo 
with  many  monuments.  His  son  Hakem  (996- 
1021)  was  preeminently  distinguished  for  fanat- 
icism and  cruelty,  persecuting  alike  Christians, 
Jews,  and  orthodox  Mohammedans.  Declaring 
himself  a  manifestation  of  God,  he  became  near 
the  close  of  his  reign  the  founder  of  a  new  re- 
ligion, now  represented  by  the  Druses  of  Syria, 
who  expect  his  reappearance  as  their  Messiah. 
From  his  time  the  power  of  the  Fatimites 
declined.  On  the  death  of  Adhed,  the  14th 
caliph,  in  1171,  the  dynasty  was  extinguished, 
and  a  new  one  established  by  Saladin.  (See 
Cauph.) 

FAIICHEy  Hlppolytey  a  French  orientalist,  bom 
at  Auxerre  in  1797,  died  at  Juilly,  department 
of  Seine-et-Mame,  in  1869.  His  fortune  enabled 
him  to  devote  his  whole  life  to  Hindoo  litera- 
ture, and  he  translated  into  French  many  cele- 
brated Sanskrit  poems  and  other  works.  His 
labors  were  repeatedly  rewarded  by  academical 

Srizes.  His  most  extensive  translations  are  the 
Mmdyana  (9  vols.,  1854-^8)  and  the  Maha 
Bharata  (7  vols.,  1868-'7),  which  latter  was 
interrupted  by  his  death.  He  also  published 
poetry  and  a  novel. 

FAVCHER,  lioB,  a  French  political  econo- 
mist, bom  in  Limoges,  Sept.  8,  1803,  died  in 
Marseilles,  Dec.  14, 1854.  When  a  boy  he  sup- 
ported himself  and  his  mother  by  making  de- 
signs for  embroidery,  and  afterward  became  a 
teacher  in  Paris.  After  the  revolution  of  1830 
he  was  successively  editor  of  the  Temps^  the 
Constitutionnelj  and  the  Courrier  Francis, 
He  was  chosen  to  the  chamber  of  deputies  for 
Rheims  in  1846,  and,  joining  the  opposition 
party,  was  prominent  in  tlie  debates  on  ques- 
*tions  touching  political  economy.  He  was 
elected  by  the  department  of  Mame  to  the  con- 
stituent assembly  of  1848.  In  December  of 
that  year,  and  again  in  April,  1851,  he  was  ap- 
pointed by  Louis  Napoleon  minister  of  the  in- 
terior, serving  each  time  but  a  few  months. 
He  was  instrumental  in  preparing  the  law  of 
May  31, 1850,  restricting  the  limits  of  suffrage; 
but  he  declined  to  accept  ofiSce  under  Louis 
Napoleon  after  the  coup  d'etat.  He  now  de- 
voted himself  chiefly  to  the  interests  of  the 
credit  fonder^  having  previously  become  known 
by  his  advocacy  of  a  gradual  reduction  of  duties, 
and  of  a  commercial  league  between  France, 
Belgium,  Spain,  and  Switzerland,  as  a  coun- 


FAULK 


FAUREEL 


95 


terpoise  to  the  German  ZoUverein.  Among 
hi8  remarkable  earlier  efforts  were  an  essay 
in  the  Revue  des  Deux  Mandea  on  the  relations 
of  property  in  France,  and  a  pamphlet  in  1838 
00  prison  reform.  His  principal  work,  £tude» 
9ur  VAngUterre^  a  description  of  the  social, 
industrial,  and  political  institutions  of  England, 
appeared  in  1845. 

FAULK.)  a  S.  £.  central  county  of  Dakota  ter- 
ritory, recently  formed,  and  not  included  in 
the  census  of  1870 ;  area,  about  900  sq.  m.  It 
is  drained  by  tbe  North  fork  of  Dakota  or 
James  river,  and  consists  largely  of  table  land. 

FAUNS,  in  Roman  mythology,  rural  divinities, 
descended  from  Fannus,  king  of  Latium,  who 
introduced  into  that  country  the  worship  of 
the  gods  and  the  labors  of  agriculture.  The 
poets  ascribed  to  them  horns,  and  the  figure 
of  a  goat  below  their  waist.,  but  made  tliem 
gayer  and  less  hideous  than  the  satyrs.  Fauns, 
like  satyrs,  were  introduced  upon  the  ancient 
stage  in  comio  scenes.  •  The  cabalistio  mythol- 
ogy also  admits  the  existence  of  fauns,  whom 
it  regards  as  imperfect  creatures.  It  supposes 
that  God  had  created  their  souls,  but,  sur- 
prised by  the  sabbath,  had  not  time  to  finish 
their  bodies.  Hence  these  unfinished  beings 
seek  to  shun  the  sabbath,  on  which  day  they 
retire  to  the  deepest  solitudes  of  the  forests. 

FAUHTLEROTy  Hevy,  an  English  forger,  bom 
in  London  about  1784,  executed  there,  Kov. 
30, 1824.  He  early  joined  the  London  bank- 
ing house  of  Marsh,  Stracey,  and  cc,  and  about 
1814  began  a  system  of  forgeries  involving 
about  £400,000,  though  the  bank  of  England 
prosecuted  him  only  for  £170,000.  Among 
his  papers  was  a  most  business-like  statement, 
drawn  up  by  his  own  hand  as  a  private  mem- 
orandum, containing  a  list  of  transactions  to 
the  amount  of  £120,000,  with  the  names  of 
the  persons  whom  he  had  defrauded  by  selling 
the  stocks  they  had  deposited  with  him,  through 
forged  powers  of  attorney;  and  the  conclu- 
sive plainness  of  this  statement  led  to  his  con- 
viction. The  interval  of  ten  years  between 
the  beginning  and  the  detection  of  his  crime 
has  been  ascribed  to  his  presumed  integrity, 
and  to  the  fact  of  his  forgeries  having  been 
committed  upon  funded  property  and  not  upon 
bills  of  exchange,  including  an  amount  of 
£200,000  that  belonged  to  his  own  wards, 
which  he  drew  by  means  of  forged  documents. 
Besides,  he  had  no  accomplices,  and  all  the 
transactions  were  confined  to  England,  and 
chiefiy  to  London.  Fauntleroy  was  the  last 
forger  hanged  in  England,  capital  punishment 
for  forgery  having  been  finally  abolished  in  1832. 

FAU^IJlESy  a  N.  E.  county  of  Virginia,  bound- 
ed N.  W.  by  the  Blue  Ridge,  and  S.  W.  by 
the  Rappahannock  river  and  one  of  its  branch- 
es; area,  680  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  19,960,  of 
whom  7,856  were  colored.  It  has  a  diversified 
surface,  a  productive  soil,  and  is  rich  in  minerals. 
There  are  several  gold  mines  which  have  been 
worked  with  profit,  and  beds  of  magnesia  and 
Boapstone  have  been  discovered.    It  is  traversed 

814  VOL.  vn. — 7 


by  the  Orange,  Alexandria,  and  Manassas  rail- 
road and  branches.  The  chief  productions  in 
1870  were  269,952  bushels  of  wheat,  824,947 
of  Indian  corn,  180,591  .of  oats,  87,010  of  po- 
tatoes, 6,611  tons  of  hay,  194,986  lbs.  of  but- 
ter, and  89,493  of  wool.  There  were  5,811 
horses,  5,825  milch  cows,  15,208  other  cattle, 
12,137  sheep,  and  14,289  swine;  19  flour  and 
2  saw  mills,  6  tanneries,  and  6  currying  estab- 
lishments.   Capital,  Warrenton. 

FAURE,  Jean  Baptlste,  a  Freuch  vocalist,  bom 
at  Moulins,  Jan.  15,  1880.  He  first  appeared 
at  the  Op6ra  Comique  in  1852,  and  in  1857 
became  professor  at  the  conservatory,  where 
he  had  been  educated.  In  1861  he  made  his 
first  appearance  at  the  Grand  Op^ra,  and  he 
has  since  acquired  great  reputation  as  a  bari- 
tone singer,  his  voice  being  both  powerful  and 
sweet.  He  is  most  admired  in  Mozart^s  Dan 
Juan^  Meyerbeer's  jAfrieaine^  Thomas's  Ham- 
lety  and  as  Mephistopheles  in  Gounod's  FauH, 
in  which  he  excels  as  a  basso. — ^He  married  in 
1860  Constance  Cabounx  Lxfxbvrk,  bom  in 
Paris,  Dec.  21,  1828.  Having  at  an  early  age 
become  acquainted  with  Auber,  she  was  induced 
by  him  to  cultivate  her  voice  at  the  conserva- 
tory, where  she  gained  a  prize  in  1842.  She 
first  performed  at  the  Op6ra  Comique  in  1852, 
gradually  rising  to  distinction  by  her  pleasant 
and  well  trained  voice  and  sprightly  acting. 
Her  best  parts  were  in  the  Vcu  d*Andorrej 
the  £toile  du  N&rd,  and  kindred  operas.  In 
1868  she  performed  in  Mendelssohn's  Liabeth 
at  the  The&tre  LyriquCi  but  has  since  retired 
from  the  stage. 

FAPRIGLi  Claide  Charles,  a  French  historian 
and  critic,  bora  in  St  fltienne,  Oct.  21, 1772, 
died  in  Paris,  July  15,  1844.  After  receiving 
a  good  education  he  entered  the  army  in  1793, 
served  under  I41  Tour  d'Auvergne,  and  became 
secretary  to  Gen.  Dugommier;  but  after  a 
year's  service  lie  returned  to  St.  £tienne,  where 
he  received  a  civil  appointment.  Subsequently 
he  was  private  secretary  to  Fouch^  minister 
of  police,  but  resigned  in  1802  when  he  saw 
Napoleon  about  to  be  made  consul  for  life. 
He  had  in  the  mean  while  contracted  literary 
tastes  and  friendships.  He  studied  Arabic 
with  De  Sacy,  and  was  one  of  the  first  Euro- 
peans to  learn  Sanskrit ;  gathered  a  multitude 
of  facts  as  to  the  less  known  tongues,  as  the 
Basque,  Gallic,  and  Old  German ;  wrote  trans- 
lations from  the  Danish  poet  Baggesen,  and 
the  Italian  poets  Manzoni  and  Berchet ;  collect- 
ed materials  for  a  history  of  stoicism,  which 
he  never  finished ;  and  trianslated  many  Greek 
songs.  From  1824  to  1826  he  resided  in  Italy, 
studying  oriental  languages,  and  soon  after' 
ward  fouAded,  in  connection  with  'other  orien- 
talists, the  Asiatic  society.  In  1880  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  foreign  literature  in  the 
faculty  of  letters  at  Paris.  This  chair,  which 
was  created  for  him  by  the  duke  de  firoglie, 
he  filled  for  nearly  14  years,  lecturing  on  com^ 

farative  philology,  the  origin  of  the  French  and 
talian  languages,  ancient  and  medieval  poetry. 


96 


FAUST 


and  the  drama.  Hisprincipal  works  are :  Chants 
populaires  de  la  Grlce  modems,  with  trans- 
lations and  notes  (1824-^5);  Bistcire  de  la 
Oaule  meridionale  sous  la  domination  des  eon- 
guSrants  germains  (4  vols.,  1836) ;  Histoire  de  la 
eroisade  contre  les  heretiques  albigeoiSy  trans- 
lated from  the  Provencal  verse  of  a  contempo- 
rary (1837) ;  Histoire  de  la  poSsie  provenpale 
(3  vols.,  1846) ;  and  Dante  et  les  origines  de  la 
langne  et  de  la  littSrature  italiennes  (2  vols., 
18M) ;  besides  some  literary  collections,  and 
important  articles  in  the  Bevue  des  Deux 
Mondes  (1832-^43),  and  in  the  BibliotUque  de 
V&cole  des  Chartes.  A  portion  of  the  **  His- 
tory of  Provencal  Poetry  "  was  translated  into 
EngUsh  by  G.  J.  Adler  (New  York,  1860). 

FAUST,  or  Faustos,  Dr.  Johau,  a  prominent 
character  of  the  national  and  popular  poetry 
of  Germany.  According  to  tradition,  he  was  a 
celebrated  necromancer,  born  about  1480  at 
Enittlingen  in  WOrtemberg,  or,  as  others  have 
it,  at  Roda,  near  Weimar,  or  Anhalt.  He  is  said 
to  have  studied  magic  at  Cracow.  Having  mas- 
tered all  the  secret  sciences,  and  being  dissatis- 
fied at  the  shallowness  of  human  knowledge, 
he  made  an  agreement  with  the  Evil  One,  ac- 
cording to  which  the  devil  was  to  serve  Faust 
for  full  24  years,  after  which  Fanst^s  soul  was 
to  be  delivered  to  eternal  damnation.  The 
contract,  signed  by  Faust  with  his  own  blood, 
contained  the  following  conditions :  **  1,  he 
shall  renounce  God  and  all  celestial  hosts ;  2, 
he  shall  be  an  enemy  of  all  mankind;  8,  he 
shall  not  obey  priests ;  4,  he  shall  not  go  to 
church  nor  partake  of  the  holy  sacraments ; 
6,  he  shall  hate  and  shun  wedlock. ^^  Faust 
having  signed  these  conditions,  Satan  sent  him 
as  a  familiar  spirit  Mephistopheles,  a  devil 
*  **  who  likes  to  live  among  men.''  Faust  now 
began  a  brilliant  worldly  career.  He  revelled 
in  all  manner  of  sensual  ei^joyment,  of  which 
his  attentive  devil  servant,  with  an  inexhausti- 
ble fertility  of  imagination,  was  always  invent- 
ing new  and  more  attractive  forms.  When 
remorse  tormented  Faust  and  surfeit  led  him 
to  sober  reflection,  Mephistopheles  diverted 
him  with  all  kinds  of  curious  devilries.  Dis- 
gusted at  last  with  his  life  of  dissipation,  Faust 
yearned  for  matrimony ;  but  Satan  appeared  in 
all  the  terrors  of  fire  and  brimstone,  frightened 
him  out  of  this  purpose,  and  then  sent  him 
from  the  lower  regions  the  beautiful  Greek 
Helena  as  a  concubine,  who  bore  him  a  son, 
Justus  Faustus.  As  the  term  of  24  years 
draws  to  its  close,  he  seeks  relief  and  salvation 
from  priests,  bnt  nothing  avails  him.  All  fiee 
from  the  doomed  man.  Midnight  approaches ; 
an  unearthly  noise  is  heard  from  Faust's  room, 
the  howling  of  a  storm  which  shakes  the  house 
to  its  very  foundation,  demoniacal  laughter, 
cries  of  pain  and  anguish,  a  piercing,  heart- 
rending call  for  help,  followed  by  the  stillness 
of  death.  Next  morning  they  find  Faust's 
room  empty,  but  on  the  fioor  and  walls  evi- 
dence of  a  violent  struggle,  pools  of  blood  and 
shattered  brains;   the  corpse,  mangled  in  a 


most  horrible  manner,  they  find  upon  a  dung- 
hill. The  beautiful  Helena  and  her  son  have 
disappeared  for  ever. — That  some  such  person 
as  Faust  has  existed  is  asserted  in  the  most 
direct  manner  by  writers  who  profess  to  have 
conversed  with  him.  Among  these  eye  wit- 
nesses are  Philip  Melanchthon,  the  great  re- 
former, and  Conrad  Gesner ;  and  even  in  Lu- 
ther's ''  Table  Talk  "  mention  is  made  of  Dr. 
Faustus  as  a  man  irretrievably  lost.  But  it  is 
not  certain  that  the  real  name  of  this  man  was 
Faust.  Joseph  Gdrres  maintains  that  a  cer- 
tain George  Sabellicus  is  the  only  historical 
person  in  whom  the  original  of  Faust  can  be 
recognized.  Faust's  death  is  presumed  to  have 
taken  place  in  1538.  Tradition  has  connected 
with  his  name  a  great  number  of  biographical 
traits  and  magical  feats  formerly  ascribed  to 
other  reputed  conjurers.  The  tragical  fate  of 
Faust  is  represented  as  resulting  from  an  ir- 
reconcilable conflict  of  £aith  and  knowledge. 
Goethe,  in  his  grand  drama,  has  attempted  a 
poetical  solution  of  the  legend.  The  moral  of 
his  Faust  is,  that  man's  longing  after  knowl- 
edge may  lead  him  into  extraordinary  errors 
and  failings,  but  cannot  destroy  his  better  na- 
ture.—^The  first  printed  biograpliy  of  Faust  ap- 
peared in  1587,  at  Frankfort :  Historia  von  V, 
Johann  Fausten,  den  weitbesehreyten  Zauherer 
und  Schwarekiinstler.  In  1688  appeared  a 
rhymed  edition  and  a  translation  into  low  Ger- 
man ;  in  1689,  a  translation  into  French,  His- 
toire prodigieuse  et  lamentable  de  Jean  Faust ; 
about  the  same  time  an  English  version,  ^*  A 
Ballad  of  the  Life  and  Death  of  Doctor  Faustus, 
the  great  Conjurer;"  and  shortly  after,  "TTie 
History  of  the  Damnable  Life  and  Deserved 
Death  of  Dr.  John  Faustus."  The  latter  ver- 
sion seems  to  have  been  the  basis  of  Christopher 
Marlowe's  drama,  ^^Life  and  Death  of  D/.  Faus- 
tus," which  in  its  turn  was  transformed  into  a 
German  puppet  play,  from  which  Goethe  drew 
the  first  conception  of  his  tragedy.  In  1599 
G.  R.  Widmann  published  Warhqftige  Historien 
ton  den  gretoliehen  vnd  absehewliehen  S&nden 
tmd  Lastem^  aueh  ton  tielen  fcunderharliehen 
vnd  seltzamen  ahentheuren  so  D,  Johannes 
Faustus  hat  getriehen  (3  vols.,  Hamburg).  A 
new  version  appeared  in  1674,  which  was 
often  republished,  but  replaced  at  last  by  an 
abridged  edition  of  Widmann's  work  (1728). 
A  great  number  of  books  on  necromancy  also 
pretend  to  give,  from  original  manuscripts  of 
Faust,  his  cabalistic  formulas,  charms,  talis- 
mans, &c.  All  of  these  publications,  and  also 
all  important  monographs  bearing  upon  this 
subject,  have  been  reprinted  in  the  valuable 
collection  of  J.  Scheible,  Das  Kloster  ueltlich 
und  geistlich  (Stuttgart,  1 847).  More  than  250 
different  works  on  the  legend  of  Faust  are 
enumerated  in  Peter's  Literatur  der  Faustsage 
(2  vols.,  Halle,  1849). 

FAUST,  or  Fist,  Jahao,  an  associate  of  Gu- 
tenberg and  Schdfier  in  the  first  development 
of  the  art  of  printing,  bom  in  Mentz,  died  in 
Paris  about  1466.    He  was  a  wealthy  gold- 


FAUSTIN  I. 


FAVAET 


97 


Bmitb,  and  probably  had  no  share  in  the  inven- 
tion of  the  art.  His  connection  with  it  com- 
menced in  1450,  when  Gutenberg  induced  him 
to  enter  into  partnership  with  him,  and  ad- 
vance funds  to  establish  the  business  of  print- 
ing at  Mentz,  Faust  having  a  lien  on  the  mate- 
ri^s  as  security.  The  only  known  productions 
of  the  press  of  Faust  and  Gutenberg  are  an  in- 
dulgence granted  by  Pope  Nicholas  V.  to  Pan- 
linns  Chappe,  ambassador  of  the  king  of  Cy- 
prus, of  which  IS  copies  on  vellum  printed  in 
1454  remain,  and  two  copies  of  a  second  edi- 
tion printed  in  1455,  and  an  "  Appeal  to  Chris- 
tendom against  the  Turks,^'  supposed  to  belong 
to  the  former  year.  The  celebrated  folio  Latin 
Bible  of  the  Mazarin  library  is  also  attrib- 
uted to  this  period.  This  is  a  close  imitation 
of  the  best  writing,  the  rubricated  capitals 
being  written  in  by  hand.  A  copy  of  it,  the 
only  complete  one  in  America,  is  in  tlie  library 
of  Mr.  James  Lenox  of  New  York;  it  cost 
$2,600.  In  1455  Faust  put  an  end  to  the  part- 
nership by  suing  Gutenberg  for  his  advances, 
and  taking  possession  of  the  greater  part  of 
the  stock  in  satisfaction  of  the  debt.  Faust 
then  associated  with  himself  Peter  Sch5ffer, 
his  son-in-law,  who  had  been  in  their  employ- 
ment, and  had  perfected  the  process  of  making 
movable  metallic  types  by  the  invention  of  the 
punch.  The  first  complete  result  of  this  new 
invention  was  the  Rationale  Divinarum  Offici- 
orum  of  Durandus  (l^^i'S^  folio,  1450).  Two 
editions  of  a  psalter,  beautifully  executed,  had 
previously  appeared  with  the  imprint  of  Faust 
and  Schoifer  (1^7  and  1450),  but  in  these  the 
large  capitals  were  cut  on  wood.  Copies  of 
nine  other  works  from  their  press  with  date 
and  imprint  still  exist,  including  a  Latin  Vul- 
gate Bible  (2  vols,  large  fol.,  1462),  and  the 
De  OffleiU  and  Paradoxa  of  Cicero  (small  fol., 
U66 ;  a  copy  of  this,  the  first  printed  classic 
author,  is  in  the  Astor  library,  New  York).  At 
the  sacking  of  Mentz  in  1462  by  one  of  the  two 
ri?al  archbishops,  Adolph  of  Nassau,  Faust's 
workmen  were  scattered,  and  the  printing  pro- 
oess,  which  had  been  kept  as  a  secret  in  Mentz, 
was  divulged  by  them  in  other  countries.  A 
short  time  afterward,  however,  Faust  was  en- 
abled to  resume  his  operations.  He  made  sev- 
eral Journeys  to  Paris,  where  he  is  supposed  to 
have  died  of  the  plague. 

FAPSflBI  L    See  Soulottque. 

FACSmif  A.  I.  Aiila  Gateite,  commonly  distln- 
gnbhed  as  Faustina  Senior,  daughter  of  Annius 
Verus,  prefect  of  Rome,  and  wife  of  the  em- 
peror Antoninus  Pius,  bom  about  A.  D.  104,  died 
in  141.  She  ascended  the  throne  with  Antoni- 
nus in  188,  receiving  the  title  of  Augusta;  and 
thoagh  the  emperor  grieved  at  her  profligacy, 
his  affection  for  her  made  him  place  her  after 
^eath  among  the  goddesses,  raise  temples  and 
altars  to  her,  and  have  medals  struck  in  her 
honor,  exceeding  in  number  and  variety  those 
in  honor  of  any  other  Roman  empress.  IL 
Anlt,  called  Faustina  Junior,  younger  daugh- 
ter of  the  preceding,  wife  of  her  cousm  the  em- 


peror Marcus  Aurelius,  bom  about  A.  D.  125, 
died  in  175.  She  surpassed  even  the  dissolute 
manners  of  her  mother.  The  emperor  was 
aware  of  her  disorderly  life,  but  loved  her 
notwithstanding  the  railleries  and  murmurings 
of  the  people  and  the  advice  of  his  friends. 
She  accompanied  him  in  an  expedition  to  the 
East^  and  suddenly  died  at  a  village  near  the 
foot  of  Mt.  Taurus.  Aurelius  mourned  for  her, 
ranked  her  among  the  goddesses,  caused  med- 
als to  be  struck  in  her  honor  inscribed  Pudi- 
eitia^  and  exalted  the  place  where  she  died  into 
a  city  named  Faustinopolis. 

FAirVEAII,  F^de  de,  a  French  sculptress,  bom 
in  Florence  in  1808.  She  belongs  to  an  old 
legitimist  family  of  Brittany,  and  was  patron- 
ized by  Louis  XVIIL  and  Charles  A.  She 
partook  in  1832  in  the  royalist  movement  in 
La  Vendue,  and  on  the  arrest  of  the  duchess 
de  Berri  escaped  to  Brussels,  and  then  to  Flor- 
ence. Her  group  of  "The  Abbot"  (1827)  illus- 
trates one  of  Walter  Scott^s  romances,  and 
her  most  successfyil  work  represents  Christma 
and  Monaldeschi  (1829).  In  1842  she  exhib- 
ited in  Paris  various  works,  including  "  Judith 
showing  the  Head  of  Holopheraes  to  the  Peo- 
ple." Prominent  among  her  later  works  are 
the  Dante  monument  (1852),  representing  the 
tragic  death  of  Paolo  Malatesta  and  Francesca 
da  Rimini,  and  the  mausoleum  of  a  young 
Florentine  girl  (1860). 

FAIJVELET,  Jum  Baptiste,  a  French  painter, 
bom  in  Boraeaux  in  1822.  He  is  a  disciple 
of  Meissonier's  style  of  genre  painting.  His 
earliest  pictures,  "A  Young  Man  Reading" 
(1845),  "The  Two  Roses,"  and  "The  Concert" 
(1847),  were  succeeded  in  1848-*9  by  "Non- 
chalance" and  "The  Carver."  The  govem- 
ment  purchased  in  1855  his  "  Two  Musicians" 
for  the  Luxembourg.  Among  his  later  paint- 
ings is  "  The  Prodij^  Son  "  (1869). 

FAVARl,  a  town  of  Sicily,  in  the  province 
and  8  m.  S.  £.  of  the  city  of  Girgenti,  on  an 
eminence;  pop.  about  18,500.  It  has  a  beau- 
tiful castle,  built  in  the  14th  century,  and  in 
the  neighborhood  are  many  sulphur  pits. 

FA¥ART,  Marie  Juttaie  Bentlte,  a  French  ac- 
tress, bom  in  Avignon  in  1727,  died  in  1772. 
She  was  a  daughter  of  M.  du  Ronceray,  a  mu- 
sician, and  first  appeared  as  a  vocalist  at  the 
Op6ra  Comique,  Paris,  in  1744,  under  the 
name  of  Mile,  de  Chantilly.  Next  year  she 
married  the  dramatist  and  inventor  of  the 
vaudeville,  Charles  Simok  Favaet,  who.  by 
following  soon  after  the  camp  of  Marshal  Saxe 
with  a  dramatic  troupe,  subjected  himself  and 
his  wife  to  severe  persecutions  on  account  of 
her  rejecting  the  marshal^s  addresses.  After 
the  marshal's  death  in  1750  she  resumed  acting 
in  Paris,  chiefly  in  her  hnsband^s  plays.  She 
excelled  equally  as  actress,  singer,  and  dancer, 
and  introduced  many  excellent  innovations  in 
costume  and  other  accessories.  The  plays  of 
her  husband,  who  survived  her  20  years,  fill 
10  volumes,  and  some  of  her  own  are  included 
in  (Euvrea  choisiei  de  M.  et  Mme.  Favart  (Paris, 


J 


98 


FAVABT 


leeo).— Thdr  too,  Cbaxlu  NtooLAS  Jomph 
JuBtiK  (1T49-180U),  bttoame  tiso  on  BOtor  and 
plajw  right. 

FITUT,  Pi«rr«Qe  i$aM,  popnlHrl;  known 
•a  Msrie  FavBrt,  a  French  aetress,  bom  at 
Beaane,  Feb.  16,  1SS».  Uer  family  name  wan 
Pinigaud,  bat  aba  asaomed  the  name  of  M. 
Favart,  who  adopted  her  as  a  dau^thter.  She 
was  adutiated  at  the  conaerTBtory,  and  be- 
oame  a  most  popsliar  actress  and  a  member 
of  the  Th6&tre  Frangais.  She  belongs  to  the 
olasaical  Hchool,  and  ia  Biognlarl/  elegant  and 
impresaiTe  in  her  appaaranoe  and  most  ez- 
qniaite  in  her  elocution.  She  vaa  greatl; 
admired  in  1864  aa  Eather,  and  among  her 
moat  brilliant  impersonations  ia  DoOa  So)  in 


nVEISUa,  or  FennbaM,  a  market  town, 
borough,  and  parish  of  Sent,  England,  and  a 
member  of  the  cinqae  port  of  Bover,  on  a 
branch  of  the  Swale,  40  m.  £.8.  E.  of  London; 
pop.  in  1871,  7,lSfi.  It  contsina  a  handsome 
obnrch,  several  chapela,  aohoola,  and  asaemblj 
rooma,  a  theatre,  and  the  remains  of  an  ab- 
bey founded  by  King  Stephen.  The  town  has 
long  been  famous  for  tb«  manofacture  of  gon- 
powder,  and  has  alio  some  factories  of  Roman 
oemenL  Ite  obiaf  trade  is  in  ojstera.  It  ia  ac- 
oesdble  to  TeaaelB  of  160  tons. 

FA¥1CK1N1  (anc.  yEgvta  or  yEthii*a,  an  im- 
portant Roman  naval  station),  an  island  of  the 
jSlgadea  gronp  in  the  Mediterranean,  8  m.  f^om 
the  N.  W.  ooaat  of  Sicily;  pop.  4,000.    It  is 
abontSm.longandfrom  Stoan. broad.   The 
anrfaoe  is  low,  with  the  exoeption  of  a  range 
of  bills  ranning  through  the  centre,  on  the  cnl- 
minattng  aanunit  of  which  is  the  castle  of  San- 
ta Oatarina.    There  is  a  good  harbor  on  the 
E.  aide,  on  which  stand  the  town  and  fortreaa 
of  San  Leonardo.    San  Giaromo,  the  principal 
place,  is  on  the  N.  coast.     The  i^and  prodncea 
good  wine  and  fhiita,  and  has  seversJ  quarries 
and  eitensive  tunny  and  anchovy  flaheries,  in 
the  produce  of  which,  and  in  sheep,  goata, 
poultry,  &«.,  it  haa  a  flourishing  export  trade. 
FIVOHTES,  a  family  of  fossil  corals  belong- 
ing to  the  hydroid  acalepba.    Their  cells  are 
divided    by    horisontal 
partitions,  like  those  of 
the  nilleporea,  which, 
according    to   Agaasiz, 
are  true  ecalephs ;  but 
the  apecies  are  so  polyp- 
like that  until  recently 
they  were  classed  with 
the  polyps.     According 
to  Dana,  thay  are  a  oom- 
Fiviaiui  tjkguliuuli.       prebenrive  type,  inter- 
mediate   between    the 
polyps  and  the  higher  acalephs,  and  having  some 
of  tiie  characters  of  both.    They  are  all  palteo- 
zoio,  especially  Devonian  and  upper  Silurian. 

FIVKAB,  TkMua  Makl,  marquis  de,  a  French 
conspirator,  horn  in  Bloia  in  1746,  hanged  in 
Paris,  Fab.  1 B,  1790.  Raving  entered  the  army 
and  aerved  in  aevetal  campaigns,  he  was  made 


count  de  Provence  (afterward  Louis  SVilL), 
and  in  1T87  commanded  a  legion  in  Holland 
during  the  insarrecMon  agunst  the  stadtholder. 
In  December,  1789,  he  was  apprehended  as  the 
ringleader  of  a  plot  to  introduce  an  army  of 
80,000  men,  SwiM  and  Germans,  into  Paris  by 
night,  which  was  to  murder  Bailly.  Lafayette, 
and  Necker,  and  to  carry  off  the  royal  family 
and  the  seals  of  state  to  P^ronne.  He  was 
suppoaed  to  be  a  secret  agent  of  the  highest 
peraonages,  and  suspicion  wbs  directed  to  the 
count  da  Provence^  who  exculpated  himself  by 
a  speech  at  the  hAtel  da  ville.  Favras  was  sum- 
moned before  the  ChAtelet,  where  he  defended 
bimaelf  with  great  calmness.  His  witneeeea 
were  refused  a  hearing,  and  the  whole  trial 
was  conducted  in  the  most  irregular  manner. 
The  populace  ehonted  "Favraa  to  the  lamp 
post,''  and  he  was  condemned  to  be  hanged. 
He  met  hia  fate  with  tinahaken  fortitude. 
When  told  that  no  revelations  wonld  aave  his 
own  life,  he  answered,  "Then  my  «ecret  shall 
die  with  me."  His  execution  took  place  at 
night,  by  the  light  of  torchea,  amid  the  jests 
of  the  crowd. 


1809,  Hia  ancestors  came  from  Piedmont 
and  bis  father  was  a  merchant.  He  studied 
law  in  Paris,  early  acquired  eminence  by  de- 
fending (18S4-'6)  persons  implicated  in  social- 
istic and  revolutionary  proceedings,  and  alter 
the  revolution  of  Feb.  24,  184^  was  ancces- 
siveiy  chief  secretary  in  the  ministry  of  the 
interior,  member  of  the  consljtuent  assembly, 
and  under  secretary  for  foreini  affairs.  Elected 
to  the  legislative  assembly,  ne  was  one  of  the 
leaders  of  the  opposition  dnring  the  preai~ 
dency  of  Louis  Napoleon,  and  after  the  coup 
d'etat  of  Dec.  £,  1861,  declined  to  recognize 
the  new  constitution.  Defeated  as  a  candidate 
for  the  cwps  Ifgislatif  in  Lyons  in  1857,  he 
was  returned  in  ISGSby  a  district  of  Paris,  and 
won  additional  fame  by  his  brilliant  thongh  un- 
avuling  defence  of  Orsini,  who  had  attempted 
to  asaaawnate  the  emperor.  He  was  the  moat 
eloquent  of  the  five  so-called  irreconcilable  op- 
ponenta  of  the  second  empire.  Being  choecD 
in  1868  as  representative  both  in  Paris  and 
Lyons,  he  took  his  seat  for  the  latter  city,  and 
made  powerful  speeches  agunst  the  KeiioBD 
expedition  and  against  the  imperial  policy  ia 
regard  to  the  Roman  question,  and  denounced 
the  convention  of  Gastein  as  favoring  the  unity 
of  Germany  at  the  expense  of  France.    Though 

Eeraevering  in  hia  hostility  to  Napoleon  11]., 
e  was  defeated  by  the  socialist  Raspail  at  the 
election  of  1869,  and  only  secured  hia  reelec- 
tion in  Paris,  where  he  was  opposed  by  Roche- 
fort  and  Csntagrel,  by  the  letter's  withdrawal. 
His  vehement  opposition  to  the  policy  of  the 
eropertK',  continued  dnring  the  Ollivier  ministry 
and  thepUbitcita  movement  in  the  earlier  part 
of  1870,  contributed  much  to  increase  pnblio 
excitement;  and  he  also  joined  Thiers  in  coo- 


FAVRE 


FAWKES 


99 


demning  the  warlike  preparations  against  Pms- 
sia,  which  ended  in  the  declaration  of  war  on 
Jaljr  19.  Bat  from  the  moment  he  saw  the 
country  irretrievably  committed  to  the  contest, 
he  accepted  the  situation  and  insisted  npon  im- 
mediately arming  the  national  gnard.  In  the 
session  of  the  corps  l^gislatif  held  the  day 
after  the  surrender  of  Sedan,  Favre  denonnced 
Napoleon  and  his  r^me  as  responsible  for 
the  national  disasters,  and  the  next  day  (Sept. 
4)  urged  his  deposition  and  that  of  his  dynasty, 
and  proposed  the  appointment  of  an  executive 
committee  for  resisting  to  the  last  the  invasion 
of  French  territory.  The  republic  being  pro- 
claimed, he  became  vice  president  of  the  pro- 
visional government  of  national  defence,  and 
minister  of  foreign  affiiirs.  In  his  diplomatic 
circular  he  declared  that  France  would  not 
cede  an  inch  of  her  soil  nor  a  stone  of  her 
fortresses,  and  held  Prussia  responsible  for  the 
continuation  of  the  War,  since  the  ruler  who 
had  b^g:an  it  was  supplanted  by  a  new  gov- 
ernment which  had  nothing  to  do  with  the 
opening  of  hostilities.  He  met  Bismarck  at 
the  castle  of  Ferri^res,  Sept.  19,  and  under^ 
took  to  pay  any  amount  of  indemnity,  but  re- 
jected any  cession  of  territory  as  humiliating 
and  dishonorable.  The  conditions  imposed  by 
Bismarck  in  a  subsequent  interview  for  an  ar^ 
mistice  pending  the  elections  were  not  accept- 
ed A  state  paper  issued  by  Favre  on  the  sub- 
ject of  these  negotiations  led  to  a  counter- 
statement 'from  Bismarck,  Sept.  27,  and  the 
war  went  on.  In  October,  after  Gambetta's 
departure  for  Tonra,  Favre  became  ad  interim 
mimster  oi  the  interior,  and  attempted  to  put 
down  the  seditious  movements  in  the  besieged 
capital.  On  Oct.  81  he  shared  the  captivity  of 
Geo.  Trochu  in  the  invamon  of  the  h6tel  de 
▼ille.  After  the  conclusion  of  a  three  weeks' 
trace  with  the  Germans  on  Jan.  28,  he  in- 
sisted npon  respecting  it,  and  Gambetta's  con- 
trary decrees  were  declared  null  and  void. 
Favre  oontinned  to  be  minister  of  foreign 
affairs  after  the  election  of  Thiers  as  pro- 
visional president  in  February,  1871,  and  he 
went  to  Frankfort  with  the  minister  of  finance, 
Pouyer-Quertier,  to  sign  with  Bismarck  the 
definitive  treaty  of  peace  (May  10).  He  re- 
ngned  his  post  at  the  end  of  July,  the  osten- 
sible cause  being  his  disagreement  with  Thiers 
and  the  minority  of  the  assembly  in  regard  to 
the  petitions  in  favor  of  the  restoration  of 
the  temporal  power  of  the  pope ;  but  the  in- 
creasing influence  of  the  conservative  party 
bad  rendered  his  position  untenable  for  some 
time,  although  his  personal  relations  with  Thiers 
never  ceased  to  be  cordial.  His  reputed  wife 
had  died  June  12,  1870;  and  one  Laluy^  hav- 
ing asserted  that  she  had  been  only  his  mis- 
tress, Favre  prosecuted  him  and  others  for 
defamation,  and  though  Laluy6  was  fined  and 
imprisoned  for  one  year,  the  mortifying  pub- 
licity given  to  the  affair  confirmed  him  in  his 
desire  to  withdraw  from  politics  for  a  time, 
and  devote  himself  exclusively  to  the  law.    He 


has  published  Rome  et  la  r^ublique  flfonpaige 
(Paris,  1871),  and  Le  gauvemement  du  4  «0p- 
tefnbre  (2  vols.,  1871-2),  which  have  been  trans- 
lated into  English. 

FAWCEIT,  Hearj,  an  English  political  writer 
and  statesman,  born  in  Salisbury  in  1888.  He 
graduated  at  Trinity  hall,  Cambridge,  in  1866, 
and  was  elected  a  fellow  in  the  same  year.  In 
1857  he  unsuccessfully  contested  Sonthwark,  on 
liberal  principles,  for  parliament.  In  Septem- 
ber, 1868,  while  out  shooting,  he  met  with  an 
accident  by  which  he  lost  the  sight  of  both  eyes ; 
but  he  nevertheless  became  an  extensive  con- 
tributor to  the  reviews  of  articles  on  political 
science  and  economy,  and  has  published  sev- 
eral works,  among  which  are  ^^  A  Manual  of  Po- 
litical Economy  "  (1868)  and  "  The  Economic 
Position  of  the  British  Laborer"  (1866).  He 
contested  the  borough  of  Cambridge  unsuccess- 
fully in  1862,  and  in  1868  was  elected  professor 
of  political  economy  in  the  university  of  Cam- 
bridge. In  1864  he  ran  for  Brighton,  and  was 
again  defeated,  but  was  returned  for  that  place 
in  1866,  and  reelected  in  1868.  In  parliament 
he  has  distinguished  himself  as  an  advocate 
of  republican  principles,  in  conjunction  with 
Sir  Charles  Dilke  and  Auberon  Herbert.  In 
1869  he  published  a  revised  edition  of  his 
**  Manual  of  Political  Economy,"  with  two  new 
chapters  on  '^  National  Education  "  and  *^  The 
Poor  Laws  and  their  Influence  on  Pauperism," 
and  in  1871  a  work  entitled  "  Pauperism,  its 
Causes  and  Remedies."  A  collection  of  his 
"Speeches"  was  published  in  1878.  — Prof. 
Fawcett  was  married,  April  28,  1867,  to  Milli- 
cent  Garrett,  who  published  in  1870  a  ^*  Political 
Economy  for  Beginners ;"  and  in  1872  appeared 
a  joint  work  entitled  "Essays  and  Lectures,  by 
Henry  and  Millioent  Gkirrett  Fawcett." 

FAWUS,  Gay,  an  English  conspirator,  bom 
in  Yorkshire,  executed  in  London,  Jan.  80, 
1606.  He  was  a  soldier  of  fortune  in  the  Span- 
ish army  in  the  Netherlands,  when  in  1604  the 
scheme  of  blowing  up  the  parliament  house, 
with  the  king,  lords,  and  commons,  was  con- 
ceived by  Robert  Catesby,  in  revenge  for  the 
penal  laws  against  Roman  Catholics.  Fawkes 
was  admitted  into  the  conspiracy,  and  return- 
ed to  England  in  May  of  that  year.  Thomas 
Percy,  one  of  the  confederates,  rented  a  house 
adjoining  that  in  which  parliament  was  to  as- 
semble, of  which  Fawkes,  who  was  unknown 
in  London,  took  possession  as  his  servant,  un- 
der the  assumed  name  of  Johnson.  Pariiament 
was  soon  after  adjourned  till  Feb.  7,  1606,  and 
•on  Dec.  11  preceding  the  conspirators  met  in 
the  hired  house  of  Percy,  and  began  to  exca- 
vate a  mine.  Seven  men  were  thus  occupied 
until  Christmas  eve,  never  appearing  in  the 
upper  part  of  the  house,  while  Fawkes  kept 
constant  watch  above.  Parliament  was  again 
prorogued  from  Feb.  7  to  Oct.  8,  and  the  con- 
spirators therefore  dispersed  for  a  time,  but 
completed  their  arrangements  between  Feb- 
ruary and  May.  They  hired  a  vault  imme- 
diately below  the  house  of  lords,  which  had 


100 


FAXARDO 


FAYETTE 


•just  been  vacated  hj  a  dealer  in  coal,  into 
which  thejr  convejed  by  night  86  barrels  of 
powder,  and  covered  them  with  fagots.  They 
again  dispersed,  Fawkes  proceeding  to  Flanders 
to  secure  foreign  cooperation.  As  money  was 
needed,  three  wealthy  gentlemen,  Sir  Everard 
Digby,  Ambrose  Rook  wood,  and  Francis  Tresh- 
am,  were  made  privy  to  the  plot.  The  meet- 
ing of  parliament  was  again  deferred  to  Nov. 
6,  and  Fawkes  was  appointed  to  fire  the  mine. 
The  conspiracy  was  detected  by  an  anonymous 
letter  entreating  Lord  Monteagle,  a  Roman 
Catholic  peer,  to  absent  himself  from  the  par- 
liament, and  intimating  a  terrible  danger.  The 
letter  resulted  in  a  search  on  the  night  of  Nov. 

4,  when  Fawkes  was  seized  just  after  issuing 
from  the  ceUar,  in  which  the  powder  was  dis- 
covered. Matches  and  touchwood  were  found 
in  his  pockets.  Brought  before  the  king  and 
council,  he  boldly  avowed  his  purpose,  but  not 
even  the  rack  could  extort  the  names  of  his  as- 
sociates till  they  had  appeared  in  arms.  The 
failure  of  the  plot  was  complete.  Fawkes  was 
arraigned,  condemned,  and  executed,  as  were 
seven  of  his  confederates,  while  others  were 
tried  separately.  This  conspiracy  led  to  ad- 
ditional penal  statutes  against  the  Roman 
Catholics.    The  anniversary  of  the  plot,  Nov. 

5,  was  long  celebrated  in  England  and  New 
England  by  the  boys  carrying  about  an  effigy 
of  Guy  Fawkes,  which  was  finally  burned.  It 
was  till  recently  a  legal  holiday  in  England. 

FAXlRDOy  Diego  Saavedray,  a  Spanish  author 
and  statesman,  bom  in  Algezares,  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Murcia,  in  1584,  died  in  Madrid,  Aug. 
24,  1648.  Having  graduated  as  a  doctor  of 
law  at  the  university  of  Salamanca,  he  accom- 
panied as  secretary  Cardinal  Borgia,  appointed 
ambassador  to  Rome,  and  afterward  succeeded 
him.  His  talents  and  ability  in  his  negotia- 
tions gained  for  him  the  favor  of  his  sovereign, 
and  during  86  years  he  was  constantly  em- 
ployed on  important  diplomatic  missions  in 
Italy,  Switzerland,  and  Germany.  His  last  mis- 
sion was  at  the  congress  of  Mftnster  from  1648 
to  1 646,  as  representative  of  Philip  I Y.  The  first 
edition  of  his  most  successful  work,  Empress 
polities,  6  idea  de  un  priiieipe  politico  eris- 
tianoy  &c.,  intended  to  instruct  the  infante  of 
Spain,  to  whom  it  was  dedicated,  in  the  duties 
of  government,  appeared  at  Manster  in  1646. 
He  wrote  the  first  two  volumes  of  the  "  History 
of  the  Goths  in  Spain."  His  complete  works 
were  published  at  Antwerp  in  1689,  and  a  new 
edition  at  Madrid  in  1789-'90. 

fIt,  inMfly  a  Hungarian  poet,  bom  at  Ko- 
hany,  in  the  county  of  Zempl^n,  May  80, 1786, 
died  July  26, 1864.  He  studied  law,  became 
an  advocate,  and  subsequently  ofiiciated  as  an 
administrative  ofiicer  of  the  county  of  Pesth, 
and  in  1886  as  its  deputy  at  the  diet.  His  fee- 
ble health  obliged  him  to  retire,  and  he  thence- 
forth devoted  himself  to  literature.  He  was 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  national  theatre  of 
Buda,  and  was  an  active  member  of  the  in- 
dustrial society,  of  tiie  society  of  arts,  of  the 


academy,  &c.  Among  his  poetical  writings 
the  most  noted  is  his  Mesek  (**  Fables,'*  Vienna, 
1820;  2d  ed.,  1824;  German  translation  by 
Petz,  Vienna,  1821).  He  wrote  two  works 
treating  on  female  education  and  the  social 
and  economical  development  of  Hungary,  NS- 
nevelesj  &c,  (Pesth,  1840),  and  Kelet  nepe  nyu- 
goton  (Pesth,  1841).  A  collection  of  his  works 
appeared  at  Pesth  in  1848-^4  (8  vols.). 

FAY,  Theodore  Sedgwick,  an  American  autlior, 
bom  in  New  York,  Feb.  10, 1807.  He  received 
a  liberal  education,  and  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1828,  but  became  soon  after  one  of  the 
editors  of  the  "New  York  Mirror,"  and  de- 
voted himself  to  literature.  He  has  published 
the  following  works :  "  Dreams  and  Reveries 
of  a  Quiet  Man  "  (1882) ;  "  The  Minute  Book," 
a  journal  of  foreign  travel ;  "  Norman  Les- 
lie,"  a  romance  (1835);  "Sydney  Clifton" 
(1889);  "The  Countess  Ida"  (1840);  "Ho- 
boken,  a  Romance  of  New  York "  (1843) ; 
"  Robert  Rueful "  (1844) ;  "  UWc,  or  the 
Voices,"  a  poem  (1861);  "Views  of  Chris- 
tianity" (1866);  "Great  Outlines  of  Geogra- 
phy" (1867);  "First  Steps  in  Geography" 
(1878) ;  and  a  series  of  pa[)ers  on  Shakespeare. 
He  was  secretary  of  the  American  legation  in 
Berlin  from  1887  to  1868,  and  minister  resi- 
dent in  Bern,  Switzerland,  from  1863  to  1861. 

FATAL,  one  of  the  Azores  or  Western  Islands, 
belonging  to  Portugal,  in  lat.  88""  80'  N.,  Ion. 
28°  40'  W. ;  area  about  40  sq.  m. ;  pop.  about 
27,000.  The  surface  is  rugged,  and  m  some 
parts  mountainous.  The  climate  is  mild  and 
healthfuL  The  soil  is  in  general  very  fertile. 
The  principal  vegetable  productions  are  firs, 
palms,  vines,  pineapples,  oranges,  potatoes,  cab> 
bages,  maize,  and  wheat.  The  chief  object  of 
commerce  is  wine,  of  which  the  annual  produce 
is  about  200  pipes;  and  in  good  seasons  from 
8,000  to  10,000  pipes,  the  product  of  all  the 
ifidands,  have  been  expoiled  from  Fayal.  The 
other  most  important  exports  are  fruit,  espe- 
cially oranges,  and  com.  The  imports  are 
manufactured  goods,  cotton  twist,  flax,  coffee, 
sugar,  tea,  tobacco,  and  soap.  In  1869  the 
island  was  visited  by  a  severe  famine,  occa- 
sioned by  the  failure  of  three  successive  crops. 
Fayal  has  the  best  harbor  of  all  the  Azorean 
group,  and  a  considerable  transit  trade.  Many 
American  whalers  touch  here  and  land  the  oil 
of  such  fish  as  they  have  caught  in  their  out- 
ward voyage,  whence  it  is  shipped  for  its  des- 
tination. Capital,  Horta,  or  Villa  Orta  (some- 
times improperly  called  Fayal),  a  handsome 
town  on  the  S.  £.  side  of  the  island,  adjoining 
the  harbor  before  mentioned;  pop.  6,000  or 
6,000.  The  steam  packets  of  the  British  West 
India  mail  company  regularly  call  at  Horta. 

FAYETTE,  the  name  of  11  counties  in  the 
United  States.  L  A  S.  W.  county  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, bordering  on  Maryland  and  West  Vir- 
ginia, and  bounded  W.  by  the  Monongahela 
river;  area,  about  800  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
43,284.  There  are  two  mountain  ridges :  one 
called  Laurel   hill,   stretching    along  the  £. 


FAYETTE 


101 


boondarj,  and  the  other  known  as  Chestnut 
ridge,  a  branch  of  the  Alleghanies,  traversing 
the  central  part.  The  rest  of  the  surface  is 
mostly  nndalating.  The  soil  is  fertile  in  the 
N.  W.  part,  bat  elsewhere  is  better  adapted  to 
psstorage  than  to  tillage.  Iron  and  bitaininous 
coal  are  abundant.  It  is  intersected  hj  the 
national  road,  and  accessible  by  steamboats  on 
the  Monongahela.  The  Pittsburgh  and  Con- 
nellsviUe  railroad  passes  through  it.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  802,586  bushels  of 
wheat,  22,768  of  rje,  824,268  of  Indian  com, 
633,897  of  oata,  79,665  of  potatoes,  85,725  tons 
of  hay,  691,628  lbs.  of  butter,  and  287,752  of 
▼ooL  There  were  8,818  horses,  8,404  milch 
cows,  15,799  other  cattle,  65,261  sheep,  and 
15,852  swine;  20  manufactories  of  carriages 
and  wagons,  1  of  cars,  1  of  cement,  4  of  bricks* 
18  of  dothing,  7  of  coke,  18  of  barrels  and 
casks,  4  of  window  glass,  9  of  iron  and  products 
of  the  same,  8  of  machinery,  12  of  saddlery  and 
harness,  4  of  woollen  goods,  1  ship  building  and 
repairing  establishment,  8  planing  mills,  18  saw 
mills,  7  distilleries,  18  tanneries.  4  currying 
establidunents,' and  21  flour  mills.  Capital, 
UDiontown.  IL  A  8.  central  county  of  West 
Virginia,  bounded  N.  by  tlie  Gauley  rirer,  and 
K.  £.  by  Meadow  river ;  area,  770  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1870,  6,647,  of  whom  118  were  colored.  It 
has  a  mountainous  surface,  with  several  con- 
siderable elevations,  the  highest  of  which  are 
Gaoley  and  Sewell  mountains.  Near  the  Ka- 
nawha or  New  river,  which  intersects  the 
county,  is  a  remarkable  cliff,  1,000  ft.  high, 
called  Marshall's  pillar.  The  scenery  of  the 
county  ia  exceedingly  picturesque ;  the  soil  is 
generallj  good,  and  among  the  highlands  par- 
ticularly there  are  many  open  tracts  of  remark- 
able fertility.  Iron  ore  is  the  principal  mineral. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  18,817 
bushels  of  wheat,  128,220  of  Indian  corn, 
41,991  of  oats,  72,188  lbs.  of  butter,  16,881 
of  wool,  and  188,165  of  tobacco.  There  were 
1,817  horses,  2,267  milch  cows,  8,086  other 
cattle,  8,709  sheep,  and  6,892  swine.  Capital, 
Fayetteville.  III.  A  W.  county  of  Geor^a, 
bounded  8.  and  E.  by  Flint  river;  area,  800 
Bq.  m.;  pop.  in  1870,  7,988,  of  whom  1,121 
were  colored.  The  surface  is  mostly  level,  and 
the  soil,  formed  by  the  disintegration  of  primary 
rocks,  is  unproductive.  Granite  and  iron  are 
the  principal  minerals.  The  Atlanta  and  West 
Point  and  the  Savannah,  Griffin,  and  North 
Alabama  railroads  traverse  it.  The  chief  pro- 
doctioDs  in  1870  were  25,646  bushels  of  wheat, 
104,486  of  Indian  com,  11,916  of  oats,  and 
2,951  bales  of  cotton.  There  were  8,587  cattle, 
2,241  sheep,  and  5,779  swine.  Capital,  Fay- 
stterille.  IV.  A  N.  W.  county  of  Alabama; 
area,  about  550  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  7,186,  of 
whom  1,077  were  colored.  It  has  a  moderately 
uneven  surface,  drained  by  numerous  streams, 
and  a  productive  soil.  The  chief  productions 
in  1870  were  14,266  bushels  of  wheat,  201,228 
of  Indian  com,  13,288  of  oats,  27,702  of  sweet 
potatoes,  18,194  lbs.  of  wool,  97,850  of  butter. 


and  1,909  bales  of  cotton.  There  were  1,450 
horses,  2,584  milch  cows,  5,107  other  cattle, 
6,854  sheep,  and  10,988  swine.  Capital,  Fay- 
ette Court  House.  T«  A  S.  £.  county  of  Texas, 
intersected  by  the  Colorado  river,  which  is 
navigable  during  half  the  year  to  this  point; 
area,  1,025  sq.  m.;  pop.  in  1870,  16,868,  of 
whom  6,901  were  colored.  The  surface  is  un- 
dulating, and  the  soil,  consisting  of  a  black 
sandy  loam,  is  highly  productive.  Coal  is  the 
most  important  minerai  production.    The  chief 

firoductions  in  1870  were  459,892  bushels  of 
ndian  com,  84,206  of  sweet  potatoes,  144,196 
lbs.  of  butter,  16,280  of  wool,  and  10,658  bales 
of  cotton.  There  were  6,650  horses,  10,886 
milch  cows,  44,598  other  cattle,  10,006  sheep, 
and  17,298  swine;  12  saw  mills  and  4  manu- 
factories of  saddlery  and  harness.  Capital,  La 
Grange.  TI«  A  S.  W.  county  of  Tennessee, 
bordering  on  Mississippi,  and  watered  by  Loo- 
sahatchie  and  Wolf  rivers ;  area,  about  550  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  26,145,  of  whom  16,987  were 
colored.  It  has  a  fertile,  well  cultivated  soil. 
It  is  traversed  by  the  Memphis  and  Charleston, 
and  its  Somerville  branch,  and  the  Memphis 
and  Louisville  railroads.  The  chief  produc- 
tions in  1870  were  11,786  bushels  of  wheat, 
627,271  of  Indian  com,  26,077  of  sweet  pota- 
toes, and  20,181  bales  of  cotton.  There  were 
2,839  horses,  4,078  mules  and  asses,  4,584  milch 
cows,  5,277  other  cattle,  8,828  sheep,  and  80,- 
762  swine ;  1  saw  mill  and  4  flour  mills,  and  6 
manufactories  of  carriages  and  wagons.  Capi- 
tal, Somerville.  TIL  A  central  county  of  Ken- 
tucky, bounded  S.  by  Kentucky  river,  and 
drained  by  some  of  its  affluents ;  area,  about 
800  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  26,656,  of  whom  12,- 
518  were  colored.  It  has  a  rolling  surface,  and 
a  fertile  and  well  tilled  soil,  underlying  which 
is  an  excellent  species  of  building  stone  called 
blue  or  Trenton  limestone.  The  Kentucky 
Central  and  the  Louisville,  Cincinnati,  and 
Lexington  railroads  pass  through  it.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  76,362  bushels  of 
wheat,  42,628  of  rye,  1,117,190  of  Indian  com, 
176,276  of  oats,  25,267  of  barley,  49,432  of 
potatoes,  4,899  tons  of  hay,  157,742  lbs.  of 
butter,  and  28,421  of  wool.  There  were  5,522 
horses,  2,854  mules  and  asses,  8,758  milch 
cows,  12,501  other  cattle,  7,477  sheep,  and 
20,676  swine;  4  manufactories  of  agricultural 
implements,  8  of  bagging,  3  of  boots  and  shoes, 
20  of  carriages  and  wagons,  8  of  confectionery, 
1  of  cotton  goods,  2  of  furniture,  1  of  gas,  1  of 
malt,  5  of  saddlery  and  harness,  5  of  tin,  cop- 
per, and  sheet-iron  ware,  2  planing  mills,  8 
distilleries,  and  7  flour  mills.  Capital,  Lexing- 
ton. Till*  A  8.  W.  county  of  Ohio ;  area,  414 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 17,170.  It  has  a  level  or 
undulating  surface,  and  a  fertile  soil,  consisting 
of  deep  black  loam.  It  is  intersected  by  the 
Cincinnati  and  Muskingum  Valley  railroad. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  160,510 
bushels  of  wheat,  2,055,926  of  Indian  com, 
66,841  of  oats,  50,929  of  potatoes,  12,016  tons 
of  hay,  861,725  lbs.  of  butter,  and  154,739  of 


102 


FAYETTEVILLE 


FAYOOM 


wool.  There  were  7,285  horses,  4,889  milch 
00W8,  12,277  other  cattle,  84,894  sheep,  and 
61,965  swine;  2  manufactories  of  boots  and 
shoes,  10  of  bricks,  7  of  carriages  and  wagons, 
5  of  saddlery  and  harness,  1  of  sashes,  doors, 
and  blinds,  1  of  woollen  goods,  2  flour  mills, 
and  4  saw  mills.  Capital,  Washington.  IX« 
A  S.  E.  county  of  Indiana;  area,  about  200 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  10,476.  The  surface  is 
level  or  undulating,  and  the  soil  fertile.  Lime- 
stone is  the  principal  rock.  The  Fort  Wayne, 
Muncie,  and  Cincinnati,  the  Cincinnati  and 
Indianapolis  Junction,  the  White  Water  VaK 
ley,  and  the  Columbus,  Shelby,  and  Cambridge 
City  branch  of  the  Jeffersonville,  Madison,  and 
Indianapolis  railroads  intersect  it.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  271,150  bushels  of 
wheat,  685,454  of  Indian  com,  56,848  of  oats, 
26,118  of  potatoes,  5,524  tons  of  hay,  98,874 
lbs.  of  butter,  and  81,208  of  wool.  There  were 
8,601  horses,  2,681  milch  cows,  6,167  other 
cattle,  8,105  sheep,  and  20,879  swine;  2  manu- 
factories of  boots  and  shoes,  11  of  carriages 
and  wagons,  8  of  furniture,  1  of  iron  castings, 
1  of  machinery,  1  of  printing  paper,  7  of  sad- 
dlery and  harness,  1  of  woollen  goods,  4  flour 
mills,  and  8  saw  mills.  Capital,  Connersrille. 
X«  A  8.  central  county  of  Illinois,  intersected 
by  Kaskaskia  river ;  area,  640  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  19,688.  The  surface  is  level,  and  occu- 
pied by  alternate  tracts  of  fertile  prairie  and 
good  timber  land.  A  number  of  small  streams 
supply  it  with  water  power.  The  Illinois 
Central  and  the  8t.  Louis,  Yandalia,  Terre 
Haute,  ^d  Indianapolis  railroads  pass  through 
it.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  851,810 
bushels  of  wheat,  962,525  of  Indian  com,  497,- 
895  of  oats,  78,845  of  potatoes,  20,844  tons  of 
hay,  898,710  lbs.  of  butter,  54,446  of  wool,  and 
88,156  of  tobacco.  There  were  8,898  horses, 
6,261  milch  cows,  7,928  other  cattle,  21,284 
sheep,  and  28,817  swine;  11  manufactories  of 
carriages  and  wagons,  10  flour  mills,  and  20 
saw  mills.  Capital,  Yandalia.  XL  A  N.  E. 
county  of  Iowa ;  area,  720  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
16,978.  It  is  drained  by  the  head  branches  of 
Turkey  river,  is  well  supplied  with  water  power, 
and  has  a  healthy  climate.  The  surface  is  un- 
dulating, and  occupied  partly  by  fertile  prairies 
and  partly  by  forests.  The  chief  productions 
in  1870  were  478,688  bushels  of  wheat,  448,028 
of  Indian  com,  895,075  of  oats,  29,558  of  bar- 
ley, 68,652  of  potatoes,  27,827  tons  of  hay, 
454,868  lbs.  of  butter,  and  88,290  of  wool. 
There  were  4,901  horses,  6,627  milch  cows, 
7,646  other  cattle,  11,771  sheep,  and  14,160 
swine ;  4  manufactories  of  carriages  and  wag- 
ons, 2  of  barrels  and  casks,  5  of  saddlery  and 
harness,  1  brewery,  10  flour  mills,  and  18  saw 
mills.    Capital,  West  Union. 

FATFITEntLE,  a  city  and  the  capital  of 
Cumberland  co..  North  Carolina,  on  the  W. 
bank  of  Cape  Fear  river,  at  the  head  of  natu- 
ral navigation,  100  m.  above  Wilmington,  and 
at  the  terminus  of  the  Western  railroad  of  North 
Carolina,  55  m.  8.  of  Baleigh ;  pop.  in  1870, 


4, 660,  of  whom  2, 81 8  were  colored.  It  is  the  cen- 
tre of  an  active  trade,  and  the  seat  of  manufac* 
tures  of  some  importance.  The  Cape  Fear  river 
has  been  rendered  navigable  by  means  of  locks 
and  dams  as  far  as  the  coal  mines  of  Chatham 
CO.,  and  plank  roads  have  been  constmcted  lead- 
ing to  various  parts  of  the  interior.  The  neigh- 
boring pine  forests  furnish  large  quantides  of 
lumber,  tar,  and  turpentine  for  exportation. 
The  city  contains  10  turpentine  distilleries,  two 
manufactories  of  cotton  sheetings,  and  two  na- 
tional banks.  It  is  governed  by  a  mayor  and 
a  board  of  seven  commissioners.  It  has  an 
academy,  a  female  high  school,  a  colored  pri- 
mary school,  two  private  schools,  a  semi- week- 
ly and  two  weekly  newspapers,  and  26  church- 
es, viz. :  6  Baptist,  8  Episcopal,  8  Methodist, 
8  Presbyterian,  and  1  Roman  Catholic. — Fay- 
etteville  was  settled  in  1762,  and  before  re- 
ceiving its  present  name  in  1784  was  known 
successively  as  Campbelltown  and  Cross  Creek. 
In  1881  it  was  partly  destroyed  by  fire.  The 
United  States  arsenal  at  this  point,  containing 
85,000  small  arms  besides  a  number  of  cannon 
and  a  considerable  quantity  of  ammunition, 
was  taken  possession  of  by  the  confederates, 
April  22,  1861.  The  city  was  occupied  by 
Gen.  Sherman,  March  11-14,  1866,  when  the 
arsenal  with  the  machinery  which  had  been 
brought  from  Harper's  Ferry  was  destroyed. 

FAYOOM.  or  FayiB  (Copt.  Phi&um^  the  wa- 
tersj,  a  valley  of  central  Egypt,  anciently  the 
Arsmolte  nome,  about  40  m.  8.  W.  of  Cairo, 
on  the  W.  side  of  the  Nile ;  length  from 
£.  to  W.  about  40  m.,  breadth  about  80  m. ; 
pop.  nearly  160,000.  It  is  of  an  almost  oval 
form,  enclosed  by  a  chain  of  the  Libyan  hills, 
which  here  bend  round  to  the  west  and  north. 
It  forms  in  fact  a  basin  with  only  one  opening 
toward  the  Nile  on  the  east,  and  gradually 
sloping  toward  the  north  and  south,  the  north- 
em  depression  being  occupied  by  the  Birket- 
el-Eeroon,  long  supposed  to  be  identical  with 
Lake  Moeris.  It  is  silpplied  with  water  from 
the  Bahar  Yusef  (canal  of  Joseph),  which  is 
divided  into  numerous  branches  to  irrigate  the 
country.  The  parts  thus  watered  are  remark- 
ably fertile,  producing  grain,  cotton,  olives, 
flgs,  apricots,  and  other  tropical  fmits.  Roses 
are  abundant,  and  the  natives  produce  large 
quantities  of  rose  water,  whicn  is  sold  all 
over  Egypt.  The  principal  town  is  Medinet 
el-Fay oom  (anc.  Crocodiwpolia  and  Arnno^), 
near  which  are  several  broken  columns  of  red 
granite,  carved  in  old  Egyptian  style  with 
lotus-bud  capitals,  supposed  to  mark  the  site 
of  the  famous  labyrinth  described  by  Herodo- 
tus. N.  of  the  town  Belzoni  found  two  im- 
mense stone  pedestals,  called  by  the  natives 
Pharaoh^s  feet,  various  granite  statues,  some 
wrought  iron,  and  a  quantity  of  half  melted 
glass.  At  some  distance  stands  a  syenite 
obelisk,  48  ft.  high  and  covered  with  sculptures. 
About  8  m.  from  the  lake  stands  a  temple 
known  as  Kasr  Keroon,  94  ft.  long,  68  ft. 
broad,  and  40  ft.  high,   with  14  chambers, 


FAZT 

trUeh  appears  to  be  of  the  Romui  period.  On 
tlie  8.  W.  bauk  of  the  lake  are  what  are  anp- 
po«ed  to  be  tbe  remaioB  of  Baccbu.  The  di- 
reotimi  of  the  principal  streets  and  the  groand 
plani  of  hoases  may  still  he  traced. 

FIZT,  ieaa  Jibm,  a  Swiss  politician,  bom  in 
Geneva,  Maj  19,  ITSfl,  died  No*.  5,  1S78.  He 
completed  his  education  in  France,  wrote  sev- 
eral treatises  on  poiitioal  economy,  and  was 
caanected  with  jonmaliam  in  Paris  (where 
Im  radical  opinioos  involved  him  in  difBcul- 
Ke«  with  the  government)  and  in  Switzer- 
land. After  his  retnrn  to  Geneva  he  took  an 
active  part  in  the  eatabiishment  of  a  new  con- 
ititntion,  and  distingnished  hiraself  as  the  prin- 
dpal  champion  of  the  introdnetion  of  trial  by 
jury,  which  institution  was  adopted,  Jan.  IS, 
1S14.  In  1B4B  the  radicals  became  exasperated 
at  the  nentralitj  observed  by  the  Oenevese 
goventment  in  the  conftioC  between  the  Cath- 
oHo  and  Protestant  cantons.  A  revolation 
broke  eat  on  Oct.  G,  a  provisional  government 
«u  established  on  the  9tb,  and  Fazy,  who 
plaeed  himself  at  its  head,  became  the  ruling 

Sirit  of  the  new  grand  oonncil  of  Geneva. 
le  oity  was  embeliighed  under  his  direction, 
ind  be  also  ^ve  a  powerful  impul^  to  the 
coDStmction  M  railways  and  telegraplis.  As  a 
delegate  of  Geneva  in  1817  be  exerted  himself 
in  behalf  of  the  new  federal  constitation,  which 
vsa  adopted  Sept.  12,  1848.  From  February 
to  December,  1846,  ho  was  out  of  office,  owing 
to  disagreement  with  some  of  hia  oolleagnes ; 
but  with  thia  ezclption  he  was  nninterrapted< 
Ij  at  the  head  of  tbe  Geneveae  government  nn- 
ta  Nov.  14,  18S8.  In  1858  he  waa  vice  presi- 
dent of  the  federal  oonncil  of  states,  and  in 
ISM  prendent ;  and  in  18S5  ha  was  reinstated 
in  his  former  powtion  of  president  of  the  gov- 
•mment  of  Geneva,  but  had  to  resign  in  No- 
vember, 1864.  Having  been  indicted  as  the 
leader  of  the  riots  which  took  place  in  Aegnat, 
he  fled  to  France,  but  returned  when  the  case 
vu  abandoned,  and  obtained  once  more  a 
Ntt  in  the  grand  coanoil,  which  he  gave  np 
sgain  in  18B5,  and  accepted  anew  in  1868.  He 
fall  written  Euai  d'vn  prSca  de  rhutoire  de  la 
npahlique  da  Oentva  (Geneva,  1838). 

FKITBB  6USB  (itipa  pennata,  Willd.),  a 
pass  readily  distingnisnable  by  its  elegant  and 
feitiier-like  awns.  It  grows  in  close,  matted 
tufts,  having  very  long,  fine,  wiry,  dark  green 
leaves,  nnmerons  tall  flower  stalks  with  smE^ 
floret*,  snceeeded  by  an  ahnndance  of  sharp- 
pointed  elliptical  grains,  each  of  which  is  snr- 
moaated  by  the  feathered  awn  or  bristle,  a 
foot  or  more  in  length.  This  is  of  a  rich  blrd- 
of-paradise  color,  and  gives  a  remarkable  beau- 
ty to  the  plant.  Oeruiie,  a  famoas  herbalist 
in  lfi97,  informs  un  that  these  awned  seeds 
were  worn  in  his  time  by  "sundry  ladies  in- 
stead'of  feathers."  It  is  this  species  which  is 
the  principal  graaa  in  those  portions  of  the 
ateppea  of  Asia  called  the  truva  or  pastoring 
ground^  growing  in  immense  qnantities,  and 
develojHng  Ita  woody  root  stocEs  above  the 


soil,  much  to  the  annoyance  of  the  mower. 
The  seeda  of  this  beautiful  grass  are  f^nentty 


Fulher  Gtui  (Stlio  pgnuU). 

imported  from  abroad  and  sold  in  our  seed 
ibops,  bnt  they  seldom  vegetate. 

FElTHa    UTKR,   a   stream   riaing    in   the 

N.  E.  part  of  Plumas  co.,  California,  which 
flows  8.  W.  and  8.  throngh  a  rteh  gold  region, 
and  emptiee  into  the  Sacramento,  80  m.  above 
Sacramento  City  ;  length  about  ISO  m.  It  ia 
navigable  as  far  as  HarysviUe,  to  which  point 
steamboats  ascend  tVom  San  Francisco.  The 
North  and  Middle  forks,  and  Ynba  river,  are 
its  principal  tributaries. 

FElTSmS,  a  complicated  modification  of  tbe 
t^tnmentary  system,  forming  the  esternal  cov- 
ering or  plumage  of  birds.  Though  chemical- 
ly similar  to  and  homologous  with  the  hair  of 
mammals,  their  anatomical  strDctnre  is  in  some 
respects  diflf^rent.  An  ordinary  feather  is 
composed  of  a  qnill  or  barrel,  a  shaft,  nnd  a 
vane  or  board  consisting  of  barbs  and  barbules. 
The  quill,  the  part  attached  to  the  skin,  is  a 
hollow  cylinder,  semi-transparent,  composed 
of  coagulated  albumen,  resembling  horn  both 
in  appearance  and  chemical  constitution.  It 
is  light,  bnt  strong,  terminated  below  by  an 
obtuse  extremity  pierced  by  an  opening,  the 
lower  umbilicus,  through  which  the  primary 
nutritive  vessels  enter ;  above,  it  is  continuous 
with  the  shaft,  with  which  It  communicates 
internally  by  an  opening,  the  upper  umbilicus; 
the  cavity  cont^os  a  serieii  of  oonicsl  shrivelled 
membranes,  fitting  one  npon  the  other,  that 
have  formerly  been  subservient  to  the  growth 
of  the  feather.  The  shaft  is  more  or  less 
quadrilateral,  gradually  diminishing  in  size  to 
the  tip ;  it  is  always  alightly  curved,  convex 
above,  and  the  concave  lower  surface,  divided 
longitudinally  by  a  groove,  presents  two  in- 
clined planes  meeting  at  an  obtuse  angle ;  it  is 
covered  by  a  thin  horny  layer,  and  contains 
in  its  interior  a  white,  soft,  elastio  substance, 


104  FEAT 

called  the  pith,  which  snppliea  strength  and 

nourishment  to  the  feather.     The  vane  can»Bta 
of  two  webs,  one  on  each  side  of  the  shaft, 
each  web  being  formed  of  a  series  of  laminie  or 
barbs,  of  varjing  thicknees,  width,  and  length, 
arranged  obliqnel;  on  the  shall,  and  composed 
of  the  same  material ;  their 
dat  Bides  are  placed  close  to 
each  other,  enabling  them  to 
resiat  any  ordinary  force  act- 
ing in  the  direction  of  their 
plane,  aa  the  impolM  of  the 
air  in  the  act  of  flight,  though 
yielding  readily  to  any  force 
applied  in  the  line  of  the 
ahaft.    The  barbs  taper  to  a 
point,  but  are  broad  near  the 
aliaft,  and  in  the  large  wing 
feathers  the  convexity  of  one 
is  received  into  a  concavity 
of  another ;    but   the  barbs 
are  kept  in  place  chieSy  by 
barholes,  minate  carved  fila- 
ments arising  from  the  npper 
edge  of  the  barb,  as  the  lat- 
ter does  tVom  the  shaft ;  there 
are  two  sets,  one  curved  up- 
Fio  1— PiruofihB  "'*rd  and  the  other  down- 
gmOLa.  ward,  those  of  one  barb  hook- 

1.  Tba  aplll.   1,  TUe   ing  so  firmly  into  those  of 

Hg»i7  plnow,  ^  and  compact  surface;  in  the 
The  ijwM-  nmbiii-  ostrich  the  barbules  are  well 
'^J:  "'^'"°-  developed, butarelong,ioose, 
and  separate,  giving  that  soft 
character  conveyed  by  the  term  plnme.  The 
harbales  are  sometimes  provided  with  a  similar 
apparatus  on  their  sides  called  barbicels,  as  in 
the  qo ills  of  the  golden  eagle  and  albatross; 
these  serve  to  keep  the  barbales  in  position, 
hut  are  leas  nnmerons  than  the  latter.  In  moat 
feathers  there  is  an  appendage  near  the  upper 
nmbilicQS  of  a  downy  character,  called  the  ac- 
cessory plume ;  small  in  the  quills  of  the  wings 
and  tail,  in  some  body  feathers  of  hawks, 
ducks,  and  galls  it  is  of  large  size,  in  some  spe- 
cies as  large  as  the  feather  which  supports  it ; 
in  the  emn  two  plumy  feathers  arise  from  one 
qnill,  and  sometimes  three  in  the  cassowary, 
the  additional  plumes  being  these  accessory 
feathers ;  in  the  ostrich  there  is  no  auoh  addi- 
tional tuft.  There  is,  therefore,  every  grada- 
tion from  a  simnle  barrel  and  shatt,  as  in  the 
cassowary's  quills,  to  the  feather  with  barbs, 
barbules,  and  barbicels.  Some  feathers  are  all 
downy,  like  the  abdominal  ones  of  the  eagle- 
owl  ;  others  have  very  little  down,  as  the 
harsh  plumage  of  the  penguin ;  in  the  eider 
duck,  and  other  arctic  species,  there  ts  at  the 
base  of  the  common  feathers  a  soft  downy 
covering,  securing  warmth  without  weight, 
like  the  soft  fur  At  the  base  of  the  hair  of  arc- 
tic mammals;  young  birds  are  covered  with 
down  before  the  development  of  feathers,  the 
latter  being  guided  through  the  akin  by  the 
former.    Id  the  chick  the  formation  of  down 


begins  on  the  eighth  day  of  incubation,  and  is 

continued  until  the  hatching;   10  to  12  radia- 
ting ^laments  are  formed  at  the  same  time  in  an 
epidermic  sheath,  which  soon  afWr  birth  dries 
and  sets  free  the  plumes,  allowing  them  to 
spread  out  as  a  pencil  of  down ;  a  stem  is  de- 
veloped, and  the  downy  filaments  become  the 
primary  web  of  the  feather.    Feathers  in  some 
cases  resemble  stiff  bristly  hairs,  as  about  the 
bill  in  most  birds,  and  the  tuft  on  the  breatit 
of  the  wild  turkey.     In  the  genus  damloj)hu«, 
peculiar  to  the  Philippine  islanda,  we  nave  re- 
markable instances  of  the  modifications  of  the 
epidermic  covering  of  birds.    In  J>.  Cvmingii 
(Fras.),  the  feathers  of  the  crest,  breast,  and 
throat  are  changed  at  their  eitremities  into 
ovoid  homy  lameils,  looking  like  shining  black 
spangles,  expansions  of  the  true  homy  structure 
of  the  shaft;  something  of  the  kind  is  seen  in 
the  Bohemian  chatterer  or  wax-wing  (ampelit 
garmlut,  Linn.),  in  which  some  of  the  secon- 
dary and  tertial  quill  feathers  end  in  small, 
oblong,  fiat  appendages,  in  coloi;  and  oonats- 
tenee  resembiing  red  sealing  was,  which  are 
also  expanded  horny  prolongations  of  the  shafts 
of  the  ordinary  feathers.    In  D.  tuperciluimi 
(Cuv,),  the  only  other  Hpecies  of  the  genus, 
the  feathers  over  each  eye  are  changed  for 
three  fourths  of  their  length   into  red   ailky 
hairs  or  bristles,  the  base  of  the  feather  having 
the  usual  appearance;  each 
shaft  seems  to  divide  into 
several  of  these  hair-like  fila- 
ments, which  are  finer  and 
more  diky  than  the  append- 
age on  the  breast  of  the  tur- 
key, and  directly  continuous 
with  ordinary  feather  struc- 
ture,   while   in  the    turkey 
there  is  a  complete  transfor- 
mation of  featners  into  hairs 
in  the  whole  extent.    In  most 
birds  there  will  be  found  a 
number   of   simple   hair-like 
feathers  scattered  over  the 
skin  after  they  have  been 
plucked  ;    they   arise   from 
short  bulbs  or  slender  round- 
ed shafts.    Feathers  are  de- 
veloped in  de|)reasions  in  the 
skin  lined   by   an   inversion 
of  the  epidermis  which  sur- 
rounds  the  bulb ;  they  grow  Fk,  s,— Mutrii  of  » 
by  the  addition  of  new  cells      tmirinf  Foiher. 
from  the  bnib,  which  become       Wd  open, 
modified  into  the  homy  and  '■  m.Jrti'"*  s^b^- 
fibrous  stem,  and  by  the  elon-      tenii  membnor. 
gHtion  and  extension  of  pre-       rtpTuie'V'lni"' 
viously  formed  cells;  like  the      uni  mrmbritic.  "b. 
hair,   tliey  originate   in   fol-       Bulb-otmedulu. 
licles    producing    epidermic 
cells,  though   when  fully  formed  the  cellular 
structure   is  widely  departed  from  except   in 
the  medullary  portion.     They  are,  wlien  first 
formed,  living  organized  parts,  developed  f^nm 
a  matrix  connected  with  the  veacular  layer 


of  tbe  akiD,  and  growing  bj  nntrient  vessels; 
irben  taiij  developed,  the  vessels  become  atro- 
phied, and  the  featliers  dry  and  gradnallj  die 
from  the  wmniit  to  the  base,  bo  that  at  last 
thej  become  dead  foreign  bodies,  as  complete!; 
incapable  of  vital  modlficatioDS  as  the  perfect 


Tiiu.  S  mod  4.— einiMnn  of  (fa*  Batb. 

I'd.!.— 1,1,  1.  Bulb.   !,  Put      Fia. 4.— I.  Tba  awduD*  or 

ifllwbiilMa  jmcvHoTdi;-         balb.    ■1,^8.44,9  3, 

!■(  up  u  Uu  iliiirt  hnna.         llnnbniunii  codh,  IndL- 

9.  Put  or  tbs  a>miilet«l         alUg  nUgn  ol  growth  at 


ip  u  tlu  iliiirt  IbmK. 

«rt  of  tbA  completed         eating  '^''fi™  ^^  ^ 

.   1,4  GnmiagWitA-         the medaJiuy  nu 


horns  of  the  deer.    The  matris  which  pro- 
dacea  the  featiier,  aooordiDg  to  Owen,  has  the 
fonn  of  an  elongated  cylindrical  cone,  and  oon- 
■ista  of  a  capsnle,  a  batb,  and   intermediate 
munbranes  which  give  proper  form  to  tbe  se- 
cretion of  the  bulb ;  as  the  conical  matrix  sinks 
inio  and  becomes  more  intimately  conDeot«d 
Kith  tbe  trae  skin, 
ii3  tjiei  protmdes 
tbove  tbe  surface, 
ud  the  investing 
capsale  drops  off  to 
gii'e  pasMge  to  the 
feather  which  has 
bMO  growing  dn- 
^ag  ^s    period  ; 
tlie  eapsole  is  made 
op  of  several  laj- 
trs,  the  oatennost 


;  cells   and    i.  The  ptth. 
im   centre    is    oc-        jurfi™  of^|-..-   -^lj™^.,. 
A..-j.K»     !._  a  Intern*  lornice.    4.  FI>1  sloe 

copied    by    a   soft        a„^tL   B.  S.  Buu  or  b«be. 
fibrons  bnlb  freely        <i  *■  B«rbiile«. 
tnpplied  with  blood 

wwela  from  below  and  a  nei^e ;  between  the 
bolb  and  the  capsule  are  two  parallel  mem- 
hnaee,  in  whose  oblique  septa  or  partJtions  the 
birbs  and  barholes  are  developed,  nearly  in  the 
iMDBwaythat  the  enamel  of  the  teeth  is  formed 


IEB8  105 

between  the  membrane  of  the  palp  and  that  of 
the  capsnle.  The  part  to  whith  the  barbs  are 
attached  and  the  pith  of  the  shaft  are  formed 
respectively  from  the  outer  and  inner  surfaces 
of  the  membrunes  of  tlie  componod  capsule; 
the  shaft  end  barbs  at  the  apex  of  the  cylinder 
become  hardened  first,  and  are  softer  the  nearer 
the  base  of  the  matrix  ;  the  first  formed  parts 
are  pushed  forward  by  the  cell  growth  at  the 
base,  the  products  of  the  bnlb  being  moulded 
into  shape  by  the  membranes  exterioc  to  it; 
the  successive  stages  of  the  growth  of  the  med- 
ullary matter  are  indicated  by  a  series  of  roem- 
branoua  cones  or  caps,  the  lest  formed  of  which 
cannot  escape  from  the  hardened  and  closed 
shaft,  and  constitute  the  light  dry  pith  seen  in 
the  interior  of  tbe  quill;  these  cones  are  origi- 
nally connected  together  by  a  central  tube,  and 
the  last  remains  of  the  bulb  are  seen  in  the  lig- 
ament which  passes  from  tbe  pith  through  the 
lower  umbilicus,  attaching  the  quill  to  the  skin. 
Feathers  grow  with  great  rapidity,  and  in  some 
birdstoalengthof  more  than  two  feet;  they  ore 
almost  always  renewed  annually,  and  in  many 
species  twice  a  year ;  this  amount  of  formative 
power  demands  a  considerable  increase  of  the 
cutaneous  circulation,  making  tbe  season  of 
moulting  always  a  critical  period  in  the  life  of 
a  bird.  The  plumage  is  generally  changed  sev- 
eral times  before  the  bird  is  adult;  but  soma 
of  the  folcons  are  said  to  assume  the  matore 
plumage  after  the  first  moult,  as  the  Greenland 
and  Iceland  falcons. — Feathers  serve  to  protect 
birds  from  irgarious  eiterual  influences,  such 
as  extremes  of  cold  and  heat,  rain,  tea.,  for 
which  their  texture  and  imbricated  arrange- 
ment admirably  adapt  them ;  and  they  also 
furnish  their  principal  means  of  locomotion,  in 
the  latter  case  being  stronger,  more  compact, 
and  longer  than  those  which  cover  the  body. 
They  generally  increase  in  size  from  the  head 
backward,  and  have  received  special  names  ac- 
cording to  the  region  of  tlie  body,  which  are 
important  aids  in  describing  and  recognizing 
species.  Some  of  these  names,  constantly  used 
in  the  omitholt^ca]  articles  of  this  Cyolopie- 
dia,  not  readily  understood  from  tbe  worda 
themselves,  are  as  follows :  the  scapulars,  above 
the  shoulder  blade  and  humerus,  apparently 
on  the  back  when  the  wing  is  closed  ;  axUlaries, 
long  and  straight  feathers  at  the  upper  end  of 
the  humerus,  under  the  wing;  tibials,  covering 
tbe  leg;  lesser  wing  covorta,  the  small  feathers 
In  rows  upon  the  forearm ;  under  coverts,  lining 
tbe  lower  side  of  the  wings;  the  longest  quill 
feathers,  arising  tiom  the  bones  of  the  hand, 
are  the  primaries ;  the  secondaries  arise  from 
the  outer  portion  of  the  ulna,  and  the  tertiariea 
from  its  inner  portion  and  the  bumems;  the 
bastard  wing  consists  of  the  quills  growing 
from  the  rudimentary'  thumb;  greater  wing 
coverts,  the  feathers  over  the  quills;  tail  coverts, 
upper  and  under,  those  above  and  below  the 
base  of  the  tail  feathers.  The  relative  size  of 
the  quills  on  the  hand  and  foreann,  and  tbe  con- 
sequent form  of  the  wings,  are  characteristic  of 


106 


FEATHERS 


the  families  of  birds,  and  modifj  essentially 
their  powers  of  flight.  The  breadth  of  the 
wing  depends  principally  on  the  length  of  the 
secondary  quills,  and  its  length  on  that  of  the 
primaries.  Leaving  out  of  view  the  proportions 
of  the  bones  and  the  force  of  the  muscles  of  the 
wings,  when  the  primaries  are  longest  at  the 
extremity  of  the  pinion,  as  in  the  falcons  and 
awallows,  causing  an  acuminate  form  of  wing, 
we  may  know  that  the  powers  of  flight  are 
great,  requiring  comparatively  little  exertion  in 
the  bird ;  but  when  the  longest  primaries  are  in 
the  middle  of  the  series,  giving  rise  to  a  short, 
broad  wing,  as  in  the  partridge  and  grouse,  the 
bird  can  fly  only  a  short  distance  at  a  time,  with 
great  effort,  and  a  whir  well  known  to  the 
sportsman.  Not  only  the  shape  of  the  wing, 
but  the  close  texture  of  its  feathers,  must  be 
taken  into  account  in  the  rapid  strong  flight  of 
the  falcon ;  the  loose  soft  feathers  of  the  wings 
in  the  owls,  and  the  serrated  outer  edge  of  the 
primaries,  while  they  prevent  rapid  flight,  en- 
able them  to  pounce  noiselessly  upon  their  vigi- 
lant prey. — Most  birds,  and  especially  the  aqua- 
tic families,  are  provided  with  an  oil  gland  at 
the  base  of  the  tail,  whose  unctuous  secretion  is 
distributed  over  the  feathers  by  means  of  the 
bill,  protecting  their  surface  against  moisture ; 
the  shedding  of  the  water  is  not  owing  entirely 
to  the  oily  covering,  but  also  to  a  thin  plate  of 
air  entangled  by  the  feathers,  and  probably  also 
to  an  actual  repulsion  of  the  particles  of  water 
by  the  feathers,  as  is  seen  in  the  leaves  of  many 
aquatic  plants ;  the  arran^g  of  the  plumes  by 
the  bill  of  the  bird  being  rather  to  enable  them 
to  take  down  a  large  quantity  of  air,  than  to 
apply  any  repellent  oily  covering. — The  plumage 
of  birds  has  an  infinite  variety  of  colors,  from 
the  sombre  tints  of  the  raven  to  the  pnre  white 
of  the  egrets,  and  the  gorgeous  hues  of  the  lory, 
toucan,  trogon,  and  humming  birds;  the  females 
have  generally  less  lively  colors,  and  the  sum- 
mer livery  of  both  sexes  is  often  different  from 
that  of  winter.  One  of  the  most  curions  phe- 
nomena connected  with  feathers  is  the  annual 
moult,  and  the  change  of  color  during  that  and 
the  breeding  season;  moulting  usually  takes 
place  after  the  young  have  been  hatched,  the 
whole  plumage  becoming  dull  and  rough,  and 
the  bird  more  or  less  indisposed,  with  a  tem- 
porary loss  of  voice  in  the  singing  species.  Ac- 
cording to  Mr.  Yarrell,  the  plumage  of  birds  is 
changed  by  the  mere  alteration  of  the  color  of 
the  feathers ;  by  the  growth  of  new  feathers 
without  the  loss  of  any  old  ones;  by  the  pro- 
duction of  new  feathers  in  tfie  place  of  old  ones 
thrown  off,  wholly  or  in  part ;  and  by  the  wear- 
ing off  of  the  light  tips  as  the  breeding  season 
approaches,  exposing  the  brighter  tints  nnder- 
neath.  The  first  two  of  these  changes  occur  in 
adults  at  the  end  of  spring,  the  tliird  being  par- 
tial in  spring  and  complete  in  autumn.  Though 
the  perfect  plumage  is  non-vascular  and  epi- 
dermic, the  colors  change,  probably  by  some 
vital  process,  without  the  loss  of  a  feather; 
when  the  winter  livery  succeeding  the  autum- 


nal moult  begins  to  assume  its  bright  charaeters, 
the  new  color  generally  conomenoes  at  the  part 
of  the  web  nearest  the  body,  and  gradually  ex- 
tends to  the  tip.  Until  within  the  last  few 
years  the  changes  of  color  in  the  Air  of  mam- 
mals (as  in  the  ermine  in  winter),  and  in  the 
plumage  of  birds  in  the  season  of  reproduction, 
were  supposed  to  be  effected  by  the  simple 
reproduction  of  the  hairs  and  feathers ;  but  this 
cannot  be  tlie  case,  as  many  facts  go  Jto  prove 
that  these  changes  occur  at  other  times  than 
the  period  of  moulting,  and  without  the  loss  of 
a  hair  or  feather.  It  is  well  known  that  vivid 
emotions  of  fear  or  grief  may  turn  the  human 
hair  gray  or  white  in  so  short  a  period  that 
there  could  be  no  change  in  the  hair  itself  to 
account  for  it ;  and  a  case  is  on  record  of  a 
starling  which  became  white  after  being  rescued 
from  a  cat.  It  has  been  maintained  by  Schlegel 
and  Martin  that  many  birds  always  get  their 
wedding  plumage  without  moulting.  The  fact 
being  admitted,  how  can  the  change  of  color 
be  explained  in  the  mature  feather,  which  has 
no  vascular  or  nervous  communication  with 
the  skin  ?  The  wearing  away  of  the  light  tips, 
mentioned  by  Mr.  Yarrell,  is  not  only  nn  physi- 
ological, but  in  most  cases  does  not  happen. 
Dr.  Weinland,  from  the  examination  of  bleached 
specimens  in  museums,  and  of  recent  birds,  ex- 
presses the  belief  that  the  brightness  and  fading 
of  the  colors  are  owing  to  the  increase  or  dim- 
inution of  an  oily  matter  in  the  feathers ;  the 
microscopic  examination  of  the  web  of  feathers 
from  the  breast  of  a  fresh  merganser  {merguM 
urrator^  Linn.)  showed  numerous  lacunm  of  a 
reddish  oil-like  fluid;  some  weeks  after,  the 
same  feathers,  having  become  nearly  white 
from  exposure  to  light,  disclosed  air  bubbles 
instead  of  the  reddish  fluid;  from  this  he  con- 
cludes that  the  evaporation  of  the  oily  fluid, 
and  the  fillmg  of  the  spaces  with  air  as  in  the 
case  of  the  white  water  lily,  produces  the 
changes  of  color.  If  this  fluid  be  oily,  as  there 
is  good  reason  to  believe,  mere  physical  imbi- 
bition would  be  sufiicient  to  introduce  it  into 
the  dead  feathers,  as  it  is  well  known  that  fat 
passes  through  all  tissues  very  readily,  even 
through  compact  horn.  In  the  season  of  re- 
production, the  nutritive  and  organic  functions 
are  performed  with  their  utmost  vigor,  and  the 
supply  of  fatty  coloring  matter  would  flow  free- 
ly to  the  feathers ;  under  the  opposite  condi- 
tions of  debility,  cold,  or  insufficient  food,  the 
oily  matter  would  be  withdrawn  and  the  feath- 
ers would  fade. — In  regard  to  the  value  of 
feathers  to  man,  it  will  be  sufficient  to  enume- 
rate the  ornamental  employment  of  the  nlumes 
of  the  ostrich,  egrets,  cranes,  and  peacock;  the 
economical  uses  of  the  down  of  the  eider  duck 
and  the  plumage  of  the  goose ;  the  importance 
of  the  goose  quill  before  the  introduction  of 
steel  and  gold  pens,  and  the  adherence  of  many 
at  the  present  day  to  the  more  perishable, 
less  convenient,  but  softer-moving  quill;  not 
to  more  than  allude  to  the  consumption  of  the 
plumage  of  the  gorgeous  tropical  birds  in  the 


FEBRUARY 


FEDCHENKO 


107 


manufacture  of  feather  flowers,  and  the  utility 
of  the  downjr  arctic  skins  as  articles  of  dress  in 
the  regions  of  perpetual  snow. 

FEBRUARY  (Lat.  Felfruarius^  from  februare^ 
to  purify ;  so  called  from  februa^  the  festival 
of  expiation  and  lustration,  which  was  held  on 
the  loth  of  this  month),  the  second  month  in 
our  present  calendar,  containing  28  days  ordi- 
narily, and  29  days  in  leap  year.  It  was  not 
in  the  calendar  of  Romulus.  Numa  added  two 
mon^  to  the  year,  January  at  the  heginning 
and  Fehruary  at  the  end.  It  was  first  placed 
after  Jimnary  hy  the  decemvirs  ahout  450  B.  G. 

FfiCAHP  (formerly  Fe&can  or  Feseamp  ;  Lat 
Fiteamum  or  Fiieamnum),  a  seaport  town  of 
France,  in  the  department  of  Seine-Inf^rienre, 
23  m.  N.  N.  K  ot  Havre,  on  a  branch  railway 
from  Rouen,  and  at  the  entrance  of  the  river 
Fecamp  into  the  channel ;  pop.  in  1866,  12,- 
833.  The  town  has  two  remarkable  churches, 
a  hydrographical  school,  a  library,  a  theatre, 
a  oommeroial  court,  a  chamber  of  commerce, 
and  extensive  sea-bathing  establishments.  The. 
ehief  occupations  of  the  inhabitants  are  fishing, 
•hip  building,  and  commerce,  but  its  mannfac- 
tores  are  also  becoming  important.  The  town 
is  believed  to  owe  its  origin  to  a  celebrated 
female  convent  which  was  founded  about  662. 
It  has  repeatedly  been  destroyed  in  times  of 
war.  As  early  as  the  18th  century  it  was 
fiuDoas  for  its  herring  fisheries. 

FEGBKEt,  fintaT  Theoder,  a  German  natural- 
ist, bom  at  Gross-Sahrchen,  Lusatia,  April  19, 
1801.  He  studied  at  the  university  of  Leipsic, 
snd  was  professor  of  physics  there  from  1834 
to  1839,  when  a  disease  of  the  eyes  disabled 
him  from  teaohmg,  and  he  devoted  himself 
especially  to  anthropology  and  natural  phi- 
losophy. He  had  early  attracted  attention  by 
reaeardies  in  galvanism,  by  translations  of 
French  scientific  works,  by  papers  relating  to 
diemiatry  and  pharmacy,  and  by  humorous 
writings,  Stapelia  mixta^  which  he  published 
in  1824  under  the  name  of  Dr.  Mises.  In  his 
Bstftfut,  da$9  der  Mond  au»  Jodine  bestehe  (2d 
el,  1882)  he  deals  with  scientific  problems  in  a 
komorous  vein.  His  Buehlein  nxnn  Leben  naeh 
dm  Tode  (1836),  GedichU  (1842),  and  Emh- 
t^ucMein  (3d  ed.,  1865)  contain  admirable  spe- 
cimens of  poetry.  His  other  principal  works 
are :  JVanna,  od&r  uber  das  Seelenlehen  der  -^^n- 
2«R  (1848) ;  Zend*Ai>€$tay  od0r  Hiber  die  Vinge 
dM  HimmeU  und  det  Jenseita  (8  vols.,  1851) ; 
EUmente  der  PtyehaphynJ^  his  most  im- 
portant scientific  work  (2  vols.,  1860);  and 
Phynkaluehe  und  phila90phi$ehe  AtomenUhre 
(2d  ed.,  1864). 

FECilFBI,  Oarics  Albert,  a  French  actor, 
bora  m  London,  Oct.  23,  1824.  The  son  of  a 
German  father  and  a  French  mother,  he  was 
reared  principally  in  £ngland  and  France,  and 
>fUr  a  good  eduoation  he  began  in  Paris  the 
Btiidy  of  sculpture.  Majoifesting  a  strong  in- 
clination for  the  stage,  he  made  his  first  ap- 
pearance while  still  very  young  at  the  Salle 
Holi&re  in  Le  mari  de  la  veuw^    After  some 


weeks  at  the  conservatory,  he  joined  a  com- 
pany of  French  comedians  for  a  year's  tour 
through  Italy.  Retarning  to  Paris,  he  again 
applied  himself  to  sculpture,  at  the  same  time 
playing  minor  characters  in  the  Th64tre  Fran- 
^ais.  His  first  great  success  was  in  1846  in 
the  French  theatre  at  Berlin,  where  he  ap- 
peared as  the  original  Duval  in  La  dame  aux 
cameliojs  of  Dumas  the  younger.  In  1847  he 
played  for  a  few  weeks  with  a  French  company 
in  London,  and  afterward  till  1858  at  difierent 
times  he  was  prominent  on  the  boards  of  the 
theatres  Ambigu,  Vari^t^s^  Hbtorique,  Porte 
Saint-Martin,  and  Vaudeville  in  Paris.  From 
March,  1857,  to  the  end  of  1858,  he  was  Joint 
manager  with  M.  de  la  Rounat  of  the  Oa§on. 
Two  years  afterward  he  was  induced  to  un- 
dertake characters  in  English  on  the  London 
stage,  and  on  Oct.  27,  1860,  he  opened  at  the 
Princess's  theatre  as  Ruy  Bias  in  his  own  ver- 
sion of  Victor  Hugo's  play.  On  March  19, 
1861,  he  appeared  as  Hamlet,  playing  the  part 
in  a  flaxen  wig  and  making  other  marked  in- 
novations upon  the  costume  and  conventionali- 
ties of  the  character.  He  played  the  part  70 
successive  nights,  and  exdted  an  animated  dis- 
cussion among  the  London  critics.  He  followed 
with  Othello,  lago,  Macbeth,  Coriolanus,  the 
^^Gorsican  Brothers,"  Claude  Melnotte,  and 
other  characters,  in  nearly  all  of  which  he 
achieved  a  remarkable  success,  in  spite  of  his 
disregard  of  the  traditions  and  conventionalities 
of  the  English  stage.  He  leased  the  Lyceum, 
Jan.  1,  1863,  opening  as  Legadere  in  ^^The 
Duke's  Motto,"  and  continued  his  manage- 
ment of  that  theatre  for  some  years.  He 
made  his  first  appearence  in  America  as  Ruy 
Bias,  in  Niblo's  theatre  in  New  York,  Jan.  10, 
1870.  In  October  following  he  opened  the 
Globe  theatre  in  Boston  as  manager,  but  soon 
returned  to  New  York,  and  after  a  brief  en- 
gagement at  the  French  theatre,  where  he 
played  several  characters  in  English,  he  went 
back  to  London.  Returning  to  New  York  in 
1872,  he  leased  the  French  theatre,  and  re- 
modelled it;  but  failing  to  secure  possession 
of  the  property,  he  made  his  first  reappearance 
in  New  York,  April  28,  1873,  at  the  Grand 
Opera  House,  as  Edmond  Dantes  in  his  own 
version  of  "  Monte  Oristo." 

FEDCHENKO,  AtaKcl,  a  Russian  naturalist,  bom 
about  1830,  died  near  the  summit  of  the  Col 
dn  G^ant,  Switzerland,  Aug.  14,  1873.  He 
resided  at  Moscow,  and  was  a  high  authority 
on  the  geography  of  central  Asia.  He  went 
to  Switzerland  to  compare  the  glaciers  of  Mont 
Blanc  and  the  Col  du  Gr^ant  with  those  which 
he  had  discovered  in  the  mountains  of  Ehokan. 
He  left  Montreux  on  foot  for  Ghamouni  Aug. 
12,  and  on  the  14th  proceeded  to  the  Gol  du 
G6ant  with  two  guides.  He  had  gone  within 
about  two  hours'  walk  of  the  summit  when  a 
violent  storm  and  avalanches  of  snow  forced 
him  to  retrace  his  steps,  and  he  fell  from 
exhaustion  and  perished.  He  left  unfinished 
an  important  work,  which  his  wife,  who  ao- 


108 


FEDERALISTS 


FEE 


companied  him  in  all  his  jonrnejs,  thongh  not 
in  this  asoent,  designs  publishing. 

FEDEKAUSTS,  a  political  party  in  the  United 
States  who  claimed  to  be  the  |>ecttliar  friends 
of  the  constitution  and  of  the  federal  govern- 
ment. Their  opponents,  the  republicans,  they 
called  anti-federalists,  and  charged  them  to  a 
certain  extent  with  hostility  to  or  distrust  of 
the  United  States  constitution  and  the  general 
government.  The  republicans,  however,  stren- 
uously denied  the  truth  of  these  charges.  The 
federalist  party  was  formed  in  1788.  Its  most 
distinguished  leaders  were  Washington,  Adams, 
Hamilton,  Jay,  and  Marshall ;  and  the  leading 
federalist  states  were  Massachusetts  and  Con- 
necticut, supported  generally,  though  not  uni- 
formly, by  the  rest  of  New  England;  while 
Jefferson,  Madison,  Monroe,  Burr,  George  Clin- 
ton, and  Gallatin  led  the  opposition.  In  the 
contests  of  the  French  revolution  the  federalists 
leaned  to  the  side  of  England,  the  republicans 
to  that  of  France.  The  former  were  defeated 
in  the  presidential  election  of  1800,  when  the 
republican  candidates  were  elected,  Jefferson 
president,  and  Burr  vice  president.  Their  op- 
position to  the  war  of  1812,  and  above  all  the 
calling  of  the  Hartford  convention,  completed 
their  destruction  as  a  national  party.  In  1816 
Monroe,  the  republican  candidate  for  president, 
received  the  electoral  votes  of  all  the  states 
with  tlie  exception  of  Massachusetts,  Connec- 
ticut, and  Delaware,  which  gave  84  votes 
against  him,  while  from  the  other  states  he  re- 
ceived 183.  At  the  next  election  in  1820  the 
federalist  party  was  disbanded,  Monroe  receiv- 
ing every  electoral  vote  except  one. 

FEDOB*    See  Feodob. 

FEE,  a  law  term,  derived  probably  from  Sax. 
feh^  or  more  accurately  feoh^  compensation  or 
payment.  As  landed  estates  were  given  by 
the  northern  conquerors  of  the  Roman  prov- 
inces to  their  nobles  and  soldiers  as  compen- 
sation or  wages  for  military  service,  fee  came 
to  mean  the  estate  itself.  It  was  Latinized 
into  feudum  or  feodum^  from  which  the  word 
feudal  arose,  because  it  was  this  tenure  of  land 
which  characterized  what  is  called  the  feudal 
system.  The  derivation  and  original  meaning 
of  this  word  are  not  certainly  known,  but  what 
we  have  given  is,  we  think,  supported  by  the 
best  reasons.  In  law,  estate  does  not  mean 
the  land,  but  the  title  which  a  man  has  in  the 
land ;  so  the  word  fee  is  now  used  to  signify, 
not  the  land,  but  the  kind  of  estate  or  tenure  by 
which  it  is  held.  The  word  fee  alone  means 
an  estate  without  qualification  or  limitation; 
hence  the  phrase  fee  simple  means  the  highest 
estate  held  of  any  superior  or  lord,  or  by  any 
tenure  or  service,  or  strictly  speaking,  by  any 
tenure  whatever ;  and  the  word  simple  means 
only  that  nothing  is  added  to  limit  or  condition 
the  word  fee.  Hence  an  estate  in  fee  and  an 
estate  in  fee  simple  are  the  same  thing.  This 
is  an  absolute  estate  of  inheritance ;  or  an 
estate  which  a  man  holds,  descendible  to  his 
heirs  for  ever.    There  is  no  event  by  which  it 


must  be  terminated  or  defeated,  and  no  limita- 
tion or  restriction  by  force  of  which  it  must 
descend  to  a  certain  heir  or  heirs,  in  exclusion 
of  the  rest.  A  fee  simple  may  be  acquired  by 
descent  or  by  purchase.  In  law,  purchase 
means  every  mode  of  acquiring  land  except 
descent ;  hence  if  land  be  given  to  a  man,  or 
devised  to  him,  and  he  takes  by  gift  or  by 
devise,  still  he  is  said  in  law  to  take  by  pur- 
chase. The  essential  words  in  any  instrument 
by  which  a  man  should  take  land  in  fee, 
whether  by  will  or  deed,  are,  to  the  grantee, 
or  devisee,  and  "  his  heii*s."  For  if  land  be 
given  to  a  man  without  the  word  *^  heirs,^^  he 
takes  only  an  estate  for  his  own  life,  and  at  his 
death  (if  there  be  no  remainder  over)  it  reverts 
to  the  grantor  or  his  heirs;  and  at  common 
law  there  are  no  words  which  could  supply 
the  want  of  these  ^*  words  of  inheritance,^'  as 
they  are  called,  where  there  could  be  heirs. 
Thus,  if  land  were  conveyed  or  devised  to  a 
man  '*and  his  successors,"  he  took  only  an 
estate  for  life ;  but  if  these  words  were  used  in 
a  deed  or  devise  to  a  corporation,  they  were 
the  proper  words  to  create  a  fee  simple,  be- 
cause a  corporation  should  have  perpetual  buc- 
cession,  but  cannot  have  heirs.  If  land  be 
granted  or  devised  to  A,  B,  and  0,  as  trustees, 
then  also  the  word  successors  would  in  general 
carry  a  fee.  The  ancient  severity  of  the  mle 
requiring  words  of  inheritance  is  now  relaxed 
somewhat  in  England,  and  more  in  the  United 
States  (in  some  of  the  states  by  statute),  es- 
pecially in  respect  to  wills  and  trusts.  In  wills, 
any  words  distinctly  indicating  the  purpose  of 
the  testator  to  devise  all  his  estate  and  interest 
in  a  piece  of  land,  are  always  held  now  to  carry 
a  fee  simple;  and  in  trusts,  if  one  has  land 
^ven  to  him  with  power  to  sell,  this  is  held  to 
be  a  power  to  convey  in  fee  simple.  In  deeds 
it  is  always  better  to  add  the  words  of  inheri- 
tance, but  the  word  "  assigns  "  is  not  necessary 
to  give  the  power  of  transfer,  although  usually 
added.  There  may  be  a  fee  simple  not  only  in 
lands,  but  in  franchises  and  liberties ;  and  in 
England,  in  dignities  and  the  rights  and  priv- 
ileges attached  to  them ;  and  even  in  persona] , 
property,  as  in  an  annuity. — ^Fees  may  be  less 
than  fee  simple,  and  they  are  so  whenever  not 
simple;  that  is,  whenever  the  fee  is  in  any 
way  restrained  or  diminished.  A  qualified  fee, 
technically  so  called,  is  one  in  which,  by  an 
original  limitation,  the  land  goes  to  a  man  and 
his  heirs  general,  and  yet  is  not  confined  to  the 
issue  of  his  own  body ;  as  if  it  be  given  him 
and  to  his  heirs  on  the  part  of  his  father  or  a 
certain  ancestor.  A  determinable  fee  is  a  fee 
which  may  continue  for  ever,  but  which  may 
be  determined  by  the  happening  of  some  event 
which  is  uncertain.  Instances  usually  given 
of  this  are  lands  conveyed  or  devised  to  a  man 
and  his  heirs  xmtil  an  infant  shall  attain  a  cer- 
tain age,  or  until  such  a  person  shall  be  mar- 
ried, or  shall  have  children.  A  conditional 
fee  means  either  a  fee  to  which  at  its  origin 
some    condition  was  annexed,  which  beuig 


FEEJEE  ISLANDS 


109 


performed  wQl  defeat  the  estate,  or  the  per- 
formance of  which  is  necessary  to  preserve 
the  estate,  or  the  performance  or  occurrence 
of  which  is  necessary  to  vest  estate.  But  these 
three  phrases  are  not  definable  with  exact  ac- 
caracy,  and  are  sometimes  used  one  for  the 
other.  Fee  tail  is  a  law  term  of  more  precise 
meaning.  It  is  derived  from  the  Norman 
French  word  tailler^  to  cut,  because  it  is  a 
lesser  estate  of  inheritance  cut  or  carved  out 
of  the  fee  simple ;  and  it  exists  where  a  con- 
vejance  or  devise  is  made  to  a  person  named 
and  the  heirs  of  his  body  or  some  specified 
class  of  the  heirs  of  his  body,  as  for  instance 
the  heirs  male  or  heirs  femaJe  of  his  body,  or 
the  heirs  of  his  body  begotten  of  his  then  wife. 
The  difference  between  this  and  a  fee  simple  is 
at  once  perceived ,  for  while  the  latter  on  the 
owner^s  death  will  pass  by  descent  to  his  heirs 
general,  who  may  be  collateral  relatives,  the 
former  will  descend  only  in  the  line  indicated 
by  the  instrument  creating  the  estate.  For- 
merly the  understanding  was  that  the  grantee 
of  an  estate  tail  had  only  a  life  interest,  and 
could  convey  no  more ;  but  afterward  means 
were  devised  by  which  he  might  convey  a  fee, 
and  this  in  the  hands  of  his  grantee  would 
necessarily  be  a  fee  simple.  The  usual  mode  of 
doing  tills  was  the  process  of  suffering  a  com- 
mon recovery,  but  by  statute  8  and  4  William 
IV.,  c  74,  the  same  result  may  be  accomplished 
by  an  ordinary  deed  of  conveyance  duly  en- 
rolled. Legislation  of  a  similar  nature  has  also 
been  adopted  for  Ireland  and  Scotland.  In  the 
Uoited  States  estates  tail  have  had  no  practical 
existence  since  the  revolution.  In  some  of  the 
states  they  are  wholly  unknown.  In  others 
they  become  at  once,  by  force  of  statutory 
provisions,  estates  in  fee  simple.  In  others  a 
tenant  in  fee  tall  bars  the  entail  by  a  simple 
eonveyance  in  fee  simple.  In  yet  others,  and 
they  are  nnmerous,  they  are  simply  abolished 
by  statute,  without  any  reservation  whatever. 
nSJEB  (FUi,  or  Tltl)  ISLANDS,  a  group  in 
the  Sonth  Pacific  ocean,  between  lat.  l^"^  80' 
and  20°  80'  S.,  and  Ion.  176°  50' E.  and  178°  20' 
W.  Feejee  is  the  name  in  the  windward,  and 
Viti  in  the  leeward  part  of  the  group.  There 
&re  some  225  islands,  of  which  about  140  are 
inhabited.  The  population  is  estimated  at 
250,000,  of  whom  4,000  are  whites.  Viti  Levu, 
or  Naviti  Levu,  is  the  largest  and  most  popu- 
lois  of  the  group ;  it  is  about  64  m.  from  N. 
to  S.  and  97  from  E.  to  W.  Suva  harbor  is 
free  from  shoals,  well  sheltered,  and  of  easy 
ingress  and  egress.  The  best  known  towns  on 
this  island  are  Namena,  Ndawasamu,  Tova, 
Xakorotttbn,  Rakirakl,  Tavua,  Mba,  Namoli, 
Nandy,  Vunda,  Vitogo  or  Veitiri,  Mbetarau- 
no,  Kondrogo,  Ndeumba,  and  Suva.  Vanua 
Levu  (Great  island),  generally  called  Vuya  by 
its  inhabitants,  ranks  next  to  Viti  Levu,  and  is 
69  m.  N.  of  Bau,  a  small  island  on  the  E.  side 
of  the  latter,  from  which  distances  in  the  group 
are  reckoned ;  it  Is  115  m.  long  from  E.  N.  E. 
to  W.  S.  W.,  and  on  an  average  25  m.  broad. 


The  principal  towns  of  Yanua  Levu  are  Mbua, 
Ndama,  Navave,  Solevi,  Navatu,  Nasavusavn, 
Undu,  Kamuko,  Mathuata,  Raviravi,  and 
Waileo.  The  bay  of  Nasavusavu,  10  m.  lone 
by  5  broad,  is  surrounded  by  very  high  and 
broken  land,  rising  in  many  places  into  lofty 
needle-shaped  peaks;  behind  them  several 
other  high  peaks  reach  to  about  4,000  ft.  A 
considerable  stream  of  fresh  water  enters  the 
bay,  and  a  mile  below  on  the  beach  are  hot 
springs,  which  are  continually  steaming.  The 
rock  in  the  neighborhood  is  compact  coral  and 
volcanic  breccia.  The  water  has  a  faint  smell 
of  sulphur  and  a  strong  saline  taste.  The  na- 
tives use  the  springs  to  boil  their  food,  which 
is  done  by  covering  them  with  leaves  and 
grass,  when  rapid  ebullition  ensues  in  the  pre- 
viously quiescent  water.  Taviuni,  commonly 
but  erroneously  called  by  the  white  residents 
Vuna  or  Somosomo,  is  the  third  island  in  size 
and  importance ;  it  is  about  24  m.  long  and  9 
m.  broad,  and  5  m.  S.  E.  of  Vanua  Levu.  The 
whole  island  is  one  vast  mountain,  2,052  ft. 
high,  and  very  fertile.  On  the  top  is  a  lake 
containing  an  abundance  of  large  eels.  The 
principal  towns  on  it  are  Somosomo,  Vuna, 
Weilangi,  Wainikeli,  and  Mbouma.  Eadavu 
or  Kandavu  is  a  large,  populous,  and  well 
wooded  island,  69  m.  S.  S.  w.  of  Ban  and  48  m. 
from  the  nearest  point  of  Yiti  Levu ;  it  is  82 
m.  long,  and  averages  4  ra.  in  breadth.  On 
the  west  is  a  small  bay,  Malatta,  which  offers 
temporary  anchorage,  but  it  is  difficult  to 
enter  on  account  of  reefs.  Westward  of  Ma^ 
latta  is  Tavutha  bay,  frequented  by  whalers.  E. 
of  Eadavu,  and  between  it  and  the  island  of 
Ono,  is  a  well  protected  harbor.  The  Mbuki- 
leru  mountain  is  very  high.  Another  popu- 
lous island  is  (Gran  or  Ngau,  18  m.  long  ana  4 
broad,  88  m.  E.  of  Ban.  The  reef  extends  a 
mile  and  a  half  off  the  N.  E.  point,  and  several 
miles  off  the  S.  side,  but  is  close  to  the  island 
on  the  east,  where  there  are  several  openings, 
but  none  fit  for  anchorage.  There  is  good 
holding  ground  in  the  bay  opposite  the  town 
of  Lakemba.  Other  towns  on  this  island  are 
Sawayake  (the  chief  town),  Nakumbuna,  Na^ 
waikama  (at  which  there  are  hot  springs), 
Nakorowaro,  Levuka,  Ourata,  Nathavanondi, 
Lekanai,  Nggarani,  and  Yioni.  Koro  (mean- 
ing *^  a  town  *')  is  a  very  fine  island,  9|  m.  long 
by  4  wide,  59  m.  N.  E.  of  Ban,  with  an 
anchorage  on  the  N.  W.  side.  The  chief  towns 
ore  Wailevu  or  Sithila,  Tongandrenga,  Thawa- 
levu,  Nasau,  Waitaya,  and  Korolailai.  Mo- 
ala,  a  high  volcanic  island,  about  4  m.  wide  by 
8  long,  86  m.  E.  S.  E.  of  Bau,  has  several 
towns,  among  them  Navathunimasi  and  Tha- 
kova.  The  reef  on  the  K  side  of  Moala  is  a 
collection  of  sunken  and  detached  patches ;  that 
on  the  N.  E.  extends  2^  m. ;  to  the  westward 
are  several  passages  through  the  reef,  quite  safe 
with  a  favorable  wind.  Ovalau,  a  mountain- 
ous island  about  20  m.  from  Bau,  8  m.  long  N. 
and  S.,  and  7  m.  broad,  is  of  volcanic  forma- 
tion, and  its  rocks  are  composed  of  a  oonglom- 


110 


F££J££  ISIliNDS 


erate  or  pndding  stone.  The  yalleys  extend 
only  a  short  distance  into  the  interior  and 
have  little  level  ground ;  they  are  exceedingly 
fertile,' with  a  deep,  rich  soil,  and  well  culti- 
vated. Its  harbors  are  all  formed  by  the  ree&. 
Levuka,  a  town  on  the  £.  side  of  the  island,  is 
chiefly  inhabited  by  foreigners.  It  is  the  seat 
of  the  Fe^eean  government,  the  residence  of 
foreign  consuls,  the  principal  shipping  port,  and 
has  several  hotels,  churches,  and  stores.  The 
metropolis  of  Fe^ee,  containing  upward  of 
1,000  inhabitants,  is  Bau,  or  Mbau,  on  the 
small  island  of  the  same  name,  which  is  con- 
nected with  the  large  island  Yiti  Levn  by  a 
long  flat  of  coral,  fordable  at  high  water,  and 
in  places  bare  at  low  water.  Lakemba,  or 
Lakeba,  is  the  principal  island  on  the  wind- 
ward side  of  the  gronp,  160  m.  £.  8.  £.  of 
Bau;  the  chief  town  is  Tumbou.  Other  in- 
habited islands  are  Batiki  or  Mbatiki,  Beqa  or 
Mbeng-ga,  Cakaudrove-i-wai  or  Thakaundrove, 
Cikobia  or  Thikombia,  Kabara  or  Kambara, 
Komo,  Maouata  or  Matbuata,  Malolo,  Nairai, 
Nayan,  Ogea  or  Ongea,  Oneata,  Rewa,  Yanua 
Balavu  or  Mbalavu,  Yulaga  or  Yulanga,  often 
called  Fulanga,  and  Yacata  or  Yathata. — 
From  the  meteorological  register  kept  at  Le- 
vuka  by  Col.  W.  J.  Smythe,  from  January  to 
the  end  of  April,  it  appears  that  the  maximum 
heat  amounted  on  the  1st  of  January  to  91*'  9', 
and  that  the  minimum  temperature  on  the  8th 
of  April  was  72°.  The  average  rain  during 
these  four  months  was  17'29  in. ;  thunder  was 
heard  almost  daily,  while  the  wind  was  gener- 
ally very  light.  Thomas  Williams  places  the 
mean  temperature  of  the  group  at  80.°  There 
is  a  large  number  of  rainy  days,  but  uninter- 
rupted dry  weather  often  continues  for  two  or 
three  months.  Among  the  botanical  produc- 
tions are  numerous  varieties  of  tlie  dioscorcM  or 
yam,  called  uvi;  the  balabala,  a  kind  of  palm 
or  tree  fern,  of  which  the  heart  is  eaten  in 
times  of  scarcity;  the  bau,  with  an  edible 
fruit  and  a  beautiful  brown  or  red  wood,  used 
for  canoes  and  boxes;  the  bele,  of  which  the 
leaves  are  cooked  and  eaten ;  the  bokoi,  which 
has  a  fruit  scarcely  distinguishable  from  the 
kavika,  a  kind  of  Malay  apple  tree  with  a 
quince-like  fruit;  the  bovu-dama,  which  fur- 
nishes a  heavy  timber  of  a  light  color ;  and  the 
bulou,  with  a  root  resembling  in  taste  an  old 
potato.  There  is  an  elegant  variety  of  fern 
called  eoninu  The  dalici  bears  spike-shaped 
flowers,  and  yields  a  hard  and  useful  timber ; 
but  the  most  useful  tree  for  canoe  building, 
masts,  and  all  kinds  of  carpentry,  is  the 
damanu.  A  fruit  somewhat  like  a  plum  is 
borne  by  the  dawa  and  the  dawamoli.  Bread 
is  made  from  the  fruit  of  the  dogo  and  the 
dogokana.  The  wood  of  the  duva,  pounded 
into  fibres  and  fastened  to  a  line,  poisons  or 
stupefies  fish,  which  turn  on  their  back  as  if 
they  were  dead,  but  soon  recover  when  left  to 
themselves.  The  fruit  of  the  ivi  is  either 
baked  or  boiled,  or  grated  and  made  into  bread 
or  pudding.    The  leaves  of  the  danidani  and 


the  knra  are  used  medicinally.  The  smaller 
branches  of  the  loselose  are  used  by  the  natives 
as  torches.  But  the  most  important  of  all  the 
botanical  productions  is  the  cocoanut  tree, 
here  called  niu,  almost  every  part  of  which  is 
put  to  some  use.  Drums  are  made  of  the  wood 
of  the  tavola;  fans  and  umbrellas  from  the 
leaves  of  the  viu,  a  kind  of  palm.  A  fruit  very 
much  like  the  raspberry  is  obtained  from  the 
wagadrogadro.  The  root  of  the  lagona  (piper 
mythistieum)  is  chewed  and  mixed  with  water 
and  drunk  as  a  beverage.  The  bitu  and  the 
bituvatu  are  kinds  of  bamboo  which  grow  ex- 
tensively. Cotton  has  succeeded  admirably, 
and  can  be  harvested  within  six  months.  Many 
of  the  colonists  are  planting  coffee.  Fishes  are 
plentiful,  including  the  porpoise,  sole,  mullet, 
and  many  other  edible  kinds ;  also  a  large  shark, 
called  megoj  and  a  still  more  dangerous  fish 
called  ago.  A  kind  of  sea  worm  called  baholo, 
found  on  some  reefs  toward  the  latter  part  of  the 
year,  is  much  esteemed  by  the  natives  as  food. 
A  maggot  called  yatato^  which  bores  into 
wood,  is  much  eaten  on  the  poor  islands.  There 
are  several  kinds  of  oyster  {cita\  of  which  the 
large  pearl  shell  is  ground  and  used  for  orna- 
ments. The  coqe,  a  sacred  bird,  has  a  singular 
cry,  much  like  a  dog^s  or  the  human  voice. 
There  is  a  small  bird  somewhat  like  a  corn- 
crake, called  hiei;  a  vampire  bat,  called  heha; 
a  large  sea  gull,  called  hasaga;  the  kitu,  a  bird 
destructive  to  the  sugar  cane ;  the  kulu,  a  spe- 
cies of  red  parrot,  whose  feathers  are  much 
valued  for  fringes  of  mats  and  personal  orna- 
ments; the  sacred  lawedua,  a  sea  bird  with 
two  long  feathers  in  its  tail;  owls,  hawks, 
pigeons,  &c.  From  a  pair  of  horses  introduced 
m  1851  all  the  mission  stations  have  been  sup- 
plied. 6ome  islands  of  the  group  are  much 
troubled  with  mosquitoes. — The  natives  are 
above  the  middle  height,  sleek  and  portly,  with 
stout  limbs  and  short  necks.  They  are  of 
darker  complexion  than  the  copper-colored  and 
lighter  than  the  black  races.  Their  hair  is 
black,  long,  frizzled,  and  bushy,  sometimes  en- 
croacning  on  the  forehead  and  joined  by  whis- 
kers to  a  thick  round  or  pointed  beard,  to 
which  moustaches  are  often  added.  They  are 
almost  free  from  tattooing;  only  the  women 
are  tattooed,  and  that  on  the  parts  of  the  body 
which  are  covered.  The  men  dress  in  a  sort 
of  sash  of  white,  brown^  or  figured  masi,  using 
generally  about  six  yards,  though  a  w^ealthy 
man  wiU  wear  one  sometimes  nearly  800  ft. 
long.  The  women  wear  a  litu  or  fringed  band, 
made  of  the  bark  of  a  tree,  the  fibre  of  a  wild 
root,  aud  some  kinds  of  grass;  the  fringe  is 
from  8  to  10  inches  deep.  The  turban,  worn 
only  by  the  men  of  the  respectable  classes,  is  a 
fine  masi  of  one  thickness,  and  has  a  gauze-like 
appearance.  They  bore  the  lobe  of  the  ear 
and  distend  the  hole,  and  wear  enormous  ear 
ornaments.  Both  sexes  paint  their  bodies,  and 
seem  to  prefer  red ;  they  also  besmear  them- 
selves with  oiL  The  hair  is  the  most  impor- 
tant part  of  the  toilet,  and  is  dressed  in  gro- 


FEEJEE  ISLANDS 


111 


te«qae  forms,  Bometimet  ftttaiamg  a  diameter 
of  G  ft.  The  chiers  barber  is  held  id  high  re- 
spect, and  bis  hands  are  not  allowed  to  toach 
food.  The  hair  is  colored  sometimes  with  two 
or  more  djea.  Tbej  are  fund  of  music,  and 
bare  invented  the  nose  ttute,  the  conch  shell, 
the  psodeiui  pipes,  a  jewaharp  made  of  a  strip 
of  bamboo,  and  !«veral  soi'ta  of  droms.  The 
singing  is  invariably  in  a  m^or  kej.  The  mu- 
sicians perform  on  one  note,  the  base  alternating 
with  the  air ;  tliev  then  soand  one  of  tlie  com- 
mon chords  in  the  base  cleff  witliout  the  alter- 
DsLion.  The  nativealove  todance  and  arc  fund 
of  poetry.  Their  verses  occasionally  rhyme, 
but  seldom  preserve  a  nnlTorm  measure.  In 
chanting  the  chorus  is  repeated  at  the  end  of 
each  line.  Girls  are  betrothed  at  a  very  early 
tlft,  sad  often  to  old  men.  Brothers  and  sis- 
ters,  first  coa^QS,  fathers    and  sons-ia-lan'. 


motben  and  danchters-iD-law  are  forbidden  to 
■peak  to  each  other  or  to  eat  from  the  same 
dish.  The  latter  prohibition  extends  to  bns- 
bands  and  wives.     The  common  people  nsoally 

take  two  meals  a  day,  the  chief  three  or  more. 
As  they  abhor  drinking  after  each  other  from 
the  some  cnp,  they  hold  the  vessel  sbont  ten 
inches  above  the  mouth,  and  poor  the  stream 
down  the  throat.  They  eat  with  their  fingers. 
Rhenmatism  is  common ;  they  relieve  the  pa- 
tient by  making;  deep  incisions  over  the  part 
tlfected.  The  law  of  descent  is  curious.  The 
lucceasor  of  s  chief  is  his  next  brother,  failing 
whom,  his  own  eldest  son  or  the  eldest  son  of 
his  eldest  brother  fills  his  place;  but  the  rank 
of  the  mother  often  causes  an  intVaction  of  this 
rale.  The  person  of  a  pagan  high  chief  is  tnboo 
or  sacred.  Id  some  cases  they  claim  a  divine 
origin.  Everything  becomes  ooDsecrated  which 


tiie  sapreme  chief  touches.  He  works  some- 
times at  ogricultnral  labor  or  plaits  einnet. 
He  haa  always  several  attendants  about  his 
person,  who  feed  him  and  perform  the  most 
servile  offices.  He  has  no  throne,  but  squats 
on  the  ground  like  his  subjects,  A  peculiar 
language  is  used  when  speaking  of  the  chief. 
All  his  actions  and  the  members  of  his  body 
are  hyperbolized.  Respect  is  indicated  by  the 
utterance  of  a  peculiar  shout  or  chant  called 
tama  ;  this  is  uttered  by  inferiors  on  approach- 
ing a  chief  or  chief  town.  It  is  necessary  to 
crouch  when  a  chief  passes  by.  Standing  in 
the  presence  of  the  chief  is  not  allowed,  and 
all  ivho  move  about  the  house  in  which  he  is 
creep,  or,  if  on  tbeir  feet,  advance  bent,  as  in 
act  of  obeisance.  No  one  may  croiia  a  chief 
behind  his  back ;  the  inferior  must  pass  in 
tVont  of  the  superior,  and  when  at  sea  must  not 
paas  the  canoe  of  a  chief  on  the  outrigger  side. 
if  a  chief  stumbles  or  falls,  his  subjects  must  do 


ed  to  the  chiefs.  Pay  day  of  taiea  la  regarded 
OS  a  high  festival.  Whale's  teeth,  women,  and 
canoes  are  prominent  articles  of  tribute.  The 
criminality  of  an  act  is  in  inverse  proportion  to 
the  rank  of  the  offender.  Uurder  by  a  chief 
is  less  heinous  than  petty  larceny  by  a  man  of 
low  rank.  The  most  serious  offences  are  theft, 
adultery,  abduction,  witchcraft,  infringement 
of  a  taboo,  disrespect  to  a  chief,  incendiarism, 
and  treason.    Theft  is  punished  by  a  fine,  re- 

?aynient  in  kind,  loss  of  a  finger,  or  clubbing, 
he  contumacious  are  punished  by  a  fine,  or 
loss  of  a  finger,  ear,  or  nose.  The  other  crimes 
are  punished  by  death,  the  instrument  being  the 
club,  noose,  or  musket  Adultery  is  the  crime 
most  severely  visited.  The  adulterer  may  be 
put  to  death,  or  he  moy  be  compelled  to  give 
up  his  own  wife  to  the  aggrieved  man,  or  his 
property  may  be  destroyed  or  taken  away  from 
him.  The  principle  of  vicarious  atonement  ia 
acknowledged.  A  man  sentenced  to  death  will 
often  surrender  his  father  to  suffer  in  bis  stead. 
There  is-also  a  species  of  pecuniary  atonement 
calledforo,  of  which  there  are  five  varieties;  the 
soro  with  a  whale's  tooth,  a  mat,  club,  musket, 
or  other  valuable,  is  the  most  common.  Society 
is  divided  into  six  recognized  classes :  1,  kinga 
and  queens;  9,  chiefs  of  large  districts  or  m- 
ands;  8,  chiefs  of  towns,  priests,  and  ambasHa- 
dors;  4,  distinguished  warriors  of  low  birth, 
chie^  of  the  carpenters,  and  chiefs  of  the  turtle 
catchers;  B,  common  people ;  fi,  slaves  by  war. 
Rank  is  hereditary  through  the  female  line. 
The  dignity  of  a  pagan  chief  is  estimated  by 
the  number  of  his  wives.  The  rights  of  the 
vatu,  or  sister's  son,  constitute  one  of  tlie  peca- 
liar  institutions  of  Fe^ee.  A  vasu  of  rank  can 
claim  anything  in  his  mother's  land,  excepting 
the  wives,  home,  and  land  of  a  chief.  In  the 
moral  and  intellectual  state  of  the  Feejeeans 
there  is  a  wide  distinction  between  the  pagan 
and  Christian  nativeo.  As  the  mnjority  are 
pagans,  their  customs,  laws,  and  religion  may 


112 


FEEJEE  ISLANDS 


itiU  be  regarded  as  the  national  standards  of 
Feejee.  Capt  Wilkes  says  of  them :  "  They 
are  traly  wretches  in  the  strongest  sense  of 
the  term,  and  degraded  beyond  the  conception 
of  civilized  people."  Strangulation  of  women, 
especially  widows,  infanticide,  and  other  enor- 
mities prevail  to  a  frightful  extent.  Fore- 
most among  their  describable  vices  stands  can- 
nibalism ;  not  only  are  prisoners  taken  in  war 
consumed,  but  persons  of  the  same  tribe  and 
village  fall  victims  to  the  greed  of  their  neigh- 
bors. The  cooked  human  body  is  termed  in 
the  Feejee  language  bakolo  or  ^Mong  pig." 
As  an  English  gentleman  may  send  a  choice 
haunch  of  venison  as  a  present  to  another,  so 
one  Feejee  chief  will  send  a  stalwart  subject 
roasted  entire  like  an  ox,  carefully  trussed, 
and  escorted  by  a  procession  to  the  residence 
of  an  ally.  The  epicures  of  Feejee  prefer  the 
flesh  of  women  to  that  of  men,  and  deem  the 
thick  of  the  arm  and  the  thigh  the  tH-bits  of 
the  baholo.  The  women  are  seldom  allowed  to 
taste  it.  The  flesh  of  white  men  is  held  in  low 
repute ;  it  is  said  to  be  comparatively  insipid 
or  tainted  with  tobacco.  A  Feejeean  is  always 
armed,  and  war  is  the  normal  condition.  The 
mountain  fastnesses  are  well  fortified  with 
strong  palisades  and  stone  breastworks,  pierced 
with  loopholes.  The  arms  chiefly  used  are 
clubs,  spears,  battle  axes,  the  bow,  the  sling, 
and  the  musket.  A  peculiar  weapon  is  the 
missile  club,  which  is  worn  in  the  girdle,  some- 
times in  pairs.  It  is  a  short  stick,  with  a  knpb 
at  one  end,  is  hurled  with  great  precision,  and 
is  a  favorite  weapon  with  assassins.  The  sick 
and  aged  request  their  sons  to  strangle  them, 
or,  if  they  are  too  slow  to  make  this  request, 
their  sons  suggest  to  them  that  they  have  lived 
long  enough.  To  be  strangled  or  buried  alive 
by  one^s  children  is  considered  a  most  honor- 
able death.  They  expect  to  be  in  the  next 
world  exactly  as  they  were  here,  and  affection- 
ate children  are  unwilling  to  have  their  parents 
pass  into  the  next  world  in  an  infirm  state,  and 
therefore  strangle  or  bury  them  alive  out  of 
kindness.  The  relatives  hold  a  wake  over  the 
intended  victim  while  living  and  anointed  for 
the  sepulchre,  and  go  into  mourning  after  the 
entombment.  The  signs  of  mourning  are  the 
cropping  of  the  hair  and  the  joints  of  the 
small  toe  or  little  finger.  Another  remarkable 
custom  is  the  lolohu  or  strangling  of  the  wives 
and  next  friends  of  the  deceased.  Abortion  is 
practised  to  a  great  extent  by  medicated  waters 
or  mechanical  means.  Boys  are  circumcised 
when  from  seven  to  twelve  years  old.  The 
native  religions  are  local ;  each  island  has  its 
own  gods,  traditions,  and  superstitions.  All 
the  systems  belong  to  the  lowest  types  of  poly- 
theism, and  all  are  impregnated  with  the  filth 
and  savageness  which  characterize  the  actual 
existence  of  the  people.  The  mythologies  have 
some  features  in  common ;  they  retain  the  dis- 
tinction between  dii  minores  and  dii  majoreSy 
between  gods  and  demigods.  The  latter  class 
is  made  up  chiefly  of  deceased  chiefs  and  re- 


spected ancestors.  Monsters  and  other  objects 
of  wonder  are  admissible  to  this  class.  Most 
of  the  gods  are  supposed  to  have  jurisdiction 
only  over  the  tribes,  islands,  or  districts  where 
they  are  worshipped.  Each  trade  has  its  tu- 
telary deities.  The  Feejeeans  have  no  idols, 
but  reverence  certain  stones  as  shrines  of  the 
god,  and  hold  certain  birds  and  fishes  as  sacred. 
Every  Feejeean  considers  himself  under  the 
protection  of  some  special  god,  and  refrains 
from  eating  the  animal  which  is  his  symbol. 
Each  chief  has  his  amhati,  or  priest,  who  acts 
in  concert  with  him,  and  helps  him  govern  his 
clansmen.  The  priests  are  known  by  an  oval 
frontlet  of  scarlet  feathers,  and  a  long-toothed 
comb  made  of  several  pieces  of  wood  fastened 
together  with  much  ingenuity.  There  are 
priestesses,  but  few  of  sufficient  importance  to 
nave  a  temple.  The  priests  are  consulted  as 
oracles ;  the  responses  are  given  after  convul- 
sions, supposed  to  be  caused  by  the  presence 
of  the  god.  There  are  various  modes  of  divina- 
tion, all  of  the  most  childish  character,  such 
as  by  biting  a  leaf  or  pouring  water  down  the 
arm.  They  have  a  strong  belief  in  all  sorts  of 
ap[)aritions,  witches,  ghosts,  wizards,  and  the 
evil  eye.  They  believe  in  a  sort  of  fairies  who 
dance  on  the  hills  by  moonlight  and  sing  songs. 
The  friture  world  in  their  opinion  is  much  the 
same  as  the  present.  But  concerniug  the  doc- 
trines of  the  Feejeean  religion  it  is  scarcely 
possible  to  learn  anything.  The  people  know 
nothing,  and  the  priests  dislike  to  communicate 
their  knowledge.  Burotu  is  the  name  of  their 
place  of  departed  spirits,  and  is  said  to  be  a 
most  delightful  abode ;  but  the  Feejeeans  be- 
lieve that,  except  for  great  chiefs,  it  is  very 
difficult  to  pass  into  it.  The  only  way  by 
which  an  inferior  man  can  hope  to  gain  admis- 
sion is  by  telling  a  lie  to  the  god,  and  proclaim- 
ing himself  a  chief  with  so  much  apparent 
truthfulness  that  he  is  allowed  to  enter.  In  a 
large  number  of  the  islands,  a  particular  town 
in  Vanua  Levu  is  thought  to  be  the  entrance 
to  the  spirit  world.  The  houses  in  this  town 
are  built  with  their  doors  opposite  to  each 
other,  so  that  the  shade  may  pass  through 
without  interruption.  The  inhabitants  speak 
in  low  tones,  and  if  at  a  little  distance  commu- 
nicate their  thoughts  by  signs.  Sneezing  is 
ominous,  and  varies  in  its  luck,  according  as  it 
proceeds  from  the  right  or  left  nostril.  The 
temples,  hurey  or  fully  hure  haloo  (anything 
wonderful,  whether  good  or  bad,  is  denoted 
by  kaloo)y  are  built  on  a  mound  of  earth,  and 
found  in  every  village,  and  some  of  the  viUages 
have  many  of  them.  No  labor  is  thought  too 
great  for  the  decoration  of  a  bare.  Their 
marvellous  skill  in  plaiting  sinnet  is  best  shown 
in  such  a  building ;  every  beam,  post,  and  pil- 
lar is  entirely  covered  with  the  most  beautiful 
patterns,  chiefly  in  black  and  red ;  even  large 
cords  are  made  of  sinnet  and  hung  in  festoons 
from  the  eaves.  But  these  bures,  though  con- 
sidered temples,  are  mostly  used  for  secular 
purposes.    Visitors  are  generally  quartered  in 


FEEJEE  ISLANDS 


FEITH 


113 


them,  and  the  principal  men  of  the  village 
often  make  the  bure  their  slewing  place. 
When  a  chief  wishes  to  propitiate  a  deity  he 
offers  a  great  quantity  of  food  in  his  temple, 
and  inviting  his  friends  consumes  it  in  a  gen- 
eral feast. — The  Feejeean  language  belongs  to 
the  Oceanic  or  Malayo-Polynesian  type.  The 
letters  may  be  easily  represented  with  the  Eng- 
lish alphabet,  omitting  ^,  2,  and  z.  It  has  the 
same  nine  parts  of  speech  as  the  English.  The 
articles  are  Ico  or  0,  h)i  or  oi^  a  or  na,  and  ai 
or  nai.  AH  adjectives  are  used  as  abstract 
noons,  as  mnake^t  good,  and  also  goodness ;  but 
the  verbs  are  the  most  fruitful  source  of  nouns. 
All  nouns  used  without  taganne,  a  male,  or 
akfoa^  a  female,  are  of  common  gender;  also 
nouns  of  relationship,  as  luvena^  a  son  or 
daughter,  watinay  a  husband  or  wife.  The  num- 
ber of  nouns  is  shown  by  prefixing  numerals, 
or  by  the  personal  pronoun  used  in  relation  to 
them.  There  are  some  nouns  to  express  cer- 
tain things  by  tens,  hundreds,  and  thousands 
only.  Case  is  shown  by  particles  preceding 
the  nouns.  Vaka  is  a  particle  much  used ;  it 
changes  nouns  into  adjectives,  as  vurarmra^ 
the  world,  vahavuravura^  like  the  world;  it 
changes  ac^lectives  into  adverbs,  as  Hnaha^ 
good,  takvinaka^  well;  with,  nouns  it  ex- 
presses the  possession  of  the  thing,  as  vals, 
a  house,  i>akavale,  having  a  house;  and  it 
changes  adjectives  into  verbs,  and  intransitive 
into  transitive  verbs.  Some  verbs  have  diifer- 
ent  terminations  when  affecting  different  ob- 
jects, as  whota  na  vanuct^  to  sail  to  land,  wko- 
taia  na  woffo,  to  sail  the  canoe.  There  are 
many  reduplicated  forms  of  verbs.  Repetition 
of  words  is  used  to  a  great  extent,  and  implies 
either  frequency  or  intensity :  ia  wsa  vo»a  vo»i, 
talk,  talk,  talk,  means  always  talking.  Prepo- 
ntions  and  oozg unctions  are  few,  but  interjec- 
tions are  very  numerous.  Expletives,  or  orna- 
mental particles,  abound.  Feejeean  syntax  is 
extremely  simple.  A  proper  accentuation  is 
also  very  easily  obtained.  The  accent  is  in- 
variably on  the  last  syllable,  or  last  but  one. 
A  different  quantity  often  alters  the  sense  of  a 
Feejeean  word. — ^The  Feojee  group,  which  now 
contains,  exclusive  of  coral  islets,  an  area  of 
abont  6,500  square  miles  of  dry  land,  is  be- 
lieved to  have  spread  at  the  period  when  the 
corals  be^an  to  grow  over  at  least  15,000  square 
miles.  Viti  Levu  and  Vanua  Levn  are  sup- 
posed to  have  formed  a  single  island,  which 
BQbsidence  has  separated  by  inundating  the 
low  intermediate  area.  The  natives  present  a 
mixture  of  Papuan  and  Polynesian  characters. 
Ethnology  offers  nothing  of  importance  con- 
cerning them,  for  the  Papuan  race  is  one  of 
the  least  known  sections  of  mankind.  The  na- 
tives know  nothing  of  former  immigrations ; 
they  had  no  intercourse  with  other  nations, 
except  on  casual  visits,  and  they  19elieve  that 
they  never  occupied  any  country  but  the  one 
where  they  now  dwell.  Even  among  the  many 
independent  states  in  the  group  there  is  little 
social  and  commercial  commumcation,  and  no 


political  connection.  Intestine  quarrels  and 
wars  make  up  the  history  of  the  Fe^ees.  The 
Dutch  navigator  Tasman  saw  the  group  on 
Feb.  6,  1643,  and  called  it  Prince  AVUliam's 
islands,  but  effected  no  landing.  On  May  4, 
1789,  they  were  seen  by  Lieut.  William  Bligh, 
in  his  long  and  perilous  boat  voyage  after  being 
turned  adrift  from  the  Bounty,  who  gave  them 
his  own  name.  The  first  settlement  by  Euro- 
peans was  made  by  a  party  of  escaped  convicts 
from  New  South  Wales  in  1804.  The  Amer- 
ican exploring  expedition  under  Lieut.  Wilkes, 
1888-^42,  first  excited  the  interest  of  civilized 
nations  in  the  Feejee  islands.  The  first  British 
consul  was  appointed  in  1858,  and  since  then 
negotiations  have  been  pending  to  put  the 
group  under  the  English  government,  on  the 
suggestion  of  King  Thakombau.  But  he  waa 
never  king  of  Feejee,  and  he  has  long  since  lost 
the  hold  he  formerly  had  upon  the  people  and 
land.  His  reason  for  desiring  to  place  the  isl- 
ands under  British  rule  seems  to  have  been 
merely  to  escape  a  claim  on  the  part  of  an 
American  citizen  named  Williams,  whose  house 
was  accidentally  burned,  and  who  demanded 
an  enormous  sum  for  ^^  destruction  and  spolia- 
tion of  property."  In  1869,  70  white  residents 
petitioned  the  United  States  government  to  as- 
sume the  dominion  or  protectorate  of  the  isl- 
ands. The  white  population  having  increased, 
a  regular  government  was  established  in  1871, 
and  a  constitution  adopted.  This  was  subse- 
quently abolished,  and  the  government  relapsed 
into  barbarism.  In  1874,  partly  owing  to  the 
wretched  state  of  the  finances,  the  sovereignty 
of  Feejee  was  accepted  by  Great  Britain. — In 
1885  two  Wesley  an  missionaries  made  the  first 
attempt  to  introduce  Christianity  in  Fe^ee; 
missionaries  of  other  sects  followed ;  and  after 
the' usual  hiatory  of  massacres  and  persecutions, 
the  churches  report  a  most  wonderftd  suc- 
cess. There  are  said  to  be  more  than  900 
chapels  and  preaching  places,  1,500  day  schools, 
a  theological  institute,  and  more  than  100,000 
attendants  on  public  worship. — See  Wilkes's 
^^  United  States  Exploring  Expedition  around 
the  World"  (New  York,  1866);  Williams  and 
Calvert's  "Fyi  and  the  Fyians"  (London, 
1858;  revised  ed.,  1870);  Mrs.  Smythe's  "Ten 
Months  in  the  F\ji  Islands"  (London,  1864); 
the  Rev.  J.  E.  Wood's  "  Uncivilized  Races  of 
the  World"  (Hartford,  1870);  and  David  Ha- 
zlewood's  "Fgian  and  English  Dictionary," 
containing  brief  hints  on  native  customs,  &c. 
(London,  1872). 

FEHMARN»    See  Femern. 

FEHMCriaUCHTE.    See  Vehmio  Coubts. 

FEITH,  HhUavIs,  a  Dutch  poet,  bom  at 
Zwolle,  Feb.  7,  1763,  died  there,  Feb.  8,  1824. 
He  completed  his  studies  at  Ley  den  in  1770, 
when  he  returned  to  his  native  town,  where 
he  spent  the  rest  of  his  life  in  literary  pursuits, 
holding  at  the  same  time  an  office  in  connec- 
tion with  the  admiralty  and  that  of  burgo- 
master. His  best  lyrical  productions  are  his 
Oden  en  gediehten  (4  vols.,  Amsterdam,  1796- 


114: 


FELANITX 


FELDSPAR 


1610).  One  of  his  finest  tragedies  is  Ine%  de 
Castro  (1793),  and  his  most  finished  prose 
writings  are  Bri^en  over  verscheiden  anderwer- 
pen  (6  vols.,  1784- '94).  A  complete  edition 
of  his  works  was  pahlished  soon  after  his  death 
(11  vols.,  Rotterdam,  1824).  / 

FELABIITX,  or  Felanlebe,  a  town  of  Spain,  on 
the  island  of  Majorca,  25  m.  £.  S.  E.  of  Palma ; 
pop.  ahout  8,000.  It  is  in  a  fertile  valley  sur- 
rounded hj  mountains,  and  contains  spacious 
streets  and  six  squares.  There  is  an  ancient 
Moorish  castle,  with  a  subterranean  vault,  on 
the  adjoining  mountain  of  San  Salvador  de 
Felanitx.  An  active  trade  is  carried  on  in 
cattle,  wine,  fruit,  and  colonial  produce.  Linen 
and  woollen  goods  and  other  articles  are  manu- 
factured. The  place  is  of  great  antiquity.  The 
neighboring  mountains  abound  with  Moorish 
remams. 

FELD&IRCH,  a  town  of  Austria,  in  Vorarl- 
berg,  on  the  111,  and  on  the  railway  leading 
from  the  Tyrol  into  Switzerland,  20  m.  S.  8. 
W.  of  Bregenz ;  pop.  8,000.  It  is  the  seat  of  a 
vicar  general  who  has  jurisdiction  over  all  the 
churches  of  Vorarlberg,  and  of  a  Jesuit  college 
which  has  a  large  number  of  pupils  from  Aus- 
tria, Germany,  and  other  countries.  It  has 
cotton  mills,  machine  and  fire  engine  facto- 
ries, a  bell  foundery,  tile  works,  manufactories 
of  articles  of  wood,  distilleries  of  Kinehwasser^ 
and  an  extensive  trade. 

FELDSPAH  (Ger.  Feldspath,  from  Feld,  field, 
and  Spathy  spar),  a  species  of  aluminous  mine- 
rals very  abundantly  distributed,  principally  in 
plutonic  and  volcanic  rocks,  as  granite,  gneiss, 
greenstone,  and  trachyte.  The  different  spe- 
cies were  formerly  confounded,  but  they  are 
now  distinctly  classified,  not  only  by  the  difier- 
ent  crystalline  forms  which  they  present,  but, 
when  these  are  the  same,  by  distinct  chemical 
composition.  The  feldspars  are  in  all  cases 
anhydrous  double  silicates,  consisting  of  a  sili- 
cate of  alumina  combined  with  a  silicate  of 
some  one  or  more  of  the  protoxides  of  potash, 
soda,  lithia,  baryta,  or  lime.  The  proportion 
between  the  aluminous  or  sesquioxide  base 
and  the  protoxide  bases  is  constant,  being  one 
equivalent  of  each,  making  the  oxygen  ratio 
1  to  8;  but  the  proportion  of  silica  varies, 
causing  considerable  variation  in  the  density 
and  hardness.  The  amount  of  silica  corre- 
sponds much  to  that  in  the  rock  in  which  the 
feldspar  is  found,  and  to  the  minerals  asso- 
ciated with  it,  the  more  highly  silicated  kinds 
occurring  in  granite,  and  the  less  silicated  in 
basalts.  When  a  granite  has  large  crystals 
of  feldspar  disseminated  through  it,  it  is  called 
porphyritic  granite,  and  sometimes  porphyry, 

{particularly  when  the  proportion  of  feldspar  is 
arge.  The  various  species  of  feldspar  are 
(riven  in  the  following  table,  as  classified  by 
Prof.  Dana,  with  their  systems  of  crystalliza- 
tion, and  also  their  composition  as  indicated  by 
the  oxygen  ratios  of  constituents ;  the  first  col- 
umn of  figures  showing  the  protoxide,  and  the 
second  the  aluminous  base,  while  the  last  col- 


nmn  gives  the  proportion  of  silica  according  to 
the  same  ratio : 


NAME  OF  FELDSPAR. 


ADorthite,  Hme  feldsmr 

Labndorite.  Hme-soaa  feldBpor.. . . 
Hyalopiume,  banrta-6oda  "  .... 
Atidesite,  Boda-Iune  **     .... 

OHgoclase,    "      "  «      .... 

Alblte,  soda  feldspar 

Orthoclaae,  potash  feldspar 


Syitrai  of 
CryiteUbBtloB. 


Triclinic... 


ti 


MoDocllnic. 
Triclinic... 


MoDocllnic, 


PMpOVtiOB   of 

CoDttltMaU. 


1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 


8:4 

8:6 

8:8 

8:8 

8:» 

8:12 

8:18 


All  the  feldspars  may  be  fused  before  the  blow- 
pipe, with  more  or  less  difiiculty,  to  a  vitreous 
enamel,  and  this  property  causes  them  to  be 
extensively  used  for  glazing  porcelain.  The 
crystals  of  the  several  varieties  range  in  hard- 
ness from  6  to  7  upon  a  scale  of  10,  being 
harder  than  glass,  but  less  so  than  quartz. 
Their  specific  gravity  varies  from  2*5  in  ortho- 
clase  to  2*7  in  labradorite.  The  crystals  of 
some  species  exhibit  a  beautiful  play  of  colors ; 
labradorite,  the  lime-soda  feldspar,  first  dis- 
covered by  the  Moravian  missionaries  on  the 
shores  of  St.  Paulas  isle  ofi*  the  coast  of  Loibra- 
dor,  being  the  most  beautiful.  The  splendid 
opalescent  and  chatoyant  reflections  of  this 
mineral  have  made  it  much  prized  as  an  article 
of  jewelry.  The  cause  of  the  play  of  colors 
has  been  satisfactorily  explained  by  Reuscb, 
who  finds  a  cleavage  structure  of  extreme  del- 
icacy transverse  to  the  median  section.  He 
therefore  regards^  the  color  as  that  of  thin 
plates,  produced  by  the  interference  of  the 
rays  of  light.  The  more  common  feldspars  are 
orthoclase,  or  common  potash  feldspar,  and 
albite,  or  soda  feldspar.  The  potash  species  is 
the  one  most  frequently  met  with,  and  is  the 
usual  associate  of  mica  and  quartz  in  ordinary 
granite,  and  of  hornblende  and  quartz  in  sy- 
enitic  granite.  Fine  crystals  of  orthoclase  are 
found  at  Carlsbad  and  Elnbogen  in  Bohemia ; 
at  St.  Agnes  in  Cornwall;  in  the  Mourne 
mountains  in  Ireland,  associated  with  beryl 
and  topaz ;  in  great  abundance  in  trachyte  at 
Drachenfeis,  on  the  Rhine;  and  also  in  the 
lavas  of  Vesuvius,  in  the  valley  called  Fossa 
Grande.  In  the  United  States,  it  is  found  at 
Mt.  Desert  on  the  coast  of  Maine,  of  a  fine 
green;  in  Massachusetts,  at  South  Royalton 
and  Barre,  in  large  crystals;  in  Connecticut, 
in  the  gneiss  quarries  at  Haddam,  and  the 
feldspar  quarries  at  Middletown,  in  crystals  a 
foot  long  and  from  6  to  8  in.  thick ;  in  New 
York,  at  Potsdam,  St.  Lawrence  co.,  in  crystals 
a  foot  thick,  at  Warwick,  Orange  co.,  asso- 
ciated with  tourmaline  and  zircon,  and  in  many 
other  places.  The  formula  of  orthoclase  is 
KtO,  AhOs,  6SiOt.  The  old  formula,  regard- 
ing silica  as  SiOs  and  using  the  small  atomic 
weight  of  oxygen,  is  KOSiOs,  AltOsSSiOt. 
Albite,  OP  cleavelandite,  the  soda  feldspar, 
often  replaces  orthoclase  as  a  constituent  of 
granite,  and  in  some  instances  is  associated 
with  it,  as  in  Pompey^s  pillar,  when  it  gene- 
rally has  a  whiter  color.      Veins  of  albite 


FfiLEGYHAZA 


f£lix 


115 


granite  often  contain  the  rarer  granite  mine- 
rals, snch  as  beryl  and  toannaline.  In  its 
compact  state  as  felsite,  it  is  the  base  of  albite 
porphyry.  It  is  found  in  Maine,  at  Paris,  with 
red  and  bine  toarmalines ;  in  Massachusetts,  at 
Chesterfield ;  in  Connecticut,  at  Haddam,  with 
beryl,  colnmbite,  and  black  tourmaline,  and  in 
other  localities;  in  New  York,  at  Granville, 
Washington  co.,  in  white  transparent  crystals; 
in  Pennsylvania,  at  Union ville,  Delaware  oo., 
where  a  granular  variety  is  a  matrix  for  corun- 
dnm ;  and  in  Calaveras  co.,  California,  with  na- 
tive gold  and  aunferous  pyrites.  Albite  has 
the  same  composition  as  that  of  orthoclase  or 
potash  feldspar,  substituting  soda  in  place  of 
potash.  Soda  feldspars  yield  more  rapidly 
than  potash  feldspars  to  the  decomposing  ac- 
tion of  water  and  carbonic  acid;  and  accord- 
ingly Prof.  T.  Sterry  Hunt  finds  in  the  more 
recent  crystalline  rocks  of  Canada  a  less  devel- 
opment of  9oda  feldspar  than  of  any  other  kinds, 
and  conceives  the  carbonate  of  sodium  result- 
ing from  tlie  decomposition  of  the  albite  and 
similar  minerals  of  the  older  rocks  to  have  re- 
acted with  the  chloride  of  calcium  of  the  palm- 
ozoio  ocean,  producing  deposits  of  carbonate 
of  calcium  and  the  chloride  of  sodium  which  is 
held  in  solution.  In  general,  the  decomposi- 
tion of  the  feldspathic  rocks  has  furnished  the 
principal  mass  of  the  various  days,  those  con- 
taining the  largest  proportion  of  feldspar  af- 
fording the  finest  deposits,  such  as  kaolin,  of 
which  porcelain  is  made.  The  soil  derived 
from  them,  particularly  the  common  potash 
species,  is  noted  for  its  fertility  when  under 
good  cultivation,  on  account  of  their  furnish- 
ing a  large  supply  of  potash,  an  important  con- 
stituent of  plants.  The  application  of  caustic 
lime  to  sucn  soils,  when  they  are  worn,  has 
the  effect  of  liberating  a  portion  of  the  potash, 
with  the  formation  Of  silicate  of  lime ;  this  ac- 
counts for  the  great  difference  often  noticed  in 
the  fertilizing  effects  of  the  application  of  lime, 
depending  upon  the  mineral  character  of  the 
sou  and  upon  the  condition  of  the  lime. 

FlUSGTHiZA,  or  Fdegyhfia,  a  town  of  Hun- 
gary, in  the  district  of  Little  Cumania,  65  m. 
8.  £.  of  Pesth ;  pop.  in  1870, 21,313.  It  is  situ- 
ated in  an  exceedingly  fertile  region,  and  con- 
tains a  large  Roman  Catholic  parish  church,  a 
gymnasium,  and  a  fine  town  hall.  The  princi- 
pal products  of  the  vicinity  are  grain,  fruit,  to- 
bacco, and  wine,  which  is  made  in  great  quan- 
tities. There  are  four  annual  cattle  fairs,  which 
are  much  frequented. 

FELICE,  F«rtnata  Bartals««ci,  an  Italian  au- 
thor, bom  in  Rome  about  1725,  died  at  Yverdun, 
Switzerland,  Feb.  7, 1 789.  He  studied  under  the 
direction  of  the  Jesuits,  and  became  a  teacher  of 
various  sciences  in  Rome  and  in  Naples.  His 
aMuction  of  a  nun  from  a  convent  in  the  lat- 
ter city  obliged  him  to  seek  refuge  elsewhere, 
and  about  1756  he  settled  at  Bern,  where  he 
became  a  Protestant.  At  a  later  period  he 
founded  a  printing  establishment  and  a  board- 
ing school  at  Yverdun.     He  translated  into 


Italian  the  works  of  Descartes,  D^Alembert, 
and  Newton,  and  edited  with  Tscharner  (1768- 
'67)  Vestato  delta  letteratura  and  other  peri- 
odicals. He  edited  Burlamaqui^s  Principe  du 
droit  naturel  et  des  genSy  and  published  an 
abridgment  of  the  same  under  the  title  of 
Lefons  du  droit  de  la  nature  et  des  gen$  (4 
vols.,  Yverdun,  1769),  and  many  other  works. 
His  most  extensive  production  is  the  Encyclo- 
pSdie,  ou  Dietumnaire  universel  dee  eonnoia- 
eaneee  humainee  (48  vols.  4to,  and  10  vols,  of 
illustrations,  1770-^80).  It  was  based  on  Dide- 
rot^s  cyclopsBdia,  and  he  was  assisted  by  £uler, 
Haller,  and  other  eminent  scholars.  From  this* 
he  compiled  a  Dictionnaire  de  la  justice  natu- 
relle  et  civile  (18  vols.,  1778). 

FELIXy  called  Fbliz  of  Yalois,  a  saint  of 
the  Roman  Catholic  church,  and  founder  (with 
John  of  Hatha)  of  the  order  of  Trinitarians, 
bom  in  the  district  of  Valois,  France,  April 
19,  1127,  died  in  the  monastery  of  Cerfroi, 
Nov.  4, 1212.  He  was  a  man  of  considerable 
wealth,  which  he  renounced  to  become  a  her- 
mit in  the  forest  of  Galeresse,  diocese  of  Meaux, 
where  he  dwelt  until  his  60th  year.  About 
that  time  John  of  Matha  became  his  disciple, 
and  inspired  him  with  the  idea  of  devoting 
his  remaining  years  to  the  labor  of  redeeming 
the  Christians  held  in  bondage  by  the  Mo- 
hammedans. For  this  purpose  they  both  went 
to  Rome  in  1197  and  submitted  their  design 
to  Pope  Innocent  III.  He  approved  it,  and 
in  furtherance  of  it  a  new  religious  order  was 
established,  styled  the  "  order  of  the  Trinity," 
or  "  for  the  redemption  of  captives,"  John  of 
Matha  being  appointed  its  "minister  general." 
Returning  to  France,  they  established  a  mon- 
astery in  Cerfroi,  which  became  the  cradle 
of  the  order  of  Trinitarians.  While  John  of 
Matha  journeyed  to  Italy  and  Africa,  Felix 
governed  and  propagated  the  new  order.  He 
obtained  for  it  an  establishment  in  Paris,  near 
a  chapel  dedicated  to  St.  Mathurin,  and  from 
this  circumstance  his  monks  were  there  called 
les  Mathurins,  The  order  established  by  him 
is  called  indiscriminately  Trinitarians  or  Re- 
demptionists. — See  for  his  biography  Baillet, 
Vies  des  saints^  under  date  of  Nov.  20,  and 
Richard  and  Giraud,  Bibliothique  sacrie, 

FilJX.  €^MlB  JMeph,  a  French  preacher, 
bom  at  Neuville-sur-PEscaut,  near  Valencien- 
nes, June  28,  1810.  He  studied  at  Cambrai, 
and  after  his  ordination  was  employed  there 
in  pastoral  duties.  He  entered  the  novitiate 
of  the  Jesuits  in  1887,  and  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  rhetoric  in  the  college  of  Bruge- 
lette.  While  there  a  discourse  delivered  by 
him  at  an  academic  celebration  caused  his  su' 
periors  to  employ  him  exclusively  in  the  min- 
istry of  preaching.  He  went  to  Paris,  heard 
the  best  speakers  of  the  bar,  the  pulpit,  and 
the  legislature,  preached  his  first  course  of 
Advent  sermons  in  the  church  of  St.  Thomas 
d'Aquin  in  1851,  and  the  Lenten  course  iiv  St. 
Germain  des  Pr^s  in  1852.  In  1853«  he  suc- 
ceeded Lacordaire  and  Ravignan  in  the  pulpit 


116 


FELLAHS 


of  Notre  Dame ;  bdi)  from  that  year  nntU  ISflfl 
he  held  that  post.  He  wa»  superior  of  his 
order  in  Nancy,  when  in  June,  18T1,  he  was 
appointed  euperior  of  t)ie  Jesuit  residence  in 
the  rue  de  SSvrea,  Paris,  in  place  of  P&re 
Oilivaiat,  killed  during  the  commune.  His 
sermons  have  been  published  under  the  tide 
of  L»  pTogrit  par  U  Ghristianimnt :  Covji- 
rence*  de  Notre-Damt  (13  vols.  8vo,  Paris, 
186a-'69). 

FELUHS  (Arab,  fallah,  a  cnltivstor),  a 
term  applied  witiiout  distinction  to  all  the 
peasantry  in  Syria,  Araljia,  and  Epypt.  Of 
the  various  races  which  exist  in  Egypt  tlie 
Feltahs  are  the  moat  ancient,  and  are  probably 
mainly  the  descendants  of  the  old  Egyptians. 
They  still  present  a  physiognomy  reeembUng 
that  which  is  fonnd  upon  ancient  Egyptian 
BColptnrea.  A  patient  and  laborious  popula- 
tion, tliej  have  held  for  ages  the  soil  which 


the  Nile  fertiTizee.  They  are  generally  of  largo 
stature,  with  broad  chests,  miiacolar  limbs,  and 
black  and  piercing  eyes.  The  conformation 
of  the  brain  indicates  an  intelligent  race,  the 
facial  angle  being  nsuallj  almost  a  right  angle, 
though  within  the  Delta  the  Arab  type  of 
countenance  predominates.  The  antjqne  Egyp- 
tian type  reappears  most  atrifcingly  in  the  wo- 
men, who,  though  slender  and  graceful,  are 
remarkably  strong.  The  dress  of  the  Fellahs 
indicates  misery  and  privation,  l>eing  rarely 
more  than  a  shirt,  leaving  bare  the  arms,  legs, 
and  breast.  Their  ordinary  noarishment  is 
coarse  bread,  water,  and  onions,  to  which  they 
are  sometimes  able  to  add  cheese,  dates,  beans, 
or  rice.  They  live  in  lints  BtKHit  four  feet 
high,  the  only  furniture  of  which  is  a  mat  on 
which  to  sleep,  a  water  jng,  and  a  few  kit«hen 
nteosils.    They  remain  attached  to  the  mdest 


FELLENBEBG 

agriouttoral  methods,  and  nse  almost  the  same 
implements  as  their  remote  ancestors ;  yet  the 
fruitfiilness  of  the  soil  compensates  for  their 
lack  of  skill.  Mebemet  All  failed  in  his  efforts 
to  introduce  among  them  the  implement  of 
modem  invention.  Tliey  are  able  to  endure 
the  greatest  fatigue,  and  to  work  throngh  t^e 
whole  day  in  a  burning  climate  with  very  little 
food,  accompanying  their  labors  with  sonm. 
The  women  share  the  heaviest  labors  of  the 
men.^The  Fellahs  in  Palestine  are  addicted  to 
theft  and  robbery,  and  are  averse  to  work  un- 
less compelled  by  necessity.  This  arises  partly 
from  their  natural  indolence,  end  partly  from 
the  exactions  of  an  arbitrary  government, 
which  views  with  distrust  any  acquisition  of 
wealth.  They  are  generally  in  debt  to  usurers, 
who  lend  them  money  at  a  ruinous  rate  of 
interest. 

FGLUTIW.    SeeFoOLABs. 

FDXENBEIO,  PUUpp  EiubhI  tm,  a  Swisa 
educator  and  pliilanthropiBt,  founder  of  the  in- 
stitutions at  Hofn-yl,  bom  in  Bern,  June  27, 
1771,  died  there,  Nov.  21,  1844.  His  father 
was  a  member  of  the  government  and  a  friend 
of  Peetalozzi.  His  mother  was  a  descendant 
of  the  Dutch  admiral  Van  Tromp.  Ue  studied 
at  Colmar  and  TQbingen,  end  travelled  ex- 
tensively with  a  view  of  familiarizing  himself 
with  the  condition  of  the  working  and  suffer- 
ing classes.  He  was  at  Paris  shortly  after  the 
fall  of  Koljespierre,  and  there  his  early  convic- 
tions became  strengthened  that  improved  sys- 
tems of  education  alone  can  protect  society 
against  revolutions.  Retuminn  to  Switzerland 
f^t  taking  part  against  the  French,  he  was 
exiled  when  they  had  succeeded  in  taking 
Bern,  and  went  to  Germany,  where  lie  resided 
some  time.  After  his  return  to  Switzerland  he 
was  employed  by  the  government  in  a  mission 
to  Paris,  and  in  high  military  and  political 
functions  at  home.  Finding  tliat  nothing  would 
be  done  by  the  government  for  the  accomplish- 
ment of  his  favorite  educational  projects,  he 
resolved  to  devote  his  large  fortune  to  the  pur- 
chase of  the  estate  of  Hofwyl  near  Bern,  and  to 
the  establishment  of  mode!  institutions  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  views  of  Pestalozzi.  Fellen- 
berg's  aim  was  to  elevate  all  classes  by  opening 
an  institution  alike  to  the  poor  and  the  rich, 
and  by  not  only  making  agriculture  the  basis 
of  his  instruction,  but  also  elevating  that  pro- 
fession to  the  dignity  of  a  science.  Apart 
from  the  agricnltural  school,  he  founded  an 
establishment  for  the  manufacture  of  improved 
agricnltural  implements.  At  the  same  time  he 
laid  the  foundation  of  a  scientific  institution, 
for  which  the  first  building  was  erected  In  1807. 
The  agricultural  institution  was  opened  in 
1808,  and  he  established  in  the  same  year  a 
normal  school,  which  became  popular  among 
the  teachers  of  Switzerland,  and  grow  in  im- 
portance as  ils  advantages  became  known 
abroad.  Theinstitution  was  gradually  enlarged, 
and  comprised  altogether  seven  distinct  schools, 
to  which  a  primary  school  was  added  in  1880, 


FELLER 


FELO  DE  SE 


117 


and  still  another  school  for  children  at  a  suh- 
se(^uent  period.  By  these  schools,  and  by  his 
writings  on  the  subject  of  agricnlture  and  edu- 
cation, Fellenberg  exerted  a  remarkable  influ- 
ence in  Europe ;  and  although  the  institutions 
vrhich  he  founded  were  dissolved  after  his 
death,  after  having  been  conducted  for  several 
years  by  one  of  his  sons,  kindred  institutions 
have  sprung  up  in  Switzerland  and  Germa- 
ny, and  the  celebrated  pauper  colony  of  the 
Netherlands  at  Frederiksoord,  province  of 
Drenthe,  was  founded  in  1818  by  a  pupil  of 
Ilofwyl.  Fellenberg  was  assisted  in  his  be- 
nevolent labors  by  his  wife,  and  by  the  great- 
er number  of  their  nine  children.— See  Hamm, 
Fsllenherg^s  Leben  und  Wirken  (Bern,  1845). 
Robert  Dale  Owen  was  a  pupil  at  Hofwyl, 
and  in  his  autobiography  (*^  Threading  his 
Way,''  1874)  has  given  an  interesting  account 
of  Uie  school. 

FELLB,  FniBfsis  Xavler  de,  a  Belgian  author, 
bom  in  Brussels,  Aug.  18,  1786,  died  in  Ratis- 
bon^  May  21,  1802.  He  was  educated  in  the 
Jesuits'  colleges  at  Luxemburg  and  Rheims, 
and  after  becoming  a  member  of  their  order 
was  employed  as  professor  at  Luxemburg  and 
Li^.  He  went  afterward  to  Tyrnau  in  Hun- 
gary, and  after  passing  some  time  there,  he 
travelled  extendvely  in  Hungary,  Austria,  Bo- 
hemia, Poland,  and  Italy.  He  was  preacher  in 
the  college  of  Lidge  when  the  order  of  Jesuits 
was  suppressed  in  Belgium  in  1778,  and  after- 
ward devoted  himself  to  literature.  Being 
compelled  to  leave  Belgium  at  the  occupation 
of  that  country  by  France  in  1794,  he  spent 
two  years  at  Paderbom,  and  subsequently  re- 
tired to  Ratisbon.  Among  his  works  are  Oh- 
9ervation&philo9ophique9  »ur  le  tystims  de  New- 
ton (8d  and  enlarged  ed.,  Li^ge,  1778),  and 
Cat^hisme  philasophique  (4th  ed.,  1805 ;  new 
ed.,  from  the  author's  annotations,  Lyons, 
1819).  He  left  many  other  writings,  chiefly  on 
religious  subjects;  but  his  principal  work  is 
his  Biographie  univenelle^  ou  Dicttonnaire  hU- 
torique,  Ac,  which  passed  through  many  edi- 
tions, and  after  his  death  was  revised  and  con- 
tinued under  the  direction  of  M.  Charles  Weiss 
and  the  abb^  Busson,  and  brought  down  to 
1848  (9  vols.  8vo,  Paris,  1847-'56). 

FELLOWfaSy  Itbert,  an  English  author,  bom 
in  Norfolk  in  1770,  died  in  1847.  He  gradu- 
ated at  St.  Mary's  hall,  Oxford,  and  in  1795 
took  holy  orders,  but  subsequently  rejected  the 
doctrines  of  the  established  church,  and  adopt- 
ed the  opinions  which  are  given  at  length  in 
his  "Religion  of  the  Universe,"  published  in 
London  in  1886.  He  had  previously  published 
"A  Picture  of  Christian  Philosophy"  (8vo, 
Tx>ndon,  1800);  "Religion  without  Cant" 
(1801) ;  "  The  Guide  to  Immortality  "  (8  vols., 
1804);  "A  Manual  of  Piety,  adapted  to  the 
Wants  and  calculated  for  the  Improvement  of 
all  Secte  of  Christians"  (1807);  "A  Body  of 
Theology,  principally  practical,  in  a  Series  of 
Lectures"  (2  vols.,  1807),  Ac.  Mr.  Fellowes 
was  an  intimate  friend  of  Dr.  Parr  and  Baron 


Mas^res,  the  latter  of  whom  left  him  the  greater 
part  of  his  large  fortune,  to  be  dispensed  in 
literary  and  benevolent  enterprises.  He  was 
one  of  the  earliest  advocates  of  the  establish- 
ment of  the  university  of  London,  of  which 
he  was  a  frequent  and  liberal  benefactor. 

FELLOWS,  Sir  Chutes,  an  English  traveller 
and  archsaologist,  bom  in  Nottingham  in  1799, 
died  Nov.  8,  1860.  He  published  a  "  Journal 
written  during  an  Excursion  in  Asia  Minor " 
(8vo,  London,  1889),  in  which  he  gave  descrip- 
tions of  the  superb  architectural  and  sculptural 
remains  of  the  cities  of  Xanthus  and  Tlos.  The 
interest  excited  by  the  work  induced  the  gov- 
ernment to  apply  to  the  Porte  for  a  firman, 
authorizing  the  removal  of  specimens  of  the 
ancient  works  of  art  described  by  Mr.  Fellows, 
who  departed  on  a  second  tour  through  Lycia, 
in  the  course  of  which  he  discovered  18  other 
ruined  cities.  Having  learned  that  the  Porte 
declined  to  grant  the  firman,  he  returned  to 
England,  and  published  "  An  Account  of  Dis- 
coveries in  Lycia,  being  a  Journal  kept  during 
a  Second  Excursion  in  Aela  Minor  "  (8vo,  1841), 
The  government  were  at  last  successful  in  pro- 
cnring  the  desired  firman,  and  a  new  expe- 
dition succeeded  in  transporting  to  England 
a  number  of  cases  of  sculptures,  which  are 
now  deposited  in  the  "Lycian  Saloon"  of 
the  British  museum.  Another  expedition,  also 
under  the  direction  of  Mr.  Fellows,  brought 
a  number  of  additional  marbles  to  England 
in  1844.  For  these  services  he  received  in 
1845  the  honor  of  knighthood.  His  remain- 
ing publications  are :  "  Account  of  the  Xan- 
thian  Marbles  in  the  British  Museum"  (1843), 
a  pamphlet  written  to  correct  some  misstate- 
ments ;  "  Account  of  the  Trophy  Monument 
at  Xanthus"  (1848);  and  "Coins  of  Ancient 
Lycia"  (1866). 

FELO  DE  8^  one  who  commits  felony  against 
or  upon  himself.  As  felony  is,  in  common- 
law  language,  any  capital  oflence,  and  mur- 
der is  the  only  capital  oflence  which  a  man 
can  commit  against  himself,  a  felo  de  ee  is  a 
self-murderer,  or  one  who  kills  himself  with 
malice  aforethought.  Indeed,  the  legal  defini- 
tion of  a  felony  de  se  (or  suicide)  is  said  to  in- 
clude the  doing  of  any  unlawful  and  malicious 
act,  although  aimed  primarily  against  another, 
whereby  death  ensues  to  the  guilty  person.  In 
England  this  crime  was  punished  not  only  with 
forfeiture  of  goods  and  chattels,  like  other  felo- 
nies, but,  to  mark  the  detestation  of  the  law, 
and  to  deter  others  from  a  similar  crime,  the 
body  was  treated  ignominiously,  and  buried  in 
the  open  highway  with  a  stake  thrust  through 
it.  This  very  ancient  rule  fell  into  general  if 
not  entire  disuse  in  England  many  years  ago, 
but  it  was  not  repealed  until  the  statute  4 
George  IV.,  c.  61 ;  and  even  then,  to  manifest 
the  horror  of  the  law  at  the  act  of  suicide,  it 
was  ordered  that  the  body  (which  might  be 
placed  in  a  churchyard  or  other  consecrated 
ground)  should  be  buried  at  night,  and  with- 
out the  performance  of  religious  rites.    (See 


118 


FELONY 


FELT 


Blaokstone^s  Commentaries,  voL  iv.,  p.  190.) 
Suicide  does  not  seem  ever  to  have  been  made 
punishable  as  a  crime  by  any  statutory  provi- 
sions of  the  United  States;  nor  are  we  aware 
that  the  barbarous  usages  of  England  in  rela- 
tion to  the  burial  of  the  corpse  were  ever  prac- 
tised here.  It  is  held  at  the  conunon  law  that 
if  one  encourage  and  assist  another  in  the  com- 
mission of  suicide,  he  is  guilty  of  murder  as  a 
principal. 

FELONY*  The  origin  and  the  exact  meaning 
of  this  common-law  term  are  both  uncertain. 
There  is  about  equally  good  authority  for  de- 
riving it  from  the  Saxon  words  f«h^  fee,  and ' 
lon^  price  or  pay,  when  its  primary  sense  would 
be  forfeiture  or  loss  of  fee ;  or  from  a  single 
word  ftUn^  to  fall  or  fail,  when  its  meaning 
might  be  the  falling  of  the  guilty  party  into 
crime,  or  the  falling  of  his  land  into  the  hands 
of  his  lord  by  forfeiture.  It  seems  quite  cer- 
tain that  in  England,  from  the  earliest  times, 
felony  was  always  attended  by  absolute  for- 
feiture of  land  or  of  goods,  or  of  both ;  and 
the  definition  of  Blackstone  (4  Bl.  Com.  96)  is, 
in  accordance  with  this  principle :  "  An  offence 
which  occasions  a  total  forfeiture  of  lands  or 
goods,  or  both,  at  the  common  law,  and  to 
which  capital  or  other  punishment  may  be 
superadded,  according  to  the  degree  of  guilt. ^^ 
But  we  understand  Blackstone  to  mean,  gen- 
erally, by  felony,  all  capital  crimes  below  trea- 
son (p.  98);  and  Coke  says  (8  Inst.  15)  that 
treason  itself  was  anciently  included  within 
the  meaning  of  felony.  In  those  distant  ages 
a  felon  was  to  be  punished :  1,  by  loss  of  life ; 
2,  by  loss  of  land;  3,  by  loss  of  goods;  4,  by 
loss  of  blood,,  or  attainder,  under  which  he 
could  have  no  heir,  and  none  could  ever 
claim  through  him.  In  more  recent  times 
felony  meant  in  practice  any  crime  punishable 
withfdeath ;  and  therefore  when  a  statute  de- 
clared any  offence  to  be  felony,  it  became  at 
once  punishable  with  death ;  and  fiice  tersa^  a 
crime  which  is  made  punishable  with  death 
becomes  thereby  a  felony.  Even  in  early  times 
felony  was  sometimes  defined  as  any  capital 
crime ;  although  it  is  said  that  before  the  reign 
of  Henry  I.  felonies  were  punished  only  by 

Eecuniary  mulct  or  fine,  and  that  sovereign 
aving  about  1108  ordered  those  guilty  of 
felony  to  be  hanged,  this  has  since  been  the 
law  of  England.  (Tomlin^s  **Law  Diction- 
ary," word  "  Felony.")  It  cannot  be  doubt- 
ed, however,  that  at  common  law  the  forfeit- 
ure incurred  by  the  crime  was  the  essence 
and  the  test  of  felony.  In  the  United  States 
there  is  little  or  no  forfeiture  for  crime  (see 
Fobfeitube)  ;  and  in  England  capital  offences 
are  far  less  numerous  than  formerly.  It  may 
be  said  that  in  the  United  States  the  word, 
so  far  as  it  has  any  definite  meaning,  signifies 
a  crime  punishable  with  death  or  imprison- 
ment. The  statutes  of  some  of  the  states  de- 
fine it  as  any  offence  punishable  to  a  certain 
extent,  as  by  death  or  confinement  in  the  state 
prison  or  penitentiary. 


FQJBUIG,  Jaktb,  a  German  engraver,  bom  in 
Darmstadt  in  1802.  He  received  his  first  in^ 
struction  from  his  father,  studied  at  the  acade- 
my of  Milan,  and  acquired  reputation  by  his 
faithM  reproduction  of  the  manner  of  the 
painters  whose  works  he  engraved.  After  re- 
siding in  Italy,  and  visiting  Munich  and  Paris, 
he  returned  to  Darmstadt  in  1889.  His  best 
engravings  are  from  Carlo  Dolce^s  '^  Christ  on 
the  Mount  of  Olives,"  Andrea  del  Sartors  *^ Ma- 
donna on  the  Throne,"  RaphaePs  *^  Violin  Play- 
er," Bendemann^s  ^Toung  Girl  at  the  Foun^ 
tain,"  Overbeck's  "Holy  Family,"  Crespi^s 
"Christ  with  the  Cross,"  Correggio's  "Mar- 
riage of  St.  Catharine,"  and  Steinbrack's  "St. 
Genevidve,"  and  other  paintings  of  the  Dtls- 
seldorf  school. 

FELT,  a  fabric  of  wool  or  fur,  separate  or 
mixed,  manufactured  by  matting  the  fibres  to- 
gether without  spinning  or  weaving.  The  fur 
of  the  beaver,  hare,  rabbit,  and  seal,  earners 
and  goat's  hair,  and  the  wool  of  the  Aheep,  are 
well  adapted  for  this  process.  Felt  is  an  an- 
cient manufacture,  supposed  by  Pliny  to  have 
been  produced  before  woven  cloth.  It  is  prob- 
ably the  same  as  the  lana  eoacta  anciently 
used  for  the  cloaks  of  soldiers,  and  by  the  La- 
cedemonians for  hats.  Early  in  the  present 
century  a  piece  of  ancient  felt  was  discovered 
with  some  other  stuffs  in  a  tomb  at  St%  Germain 
des  Pr^,  and  a  paper  relating  to  them  was  pre- 
sented by  Desmarest  in  180G  to  the  academy 
of  sciences. — The  production  of  a  fabric  from 
the  loose  fibres  results  from  the  tendency  these 
have  from  their  barbed  structure  to  work  to- 
gether when  rubbed,  each  fibre  moving  for- 
ward in  the  direction  of  its  lai^er  end  without 
a  possibility  of  moving  in  the  other  direction. 
This  peculiar  structure  of  the  animal  fibre,  so  dif- 
ferent from  that  of  the  smooth  vegetable  fibres, 
is  readily  perceived  on  drawing  a  filament  of 
wool  through  the  fingers,  holding  it  first  by 
one  end  and  then  by  the  other.  Examined 
through  a  powerfril  microscope,  the  short  fibre 
exhibits  the  appearance  of  a  continuous  vege- 
table growth  with  numerous  sprouts,  all  point- 
ing toward  the  smaller  end.  In  a  filament  of 
merino  wool  as  many  as  2,400  of  these  projec- 
tions or  teeth  have  been  found  in  a  single  inch ; 
and  in  one  of  Saxon  wool  of  superior  felting 
quality  there  were  2,700  serrations  in  the  same 
space.  Southdown  wool,  which  is  not  so  much 
esteemed  for  this  use,  contained  only  2,080  ser< 
rations  in  one  inch ;  and  Leicester  wool,  which 
is  not  at  all  adapted  for  felting,  only  1 ,860.  The 
short  curly  fibres  of  wool,  treed  from  grease 
and  brought  together,  intertwine  at  once  very 
closely  and  form  a  compact  mat.  By  rubbing 
this  with  the  hands,  and  moistening  it  with 
some  soapy  liquid,  the  matter  is  made  more 
dense  according  to  the  pressure  with  which  it 
is  rubbed.  At  last  the  nbres  can  go  no  further 
without  danger  of  fracture,  and  the  fabric  be- 
comes hard  and  stiff.  It  may,  however,  be 
made  thicker  to  any  desired  extent  by  adding 
more  fibres  and  rubbing  these  in  by  separate 


FELTHAM 


FELTRE 


119 


layers.  Drugget  is  a  variety  of  felt  in  which 
machinery  U  made  to  agitate  and  work  the 
fihres  of  wool  together.  A  coarse  variety  of 
fait  cloth  has  of  late  years  heen  introduced,  in 
the  manufacture  of  which  improvemeuts  have 
been  made  greatly  facilitating  the  process. — 
The  method  of  making  felt  will  be  more  pai*tio- 
ularly  noticed  in  tlie  article  Hat. 

FEL1VAM,  or  FeittluMi,  Owen,  an  English  au- 
thor, died  about  1680.  No  event  of  his  life  is 
known  except  that  he  resided  for  many  years 
in  the  house  of  the  earl  of  Thomond.  He 
wrote  *^  Resolves,  Divine,  Political,  and  Moral " 
(3d,  and  1st  complete  ed.,  1628  ;  10th  ed., 
1677),  which  has  been  highly  admired  for  its 
exuberance  of  wit  and  fancy,  fervent  piety, 
and  occAsional  subtlety  of  thought.  Feltham 
is  the  author  also  of  a  few  minor  pieces  hi 
prose  and  verse. 

FELTOfl,  CotbcIIu  Conway,  an  American  scho- 
lar and  writer,  bom  at  Newbury,  Mass.,  Nov. 
6, 1807,  died  at  Chester,  Pa.,  Feb.  26,  1862. 
He  graduated  at  Harvard  college  in  1827. 
TThile  in  college  he  was  distinguished  for  his 
literary  tastes,  and  the  wide  range  of  his  stud- 
ies. He  supported  himself  to  some  extent  by 
teaching  in  Concord  and  Boston,  and  in^the 
Round  Hill  school  at  Northampton,  Mass.'  In 
his  senior  year  he  was  one  of  the  conductors 
of  the  '^  Harvard  Register,*'  a  students*  periodi- 
cal. After  leaving  college  he  was  engaged  for 
two  years,  in  coi^unction  with  two  of  his 
classmates,  in  the  charge  of  the  Livingston 
high  school  in  Geneseo,  N.  Y.  He  was  ap- 
pointed Latin  tutor  in  Harvar4  college  in  1829, 
Greek  tutor  in  the  following  year,  college  pro- 
fessor of  Greek  in  1832,  and  Eliot  professor  of 
Greek  literature  in  1834.  In  addition  to  the 
duties  of  this  professorship  he  filled  for  many 
years  the  office  of  regent  of  the  college.  In 
1833  he  published  an  edition  of  Homer,  with 
English  notes  and  Flaxman*s  illustrations, 
which  has  since  passed  through  several  edi- 
tions, with  revisions  and  emendations.  In  1 840 
ft  translation  by  him  of  MenzeFs  work  on 
"German  Literature,"  in  three  volumes,  was 
published  among  Ripley's  "  Specimens  of  For- 
eign Literature."  In  the  same  year  appeared 
his  "  Greek  Reader,"  containing  selections  in 
prose  and  verse  from  Greek  authors,  with  Eng- 
lish notes  and  a  vocabulary;  this  has  since 
been  frequently  reprinted.  In  1841  he  pub- 
lished an  edition  of  the  **  Clouds  "  of  Aristo- 
phanes, with  an  introduction  and  notes ;  since 
revised  and  republished  in  England.  In  1843 
he  aided  Professors  Sears  and  Edwards  in  the 
preparation  of  a  work  on  classical  studies,  con- 
taining essays  on  classical  subjects,  mostly 
translated  from  the  German.  He  assisted 
Longfellow  in  the  preparation  of  the  "  Poets 
and  Poetry  of  Europe,"  which  appeared  in 
1846.  In  1847  editions  of  the  Panegyrieus  of 
Isocrates  and  of  the  *^  Agamemnon"  of  i£schy- 
los,  with  introductions  and  English  notes,  were 
published  by  him ;  a  second  edition  of  the  for- 
mer appeared  in  1854,  and  of  the  latter  in 


1859.  In  1849  he  translated  from  the  French 
the  work  of  Prof.  Guyot  on  physical  geogra- 
phy, called  ^^The  Earth  and  Man;"  and  in 
the  same  year  he  published  an  edition  of  the 
^^  Birds "  of  Aristophanes,  with  an  introduc- 
tion and  English  notes,  which  was  republished 
in  England.  In  1852  he  edited  a  selection 
from  the  writings  of  Prof.  Popkin,  his  prede- 
cessor in  the  Eliot  professorship,  with  an  in- 
troductory biographical  notice.  In  the  same 
year  he  published  a  volume  of  selections  from 
the  Greek  historians,  arranged  in  the  order  of 
events.  The  period  from  April,  1853,  to  May, 
1854,  was  spent  by  him  in  a  European  tour, 
in  the  course  of  which  he  visited  Great  Brit- 
ain, France,  Germany,  Switzerland,  Italy,  and 
Greece ;  giving  about  five  months  to  the  last 
named  country,  visiting  its  most  interesting  lo- 
calities, and  carefully  studying  its  architectu- 
ral remains.  In  1855  he  revised  for  publica- 
tion in  the  United  States  Smith's  "  History  of 
Greece,"  adding  a  preface,  notes,  and  a  con- 
tinuation from  the  Roman  conquest  to  the 
present  time.  In  the  same  year  an  edition 
of  Lord  Carlisle's  "Diary  in  Turkish  and 
Greek  Waters  "  was  prepared  by  him  for  the 
American  press,  with  notes,  illustrations,  and 
a  preface.  In  1856  he  published  a  selection 
from  modern  Greek  writers  in  prose  and 
verse.  Besides  the  above,  he  compiled  an  ele- 
mentary work  on  Greek  and  Roman  metres, 
and  wrote  a  life  of  Gen.  Eaton  for  Sparks's 
"  American  Biography,"  and  also  various  occa- 
sional addresses,  and  numerous  contributions 
to  the  "North  American  Review,"  "Chris- 
tian Examiner,"  and  other  periodical  publica- 
tions. He  delivered  four  courses  of  lectures 
before  the  Lowell  institute  in  Boston,  on  sub- 
jects connected  with  the  history  and  litera- 
ture of  Greece.  He  wrote  the  articles  on  Agas- 
siz,  Athens,  Attica,  Demosthenes,  Euripides, 
Greece,  and  Homer  for  the  first  edition  of  this 
Cyclop»dia.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Mas- 
sachusetts board  of  education,  and  one  of  the 
regents  of  the  Smithsonian  institution.  In  the 
summer  of  1858  he  made  a  second  visit  to  Eu- 
rope, partly  on  account  of  impaired  health, 
and  partly  to  complete  some  investigations  into 
the  language,  topography,  education,  &c.,  of 
Greece.  An  account  of  this  visit  was  given  in 
his  "  Familiar  Letters  from  Europe,"  published 
after  his  death  (Boston,  1864).  In  1860,  on 
the  resignation  of  President  Walker,  he  was 
elected  president  of  Harvard  college.  His 
most  important  work,  "Greece,  Ancient  and 
Modern,"  was  published  posthumously  in  1867 
(2  vols.  8vo) ;  it  was  made  up  chiefly  from  his 
lectures  before  the  Lowell  institute. 

FELTRE,  a  town  of  Italy,  in  the  province 
and  18  m.  S.  W.  of  tlie  city  of  Belluno,  on  the 
border  of  Tyrol,  at  the  confluence  of  two  small 
affluents  of  the  Piave,  at  the  foot  of  the  last 
slopes  of  the  Rheetian  Alps;  pop.  about  5,500. 
Remains  of  the  medieval  fortifications  are  still 
visible  in  the  upper  town.  The  cathedral  con- 
tains fine  pictures.    The  mante  di  pietd,  found- 


120 


FEMERIT 


FENCING 


ed  in  the  15th  century  \>j  Father  Bernardi- 
ni,  is  regarded  as  the  oldest  establishment  of 
tiie  kind  in  Europe.  Wax  bleaching  and  silk 
weaving  are  the  principal  branches  of  industry, 
and  there  is  a  brisk  trade  in  wine,  silk,  and 
oil.  The  former  see  of  Feltre  has  been  united 
with  that  of  Belluno,  but  the  town  is  still  the 
seat  of  a  vicar  apostolic.  Marshal  Clarke,  one 
of  Napoleon^s  generals,  derived  his  ducal  title 
from  this  place. 

FfaiERN,  Fehmeni,  or  Fehntn,  an  island  of 
Prussia,  in  the  province  of  Schleswig-Holstein, 
separated  from  Holstein  by  the  Fehmam  sound, 
and  from  the  Danish  island  of  Laaland  by  the 
Fehmarn  belt,  87  m.  E.  N.  E.  of  Kiel ;  area, 
about  70  sq.  m.;  pop.  about  10,000.'  It  is 
accessible  only  to  small  boats,  owing  to  the 
shallowness  of  the  sea.  The  principal  pro- 
ducts are  grain  and  peas.  There  is  an  active 
trade  in  'woollen  hosiery,  and  a  number  of  the 
inhabitants  are  also  engaged  in  fishing.  Capi- 
tal, Burg  or  Borg. — Femern  was  taken  in 
1420  by  King  Eric  of  Denmark,  who  had  all 
the  young  women  slain  on  the  so-called  Maiden 
mountain,  near  the  village  of  Petersdorf.  It 
was  recovered  by  the  duke  of  Holstein  in  1426. 
The  treaty  of  Flensburg,  1580,  gave  the  island 
to  the  Gottorp  line  of  dukes,  with  whom  it 
passed  to  Denmark  two  centuries  afterward. 
Femern  was  taken  by  Prussia  in  Mai'ch,  1864, 
during  the  war  with  Denmark. 

FENCING)  the  art  of  attack  and  defence  with 
any  weapon  but  such  as  cut  or  break  by  sheer 
force.  The  word  is,  however,  understood  to 
allude  especially  to  the  management  of  the 
small  sword  or  rapier,  and  when  any  other 
arm,  such  as  broadsword,  bayonet,  or  stick, 
is  used,  the  kind  of  weapon  is  specified.  Fen- 
cing was  cultivated  by  the  ancients,  as  shown 
by  the  Roman  gladiators.  During  the  period 
when  suits  of  armor  were  worn  by  combatants, 
battle  axes  and  other  ponderous  weapons  were 
much  adopted,  and  fencing  fell  into  disuse. 
When,  however,  metal  casing  was  abandoned, 
it  came  again  into  vogue.  The  peculiar  state 
of  society  existing  in  Italy  in  the  \16th  century 
made  such  knowledge  more  needed  there  than 
elsewhere;  consequently  the  Italians  became 
the  most  expert  fencers  of  that  epoch,  and  were 
the  teachers  of  the  art  to  other  nations.  The 
next  country  which  found  the  art  to  be  a  ne- 
cessity was  Spain,  whither  it  was  imported 
from  Italy.  There  the  art  was  improved,  and 
the  amendments  were  accepted  by  the  Italians. 
From  Italy  fencing  was  also  imported  into 
France,  where  the  court  and  gentry  favored  it 
so  much  that  it  quickly  took  a  fresh  develop- 
ment, and  a  new  school  was  established. — 
Though  the  principal  object  in  studying  the 
art  of  fencing  is  to  enable  men  to  wield  arms 
with  advantage,  it  is  also  pursued  by  many  as 
a  recreation  and  an  exercise.  While  it  demands 
no  violent  straining  of  the  muscles,  it  develops 
in  an  extraordinary  degree  the  whole  physiqv^^ 
and  imparts  the  most  perfect  delicacy  of  touch, 
with  steadiness  and  lightness  of  Itand. — The 


fundamental  principle  upon  which  is  based  the 
defence  of  the  person  by  means  of  the  small 
sword  is  a  peculiar  application  of  the  power 
of  the  lever,  whereby  the  fencer  who  parries 
an  attack  causes  the  point  of  his  adversary's 
blade  to  deviate  from  the  direct  course,  and 
throws  it  aside  from  his  body  through  pressing 
or  striking  the  faible  (part  near  the  point)  of 
his  adversary's  weapon  by  the  forte  (part  near 
the  handle)  of  his  own.  The  surface  of  the 
front  of  the  body  is,  in  fencing  language,  di- 
vided by  an  imaginary  line,  horizontal,  and 
just  below  the  breast,  separating  the  upper 
from  the  lower  portion ;  the  upper  part  is  again 
subdivided  by  a  perpendicular  line,  the  right 
of  which  is  termed  the  outside,  the  left  the  in- 
side. There  were  in  the  old  school  eight 
parries,  distinguished  by  the  Italian  numerals 
pHmOy  aecondoy  terzo,  quarto,  &o.,  from  which 
are  taken  the  modem  terms  prime,  $eeande, 
tieree,  carte,  &c.  The  instrument  adopted  for 
exercise  is  called  a  foil ;  it  has  a  handle  similar 
to  the  small  sword,  which  it  is  intended  to 
represent ;  it  has  a  guard  of  metal  or  leather 
between  the  handle  and  the  blade,  which  blade 
is  of  pliant  steel,  having  at  the  end  a  button  in 
place  of  a  point.  The  parries  are  made  with 
the  weapon  itself;  the  npper  part  of  the  body 
to  the  right  is  defended  by  the  parry  termed 
tierce,  the  upper  part  to  the  left  by  that  termed 
carte,  and  the  lower  line  by  seconde.  Of  the 
old  parries  these  are  the  chief;  indeed  the 
others  are  nearly  obsolete,  or  used  only  in  cer- 
tain exceptional  cases.  When  the  fencer  is 
left-handed,  the  .left  of  his  person  instead  of 
the  right  is  most  exposed  to  his  adversary,  and 
the  parries  of  carte  and  tierce  are  reversed. 
The  fencer  is  expected  to  depend  upon  his 
sword  hand  for  protection,  rather  than  upon 
his  agility  of  leg;  nevertheless  he  must  be 
quick  and  active  on  his  legs  to  be  able  to  ad- 
vance, retreat,  or  lunge.  Thrusts  are  directed 
solely  at  the  body ;  a  hit  upon  a  limb  can  only 
be  accidental,  and  in  a  fencing  school  will  not 
be  counted  as  a  hit.  An  attack  or  a  riposte 
may  be  made  by  the  mere  extension  of  the 
arm,  or  accompanied  by  a  lunge,  that  is,  by 
advancing  the  body,  stepping  forward  with  the 
right  foot  without  moving  the  left  one.  An 
engagement  means  the  crossing  of  the  blades. 
A  riposte  means  the  attack  without  pause  by 
the  fencer  who  has  parried. — The  early  Italian 
and  Spanish  schools  taught  the  management 
of  the  sword  aided  generally  by  the  dagger  or 
the  mantlet;  the  shifting  of  the  position  of  the 
fencer  to  the  right  or  left  was  also  called  into 
requisition  in  avoiding  an  attack.  But  since 
the  habit  of  wearing  the  dagger  and  mantlet 
has  been  abandoned,  and  the  velocity  of  attack 
and  riposte  has  become  so  great  that  the  dag- 
ger and  mantlet  would  be  an  encumbrance, 
«and  the  shifting  of  the  position  would  be  fatal 
to  him  who  relied  upon  it,  the  instruction  in 
defence  has  been  confined  solely  to  the  foil. 
The  Italian  foil  is  long,  some  88  to  40  in. ;  the 
ancient  was  longer  than  the  more  modem. 


FENCING 


121 


The  Italiaii  is  also  mnch  heavier  and  less  pli- 
ant than  the  French  foil,  which  is  only  84  in. 
in  length.  The  handle  has  jnst  beneath  the 
guard  a  ring  in  which  the  fencer  inserts  his  fore 
and  middle  fingers  to  grasp  firmly  the  weapon, 
which  is  ftirther  secured  to  the  hand  by  a 
bandage ;  whereas  the  French  use  neither  the 
ring  nor  the  bandage.  The  guard  to  protect 
the  hand  is  of  metal  in  the  Italian  foil,  and 
very  large ;  in  the  French  foil  it  is  much  small- 
er and  lighter.  The  pure  Italian  school  is  in 
vogue  oxdy  in  lower  Italy  and  Sicily,  and  the 
Neapolitan  masters  are  justly  celebrated  for 
their  adroitness  in  this  particular  method.  The 
characteristic  of  the  Neapolitan  school  fwhich 
more  than  any  other  partakes  of  the  old  Italian 
and  Spanish)  is  to  extend  the  arm  so  as  con- 
stantly to  present  the  point  direct  to  the  ad- 
versary's breast ;  the  hand  is  kept  in  the  centre 
of  the  person  at  nearly  the  elevation  of  the 
ahonlder ;  the  large  guard  between  the  handle 
ftod  the  blade  serves  somewhat  the  purpose  of 
a  little  shield  by  causing  the  attacking  point  to 
glance  off  the  hand  of  the  fencer  on  the  defen- 
sive, slightly  bearing  to  the  left  or  right  (earte 
or  tieree\  according  as  he  finds  himself  men- 
aced. The  arm  being  already  fully  extended 
has  the  tendency  to  keep  an  adversary  at  a 
distance,  and  also  facilitates  the  lunee  of  the 
attacker.  The  fencer  can  also  defend  himself 
by  a  circle  parry,  which  the  Neapolitan  makes 
by  describing  with  the  point  a  small  circle  8 
to  12  in.  in  diameter,  for  the  purpose  of  catch- 
ing up  an  Itdversary's  point  which  may  glide 
away  from  the  engagement  under  the  blade, 
menacing  the  lower  line,  or  the  upper  one  if  it 
complete  the  disengagement.  The  Venetian 
school,  of  those  of  upper  Italy,  resembles  most 
the  Neapolitan ;  the  Piedmontese  is  mixed,  par- 
taking of  the  old  French  and  the  Neapolitan. 
The  opanish  school  is  a  modification  of  the 
Neapoutan,  in  which  the  attack  is  assisted  by 
extraordinary  gymnastics  of  the  leg,  the  fencer 
at  times  throwing  himself  nearly  on  the  ground 
and  attacking  much  in  the  lower  line.  This, 
like  every  other  peculiarity,  when  well  execu- 
ted, is  very  embarrassing  to  one  not  accustomed 
to  it. — When  the  French  established  a  method 
of  their  own,  the  deviation  from  the  Italian 
model  consisted  in  the  fencer  having  a  less  ex- 
tended sword  arm,  the  hand  (medium  guard)  at 
the  height  of  the  breast,  the  elbow  slightly  bent, 
and  the  point  of  the  sword  at  about  the  height 
of  the  eye.  The  knees  were  a  little  more  bent, 
hut  the  body  was  kept  back  as  if  to  get  out  of 
reach  of  attack.  Among  the  additions  to  the 
defence  may  be  especially  noted  the  half  circle 
(old  style),  having  the  hand  about  level  with 
the  shoulder  and  the  point  depressed  to  the 
height  of  the  waist,  protecting  the  lower  line 
to  tiie  left  (earte\  and  being  consequently  the 
opposite  of  seconds^  which  bore  the  adversary's 
blade  to  the  right.  A  new  mode  of  attack  was 
also  introduced,  termed  eaupi^  or  the  cutting 
over  the  point  instead  of  disengaging  under 
the  blade.    Here  were  also  introduced  the  hat- 


tement  or  sharp  tap  preceding  an  attack,  the 
effect  of  which  is  to  make  the  person  thus  at- 
tacked grasp  his  foil  nervously  and  thus  render 
his  hana  for  the  moment  rigid  and  un suited  to 
parry  with  rapidity.  The  change  of  engage- 
ment has  much  the  same  effect.  Some  disarms 
were  introduced,  but  they  are  practically  use- 
less except  when  the  hit  is  given  by  the  same 
blow,  for  an  adversary  who  is  seen  to  be  dis- 
armed cannot  be  touched.  Lafaug^re  intro- 
duced the  couTonnement^  which  was  made  by 
raising  the  hand  instantly  after  the  parry  {earte 
or  tierce),  and  with  the  forte  of  one's  own  blade 
mastering  the  faible  of  the  adversary's,  then 
(as  the  latter  in  this  situation  tries  to  close 
the  line  of  the  riposte)  turning  or  sliding  the 
blade  round  it  without  quitting  it,  and  deliver- 
ing the  riposte  in  the  opposite  line  to  that  of 
the  parry.  The  half-circle  parry  of  Bertrand  is 
made  with  the  nails  upward,  the  hand  at  the 
height  and  to  the  right  of  the  forehead,  the  arm 
more  than  half  extended,  the  point  very  slight- 
ly depressed  and  projecting  leftward  about  as 
far  as  the  line  of  the  left  shoulder,  rather  but 
not  completely  in  the  direction  of  the  adver- 
sary. Tne  blade  in  this  parry  catches  up  the 
attacking  foil  and  exposes  the  entire  body  of 
the  attacker  to  a  riposte,  which  comes  with 
incredible  velocity,  the  point  after  the  half- 
circle  parry  being  very  near  to  the  breast  of 
the  opponent. — The  instruction  for  the  small 
sword  is  the  basis  of  the  attack  and  defence 
with  every  other  weapon ;  nevertheless  almost 
every  attack  and  parry  with  the  broadsword 
is  the  reverse  of  those  with  the  small  sword. 
Instead  of  having  the  point  further  out  than 
the  hand  on  the  side  of  the  guard,  the  blade 
is  kept  across  the  body  ;  instead  of  the  touch 
being  the  guide,  the  eye  principally  directs  the 
movements;  instead  of  piercing  with  the  point, 
the  hit  consists  of  a  cut  with  the  blade.  The 
out  can  be  given  as  a  blow,  or  with  a  light  hand, 
which  makes  it  razor  fashion.  There  are  also 
circle  parries  called  moulinete^  whereby  the 
man  who  parries  swings  round  his  sword,  de- 
scribing a  complete  circle  with  the  point,  and 
having  his  own  wrist  as  the  pivot  for  the 
movement.  The  use  of  the  broadsword  on 
horseback  is  but  a  variation  of  its  application 
by  a  combatant  on  foot;  the  horseman  is 
obliged  to  protect  his  horse  as  well  as  himself. 
Heavy  cavalry  are  armed  with  long  heavy 
swords,  and  hit  heavily.  The  Turks  have 
curved  soymitars  and  adopt  the  razor  cut ;  they 
also  use  swords  weighted  at  the  extremity, 
whereby  they  combine  together  the  blow  and 
the  razor  cut.  The  Germans  have  a  long  sword 
which  they  (students  especially)  manoeuvre 
with  an  extended  arm;  it  may  be  regarded 
as  the  Neapolitan  school  applied  to  the  broad- 
sword. The  bayonet  at  the  end  of  the  musket 
i8>  when  employed  by  a  line  of  soldiers,  a  very 
formidable  weapon;  but  on  account  of  the 
leverage  it  offers  it  is  of  little  use  to  an  isolated 
roan,  unless  to  defend  himself  against  a  mount- 
ed dragoon.    The  motion  of  the  bayonets  in 


122 


FfiNELON 


line  (the  stock  of  the  musket  grasped  hy  the 
right  hand  and  the  barrel  steadied  by  the  left) 
should  be  straight  forward;  any  attempt  to 
parry  by  leverage  right  or  left  would  only 
cause  a  point  to  glance  from  one  man  into 
some  other.  The  foot  soldier  isolated  can  parry 
head  or  body  cuts  and  thrusts  from  sabre  or 
lance,  and  can  riposte  by  jerking  forward  or 
right  or  left  the  point,  striking  the  horse  if  he 
miss  the  rider.  Certain  modem  bayonets  used 
for  the  rifle  corps  are  very  long,  with  a  view 
to  compensate  in  a  measure  for  the  short- 
ness of  the  firearms  at  the  end  of  which  they 
are  fixed.  Such  bayonets  have  besides  their 
point  an  edge  wherewith  to  cut.  The  lance  is 
utterly  worthless,  except  for  cavalry,  by  whom 
it  can  be  most  efficiently  employed  in  pursuing 
a  routed  foe;  its  use  as  a  fencing  weapon, 
therefore,  requires  little  explanation.  The 
knife  or  dagger  requires  quickness  of  hand  and 
eye.  The  blow  can  be  given  by  striking  down- 
ward, straightforward,  or  upward ;  in  the  two 
latter  cases  the  weapon  is  shifted  from  the 
ordinary  grasp  of  the  handle,  so  that  the  pom- 
mel rests  in  the  palm  of  the  hand  and  the  stab 
is  given  with  ease  and  force.  The  Spanish 
colonists  employ  their  hats  held  in  their  left 
hands  as  shields,  and  also  to  mask  the  attack, 
concealing  the  knife  behind  the  hat.  The  stick 
is  a  formidable  weapon  used  to  inflict  blows,  as 
with  the  broadsword ;  the  ferrule  end  can  as 
a  point  be  most  effectually  driven  into  the  face 
of  an  adversary.  The  quarterstaff  is  out  of 
use ;  it  was  held  in  the  middle  and  used  not 
only  in  striking  but  in  tlirnsting,  when  one  end 
was  suddenly  driven  forward  like  a  bayonet. — 
In  1536  Marozzo  of  Venice  published  the  first 
work  on  the  subject.  Other  works  are :  Thi- 
bault,  Academie  de  Vepee  (Paris,  1628) ;  Meyer, 
Kunst  des  Feehtens  (1670) ;  La  Boissiere  L*Art 
des  armes  (Paris,  1815) ;  Otto,  System  der 
Fechthunst  (Olmtitz  1852);  Linsingen,  Hand- 
hieh  de$  Bajonneffechtens  (Hanover,  1854); 
J.  Hewitt,  **  Ancient  Armors  and  Weapons  in 
Europe "  (Oxford,  1865) ;  G.  B.  McClellan, 
^*  Manual  of  Bayonet  Exercise  ^'  (Philadelphia, 
1866) ;  G.  Patten,  "  Infantry  Drill  and  Sabre 
Exercise  "  (New  York,  1861). 

fIbTELON,  8eitnui4  de  Siligiiae,  marquis  de 
la  Mothe,  a  French  diplomatist,  died  in  1689. 
After  having  served  with  distinction  in  the 
army,  he  was  ambassador  to  England  at  the 
time  of  the  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew,  and 
was  charged  by  Charles  JX.  to  endeavor  to  ap- 
pease the  resentment  of  Elizabeth.  The  most 
important  of  his  numerous  writings  are :  Mt" 
moires  touchant  VAngleterre  et  Uk  Suisse^  ou 
Sommaire  de  la  negociation  en  1671 ;  I^ego- 
dations  de  la  Mothe  Fenelon  et  de  Michel^  sieur 
de  Mauvissiire,  en  Angleterre,  containing  some 
curious  correspondence  between  Catharine  de^ 
Medici  and  her  son  Charles  IX.  relating  to 
Queen  Elizabeth,  Mary  queen  of  Scots,  and 
the  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew ;  and  JDepeehes 
de  M.  de  la  Mothe  Fenelon,  These  were  pub- 
lished in  theMemoires  of  Castelnau. 


itNELON.  L  FniifoiB  4e  Sallguc  ^  la  Mtthe, 
or  huuHUj  a  French  prelate  and  author,  bom 
at  the  ch&teau  of  Fenelon,  in  P^rigord,  Aug.  6, 
1651,  died  in  Cambrai,  Jan.  7,  1716.  He  was 
the  son  of  Pons  de  Salignac,  count  de  la  Mothe 
Fenelon,  and  a  nephew  of  the  marquis  de 
Fenelon,  under  whose  care  he  received  much  of 
his  education.  At  the  age  of  12  he  was  sent  to 
the  university  of  Caliors,  and  a  few  years  later 
he  removed  to  Paris  in  order  to  complete  his 
course  of  philosophy  in  the  college  of  Pleesis. 
He  next  entered  the  theological  seminary  of 
St.  Sulpice,  under  the  direction  of  the  abb6 
Tronson,  and  about  1676  received  holy  orders. 
He  wished  at  first  to  devote  himself  to  foreign 
missions,  but  this  design  was  overruled ;  and 
after  three  years  passed  as  a  preacher  and  cate- 
chist  at  the  church  of  St.  Sulpice,  he  was  ap- 
pointed by  the  archbishop  of  Paris  superior 
of  the  society  of  Noutellee  Catlioliquee^  estab- 
lished for  the  instruction  of  female  converts. 
Mesoiwhile  he  cultivated  the  friendship  of  the 
abb^  Fleury  and  of  Bossuet,  bishop  of  Meauz, 
and  was  a  frequent  guest  at  the  brilliant  re- 
unions which  took  place  at  the  bishop^s  coun- 
try seat.  The  distinguished  society  into  which 
he  was  tlius  thrown,  the  charm  of  his  manners, 
and  his  eloquence  in  the  pulpit,  soon  drew  him 
into  public  notice.  To  enable  him  to  meet  his 
expenses,  one  of  his  uncles,  the  bishop  of  Sar- 
lat,  gave  him  a  small  living  at  which  he  was 
not  required  to  reside  permanently.  It  yielded 
him  8,000  francs  a  year,  much  of  whicfii  he 
spent  upon  the  poor,  and  this  until  1694  was 
his  only  income.  His  first  public  service  was 
in  the  capacity  of  missionary  to  the  Protestants 
in  Saintonge  and  Poitou,  after  the  revocation 
of  the  edict  of  Kantes.  He  was  presented  to 
Louis  XIV.  by  Bossuet,  and  the  only  favor  he 
asked  of  the  king  in  accepting  the  office  was 
that  no  violence  should  be  used  within  the  field 
of  his  mission.  Aided  by  the  abb^  de  Lan' 
geron  and  Fleury,  but  still  more  by  his  own 
mild  and  amiable  character,  he  succeeded  ic 
winning  over  large  numbers  of  the  Protestants, 
and  soon  tranquillized  a  population  whom  per- 
secution had  roused  to  a  dangerous  excitement. 
After  his  return  to  Paris  in  1689  Louis  appointed 
him  preceptor  to  his  grandsons,  the  dukes  of 
Burgundy,  Aiyou,  and  Berry.  For  their  use 
Fenelon  composed  *' Dialogues  of  the  Dead," 
**  Directions  for  the  Conscience  of  a  King," 
"  Abridgment  of  the  Lives  of  Ancient  Philoso- 
phers," and  the  "Adventures  of  Telemachus." 
The  success  with  which  he  discharged  his  im- 
portant and  delicate  trust  gained  him  for  some 
time  neither  praise  nor  pecuniary  rew^ard. 
Louis,  though  not  blind  to  his  merit,  was  never 
his  friend ;  but  Mme.  de  Maintenon  had  long 
been  one  of  his  warmest  admirers,  and  it  was 
probably  through  her  influence  that  he  received 
in  1 694  the  rich  abbacy  of  St.  Valery.  Toward 
the  close  of  this  year  he  drafted  the  famous 
anonymous  letter  tp  the  king,  setting  forth  the 
disorders  and  abuses  of  his  reign,  which  was 
first  published  by  D'Alembert,  and  whose  au- 


FfiNELON 


123 


thenticity,  after  mnch  dispute,  was  settled  by 
the  discovery  of  the  original  MS.  in  1825.  It 
is  not  probable  that  Louis  suspected  the  au- 
thor, for  in  the  following  February  he  nomina- 
ted F^aelon  to  the  archbishopric  of  Oambrai. 
The  ceremony  of  consecration  was  performed 
in  the  chapel  of  St  Cyr,  July  10, 1695,  but  the 
new  prelate  retained  his  connection  with  his 
papils,  with  whom  it  was  arranged  that  he 
should  pass  three  months  of  every  year.  Hon- 
ored by  the  king,  beloved  by  the  young  princes, 
esteemed  and  consulted  by  the  most  influential 
person  of  the  court,  and  holding  high  stations 
in  the  church  and  the  palace,  he  was  now  at 
the  height  of  his  prosperity ;  but  his  disgrace 
was  already  preparing.  With  a  natural  ten- 
dency to  all  that  is  mild  and  spiritual  in  reli- 
gion, he  had  long  felt  a  sympathy  for  the  doc- 
trines of  Mme.  Guyon,  whose  system  of  **  qui- 
etism "  was  attracting  a  large  share  of  attention 
at  conrt,  and  had  gained  proselytes  in  the  king^s 
household.  She  was  charged  with  heresy,  and 
demanded  a  commission  to  inquire  into  the 
matter.  Bossuet,  the  bishop  of  ChAlons,  and 
Tronson  were  appointed.  Besides  the  writings 
of  Mme.  Guyon,  the  commission  was  obliged  to 
investigate  what  F^nelon  was  daily  writing  and 
preaching  on  the  subject,  perhaps  with  the  in- 
tention of  turning  npon  himself  the  condem- 
nation that  was  threatening  his  friend.  F6ne- 
lon  was  so  humble  in  his  intercourse  with  the 
commisflion,  that  his  judges^  though  startled  at 
his  errors,  would  urge  nothing  against  him. 
These  conferences  had  lasted  nearly  a  year,  and 
it  was  necessary  to  put  an  end  to  them.  Bos- 
snet  and  his  two  coiletigues  agreed  upon  a  se- 
ries of  articles  which  should  settle  the  matter ; 
and  making  a  sort  of  formulary,  they  invited 
F^nelon  to  subscribe  to  it.  He  hesitated  for  a 
long  time,  but  at  last  acceded  to  the  demands 
of  the  prelates.  During  the  interval  of  editing 
and  signing  the  formulary,  F^nelon  was  called 
to  the  archbishopric  of  Oambrai,  and  after  his 
consecration  occurred  between  him  and  Bos- 
saet  ihst  celebrated  controversy  which  forms 
almost  an  epoch  in  French  literature.  As 
Archbishop  F6nelon  assumed  a  more  decided 
tone,  Bossuet  explained  the  articles  of  the 
formulary  in  an  abridged  report  of  the  previous 
conferences,  and  asked  F6nelon  to  give  this 
book,  entitled  Instructions  sur  lea  itaU  cTarai- 
9onj  his  ecclesiastical  approbation,  as  the  other 
two  prelates  of  the  commission  had  done. 
F^nelon  refused ;  he  would  not  even  read  the 
book ;  and  from  this  refusal  dates  the  literary 
war  between  these  two  great  prelates.  F^ne- 
Ion  published  his  &mous  book,  Maximes  des 
Baints,  Bossuet  denounced  him  to  the  court 
as  a  fanatic ;  the  king  struck  his  name  from  the 
list  of  preceptors  to  the  royal  family,  and  or- 
dered him  to  reture  to  his  diocese ;  Mme.  de 
Maintenon  withdrew  her  favor,  and  his  friend- 
ship for  Mme.  Guyon  was  even  made  a  theme 
for  the  grossest  calumnies.  He  sent  the  ob- 
noxious book  to  Rome,  where  Louis  used  all 
his  influence  to  obtiun  its  condemnation.    Af- 


ter a  delay  of  nine  months  Innocent  XII.  pro- 
nounced a  mild  censure  of  the  Maximes  des 
saints,  but. addressed  at  the  same  time  to  cer- 
tain prelates  who  had  been  most  severe  in  their 
attacks  on  the  author  the  following  caustic  re- 
buke :  PeccaHt  excessu  amoris  divini,  sed  vos 
peecastis  defectu  amoris  proximi  ("He  has 
sinned  through  excess  of  love  of  God,  but  you 
have  sinned  through  lack  of  love  for  your 
neighbor  ^^).  Immediately  on  receiving  the 
sentence,  in  March,  1699,  F6neIon  hastened  to 
declare  his  submission,  and  to  publish  the  con- 
demnation of  his  own  book  in  a  mandatory 
letter.  In  the  following  month  his  Aventures 
de  Telemaque,  which  had  hitherto  remained  in 
manuscript,  was  given  to  the  world  by  the  dis- 
honesty of  a  servant  who  had  been  employed 
to  have  the  work  copied,  but  who  sold  it  to  a 
bookseller  without  disclosing  the  author's  name. 
The  king  having  been  told  that  it  was  from  the 
pen  of  the  archbishop  of  Gambrai,  and  probably 
sharing  a  suspicion  then  cun*ent  that  the  book 
was  designed  as  a  satire  on  the  court,  took 
measures  to  suppress  it.  A  few  copies  escaped 
seizure,  and  an  imperfect  edition  was  printed 
in  Holland  in  1699,  and  others  followed  rapidly. 
This  event  destroyed  all  hope  of  restoration  to 
royal  favor,  and  for  the  rest  of  his  life  F^nelon 
devoted  himself  exclusively  to  the  affairs  of  his 
diocese  and  to  literary  pursuits.  It  was  now 
that  his  character  was  seen  in  its  brightest  light. 
He  visited  the  peasants  in  their  cottages,  shared 
their  humble  fare,  heard  their  complaints,  re- 
lieved their  wants,  and  made  his  palace  an 
asylum  for  the  unfortunate.  H is  ch arities  were 
enormous.  When  his  diocese  was  traversed  by 
hostile  armies  during  the  war  of  the  Spanish 
succession,  he  was  allowed  to  pass  unhindered 
through  the  ranks  of  the  enemy  on  his  errands 
of  benevolence.  He  founded  the  theological 
seminary  of  Oambrai,  and  devoted  himself  to 
the  instruction  of  the  clergy.  When  his  pupil 
the  duke  of  Burgundy  became  dauphin  by  tiie 
death  of  his  father,  he  addressed  to  him  a 
"  Plan  of  Government,"  proposing  the  estab- 
lishment of  states  general  and  provincial,  with 
many  reforms  in  public  administration;  and 
had  the  prince  livea  to  reign,  it  is  thought  that 
F^nelon  would  have  been  his  prime  minister. 
The  archbishop  did  not  long  survive  his  pupil. 
— Of  the  excellence  of  F6nelon's  best  work, 
the  "Adventures  of  Telemachus,"  no  better 
proof  could  he  given  than  its  general  and  last'' 
ing  popularity.  Hallam  denies  it  the  high  char- 
acter of  an  epic,  but  gives  it  the  first  place 
among  classical  romances.  It  has  been  trans- 
lated into  nearly  all  European  languages,  and 
has  been  turned  into  verse  in  English,  Latin, 
Greek,  &c.  His  controversial  writings,  which 
comprise  works  against  the  Jansenists  and  Gal- 
ileans, on  quietism,  &c.,  are  distinguished  by 
an  unwonted  preference  of  individual  Ohristian 
experience  to  the  testimony  of  the  traditions 
of  the  church,  and  Oatholic  critics  stigmatize 
them  as  chimerical.  His  spirirual  works,  a 
collection  of  which  {(EuvresspirituelleSj  5  vols. 


124 


FfiNELON 


FENIANS 


12mo)  appeared  at  Amsterdam  in  1781,  are 
used  by  persons  of  all  deDominations.  His  ser- 
mons (12mo,  1744),  written  during<  his  youth, 
hold  no  very  high  place  among  productions  of 
their  kind,  though  not  without  eloquent  pas- 
sages. Among  his  otlier  works  are:  Traite 
de  Veducation  desiilles  (12mo,  1687),  written 
at  the  request  of  the  duchess  de  Beauvilliers ; 
Traite  du  minUtire  des  pasteurs  {1688) ;  De- 
monstration de  Vexistenee  de  Dieu  (1718),  after 
"  Telemacbus  "  his  longest  and  most  impoi*tant 
work ;  and  Dialogues sur  V eloquence  en  general^ 
et  sur  celle  de  la  chaire  en  particulier,  with  a 
Lettre  sur  la  rhetorique  et  la  poesie^  addressed 
to  the  French  academy  (1718).  An  edition 
appeared  at  Paris  in  1787-'92  (9  vols.  4to),  at 
the  cost  of  the  assembly  of  the  clergy  of  France, 
but  does  not  contain  the  Maximes  des  saints^ 
the  MandementSy  nor  the  writings  on  Jansen- 
ism and  quietism.  The  best  editions  of  F^ne- 
lon^s  complete  works  are  those  by  Gosselin  and 
Oaron  (34  vols.,  Versailles  and  Paris,  1820-'80), 
Adrien  Lecldre  (88  vols.,  Paris,  1827-'30),  and 
the  abb^  Gosselin  (10  vols,  large  8vo,  Lille, 
1852).  The  best  editions  of  his  literary  works 
are  Didier's  (Paris,  1861)  and  Ducrocq'S'(1862) ; 
of  his  philosophical  works,  Oharpentier's  (Paris, 
1843)  and  Hachette's  (1860);  and  that  of  his 
educational  works,  Didot^s  (Paris,  1860).  Of  the 
English  translations  of  **  Telemachus,^*  the  most 
esteemed  is  that  of  John  Hawkesworth,  LL.  D. 
(4to,  Loudon,  1768,  and  12mo,  New  York,  1859). 
His  life  has  been  written  by  the  chevalier 
Ramsay  (the  Hague,  1728),  his  grand-nephew 
Francois  Louis,  marquis  de  la  Mothe-F^nelon 
(1747),  Y.  M.  de  Querbeuf  (published  with  the 
Paris  edition  of  1787-^92),  Cardinal  Bausset  (8 
vols.  8vo,  Paris,  1808-'9 ;  translated  into  Eng- 
lish by  Mudford,  London,  1810,  and  abridged 
by  Charles  Butler,  1810),  Lemaire  (Paris,  1826), 
C^larier  (Paris,  1844),  Villemain,  Lamartine, 
&o.  Tlie  Histoire  litteraire  de  Fenelon,  ou 
Reoue  historique  et  analytique  de  ses  asuvres,  by 
the  abb^  Gosselin,  appeared  in  1843.  IL  Fnii- 
f«is  d«  SallgBM  de  la  Mothe,  a  French  missionary, 
half  brother  of  the  preceding,  born  in  1641,  died 
in  1679.  He  entered  the  congregation  of  St.  Sul- 
pice,  and  was  sent  to  Canada  in  1667.  He  was 
soon  after  missionary  to  some  Cayuga  Indians 
who  had  settled  on  Quints  bay,  Canada,  and 
founded  an  establishment  for  Indian  children. 
During  the  collision  between  church  and  state 
he  preached  a  sermon  at  Montreal  in  1674,  for 
which  the  count  de  Frontenac  arrested  him  and 
brought  him  to  Quebec.  F^nelon  refused  to 
recognize  the  governor's  authority  or  to  remove 
his  hat,  on  which  Frontenac  sent  him  out  of  the 
colony  to  France.  The  identity  of  names  and 
profession  led  Hennepin  to  confound  the  two 
brothers,  and  some  American  writers  have  thus 
been  led  to  believe  that  the  author  of  "  Tele- 
macbus "  was  a  missionary  in  New  York. 

f£iVRLOB[,  Gabriel  Jtcqvefl  de  Sallgiuir,  marquis 
de  la  Mothe,  a  French  soldier  and  diplomatist^ 
nephew  of  the  preceding,  bom  in  1688,  killed 
in  battle,  Oct.  11,  1746.    In  1724  he  was  ap* 


pointed  ambassador  to  Holland,  and  in  1728 
represented  France  at  the  congress  of  Soissons. 
In  1788  he  negotiated  a  treaty  of  neutrality 
with  the  states  of  Holland.  In  1788  he  was 
made  lieutenant  general,  and  served  under 
Marshal  Baxe.  He  was  mortally  wounded  at 
the  battle  of  Raucoux.  He  wrote  Memoires 
diplomatiqueSy  and  published  the  first  complete 
edition  of  Les  aventures  de  TiUmaque^  with  a 
dedicatory  epistle  (2  vols.,  1717). 

FENIANS,  a  political  association  having  for 
its  aim  the  independence  of  Ireland.  The 
name  is  derived  from  the  Fionna  or  Fianna, 
an  Irish  militia  or  home  guard  organized  in  the 
8d  century,  and  commanded  by  Fionn  or  Finn, 
who  is  said  to  be  the  Fingal  of  Ossian.  He 
was  slain  in  battle  in  288,  and  the  Fianna 
under  his  grandson  Osgar  were  practically  an- 
nihilated during  a  civil  strife  in  296.  We 
shall  here  treat  of  the  acts  of  the  various  or- 
ganizations in  Great  Britain  and  the  United 
States,  designated  under  the  local  names  of 
the  "Phoenix  Society,"  "Irish  Revolutionary 
Brotherhood"  (I.  R.  B.),  "Fenian  Brother- 
hood," and  "  Nationalists,"  but  better  known  aa 
Fenians.  The  Fenian  brotherhood  was  found- 
ed in  New  York  in  1857  by  Michael  Doheny, 
John  O'Mahony,  and  Michael  Corcoran,  subse- 
quently a  brigadier  general  in  the  Union  army. 
At  the  same  time  a  kindred  organization  al- 
ready existing  in  Ireland,  under  the  name  of 
the  Phoenix  society,  was  developed  into  large 
proportions  by  James  Stephens,  the  funds  for 
its  maintenance  being  sent  over  from  New 
York.  Stephens  came  to  America  in  1858, 
reported  the  existence  of  85,000  enrolled  and 
disciplined  followers,  and  solicited  further  aid. 
At  a  meeting  of  the  "friends  of  Ireland," 
called  in  New  York,  a  fund  was  raised,  and 
the  Fenian  brotherhood  was  formally  organ- 
ized under  John  O^Mahony  as  president.  Just 
then  several  members  of  Phoenix  clubs  were 
arrested  in  Ireland ;  and  this  incident,  reveal- 
ing to  Stephens  the  existence  of  traitors  in  his 
own  ranks  and  the  watchfulness  of  the  British 
government,  compelled  him  to  adopt  a  course 
of  caution  and  temporary  inaction.  But  the 
occurrence  gave  a  great  impulse  to  the  Fenian 
cause  in  America ;  one  of  its  consequences  being 
the  organization  of  the  first  "  Phoenix  "  re^- 
ment  in  the  United  States,  Col.  Corooran^f 
69th  New  York  national  guard,  which  refused 
to  parade  at  the  visit  of  the  prince  of  Wales  in 
1860.  Stephens,  who  had  taken  up  his  abode 
in  Paris,  with  large  funds  at  his  disposal,  was 
buoyed  up  by  the  certainty  that  his  supporters 
in  America  were  hourly  increasing.  In  Ire- 
land his  subordinates  covered  the  provinces 
with  a  network  of  clubs,  which  met  secretly 
to  drill.  In  1860  O'Mahony  visited  Ireland, 
inspected  the  most  important  districts,  and 
held  a  meeting  of  the  Fenian  leaders  in  Dublud, 
at  which  definite  plans  of  action  were  agreed 
upon.  Stephens  forthwith  returned  to  Ireland, 
and  O'Mahony  to  the  United  States,  the  or- 
ganization receiving  from  their  presence  a  new 


FENIANS 


125 


impulse  in  both  conntries.  The  Fenian  broth- 
erhood, when  O'Mahony  was  first  placed  at  its 
head,  numbered  40  members,  all  in  New  York 
city ;  it  nofF  extended  its  ramifications  all  over 
the  United  States,  and  even  into  British  America 
and  Australia^  while  in  Great  Britain  it  estab- 
lished "circles"  wherever  Irishmen  were  to 
be  found.  Stephens  divided  his  followers  into 
fonr  classes :  A,  colonels,  in  command  of  battal- 
ions; B,  captains,  commanding  companies  of 
100  men ;  O,  sergeants,  at  the  head  of  20  men ; 
D,  privates.  "  Unreserved  obedience  to  orders, 
absolute  discretion  in  communicating  with  out- 
siders, and  active  zeal-  in  extending  the  organ- 
ization," were  tlie  main  principles  inculcated 
on  all.  Catholics  in  Ireland  were  prohibited 
by  law  from  possessing  firearms ;  hence  one  of 
the  great  difficulties  of  carrying  out  any  ag- 
gressive movement.  But  smithies  for  the  man- 
afacture  of  pikes  were  stealthily  established  in 
many  places.  This  deficiency  of  firearms,  and 
the  want  of  preconcerted  action  among  the 
leaders,  combined  with  other  reasons,  caused 
the  failure  of  the  enterprise  in  Ireland. — In 
the  United  States  up  to  1863  the  Fenian  or- 
ganization was  but  little  known  and  less  un- 
derstood. Americans  saw  men  assembling  by 
night,  and  quietly  drilling ;  but  they  were  oon- 
foanded  with  the  military  organizations  every- 
where existing,  and  were  supposed  to  be  made 
op  of  working  men  who  could  meet  for  drill 
at  no  other  time.  The  *^  circles  "  established 
in  all  American  cities  furnished  not  a  few  regi- 
ments at  the  commencement  of  the  civil  war. 
After  the  first  battle  of  Bull  Run,  and  the  re- 
tarn  to  New  York  of  the  69th  regiment,  the 
**  Irish  Brigade  "  under  Thomas  Francis  Meagher 
was  formed ;  the  movement  was  imitated  else- 
where, even  in  the  south,  and  the  Fenian  ele- 
ment was  active  in  filling  up  the  ranks  of 
volunteer  regiments.  When  in  1862  Michael 
Corcoran  was  liberated  from  a  southern  prison, 
his  prominent  position  as  a  Fenian  leader  served 
not  a  little  to  draw  the  organization  into  the 
Union  ranks,  with  the  ulterior  hope  of  using 
the  military  experience  thus  acquired  in  the 
cause  of  Ireland.  This  raised  the  hopes  of 
Stephens  and  his  confederates  in  Ireland.  Early 
in  1863,  T.  0.  Luby,  one  of  the  Irish  leaders, 
came  to  America,  and  not  only  visited  in  com- 
pany with  O^Mahony  the  principal  Fenian  cen- 
tres in  the  United  States,  but  was  allowed  to 
penetrate  the  lines  of  the  Union  army,  and  to 
hold  meetings  at  the  headquarters  of  Irish  regi- 
ments. This  tour  raised  on  both  sides  of  the 
Atlantic  expectations  of  speedy  success.  On 
Nov.  8,  1863,  the  American  organization,  or 
Fenian  brotherhood,  held  its  first  "national 
congress  "  in  Chicago,  the  delegates  represent- 
ing 15,000  enrolled  Fenians,  one  half  of  whom 
were  in  the  Union  army.  This  assembly  pro- 
claimed the  Fenian  brotherhood  to  be  strictly 
in  accordance  with  the  laws  of  the  United 
States,  ignored  partisan  politics  and  differences 
in  religion,  and  declared  the  Irish  people  to  be 
a  distinct  nationality,  with  James  Stephens  as 


its  head,  to  whom,  with  central  officers  elected 
by  an  annual  congress,  state  officers  elected  by 
state  organizations,  and  "  centres  "  elected  by 
circles, -the  direction  of  afiairs  should  be  in- 
trusted. A  grand  fair,  ostensibly  for  the  re- 
lief of  Irish  sufferers,  but  in  reality  to  aid  the 
Fenian  brotherhood,  was  held  in  Chicago  at 
the  close  of  this  congress,  and  contributed  a 
large  amount  to  the  treasury.  The  cause  had 
hitherto  had  no  official  organ  in  Ireland.  Im- 
mediately on  his  return  to  that  country,  how- 
ever, was  published  the  first  number  of  the 
"  Irish  People  "  in  Dublin,  Nov.  28,  1863.  The 
bold  utterances  of  this  sheet  caused  the  police 
to  watch  every  movement  at  the  various  cen- 
tres of  Fenian  activity.  On  Feb.  23,  1864,  a 
riot  occurred  at  a  public  meeting  in  the  Rotun- 
da, Dublin,  in  which  Mr.  A.  M.  Sullivan,  who 
had  openly  attacked  the  "  I.  R.  B.,"  was,  to- 
gether with  his  adherents, "  the  national  party," 
ejected  by  the  Fenians.  The  numbers  of  the 
latter,  and  the  perfect  discipline  with  which 
they  acted  in  their  attack  on  the  opposing  fac- 
tion, were  a  revelation  to  the  authorities,  while 
tlie  victory  itself  was  to  the  friends  of  Ireland 
prophetic  of  the  dissensions  destined  to  mar 
every  attempt  at  revolution.  Stephens  again 
returned  to  the  United  States  in  March,  1864, 
and  visited  the  different  corps  of  the  Union 
armies,  under  the  pseudonyme  of  Captain  Daly. 
The  prudence  and  secrecy  which  always  char- 
acterized the  movements  of  this  leader  found 
but  few  imitators  among  his  followers.  The 
bravado  with  which  the  Irish  press  in  America 
and  the  "  Irish  People  "  in  Dublin  spoke  of 
the  near  liberation  of  Ireland,  and  the  enthu- 
siasm expressed  by  the  Irish  masses  at  home 
and  abroad,  served  the  British  government 
effectively.  Stephens  left  New  York  at  the 
end  of  July,  his  presence  having  given  an 
extraordinary  impulse  to  the  spread  of  the 
brotherhood. — When  the  second  Fenian  con- 
gress assembled  in  Cincinnati,  Jan.  17,  1865, 
the  circles  had  increased  five  fold,  and  the 
financial  receipts  exceeded  the  total  of  the 
seven  previous  years.  A  report  irom  an  agent 
sent  to  Ireland  state<l  that  the  masses  were  desi- 
rous of  revolution,  and  tliat  the  middle  classes, 
though  hesitating,  would  in  extremity  act  with 
the  patriots.  The  surrender  of  the  confeder- 
ate armies  and  the  disbandment  of  the  Union 
forces  left  free  those  Irish*  officers  and  soldiers 
on  whom  were  centred  mainly  the  expectations 
of  the  revolutionists.  Many  of  these  officers 
now  went  to  Great  Britain;  and  about  this 
time  disaffection  began  to  spread  among  the 
Irish  troops  in  the  British  service.  It  was  no 
longer  a  secret  that  the  "  Fenian  conspiracy  " 
had  its  ramifications  all  over  Great  Britain  as 
well  as  Ireland.  On  Sept.  8  a  proclamation 
from  Stephens  was  circulated  among  the  circles 
in  Ireland,  announcing  that  the  time  for  action 
had  come.  "  I  speak  with  a  knowledge  and 
authority  to  which  no  other  man  could  pre- 
tend," he  says,  in  concluding;  "the  fiag  of 
Ireland,  of  the  Irish  republic,  mast  this  year 


126 


FENIANS 


be  raised  I "  But  every  purpose  and  act  of 
Stephens  was  made  known  to  the  British  gov- 
ernment. On  the  night  of  Sept.  15  a  squad 
of  the  Dublin  police  suddenly  seized  the  of- 
fice of  the  "  Irish  People,"  taking  into  custo- 
dy Jeremiah  O'Donovan-Rossa,  the  registered 
proprietor,  and  several  of  the  editorial  staflF 
and  other  employees,  among  whom  was  Pierce 
Nagle,  who  turned  crown  witness  at  the  sub- 
sequent trial.  Another  squad  arrested  Thomas 
0.  Luby,  the  chief  editor,  at  his  residence,  cap- 
turing among  other  documents  a  letter  ad- 
dressed to  *'  Miss  Frazer,"  but  which  in  reality 
was  an  official  document  signed  by  James 
Stephens  appointing  a  committee  of  three  to 
govern  "the  home  organization,"  with  the 
same  supreme  authority  hitherto  exercised  by 
himself.  There  were  resolutions  also  from  the 
brotherhood  in  America,  signed  by  O'Mahony, 
formally  recognizing  Stephens  as  the  chief 
executive  and  head  of  the  Irish  republic.  The 
next  day  appeared  two  proclamations  from 
the  viceroy,  Lord  Wodehouse.  The  first  an- 
nounced the  existence  of  "the  Fenian  con- 
spiracy," and  offered  a  reward  of  £200  for  the 
apprehension  of  James  Stephens ;  the  second 
declared  military  law  in  the  city  and  county 
of  Cork,  and  offered  another  reward  of  £200 
for  the  apprehension  of  one  Geary.  Simul- 
taneously with  the  arrests  in  Dublin,  which 
continued  daily  for  several  weeks,  others  were 
made  in  different  parts  of  Ireland.  In  England, 
at  the  same  time,  several  leading  Fenians  were 
arrested  in  Liverpool,  Manchester,  and  other 
cities.  On  an  American  steamer  landing  at 
Queenstown,  0.  U.  O'Connell,  an  aide-de-camp 
of  O'Mahony,  was  taken  into  custody,  and  upon 
him  were  found  papers  incriminating  many 
persons.  The  utmost  energy  was  displayed  by 
the  British  authorities;  vessels  of  war  were 
despatched  to  the  principal  seaports,  and  a 
cordon  of  gunboats  surrounded  the  Irish 
coasts.  Stephens,  under  the  name  of  James 
Herbert,  had  occupied  a  villa  near  Dublin, 
where  on  the  night  of  Nov.  11  he  with  three 
others  was  arrested  by  the  police.  He  was 
committed  to  prison,  whence  he  escaped  on 
the  24th  of  the  same  month,  and  finally 
reached  France.  Bills  of  exchange  in  large 
amounts  from  the  Fenian  treasury  in  New 
York  to  the  Irish  leaders  had  fallen  into  the 
hands  of  the  government. — No  sooner  had 
tidings  of  this  reached  the  United  States  than 
the  "central  council  of  the  Fenian  brother- 
hood," sitting  in  New  York,  summoned  the 
third  congress,  which  assembled  in  Phila- 
delphia, Oct.  18.  During  its  sitting,  P.  J. 
Meehan,  editor  of  the  "  Irish  American,"  and 
accredited  agent  to  the  brotherhood  in  Ire- 
land, returned,  and  reported  the  home  organi- 
zation as  "  powerful,  the  management  master- 
ly, and  the  position  solid,"  and  this  at  the 
very  moment  when  the  Irish  revolutionists 
were  utterly  helpless.  To  this  congress  850 
circles,  representing  80  states,  sent  deputies, 
and  among  the  circles  those  styled  "army  and 


navy  "  had  14,620  members.  This  session  of 
the  third  congress  authorized  the  establish- 
ment of  a  "  Fenian  sisterhood,"  which  spread 
rapidly,  and  proved  a  successful  auxiliary  in 
raising  funds.  It  also  adopted  a  new  constitu- 
tion, creating  a  president,  secretaries  of  depart- 
ments, a  senate  and  house  of  representatives, 
and  authorized  the  issue  of  bonds  of  the  Irish 
republic.  A  deputation  from  this  "conven- 
tion of  Irish-American  citizens  "  obtained  from 
President  Johnson  the  release  from  Fortress 
Monroe  of  John  Mitchel,  who  had  been  con- 
fined as  a  prisoner  of  state.  He  was  des- 
patched to  Europe  as  the  accredited  agent  of 
the  brotherhood,  and  bore  with  him  a  large 
sum  of  money  in  aid  of  the  struggle  in  Ireland. 
After  the  adjournment  of  this  congress  public 
ofiSces  were  opened  in  New  York,  and  the 
issue  and  sale  of  bonds  were  actively  carried 
on  for  some  time.  But  a  fatal  dissension  now 
manifested  itself  between  O'Mahony  and  the 
newly  created  senate.  Meanwhile  events  in 
Ireland  were  hurrying  onward.  The  special 
commission  to  try  the  Fenian  prisoners  com- 
menced in  Dublin  Nov.  27.  O^Donovan-Rossa 
was  sentenced  to  penal  servitude  for  life,  and 
Luby  and  O'Leary  for  20  years.  The  judges 
then  proceeded  to  Cork,  where  similar  punish- 
ments were  dealt  out.  In  the  mean  time  the 
rupture  in  New  York  between  O'Mahony,  who 
had  been  created  president  of  the  whole  broth- 
erhood, and  the  majority  of  the  senate,  had  been 
gradually  widening.  He  and  his  friends  wished 
to  operate  in  Ireland,  while  the  senate  favored 
the  scheme  of  an  armed  expedition  into  Cana- 
da, and  henceforth  were  designated  by  their  op- 
ponents as  the  Canada  party.  On  Jan.  2, 1866^ 
the  fourth  Fenian  congress  assembled  in  New 
York.  More  than  400  delegates  attended  from 
Canada,  Australia,  and  all  parts  of  the  United 
States.  The  old  constitution  was  restored  and 
O^Mahony  reinstated  as  head  centre.  These 
proceedings  were  accepted  by  a  military  con- 
vention held  in  New  York,  Feb.  22 ;  but  the 
hope  of  a  permanent  reconciliation  soon  ended 
in  a  worse  misunderstanding.  The  sentences 
pronounced  in  Ireland  on  the  prisoners  did  not 
seem  to  damp  the  courage  of  the  Fenians.  On 
Feb.  24  Lord  Wodehouse  wrote  to  the  Eng- 
lish home  secretary  that  as  many  as  600  Irish- 
men from  America,  "  thoroughly  reckless,  and 
possessed  of  considerable  military  experience," 
were  known  to  be  engaged  in  swearing  in 
members  throughout  the  country;  adding : 
"  The  disaffection  of  the  population  is  alarm* 
ing,  and  is  day  by  day  spreading  more  and 
more  through  every  part  of  the  country." 
Parliament  on  Feb.  17  suspended  the  habeas 
corpus  act.  A  large  number  of  arrests  were 
made  in  Dublin,  and  before  the  end  of  March 
670  persons  had  been  taken  into  custody,  the 
number  reaching  756  at  the  accession  of  the 
Derby  ministry  in  July.  The  excitement  of 
the  Irish  element  in  America  became  uncon- 
trollable. Meetings  were  held  in  the  chief 
cities,  and  the  central  office  in  New  York  was 


FENIANS 


127 


nrged  to  immediate  action.  O^Mabony  was  at 
length  formally  imi)eached  and  deposed  by  the 
senate,  and  Col.  William  R.  Roberts  was  elected 
in  his  stead.  While  Roberts  was  preparing 
to  move  on  Canada,  O^Mahony  was  induced 
to  consent  to  an  attempt  to  occupy  the  island 
of  Campo  Bello^  New  Brunswick.  A  steamer 
was  purchased  in  New  York  early  in  April 
for  the  purpose  of  carrying  arms  to  Eastport, 
Maine,  a  few  miles  from  Campo  Bello.  The 
command  of  the  expedition  was  assumed  by 
Mi^or  B.  Doran  Killian.  Five  hundred  men 
qnietly  gathered  at  Eastport,  and  awaited  the 
arrival  of  the  steamer  with  the  arms.  But 
O'Mahony,  who  was  still  recognized  as  presi- 
dent by  a  portion  of  the  Fenians,  had  counter- 
manded the  sailing  of  the  steamer,  and  order- 
ed the  New  York  Fenians  at  Boston  to  return 
home.  From  Portland  was  now  sent  a  schooner 
with  750  stand  of  arms,  the  offering  of  Fenian 
sjrmpathizers ;  but  the  arms  were  seized  by  the 
United  States  authorities,  and  Gren.  Meade  hav- 
ing arrived*and  telegraphed  for  troops,  the  Fe- 
nians dispersed  and  made  their  way  home  as 
best  they  could.  On  May  10  Stephens  arrived 
in  New  York,  apparently  confident  that  both 
parties  would  yield  to  his  leadership.  O'Ma- 
hony,  in  order  to  facilitate  a  reunion,  gave  in 
his  resignation,  which  was  accepted,  and  Major 
Killian  was  removed  from  his  command.  The 
Roberts  party  immediately  came  to  an  issue 
with  Stephens  on  the  proposed  invasion  of 
Oanada.  This  Stephens  decidedly  opposed, 
nrgiog  that  all  present  efforts  should  be  to  raise 
money  for  the  purpose  of  helping  ^^  the  men  in 
the  gap"  in  Ireland.  These  men,  he  said, 
nombering  hundreds  of  thousands,  needed  only 
money  to  win  their  independence.  All  this 
while  both  factions  continued  bitterly  to  assail 
each  other's  motives  and  acts.  Under  the  mil- 
itary direction  of  Gen.  Thomas  W.  Sweeny, 
an  officer  of  the  American  army,  the  Roberts 
party  b^^n  to  act  about  the  middle  of  May. 
On  the  19th  1,200  stand  of  arms  were  seized 
at  Rouse's  Point,  near  the  Canadian  frontier, 
bj  the  United  States  custom-house  officers. 
From  the  29th  to  the  81  st  bodies  of  Fenians 
from  various  points  of  the  west  and  southwest 
move<l  toward  Canada,  and  a  new  seizure  of 
arms  was  made  at  St.  Albans  on  the  SOth  by 
the  United  States  authorities.  The  Canadian 
government  put  the  entire  militia  of  the  west- 
ern provinces  under  arms,  and  they  took  the 
field  under  Sir  John  Mitchell,  while  companies 
of  volunteers  and  regulars  were  sent  to  the 
various  threatened  points.  On  June  1,  1,200 
or  1,600  Fenians  under  Col.  O^NeiU  crossed  the 
Niagara  river  at  Buffalo  and  took  possession  of 
an  unoccupied  work  called  Fort  Erie.  On  the 
2d  they  were  attacked  at  a  place  called  Lime- 
stone Ridge,  and  held  their  position,  losing 
several  killed  and  wounded  and  many  prison- 
ers. They  withdrew  the  same  night,  and  700 
were  intercepted  by  the  United  States  gunboat 
Michigan.  Subsequently  Gen.  Barry,  in  com- 
niand  of  the  frontier,  paroled  1,500  upon  their 

816  VOL.  viL — 9 


promising  to  return  to  their  homes,  and  to  de- 
sist in  future  from  any  violation  of  the  neutral- 
ity laws;  the  officers  being  required  to  give 
bail  to  appear  and  answer  when  required  for 
an  infraction  of  the  laws.  The  Fenians  con- 
tinued to  pour  into  Buffalo,  but  were  ordered 
back  by  their  commanding  officers.  Along  the 
frontier  of  Vermont  Gen.  Meade  concentrated 
a  large  force  of  United  States  troops.  The 
president  issued  a  proclamation  of  neutrality, 
and  gave  orders  for  the  arrest  of  the  Fenian 
leaders.  On  June  7  Gen.  Sweeny  and  his  staff 
were  arrested  in  St.  Albans,  Roberts  in  New 
York,  and  several  others  in  Buffalo.  Roberts 
having  refused  to  give  parole  or  bail,  was  de- 
tained in  jail  for  several  days,  and  then  released. 
During  this  period  large  sums  of  money  were 
contributed ;  and  the  proposed  rising  in  Ireland 
was  made  the  occasion  of  a  "  final  call  *'  for 
funds,  issued  Aug.  25,  1865.  From  that  date 
up  to  April,  1866,  the  sum  of  (250,000  was 
contributed  by  the  Fenian  brotherhood,  of 
which  the  British  government  intercepted 
$42,000,  and  $8,500  were  lost  by  an  agent  in 
Ireland.  To  counteract  the  effect  of  these 
disasters  Stephens  pledged  his  word  that  there 
should  be  a  fight  in  Ireland  within  the  coming 
year.  In  September  Roberts  summoned  a 
congress  in  Troy,  which  was  numerously  at- 
tended. The  case  of  Col.  R.  B.  Lynch  and  a 
priest  named  McMahon,  who  had  been  taken 
prisoners  at  limestone  Ridge,  tried,  and  con- 
demned to  death,  served  for  a  time  to  keep  idive 
public  attention  in  the  United  States;  but 
through  the  good  offices  of  the  American  gov- 
ernment, these  sentences  were  conmiuted.  In 
December  Stephens  called  a  meetmg  of  Fenian 
centres  in  New  York,  in  which  future  plans  of 
action  in  Ireland  were  discussed.  He  was  op- 
posed to  any  overt  attempt  under  present  cir- 
cumstances ;  and  to  convince  his  followers  that 
his  advice  was  not  the  result  of  personal  fear, 
he  professed  his  readiness  to  go  at  once  to  Eng- 
land and  allow  the  British  authorities  to  do 
their  worst  upon  him.  But  while  rejecting 
this  offer,  the  party  of  action  would  not  accede 
to  their  chiefs  prudent  counsels.  About  50 
persons  were  sent,  in  conformity  with  the> 
promise  of  another  rising  wrung  from  Stephens^ 
as  ^^ commissaries ^'  to  Great  Britain;  among 
them  were  the  two  *^  centres ''  Kelly  and  Dea'* 
sy,  and  Godfrey  Massey. — The  invasion  of  Canr 
ada,  the  publicity  given  in  America  to  the  de* 
signs  of  the  Fenian  leaders,  the  agitation  fos- 
tered on  both  sides  of  the  Atiantic  on  the  occa- 
sion of  the  condemnation  to  death  of  Lynch 
and  McMahon,  and  above  all  the  exact  infor^ 
mation  obtained  by  the  British  authorities  firomi 
agents  in  the  Fenian  ranks,  caused  a  second! 
suspension  of  the  habeas  corpus  act,  Aug.  10*. 
A  reward  of  £2,000  was  offered  in.  November 
for  the  apprehension  of  Stephens,.said  to  be  on 
his  way  to  Ireland ;  fresh  regiments  were  sent 
to  the  latter  country ;  and  97  Veading  emissa- 
ries of  the  brotherhood  were  arrested  and  im- 
prisoned under  the  viceroy^a  warrant. .  It  therar- 


128 


FENIANS 


fore  behooved  Massey  and  his  confederates  to 
be  wary.  Having  resolved,  to  make  England 
the  principal  field  of  action,  they  established  a 
"  central  directory  "  of  15  members  in  London, 
while  subordinate  directories  were  formed  in 
Liverpool,  Manchester,  Birmingham,  Leeds, 
and  Glasgow.  Massey,  after  making  a  tour  of 
inspection  in  Ireland,  reported  the  organization 
there  to  be  so  numerous  and  well  appointed 
that  a  rising  was  forthWitli  resolved  upon,  and 
a  plan  of  campaign  adopted.  The  castle  of 
Chester  was  garrisoned  by  a  company  belong- 
ing to  an  Irish  regiment,  and  in  it  was  stored  a 
considerable  quantity  of  arms  and  ammunition. 
A  plan  was  formed  to  seize  these,  and  the  11th 
of  February  was  fixed  upon  for  its  execution. 
On  the  lodi  the  directory  met  in  Liverpool  to 
arrange  the  last  details  for  the  morrow^s  opera- 
tions. At  midnight  the  magistrates  of  Liver- 
pool were  fully  informed  of  everything  by  one 
Congdon,  who  exhibited  a  commission  in  the 
Union  army  and  another  in  the  Fenian  service. 
In  less  than  half  an  hour  the  mayor  of  Chester 
was  warned  of  his  danger,  and  he  hastened  to 
post  a  strong  body  of  men  in  the  castle.  From 
2i  A.  M.  every  train  arriving  in  Chester  brought 
many  Fenians,  until  their  number  reached  some 
1,200  at  4i  P.  M.  At  that  hour  a  company  of 
regular  troops  arrived  from  Manchester,  and  a 
regiment  of  the  guards  was  promised  from  Lon- 
don. Numbers  of  special  constables  had  mean- 
while been  sworn  in  and  armed.  The  Fenians 
saw  they  had  been  betrayed,  and  after  some  fu- 
tile demonstrations  dispersed  under  cover  of 
night.  It  was  now  impossible  for  the  directory 
to  countermand  in  time  the  simultaneous  rising 
in  Ireland,  where  the  government  had  also  been 
informed  of  everything,  and  had  taken  pre- 
cautionary measures.  Eillarney  had  been  cho- 
sen as  the  centre  of  Fenian  operations  in  the 
south,  and  Capt.  O^Connor  was  intrusted  with 
the  command.  But  at  noon  on  Feb.  12  the 
frigate  Gladiator,  at  anchor  in  Yalentia  bay, 
landed  her  marines  to  protect  and  assist  the 
coast  guard.  At  the  same  hour  Capt.  Moriarty 
was  t^en  prisoner,  and  a  body  of  800  Fenians 
were  dispersed  without  any  serious  resistance. 
Another  large  body  withdrew  into  the  Toomies 
mountains,  but  fled  before  the  advance  of  the 
military.  The  attack  on  Chester  castle  and 
this  rising  in  the  south  of  Ireland  were,  in  the 
conception  of  the  directory,  only  preliminaries 
to  a  general  insurrectionary  movement  through- 
out Ireland,  which  was  to  take  place  on  March 
6.  This,  it  was  commonly  believed,  was  the 
day  fixed  in  Canada  for  the  execution  of 
Fenian  prisoners.  But  on  March  8  Godfrey 
Massey,  who  had  come  over  from  England 
with  final  instructions,  was  taken  prisoner  at 
Limerick  station.  He  divulged  to  the  British 
government  everything  pertaining  to  the  pres- 
ent plans  and  organization  of  the  Fenian  body, 
and  its  history.  However,  on  the  6th  the  ri- 
sing took  place  in  Dublin,  in  accordance  with 
the  orders  issued  by  the  leaders.  After  dark, 
along  every  road  which  led  from  the  capital 


and  the  neighboring  towns  to  Tullaght  hill, 
numerous  bodies  of  men  were  seen  advancing 
in  silence,  and  arming  themselves  at  certain 
places  on  their  way.  A  band  of  mounted  po- 
licemen attacked  and  drove  back  a  column  of 
several  hundred  Fenians,  who  in  the  darkness, 
unaware  of  the  extent  of  the  attacking  force, 
were  stricken  with  a  panic  which  became 
general.  About  the  same  hour  a  body  of 
1,000  partly  armed  men  took  possession  of 
the  police  barracks  and  the  city  hall  of  Drog- 
heda,  and  held  them  throughout  the  6th ;  but 
finding  no  sympathy  among  the  citizens,  they 
disappeared  during  the  night.  In  Munster 
the  insurrection  was  pretty  general;  but  be- 
yond tearing  up  railway  tracks,  destroying 
telegraphic  lines,  and  attacking  isolated  posts 
of  constabulary  and  coast  guards,  nothing  came 
of  the  movement  in  the  south  of  Ireland.  A 
considerable  force  of  insurgents  took  refuge  in 
the  Galtee  hills,  whence  they  were  soon  driven 
by  a  heavy  fall  of  snow.  The  special  commis- 
sion appointed  to  try  the  Fenian  prisoners  be- 
gan its  session  in  Dublin  on  April  8.  In  the 
subsequent  trials  T.  F.  Burke  was  condemned 
to  death  in  Dublin,  and  John  McCafTerty  in 
Cork,  but  their  sentences  were  afterward  com- 
muted to  penal  servitude  for  life. — Stephens  had 
meanwhile  been  relieved  of  the  management 
of  the  Fenian  organization,  and  the  direction 
was  vested  in  a  committee  until  the  fifth  con- 
gress met  in  New  York,  Feb.  27,  1867.  It 
elected  as  central  executive  A.  A.  Griffin; 
much  money  was  raised  and  many  measures 
were  projected  to  aid  "  the  men  in  the  gap/' 
The  president  of  the  United  States  was  vainly 
appealed  to  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  belli- 
gerent rights  for  the  Fenians.  Toward  the  end 
of  May  a  second  invasion  of  Canada  began  to  be 
talked  of.  Large  bodies  of  men  were  seen  drill- 
ing in  Detroit  and  Bufifalo,  and  recruiting  of- 
fices were  k.ept  open  by  the  Fenians ;  and  St. 
Albans  and  Ogdensburgh  were  spoken  of  as  de- 
pots of  military  stores  and  points  of  departure 
for  a  new  expedition.  But  the  United  States 
authorities  exerted  the  utmost  vigilance,  and 
orders  were  issued  on  July  80  for  the  arrest 
of  all  who  should  attempt  any  violation  of  the 
neutrality  laws.  The  parent  organization  of 
the  Fenian  brotherhood  had,  however,  des- 
patched in  April  an  expedition  to  Ireland.  On 
April  18  the  brig  Erin^s  Hope  sailed  from  New 
York  with  5,500  stand  of  arms,  8  batteries  of 
artillery,  1,000  sabres,  5,000,000  rounds  of 
small  ammunition,  a  large  supply  of  artillery 
ammunition,  equipments  for  a  brigade,  and  89  ' 
officers  of  every  grade  of  infantry,  cavalry,  ar- 
tillery, and  engineers.  On  May  18  she  made 
Black  Eock,  12  miles  from  the  mouth  of  Done- 
gal bay,  and  in  a  week  got  into  communication 
with  parties  on  shore.  She  remained  20  days 
on  the  coast  of  Ireland  and  four  on  that  of 
England,  and  made  three  landings  on  the 
former  and  one  on  the  latter.  Several  of  the 
officers  set  ashore  were  captured;  but  the 
military  stores  were  brought  ba^^k  to  New 


FENIANS 


129 


York.  The  return  of  the  Erin's  Hope  pre- 
yented  the  sailing  of  a  second  vessel  already 
half  fitted  np.  Meanwhile  a  **  provisional  gov- 
ernment ''  had  been  directing  the  movements 
of  the  home  organization.  In  June,  1867, 
three  of  the  directors  brought  against  the 
fourth  charges  which  compelled  the  dissolution 
of  that  body  in  July.  Toward  the  end  of  that 
month  a  convention  of  delegates  in  Manchester 
elected  Thomas  J.  Kelly  central  executive  of 
the  Irish  republic.  This  did  not  meet  the  ap- 
proval of  the  revolutionists,  and  another  con- 
vention in  the  following  winter  appointed  a 
BQpreme  council  of  the  I.  R.  B.,  consisting  of 
seven  members.  Thus  arose  in  the  home  or- 
ganization a  division  similar  to  that  which 
paralyzed  the  Fenian  brotherhood  in  America. 
The  sixth  national  congress  of  the  Fenian  bro- 
therhood, embracing  delegates  from  18  states 
and  the  British  provinces,  assembled  in  New 
York  Aug.  21.  The  object  of  this  convoca- 
tion was  to  reconstruct  the  brotherhood  to 
meet  the  altered  aspect  of  affairs  in  Ireland. 
The  constitution  was  slightly  amended,  and 
John  Savage  was  made  chief  executive.  He 
found  the  treasury  not  only  empty  but  sev- 
eral thousand  dollars  in  debt,  and  saw  that 
neither  the  time  nor  the  means  warranted 
armed  collision.  He  therefore  proclaimed  a 
new  era,  to  be  based  on  discipline,  obedience, 
and  intelligence. — The  directory  in  England 
now  set  about  "organizing  militarily"  the 
Irish  population  throughout  Great  Britain,  in 
order  to  keep  the  government  in  constant 
alarm.  During  the  night  of  Sept.  18-14  the 
police  of  Manchester  attempted  to  arrest  four 
men  of  suspicious  appearance;  two  of  them 
escaped,  and  the  others  proved  to  be  Ool. 
T.  J.  Kelly  and  his  aid,  Oapt.  Deasy.  On 
the  18th  the  van  in  which  they  were  con- 
dacted  to  prison  was  attacked,  the  prisoners 
were  rescued,  and  Sergeant  Brett,  in  charge 
of  the  van,  was  killed.  Subseouently  five 
persons,  Allen,  O'Brien,  Larkin,  Maguire,  and 
Condon,  were  arrested,  tried  in  Manchester, 
and  condemned  to  death  (Nov.  13),  though 
protesting  their  innocence.  From  the  moment 
of  Brett's  assassination  every  city  in  Great 
Britain  was  kept  in  a  state  of  excitement  and 
alarm,  and  several  depots  of  arms  and  ammu- 
nition belonging  to  volunteer  regiments  were 
seized  by  the  Fenians.  This  excitement  cul- 
minated with  the  condemnation  of  the  Man- 
chester prisoners.  Efforts  were  made  to  ob- 
tain a  commutation  of  the  sentence  of  the  chief 
offenders;  but  neither  the  home  secretary  nor 
the  qneen  would  receive  the  deputations  sent 
to  them,  nor  were  the  attempts  made  to  carry 
an  appeal  to  a  higher  court  more  successful. 
Allen,  O'Brien,  and  Larkin  were  executed  Nov. 
23,  Maguire  and  Condon  having  been  reprieved. 
On  Nov.  24  the  Irish  population  of  Manchester 
and  London  turned  out  en  masse  to  march  in 
funeral  procession  in  honor  of  the  dead.  A 
week  later  Dublin  witnessed  a  similar  and 
more  imposing  pageant    The  3d  of  December 


had  been  appointed  for  like  demonstrations 
in  Liverpool,  Leeds,  Glasgow,  Cork,  and  Wa- 
terford;  but  the  authorities  forbade  them. 
On  Nov.  28  Col.  Burke,  a  well  known  Fenian 
leader,  was  arrested  by  the  London  police, 
and  with  him  one  Casey,  who  had  made  a 
most  determined  effort  to  rescue  him.  They 
were  both  lodged  in  Clerkenwell  bridewell. 
On  Dec.  IB,  between  2  and  3  o'clock  P.  M.,  a 
barrel  of  powder  which  had  been  brought 
through  the  narrow  and  populous  Corporation 
lane  to  the  foot  of  the  high  wall  enclosing  the 
prison  exploded,  blowing  down  the  wall,  shat- 
tering all  the  neighboring  houses,  killing  6 
persons  on  the  spot,  and  wounding  120  others, 
11  of  whom  subsequently  died;  but  the  es- 
cape of  Burke,  the  supposed  object  of  the  ex- 
plosion, was  not  effected.  Amid  the  universal 
alarm  and  indignation,  incendiary  fires  broke 
out  in  various  parts  of  London.  Thousands 
of  special  constables  were  sworn  in  daily  in 
London  for  several  weeks,  until  the  number 
amounted  to  50,000.  The  other  cities  contain- 
ing any  considerable  Irish  population  followed 
this  example.  Five  men  and  one  woman  were 
subsequently  arrested  for  complicity  in  this 
outrage,  one  of  whom,  Michael  Barrett,  was 
found  guilty  of  murder.  The  Fenians  did  not 
abate  their  activity  in  Ireland  after  the  execu- 
tions in  Manchester  and  the  Clerkenwell  ex-' 
plosion.  A  large  number  of  revolvers  had  found 
their  way  into  the  hands  of  the  initiated.  On 
Feb.  T,  1868,  Capt.  Mackay  (Lomasney),  who 
had  been  the  foremost  leader  in  the  March  in- 
surrection of  the  last  year,  was  arrested  in  Cork 
with  several  others.  The  arrest  led  to  riotous 
assemblages,  in  which  firearms  were  used,  and 
which  were  speedily  suppressed.  The  Irish 
residents  of  London  on  Feb.  11  presented 
an  address  to  the  queen  expressive  of  tiheir 
loyalty,  and  repudiating  the  acts  of  the  Fe- 
nians; it  was  signed  by  nearly  28,000  persons. 
Two  events  also  occurred  in  the  following 
months  which  alienated  much  sympathy  from 
the  Fenian  cause.  On  March  11  the  duke 
of  Edinburgh  was  dangerously  wounded  by  a 
man  named  O'Farrel  in  Port  Jackson,  Australia. 
The  assassin,  though  accused  of  being  a  Fenian, 
protested  with  his  dying  breath  that  he  was 
not.  On  April  7  Thomas  Darcy  McGee,  a 
member  of  the  Canadian  ministry,  was  killed 
on  the  steps  of  his  own  door ;  his  opposition  to 
Fenianism  was  alleged  as  the  motive  for  the 
deed.  These  events  so  wrought  on  the  public 
mind  in  England,  that  every  effort  made  to 
obtain  a  commutation  of  the  death  penalty  in 
the  case  of  Michael  Barrett  utterly  failed,  and 
he  was  executed,  May  26.  They  had  also  an 
effect  on  the  trials  of  Burke  and  Mackay,  who 
were  sentenced  to  15  and  12  years^  p«ial  servi- 
tude. The  conviction  had  now  become  general 
that  Fenianism  was  crushed.  On  July  81  the 
queen  in  dosing  the  session  of  parliament  de- 
clared that  ^^the  cessation  of  the  long  con- 
tinued efforts  to  promote  rebellion  in  Ireland 
has  for  some  time  rendered  unnecessary  the 


130 


FENIANS 


FENNEO 


exercise  by  the  executive  of  exceptional  powers. 
I  r^'oice  to  learn  that  no  person  is  now  detained 
under  the  provisions  of  the  act  for  the  sas- 
pension  of  the  habeas  corpus,  and  that  no 
prisoner  awaits  trial  in  Ireland  for  an  offence 
connected  with  the  Fenian  conspiracy." — The 
seventh  Fenian  congress  assembled  in  New 
YorJc,  Aug.  24,  1868,  and  on  the  ilext  day  a 
"union  convention  of  independent  circles  and 
clubs "  met  in  the  same  city  to  devise  means 
of  ending  the  division  in  the  Fenian  ranks. 
Both  bodies  agreed  in  creating  a  commission 
to  proceed  to  Europe,  and  endeavor  to  har- 
monize the  confiicting  claims  for  the  control 
of  the  "  home  organization,"  and  to  secure  a 
govei^ning  body  on  the  American  elective  prin- 
ciple, which  would  represent  officiaUy  all  the 
"nationalists"  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland. 
Mr.  Savage  was  chosen  for  this  mission,  and 
proceeded  at  once  to  Paris,  where  in  a  con- 
ference held  in  January,  1869,  the  project  was 
successfully  carried  out.  It  now  became  the 
purpose  of  the  Fenian  leaders  in  America 
and  Ireland  to  obtain  the  release  of  their  im- 

grisoned  friends,  and  to  induce  the  United 
tates  government  to  interfere  in  favor  of  sev- 
eral of  them  who  were  naturalized  citizens. 
The  corporation  of  Dublin  proceeded  to  Lon- 
don in  a  body,  and  appeared,  with  the  lord 
mayor  at  its  head,  at  the  bar  of  the  house  of 
commons,  with  a  petition  of  amnesty  for  the 
prisoners.  The  English  government,  yielding 
to  these  solicitations,  granted  a  free  pardon  to 
several.  The  combined  and  persistent  efforts 
made  in  favor  of  amnesty  for  the  prisoners 
were  coupled  everywhere  with  a  demand  for 
tenant  right.  This  double  agitation  assumed 
such  proportions  that  in  the  autumn  the  gov- 
ernment sent  additional  regiments  to  Ireland. 
In  the  United  States  the  Fenian  brotherhood 
was  legally. ctMPtered  in  August,  under  the  act 
incorporating  'ben  evolent  societies.  Th  e  eighth 
congress  assembled  in  New  York,  Aug.  25, 1869. 
Mr.  Savage  reported  the  union  e&cted'  be- 
tween the  'branches  of  the  brotherhood  in 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  and  the  progress 
both  in  nurabei's  and  character  made  by  it  in 
the  United  States.  He  also  denied  officially 
a  report  that  Fenianism  had  entered  into  a 
league  with  European  socialism.  This  year 
1869  was  rendered  memorable  by  the  disestab- 
lishment of  the  Irish  church,  and  this  measure 
was  followed  up  by  the  passage  in  1870  of  an 
Irish  land  bill.  The  Fenians  claim  both  these 
measures  as  the  le^timate  offispring  of  their 
efforts;  and  some  English  statesmen  avowed 
that  they  were  the  necessary  consequences  of 
the  Fenian  agitation.  The  rigors  to  which  the 
Fenian  prisoners  were  subjected  furnished  a 
fertile  topic  for  continued  agitation.  The  sub- 
ject had  been  brought  before  congress  in  De- 
cember, 1869 ;  and  on  Feb.  10, 1 870,  the  house  of 
representatives  by  resolution  condemned  such 
cruelty,  and  urged  the  president  to  interfere  in 
behalf  of  the  victims.  In  Ireland  J.  O'Dono- 
^an-Rossa,  while  a  prisoner,  had  been  elect- 


ed to  parliament  for  the  county  of  Tipperary ; 
the  elecUon  was  declared  void,  and  Mr.  C.  J. 
Xickham,  a  recently  released  Fenian  convioL 
was  proposed  for  the  vacancy,  but  failed  or 
election.  Thus  was  the  popular  sentiment 
kept  in  continual  effervescence  among  the  Irish 
in  Great  Britain,  while  in  the  United  States 
the  senate  party  on  May  24  assembled  another 
expedition  on  the  Canadian  frontier.  President 
Grant  lost  no  time  in  issuing  a  proclamation 
against  the  raiders,  and  Gen.  Meade  hastened 
to  the  border  to  enforce  it.  Col.  O'Neill  and 
several  of  his  officers  were  imprisoned,  and  the 
men  and  arms  were  seized  by  the  United  States 
authorities.  The  ninth  congress  of  the  Fenian 
brotherhood  assembled  in  New  York  on  Aug. 
80.  O'Neill,  in  his  prison  in  Windsor,  Vt., 
signed  an  agreement  on  Sept.  7,  in  the  name 
of  his  adherents,  by  which  they  were  reunited 
to  the  parent  society.  The  British  govern- 
ment, after  witnessing  this  last  impotent  effort 
at  invasion,  and  passing  the  Irish  land  bill, 
granted  in  December  a  partial  amnesty  to 
the  political  prisoners,  on  condition  that  they 
should  quit  British  soil  for  ever.    In  February, 

1871,  Mr.  Savage  insisted  on  laying  down  his 
charge  in  the  brotherhood ;  his  resignation  was 
accepted  by  the  tenth  congress  on  March  21, 
and  the  office  was  abolished,  and  the  direction 
vested  in  an  executive  council.  A  committee 
appointed  to  investigate  the  past  financial 
affairs  of  the  brotherhood  reported  that  the 
total  amount  received  in  a  little  more  than  12 
years  was  $626,048,  of  which  $425,254  were 
*'  expended  for  Irish  revolutionary  purposes  di- 
rect," and  $197,669  were  "  expended  in  Amer- 
ica." The  report  states  that  of  the  amount 
expended  in  America,  at  least  two  thirds  were 
not  for  organizing  purposes  and  office  salaries, 
but  *^for  objects  indirectly  connected  with  the 
cause  of  the  revolution  in  the  British  islands, 
such  as  the  purchase  of  arms  and  vessels,  the 
pay  of  armorers,  the  rent  of  armories,  the  snp« 
port  of  men  sent  here  on  duty  from  Ireland, 
the  relief  of  refugees  (a  vast  sum),  and  the  sup- 
port of  the  families  of  some  of  the  officers  and 
men  sent  on  duty  to  Ireland  and  England." 
The  11th  Fenian  congress,  which  met  Aug.  20, 

1872,  reduced  the  number  of  the  executive 
council  to  10,  to  be  elected  by  congress,  inclu- 
ding a  chief  secretary  who  is  the  executive 
officer  of  the  organization,  a  position  at  pres- 
ent (November,  1878)  held  by  John  O'Mahony. 

FENNEC,  an  African  canine  animal,  resem- 
bling a  diminutive  fox,  belonging  to  the  genus 
megalotis  (Illiger).  So  vulpine  is  its  look,  that 
Mr.  Gray,  in  his  catalogue  of  the  British  mu- 
seum, calls  it  Tulpes  Zaarensu  (Ski6ld.).  When 
first  described  by  Bruce  the  traveller,  its  zo- 
ological position  was  so  ill  determined  that 
Buffon,  who  gives  a  good  figure  of  the  animal, 
called  it  Vanonyme;  it  was  referred  to  rodents 
and  quadrumana  by  others;  Zimmerroann, 
from  tne  examination  of  the  teeth,  seems  first 
to  have  detected  its  dog-like  affinities,  and 
placed  it  in  tlie  genus  canU  ;  but  whoever  dis- 


FENNEL 

covered  its  tme  position,  tbere  can  ba  no  donbt 
tbat  it  belongs  at  the  end  of  the  canine  faniil; 
of  digitlgrade  camivora.  From  the  enormons 
comparative  aize  of  the  ears  lUiger  establiBbed 
the  genus  mtgahtit,  which  does  not  appear  to 
differ  much  from  vu^ei;  taking  this  well  se- 
lected  name  of  the  genus,  and  the  name  of  its 
flrat  scientific  describer  for  the  species,  it  maj 
properk  be  called  M.  Brueei  (Griff.).  Accord- 
ing' to  Bmoe,  the  aniiDal  is  9  or  10  in.  long, 
with  a  foi;  snoQt,  ears  half  as  long  as  the  body 
and  broad  in  proportion ;  the  color  whit«, 
mlied  with  gray  and  fawn  color;  the  tail  yel- 
low, dark  at  the  end,  long,  with  softand  bashy 
hair  like  that  of  a  fox ;  the  ears  tliin,  and  raar- 
gtned  with  white  hairs.  Tlie  dentition,  general 
appearance,  and  habits  are  canine ;  the  feet 
are  fonr-toed,  with  the  rudiment  of  a  fifth, 
and  the  nails  are  not  retractile  as  Desmaresl 
at  first  snpposed.  It  inhabits  northern  Afri- 
ca, particalarly  Abysunia,  Nubia,  and  Egypt 
There  seems  to  be  a  second  species,  nearly 
nllied  to  bat  different  from  Brace's  fenneo,  the 
M.  Lalandii  (H.  Smith) ;   this  is  gray,  with 


FENTON 


X31 


FsDoec  (UegiloUt  Braoel). 

the  hairs  of  the  dorsal  line  longer  and  blacker 
than  the  rest,  and  the  tafted  tail  black  with  a 
gray  base.  ROppell  gives  the  discovery  of  the 
flnt  speoies  to  8ki5lde brand,  a  Swede,  whom 
Bruce  accases  of  supplanting  him  by  an  un- 
worthy artifice ;  he  calls  the  fenneo  eanu  terda 
(Zimm.),  and  makes  it  23  in.  long,  inclndinfi  the 
(ail,  which  is  8  in.  It  lives  in  holes  which  it 
digs  in  the  sands  nf  the  desert,  and  not  in 
trees  as  is  supposed  by  iiriice;  it  is  shy,  very 
quick  in  its  motions,  and  solitary  ;  its  food 
consists  mainly  of  insects,  especially  locusts, 
p^gB,  dates,  and  other  sweet  fruits,  and  proba- 
bly small  animals;  its  bark  resembles  that  of 
a  Aog,  but  is  more  shrill ;  the  internal  orifice 
uf  the  eiir  is  said  to  be  very  small.  It  is 
■ome times  called  zerda. 

FEKNQ.  {fitnieulvm,  Koel.),  a  genus  of  um- 
belliferous plants,  to  which  the  IJritish  Rpecies 
(P.  miljfare,  WiUd.),  found  on  chalky  cliffs  in 
the  southern  parte  of  England,  belongs.  It  is 
^cultivated  for  the  sake  of  the  pleasant  aromat- 


States.    Its  leaves  a 


Into  finely  cut  and  almost  hair-like  legnments; 
its  flowers  are  yellow,  and  the  stalks  of  the 
plant  are  glaucous.  Once  introduced  into  the 
garden,  it  propagates  itself  for  years.  A  more 
attractive  kind  is  the  finochio  or  Azorean  foa- 
nel  (F.  duke),  an  annual  cultivated  in  Italy  as 


ftnn*]  (Fanteahun  Tolgin). 

celery  is  with  us.  Several  other  species  of  fen- 
nel are  known,  some  of  which  are  admired 
for  their  pungenoy^  Two  kinds  of  fennel  seed 
are  found  in  the  shops,  one  being  sweeter  than 
the  other.  It  contains  &  volatile  oil  of  agreea- 
ble odor,  and  is  used  in  medicine  as  an  aromatic. 
It  yields  its  virtue  to  hot  water  and  alcohol. 
The  seeds  of  the  shops  are  obtained  partly 
ftom  this  country,  but  mostly  from  Germany. 
The  odor  of  the  seed  and  of  the  plant  is  fra- 
grant, and  its  taste  agreeable  to  most  people. 
The  infosion,  prepared  by  adding  two  or  three 
drams  of  the  seeds  to  boiling  water,  is  the  beet 
form  for  administering  it.  It  lessens  the  dis- 
agreeable taste  of  senna  and  rhubarb,  and  acta 
generally  as  a  carminative. 

FENTUN.  I.  Mward,  an  English  navigator, 
bom  in  Nottinghamshire  about  IGSO,  died  at 
Deptford  in  1908.  He  served  for  some  time  in 
the  English  army  in  Ireland,  bnt  joined  in  1C7T 
one  of  Frobisher's  expeditions  for  the  discov- 
ery of  a  northwest  passage  to  Asia.  The  fleet 
being  scattered  by  storms,  Fenton  returned  to 
Bristol.  Another  cipeditiou  in  which  lie  took 
part  ended  disastrously.  Early  in  1GS2  he  was 
placed  in  command  of  an  expedition  of  four 
armed  vessels,  and  sailed  for  Brazil  with  the 
ostensible  purpose  of  passing  the  strait  of  Ma- 
gellan. Ho  however  put  in  at  St.  Vincent, 
where  he  destroyed  the  flag  ship  of  a  Spanish 
squadron.  In  15S8  he  gained  mnch  credit  as 
commander  of  a  vessel  against  the  Spanish  ar- 
mada. 11.  Sir  (i«^k«Tt  an  English  author  and 
statesman,  elder  brother  of  the  preceding,  died 
in  Dublin,  Oct.  19,  1608.  He  received  a  good 
education,  and  acquired  literary  distinction, 
especially  by  translating  from  the  Italian  Gnio- 


132 


FENTRESS 


FERDINAND  (Gebmant) 


oiardini's  "  History  of  the  Wars  of  Italy,"  which 
he  dedicated  to  Queen  Elizabeth  (1579).  He 
afterward  became  the  principal  secretary  of 
state  for  Ireland,  and  exerted  great  influence 
in  restoring  there  loyalty  and  tranquillity.  His 
daughter  became  in  1603  the  second  wife  of 
Richard  Boyle,  the  great  earl  of  Cork.  He 
published  a  number  of  other  works,  the  best 
known  of  which  are  "  Golden  Epistles,"  gath- 
ered from  the  works  of  Guevara  and  other 
foreign  authors.  IIL  EQah,  an  English  poet, 
of  the  same  family  with  the  preceding,  born 
in  Shelton,  Staffordshire,  May  20, 1688,  died  in 
East  Hampstead,  Berkshire,  July  18, 1730.  He 
studied  at  Cambridge,  but  becoming  a  nonjuror 
he  was  otfiged  to  leave  the  university,  after 
which  he  accompanied  the  earl  of  Orrery  to 
Flanders  as  private  secretary.  On  his  return 
to  England  in  1705,  he  was  employed  in  school 
teaching.  Afterward  the  earl  of  Orrery  con- 
fided to  him  the  education  of  his  son,  and  six 
years  later  Fenton  became  associated  with 
Pope  in  a  version  of  the  Odyssey.  According 
to  Dr.  Johnson,  Fenton  translated  the  1st,  4th, 
19th,  and  20th  books.  In  1723  a  tragedy  en- 
titled **Mariamne"  gained  him  more  than 
£1,000.  In  1727  he  published  a  new  edition 
of  Milton^s  works,  with  a  brief  life  of  the  au- 
thor, and  in  1729  a  fine  annotated  edition  of 
Waller's  poems. 

FEBTTRESS,  a  N.  E.  county  of  Tennessee, 
bordering  on  Kentucky,  and  drained  by  sev- 
eral afiluents  of  Cumberland  river ;  area,  670 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  4,717,  of  whom  170  were 
colored.  The  surface  consists  principally  of 
high  table  lands  of  the  Cumberland  mountains, 
affording  excellent  pastures.  Timber  is  abun- 
dant, and  coal  is  found  in  various  places.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  10,889  bushels  of 
wheat,  109,084  of  Indian  com,  24,067  of  oats, 
and  11,718  of  potatoes.  There  were  942 
horses,  4,624  cattle,  5,021  «heep,  and  12,017 
swine.    Capital,  Jamestown. 

FENWICK,  Gtwg^  proprietor  of  part  of  Con- 
necticut, died  in  1657.  He  came  to  America 
in  1686  to  take  charge  of  the  plantation 
of  Saybrook,  so  called  after  Lords  Say  and 
Brook,  who  with  others  had  in  1632  procured 
a  patent  for  the  territory  from  Robert,  earl 
of  Warwick.  Returning  to  England,  he  came 
back  again  in  1689,  and  from  that  time,  as 
one  of  the  patentees  and  agent  for  the  oth- 
ers, superintended  and  governed  the  settlement 
Saybrook  till  1644,  when  he  sold  its  juris- 
diction and  territory  to  the  Connecticut  col- 
ony, as  his  associates  had  given  up  their  con- 
templated removal  to  America.  He  after- 
ward returned  to  England,  where  he  became 
a  colonel  in  the  parliamentary  army,  and  was 
appointed  one  of  the  judges  of  Charles  I. 

FEODOR,  or  Fe4«r  (Theodore),  the  name 
of  three  emperors  of  Russia. — Fe*dw  !•,  born 
about  1557,  died  in  January,  1598.  He  was  a 
son  of  Ivan  IV.,  the  Terrible,  and  succeeded 
him  in  March,  1584.  Noted  for  his  incapacity, 
his  brother-in-law,  Boris  Feodorovitch  Godu- 


noff,  became  the  virtual  ruler  of  the  empire, 
and  succeeded  to  the  throne  after  having  caused 
the  assassination  of  Feodor^s  brother  Deme- 
trius. Feodor  himself,  the  last  of  the  house  of 
Rurik,  was  believed  to  have  been  poisoned. — 
Feodw  IL,  son  of  Boris  Godunoff,  was  dethroned 
and  murdered  in  June,  1605,  after  a  reign  of 
two  months,  by  the  partisans  of  the  first  pseu- 
do-Demetrius.— FeMlar  III.  (also  designated  II.), 
elder  son  of  the  czar  Alexis,  bom  in  May, 
1661,  died  May  8,  1682.  He  succeeded  his 
father  in  1676,  was  engaged  in  warfare  with 
Poland  and  Turkey,  curbed  the  power  of  the 
nobility,  established  in  1680  the  first  Russian 
school  in  Moscow,  and  introduced  other  re- 
forms. He  excluded  from  the  succession  his 
imbecile  brotl^r  Ivan,  and  bequeathed  die 
throne  to  his  half  brother  Peter  the  Great. 

FE0D06IA.    See  Eaffa. 

FEEDUfiNDy  the  name  of  several  European 
sovereigns,  arranged  below  under  the  heads  of 
Germany,  Naples,  Spain,  and  Tuscany ;  Austria 
being  included  under  Germany,  Sicily  under 
Naples,  and  Aragon  and  Castile  under  Spain. 

I.   GESMANT. 

FERDOrAND  L,  emperor  of  Germany,  son 
of  Philip  I.  of  Spain  and  younger  brother 
of  Charles  Y.,  bom  at  Alcal4,  Spain,  in  1503, 
died  July  25,  1564.  After  the  death  of  his 
grandfather,  the  emperor  Maximilian  I.,  he 
received  as  his  share  of  the  dominions  of  the 
house  of  Hapsburg  the  duchy  of  Austria  and 
other  German  possessions.  In  1521  he  married 
Anna,  sister  of  Louis  II.,  king  of  Hungary  and 
Bohemia,  who  in  1526  fell  at  the  battle  of 
Moh4cs  and  left  no  issue.  Ferdinand  claimed 
the  right  of  succession  in  the  name  of  his  wife, 
and  by  right  of  previous  family  compacts. 
The  states  of  Bohemia  acknowledged  him,  but 
in  Hungary  a  strong  party  declared  for  John 
Zipolya,  waywode  of  Transylvania.  Ferdi- 
nand marched  against  Zipolya,  and  his  gen- 
eral Nicholas  von  Salm  defeated  him  near 
Tokay ;  but  the  latter  soliciting  the  aid  of  the 
Turks,  Sultan  Solyman  espoused  his  cause. 
Ferdinand  was  forced  to  retreat  to  Vienna, 
where  he  was  besieged  by  the  Turks  in  1529. 
After  a  long  and  bloody  war  a  treaty  was  con- 
cluded, by  which  it  was  agreed  that  Zapolya 
should  preserve  the  title  of  king  of  Hungary 
during  his  life,  together  with  the  districts  then 
in  his  possession,  after  which  they  were  to  pass 
to  Ferdinand.  This  treaty,  however,  owing  to 
the  prevailing  influence  of  the  Turks  in  Hun- 
gary, was  not  carried  into  effect,  and  the  east- 
em  parts  of  the  country  remained  in  possession 
of  Z&polya^s  successor,  as  prince  of  Transylva- 
nia. In  1531  Ferdinand  was  elected  king  of 
the  Romans ;  and  on  the  abdication  of  Charles 
V.  in  1556,  he  succeeded  him  in  the  empire. 
Pope  Paul  IV.  refused  to  acknowledge  him, 
on  the  ground  that  Charles  V.  had  not  ob- 
tained his  permission  to  abdicate.  Paul  died 
before  serious  consequences  had  resulted  from 
his  refusal,  and  his  successor,  Pius  IV.,  rec- 


FERDINAND  (Germany) 


FERDINAND  (Naples) 


133 


c^ized  Ferdinand.  The  electors,  both  Prot- 
estants and  Catholics,  met  and  decided  that 
thereafter  it  should  no  longer  be  required 
of  the  emperors  of  Germany  to  receive  the 
crown  from  the  pope,  thus  putting  an  end  to 
the  many  controversies  and  wars  of  which  the 
dependence  of  the  German  emperor  on  the  see 
of  Rome  had  been  the  cause.  In  Bohemia  Fer- 
dmand  arbitrarily  declared  the  crown  heredi- 
tary in  his  family  without  the  sanction  of  the 
states.  A  portion  of  the  population  opposed 
him  by  force  of  arms,  but  the  insurrection 
was  suppressed.  He  was  tolerant  to  the  Prot- 
estants, and  tried  to  effect  a  union  between 
them  and  the  Catholics  by  inducing  them  to 
send  deputies  to  the  council  of  Trent.  He  also 
endeavored  to  obtain  from  the  pope  the  use  of 
the  cap  for  the  laity  in  the  communion,  and  the 
liberty  of  marriage  for  the  priests.  He  was 
succeeded  in  the  empire,  as  well  as  in  Hungary 
and  Bohemia,  by  his  son  Maximilian  II. 

FEUHNAND IL,  emperor  of  Germany  and  king 
of  Hungary  and  Bohemia,  born  July  9,  1678, 
died  in  Vienna,  Feb.  16, 1637.  He  was  the  son 
of  Charles,  duke  of  Styria,  third  son  of  Ferdi- 
nand I.  He  was  a  zealous  Catholic,  and  is  said 
to  have  made  a  vow  at  Loretto  that  he  would 
exterminate  Protestantism.  His  cousin  Mat- 
thias, emperor  of  Germany  and  king  of  Hun- 
gary and  Bohemia,  abdicated  in  his  favor  the 
crown  of  the  latter  country  in  1617,  and  pro- 
cured his  election  as  king  of  the  Romans  and 
as  his  successor  in  Hungary.  The  states  of  Bo- 
hemia refused  to  acknowledge  Ferdinand,  and 
a  powerful  Protestant  rising  was  organized,  at 
the  head  of  which  was  Count  Thum.  Short- 
ly after  the  death  of  Matthias  (March,  1619), 
Ferdinand  was  besieged  in  Vienna,  the  insur- 
gents threatening  to  shut  him  up  in  a  monas- 
tery, and  cause  nis  children  to  be  educated  as 
Protestants.  He  however  remained  firm,  and 
being  relieved  by  the  timely  arrival  of  loyal 
troops,  repaired  to  Frankfort  and  claimed  the 
imperial  crown.  He  received  the  votes  of  all 
the  Catholic  electors,  and  was  crowned  em- 
peror. The  states  of  Bohemia  now  offered  the 
rojal  crown  to  the  elector  palatine,  Frederick 
v.,  son-in-law  of  James  I.  of  England.  Hun- 
gary united  with  Bohemia  against  Ferdinand, 
and  Bethlen  G4bor  of  Transylvania  joined  his 
enonies.  This  was  properly  the  beginning 
of  the  thirty  years'  war.  Ferdinand  was  sup- 
ported by  Spain,  and  Frederick  was  todSally  de- 
feated at  the  battle  of  Prague  in  1620,  and 
driven  into  exile.  Ferdinand  was  now  ac- 
knowledged as  emperor  of  Germany  and  kine 
of  Bohemia.  He  abolished  the  constitutioniQ 
charter  of  Bohemia,  and  undertook  most  vio- 
lent measures  against  the  Protestants;  but  the 
latter  strengthened  their  league  in  Germany 
by  placing  Christian  IV.  of  Denmark  at  its 
hdad  (1 625).  The  imperialists,  under  Tilly  and 
Wallenstein,  were  victorious  in  several  cam- 
paigns; and  the  war  was  temporarily  closed  in 
1629  by  the  peace  of  Lnbeck.  Ferdinand  now 
redoubled  the  severity  of  his  measures  agunst 


the  Protestants,  when  he  received  a  formidable 
check  by  the  intervention  of  Gustavus  Adolphna 
of  Sweden  m  1 680.  The  Protestants  were  upon 
the  whole  successful  until  the  death  of  Gustavus 
at  the  battle  of  Ltltzen,  Nov.  6, 1682.  The  vic- 
tory at  NOrdlingen  in  1684  was  the  last  great 
success  of  Ferdinand^s  army. 

FiaLDmAND  IIL,  emperor  of  Germany  and 
king  of  Hungary  and  Bohemia,  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, bom  at  Gratz  in  Styria,  July  20,  1608, 
died  at  Vienna,  April  2,  1667.  He  succeeded 
his  father  in  1637.  From  him  he  also  received 
the  inheritance  of  the  thirty  years'  war,  which 
soon  took  the  aspect  of  a  political  rather  than 
a  religious  conflict,  Spain  taking  part  with 
Ferdinand  and  France  with  the  allied  Protes- 
tants. The  war  was  closed,  as  far  as  Germany 
was  concerned,  by  the  treaty  of  Westphalia, 
Oct.  24,  1648,  although  hostilities  were  still 
carried  on  between  France  and  Spain.  By 
this  treaty  Ferdinand  gave  up  most  of  Alsace 
to  France  and  a  part  of  Pomerania  to  Sweden, 
recognized  the  independence  of  the  Swiss  con- 
federation, restored  to  the  son  of  the  elector 
palatine  Frederick  V.  a  portion  of  his  father's 
possessions,  and  acknowledged  the  rights  of  his 
Protestant  subjects.  He  was  succeeded  by  his 
second  son,  Leopold  I. ;  the  elder,  crowned  in 
1658  king  of  the  Romans  as  Ferdinand  IV., 
having  died  in  1654. 

FERDDfAHD  L^  emperor  of  Austria,  and  king 
of  Hungary  and  Bohemia  as  Ferdinand  V., 
born  AprU  19,  1793,  died  June  29,  1876.  His 
father  was  Francis  I.  (II.),  who  in  1806  re- 
signed the  title  of  emperor  of  Germany,  having 
assumed  that  of  hereditary  emperor  of  Austria. 
Ferdinand  was  crowned  as  future  king  of  Hun- 
gary in  1830,  in  1885  succeeded  his  father,  and  in 
1886  was* crowned  in  Bohemia.  His  character 
was  weak,  and  he  was  a  mere  tool  in  the  hands 
of  his  minister.  Prince  Mettemich.  Disheart- 
ened by  the  troubles  of  1848,  he  resigned  the 
crown  in  favor  of  his  nephew,  Francis  Joseph 
(Dec.  2),  and  took  up  his  residence  at  Praguei 

11.   NAPLES. 

FEEINDVAHD  L,  king  of  Naples,  illegitimate 
son  of  Alfonso  the  Magnanimous,  born  about 
1424,  died  Jan.  25, 1494.  His  father,  who  had 
ruled  both  Naples  and  Sicily,  as  well  as  Ara- 
gon  and  Sardinia,  bequeathed  to  him  at  his 
death  in  1458  the  throne  of  Naples.  His  reign 
was  troubled,  and  the  nobles  conspired  to  aid 
John  of  Ai:\jou  in  a  descent  upon  the  country. 
Ferdinand  lost  the  battle  of  Nola  in  1460, 
escaped  to  Naples  with  but  20  followers,  and 
was  reduced  to  the  last  extremity.  He  was, 
however,  favored  by  Pope  Pius  II.  and  by 
Francesco  Sforza,  duke  of  Milan ;  and  his 
partisans  were  frreatly  strengthened  by  the 
alliance  of  the  Albanian  chieftain  Scanderbeg, 
who  put  himself  at  the  head  of  the  army  of 
Ferdinand,  defeated  John  of  A^jou  at  Troja  in 
1462,  and  forced  him  to  leave  Italy.  Ferdinand 
was  cruel  and  revengefhl.  Count  Piccinino 
was  one  of  his  illustrious  victims.    In  this  reign 


184 


FERDINAND  (Naples) 


the  Turks  made  a  descent  upon  Italy  and  cap- 
tured Otranto  in  1480,  but  Ferdinand  recov- 
ered this  city  from  them  in  1481.  Five  years 
later  the  nobles  revolted,  and  Ferdinand,  after 
yielding  to  their  demands,  refused  to  fulfil  his 
promises,  and  put  the  leader  of  the  revolt  to 
death.  He  was  excommunicated  by  Pope  In- 
nocent VIII.  in  1489,  but  regained  his  favor 
in  1492,  and  died  while  the  formidable  expe- 
dition of  Charles  VIII.  of  France  was  preparing 
to  set  out  toward  Italy. 

FEBDINAND  II.,  king  of  Naples,  grandson 
of  the  preceding,  and  son  of  Alfonso  II.,  born 
about  1468,  died  in  1496.  His  father,  feeling 
himself  universally  detested,  abdicated  in  his 
favor  in  1495;  but  the  people  had  conceived 
such  a  dislike  for  the  house  of  Aragon,  that 
Terdinand's  kindness  toward  them  was  treated 
only  with  derision.  Many  of  his  cities  hav- 
ing sent  ambassadors  to  tiie  invading  enemy, 
Ohiarles  VIII.  of  France,  he  renounced  his 
throne,  and  took  refuge  in  Ischi^  But  as 
soon  as  Charles  left  Naples  the  people  recalled 
Ferdinand,  who  obtained  money  and  soldiers 
from  Venice  in  exchange  for  several  Adriatic 
towns,  and  reconquered  his  kingdom.  With 
the  permission  of  Pope  Alexander  VI.  he  mar- 
ried his  father's  sister. 

FERDHTAND  IIL  See  Febdinakd  V.  of  Spain. 

FERDDTiirD  I¥.,  king  of  Naples  (afterward 
king  of  the  Two  Sicilies  as  Ferdinand  I.),  bom 
in  Naples,  Jan.  12,  1751,  died  there,  Jan.  4, 
1825.  When  in  1759  his  father,  King  Charles, 
became  king  of  Spain,  he  succeeded  him  upon 
the  throne  of  Naples,  in  accordance  with  the 
recent  treaties  of  Utrecht,  Madrid,  and  Vienna, 
which  prohibited  the  reunion  of  the  two  crowns 
in  any  one  prince  of  the  house  of  Bourbon. 
Ferdinand  being  only  eight  years  old,  Mar- 
quis Tanucd  was  appointed  regent.  In  1768  he 
married  Carolina  Maria,  daughter  of  the  em- 
press Maria  Theresa,  and  left  the  affairs  of 
government  to  his  imperious  wife  and  her 
favorite  minister  Acton.  The  cabinet  of  Ma- 
drid lost  all  influence  over  the  court  of  Naples, 
which  closely  allied  itself  with  the  cabinets 
of  Vienna  and  London,  and  joined  the  first 
coalition  against  France.  Though  forced  in 
1796  to  make  peace  with  France,  Ferdinand 
renewed  the  war  after  the  departure  of  Na- 
poleon to  Egypt.  Austria,  Sardinia,  Tuscany, 
and  Naples  formed  a  league,  and  Ferdinand 
hurried  to  occupy  Rome  (November,  1798) ; 
but  not  receiving  much  aid  from  his  allies,  he 
withdrew  before  the  arms  of  the  French,  who 
in  1799  entered  Naples  soon  after  Ferdinand 
witli  his  family  had  escaped  in  an  English  fleet 
to  Palermo.  The  Parthenopean  republic  was 
established  in  Naples,  but  after  a  few  months 
'Ferdinand  was  restored  to  his  capital  by  a 
Oalabrian  army  under  Cardinal  Ruffo.  A  ter- 
rible inquisition  now  began  against  the  repub- 
licans, the  city  was  abandoned  to  the  lazzaroni, 
and  Ferdinand  seemed  to  have  returned  only 
to  shed  the  blood  of  his  subjects.  The  success- 
es of  the  French  in  Germany  and  Italy  obliged 


him  in  1801  to  sign  a  treaty  surrendering  a 
portion  of  his  territory,  and  to  support  French 
troops  in  the  remainder,  thus  putting  Naples 
under  the  domination  of  France.  War  break- 
ing out  in  1805  between  France  and  Austria, 
Queen  Caroline  thought  it  a  favorable  oppor- 
tunity for  throwing  off  the  French  yoke,  and 
prompted  Ferdinand  to  violate  the  treaty  and 
to  receive  the  support  of  an  Anglo-Russian 
army.  Hardly  had  he  done  this  when  Austria, 
conquered  at  Austerlitz,  assented  to  the  treaty 
of  Presburg.  Before  its  conclusion  Napoleon 
sent  an  army  against  Naples,  which  obliged 
Ferdinand  and  his  queen  again  to  take  refuge 
in  Sicily,  refused  offers  of  negotiation,  and 
on  Dec.  25,  1805,  declared  that  the  house  of 
Bourbon  had  ceased  to  reign  over  that  king- 
dom, and  gave  the  throne  first  to  his  brother 
Joseph,  and  in  1808  to  his  brother-in-law  Mu- 
rat.  Ferdinand,  protected  by  England^  was 
able  to  save  Sicily  from  French  conquest ;  but 
the  queen,  as  little  willing  to  bear  English  as 
French  supremacy,  embroiled  herself  with  the 
English  ambassador,  Lord  William  Bentinck, 
was  obliged  to  leave  the  island  in  1811,  and 
died  in  Vienna  in  1814.  Ferdinand  was  in  181 2 
forced  to  proclaim  a  constitution,  and  finally 
to  resign  his  government  to  his  son  Francis. 
After  Murat  was  dethroned  by  Austria  in  1815, 
Ferdinand  was  restored  to  his  former  throne, 
and  on  Dec.  12,  1816,  united  Sicily  and  Naples 
into  a  single  state,  under  the  title  of  the  Two 
Sicilies.  He  abolished  the  constitution  which 
he  had  granted  while  in  Sicily,  but  was  forced 
to  proclaim  the  democratic  Spanish  constitu- 
tion of  1812  by  a  rising  of  the  carbonari  in 
1820.  He  was  soon  after  reSstablished  in  ab- 
solute power  by  the  Austrians. 

FERDINAND  II.,  king  of  the  Two  Sicilies, 
grandson  of  the  preceding,  bom  in  Palermo, 
Jan.  12,  1810,  died  in  Naples,  May  22,  1859. 
He  succeeded  his  father  Francis  I.  in  1880,  and 
at  once  excited  the  most  lively  hopes  by  par- 
doning several  political  offenders  and  introdu- 
cing economicsd  reforms  and  liberal  measures. 
Having  thus  lulled  the  revolutionary  party,  he 
changed  his  policy,  adopting  the  principles  of 
absolutism  ;  and  the  history  of  the  kingdom 
from  that  time  is  a  history  of  conspiracies  and 
rebellions,  followed  by  trials,  imprisonments, 
and  executions.  After  many  revolts  and  at- 
tempts at  revolt  in  various  parts,  all  Sicily  rose 
in  insurrection  in  January,  1848,  and  armed 
bands  marched  upon  Naples  to  demand  a  lib- 
eral government.  A  constitution  was  granted 
them,  modelled  after  the  French  charter  of 
1880 ;  but  the  double  dealing  of  the  court  and 
the  impatience  of  the  democrats  led  to  a  bloody 
collision  at  Naples,  May  16,  after  which  Fer- 
dinand dissolved  the  chambers,  annihilated  the 
constitution,  and  restored  the  ancient  order  of 
things.  Toward  the  close  of  the  year  Pope 
Pius  IX.  took  refuge  at  Ga^ta  under  his  pro- 
tection, and  in  1849  received  the  assistance  of 
Neapolitan  troops  against  the  Mazzini  govern- 
ment at  Rome ;  for  which  service  he  bestowed 


FERDINAND  (Spain) 


135 


upon  Ferdinand  the  title  of  rex  piisBimtis,  The 
reconquest  of  Sicily,  which  had  proclaimed  its 
independence,  was  completed  after  a  protracted 
straggle.  In  the  contests  with  the  insurgents 
Ferdinand  had  ordered  the  bombardment  of 
his  principal  cities,  and  thus  obtained  the  epi- 
thet of  bondfard<Uor&,  abbreviated  into  "  Bom- 
ba,"  by  which  he  has  often  been  designated. 
The  harshest  treatment  was  exercised  toward 
the  political  prisoners  hi  Naples,  who  were 
estimated  by  Mr.  Gladstone  in  1851  to  nnmber 
at  least  18,000.  At  the  Paris  confess  of  185^ 
Ferdinand  was  advised  to  pursue  a  milder 
system  of  government,  and  to  grant  a  general 
amnesty,  which  he  declined  to  do.  On  Dec.  8 
of  that  year  a  private  soldier  attempted  to  aa- 
Bsssinate  him.  In  1857  the  seizure  and  confis- 
cation of  the  Gagliari,  a  Sardinian  merchant 
steamer  in  which  revolutionists  had  been  con- 
veyed to  Naples,  led  to  a  diplomatic  rapture 
between  Naples  and  Sardinia,  France,  and 
England.  A  few  months  before  his  death  he 
proclaimed  an  amnesty,  but  with  such  limita- 
tions that  only  70  bagnio  convicts  would  profit 
by  it;  tJiey  were  banished  for  life,  and  re- 
stricted to  reside  in  America. 

m.  SPAIN. 

FERDDTAND  L,  the  Great,  kmg  of  Castile, 
Leon,  and  Galicia,  bom  about  1000,  died  in 
Leon,  Dec.  27,  1065.  He  was  the  second  son 
of  Sancho  el  Mayor,  king  of  Navarre.  In  1 083 
he  received  the  hand  of  Sancha,  sister  of  Ber- 
mado  III.  of  Leon,  and  the  title  of  king  of  Cas- 
tile, which  was  henceforth  recognized  as  an  in- 
dependent sovereignty.  On  the  death  of  San- 
cho in  1085,  Bermudo  attempted  to  reannex 
the  new  state  to  his  dominions ;  but  he  was  de- 
feated and  slain  by  Ferdinand  in  1087.  The 
yonng  king  of  Castile  forthwith  claimed  and 
received  the  crown  of  Leon,  in  right  of  his 
queen ;  and  by  able  management  and  forbear- 
ance he  reconciled  to  his  cause  many  lords 
who  at  first  had  opposed  his  accession  to  the 
throne.  He  soon  gained  popularity  by  his 
respect  for  the  laws  of  the  country,  his  main- 
tenance of  the  ancient  fuerasy  and  his  strict 
administration  of  justice.  He  invaded  Portu- 
gal and  acquired  in  1045  a  considerable  portion 
of  it  From  1046  to  1049  he  was  engaged  in 
wars  agunst  the  Moors,  and  reduced  the  kings 
of  Saragossa  and  Toledo  to  tributaries.  His 
elder  brother,  Garcia  III.,  king  of  Navarre, 
having  attacked  him  in  1054,  lost  his  life  in 
ft  battle  fought  near  Burgos,  in  the  plains  of 
Atapnerca.  By  this  victory  Ferdinand  gained 
several  districts  which  formerly  belonged  to 
Navarre,  and  became  the  most  powerful  among 
the  Christian  princes  in  the  penmsula.  In  1 056 
he  took  the  title  of  emperor,  to  indicate  his 
sapremacy  in  Spain.  Toward  the  centre  of 
the  peninsula,  he  extended  the  boundary  of 
Castile  to  the  gates  of  Alcala  de  Henares,  and 
c^ed  hostilities  into  Valencia  and  Andalusia, 
<5onjpellinp  the  emir  of  Seville  to  swear  alle- 

SWice  and  to  restore  to  him  the  relics  of  St 


Isidro  (1068).  His  last  days  were  spent  in 
extraordinary  devotional  exercises.  Attacked 
by  a  sickness  which  he  knew  would  be  fatal, 
he  returned  to  Leon,  and  divided  his  realms 
between  his  three  sons. 

FERDINAND  II.,  king  of  Leon,  Asturias,  and 
Galicia,  son  of  Alfonso  VIII.,  died  in  1188. 
He  succeeded  his  father  in  1157,  the  king- 
dom of  Castile  being  given  to  his  brother  San- 
cho III.  He  carried  on  several  successful 
wars  against  Portugal  and  the  Moors,  and  in- 
stituted the  order  of  the  Christian  knights  of 
St.  James. 

FERDINAND  IIL,  saint,  king  of  Castile  and 
Leon,  born  in  1199,  died  in  Seville,  May  80, 
1252.  llie  son  of  Alfonso  IX.  of  Leon  by 
Berengaria,  queen  of  Castile,  he  was  indebted 
to  his  mother  for  the  latter  kingdom,  of  which 
he  was  placed  in  possession  in  1 2 1 7.  His  power 
being  firmly  established,  he  commenced  in  1225 
against  the  Mohammedans  a  career  of  conquest 
which  effectually  broke  the  Moorish  power  in 
Spain.  In  concert  with  several  other  princes 
he  first  carried  his  arms  through  Murcia  and 
Andalusia.  Alfonso,  dying  in  1230,  declared 
his  marriage  with  Berengaria  void,  and  des- 
ignated his  two  daughters  by  his  first  mar- 
riage as  his  successors.  Ferdinand  interrupted 
his  progress  for  a  while  1%>  secure  the  inherit- 
ance, which  he  soon  accomplished,  and  thus 
permanently  united  the  kingdom>»  of  Castile 
and  Leon.  Being  now  sovereign  of  Spain  from 
the  bay  of  Biscay  to  the  banks  of  the  Guadal- 
quivir, and  from  the  confines  of  Portugal  .to 
those  of  Aragon  and  Valencia,  he  was  enabled 
to  push  his  conquests  with  renewed  energy. 
In  1288  he  triumphed  over  Aben  Hud,  king 
of  Murcia ;  he  then  successively  obtained  pos- 
session of  Toledo,  Cordova,  Ubeda,  Trtyillo, 
Jaen,  and  finally  Seville,  which  surrendered 
Nov.  28,  >248,  after  a  siege  of  a  year  and  a 
half.  Ferdinand  was  an  unsparing  enemy  of 
the  Jews  and  Albigenses  who  had  sought  a 
refuge  within  his  dominions.  He  founded  the 
university  of  Salamanca,  and  was  canonized 
by  Pope  Clement  X.  in  1671. 

FERDINAND  IV.,  king  of  Castile  and  Leon, 
son  of  Sancho  IV.,  bom  in  Seville  in  1285, 
died  in  1812.  He  was  only  ten  years  old  when 
his  father  die<l,  and  he  saw  himself  assailed  at 
once  by  his  imcle  Enrique,  who  coveted  the 
regency,  by  Don  Juan  Kuflez  de  Lara,  who 
wanted  to  increase  his  estates,  and  by  the  in- 
fantes of  La  Cerda,  who  claimed  the  crown, 
and  who,  respectively  aided  by  the  kings  of 
Portugal  and  Aragon,  aimed  at  a  partition  of 
the  kingdom.  In  these  difiicult  circumstances 
the  young  king  was  sustained  by  the  ability 
of  his  mother,  Maria  de  Molina.  She  suc- 
ceeded in  dividing  his  enemies,  conciliated  the 
king  of  Portugal,  whose  daughter  Constanza 
was  married  to  Ferdinand,  and  also  made  an 
alliance  with  the  king  of  Aragon.  Ferdinand 
in  1805  made  war  upon  the  Mohammedans, 
gained  advantages  over  them,  and  took  Gibral- 
tar (1809).    The  order  of  templars  having  been 


136 


FERDINAND  (Spain) 


abolislied  by  Clement  Y.,  he  confiscated  their 
property  and  shared  their  spoils  with  the  other 
orders  of  chivalry.  There  is  a  legend  that  in 
an  expedition  against  the  Moors,  having  or- 
dered the  two  brothers  Garvi^al  to  be  put  to 
death  upon  mere  suspicion^  they  cited  him  to 
appear  with  them  in  80  days  before  the  judg- 
ment seat  of  God ;  and  wi&in  the  prescribed 
time  he  was  found  dead  on  his  couch,  on  which 
he  had  been  taking  his  siesta. 

FERDllVAND  V.  of  Castile,  II.  of  Aragon, 
ni.  of  Naples,  and  IL  of  Sicily,  sumamed 
the  Catholic,  bom  at  Sos,  Aragon,  March  10, 
1452,  died  at  Madrigalejo,  Jan.  28,  1516.  The 
son  of  John  IL,  king  of  Navarre  and  Aragon, 
and  of  his  second  wife  Juana  Henriquez,  he 
was  as  early  as  1468,  through  the  influence  of 
his  mother,  declared  by  his  father  king  of 
Sicily  and  associate  in  the  crown  of  Aragon. 
On  Oct.  19, 1469,  he  married  at  Valladolid  Isa- 
bella, princess  of  Asturias,  the  sister  and  law- 
ful heiress  of  King  Henry  IV.  of  Castile.  On 
the  demise  of  the  latter,  Dec.  12,  14T4,  Ferdi- 
nand and  Isabella  were  proclaimed  joint  sov- 
ereigns, of  Castile.  Several  powerful  nobles, 
among  whom  were  the  marquis  of  Yillena,  the 
archbishop  of  Toledo,  and  the  grand  master  of 
Calatrava,  aided  by  the  king  of  Portugal,  rose 
in  arms  in  the  namcT  of  Juana  (called  Beltra- 
n^a,  from  her  supposed  father,  Beltran  de  la 
Cueva),  whom  the  late  king  had  recognized  as 
his  daughter,  but  who  had  been  set  aside  by 
the  cortes  on  a  charge  of  illegitimacy,  which 
was  never  legally  proved.  Ferdinand's  army 
gained  a  decisive  victory  over  them  at  Toro, 
and  in  1479  a  treaty  put  an  end  to  the  civil 
war,  and  Juana^  deserted  by  all  her  partisans, 
took  the  veil.  John  II.  having  died  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  same  year,  Ferdinand  inherited 
Aragon,  and  thus  became  the  undisputed  mas- 
ter of  the  peninsula,  with  the  exception  of 
Portugal,  Navarre  (which  was  given  to  John's 
daughter  Eleanor),  and  Granada.  His  chief 
policy  was  to  fortify  the  power  of  the  crown, 
and  he  reached  his  aim  principally  by  reorgan- 
izing and  increasing  the  hermandad  or  brother- 
hood for  the  suppression  of  disorder  and  bri- 
gandage, by  improving  the  administration  of 
justice,  by  acquiring  the  mastership  of  the 
several  orders  of  knighthood,  and  obtaining  the 
power  of  appointing  the  bishops^  but  above  all 
by  means  of  the  inquisition,  which  served  not 
only  as  a  guard  against  heresy,  but  also  as  a 
political  institution  to  keep  the  nobility  and 
clergy  in  check.  The  intolerance  was  perhaps 
still  greater  against  the  Jews  than  the  relapsed 
heretics.  On  March  81,  1492,  an  edict  for 
their  expulsion  was  issued  by  the  sovereigns  at 
Granada.  The  number  thus  driven  forth  is 
estimated  by  some  as  high  as  800,000,  but  by 
others,  according  to  Prescott  with  more  proba- 
bility, at  160,000.  They  sought  refuge  in  Por- 
tugal, France,  Italy,  Africn,  and  the  Levant. 
Before  this,  however,  Ferdinand  and  Isabella 
had  succeeded  in  accomplishing  their  long 
oheiished  design  of  destroying  the  last  vestige 


of  Moorish  power  in  Spain.  The  kingdom  of 
Granada,  all  that  remained  of  the  once  power- 
ful empire  of  the  Moors,  succumbed  to  the 
assaults  of  the  Christian  warriors;  the  city 
itself,  the  siege  of  which  was  conducted  by  the 
king  and  queen  in  person,  surrendered  Jan.  2, 
1492,  after  a  heroic  resistance;  and  the  last 
of  its  sovereigns,  Abdallah  or  Boabdil,  retired 
to  Africa.  When  the  Moors  attempted  a  re- 
volt in  1501,  Ferdinand  ordered  them  to  be- 
come converted  or  to  leave  the  kingdom,  and 
it  is  said  that  from  then  till  the  time  of  Philip 
about  8,000,000  Moors  left  the  country.  In 
the  discovery  of  America  by  Columbus  Ferdi- 
nand had  little  if  any  share;  he  evinced  no 
disposition  to  assist  the  discoverer,  and  the 
glory  of  having  aided  him  belongs  exclusively 
to  Isabella.  Charles  YIII.  of  France  having 
conquered  the  kingdom  of  Naples  in  1494,  Fer- 
dinand sent  thither  in  the  foUowing  year  his 
great  general  Gonsalvo  de  Cordova,  and  with- 
in a  few  months  the  French  were  expelled  and 
the  Spaniards  got  a  foothold  in  Italy,  which 
advantage  they  afterward  improved.  In  1500 
he  concluded  a  treaty  of  alliance  with  Louis 
XII.  of  France,  by  which  the  two  monarchs 
divided  between  themselves  beforehand  the 
kingdom,  which  was  to  be  conquered  by  their 
united  forces;  but  scarcely  was  this  accom- 
plished when  the  allies  quarreUed,  and  Gon- 
salvo de  Cordova  for  the  second  time  drove 
the  French  out  of  southern  Italy  (1508-'4). 
which  thenceforth  remained  in  the  hands  of 
Ferdinand,  as  king  of  Naples  and  Sicily. 
Family  difficulties  interfered  for  a  while  with 
his  power  and  the  progress  of  his  conquests. 
Juana,  the  only  daughter  left  to  him  (Isabella 
having  been  married  to  Emanuel  of  Portugal, 
and  Catharine  to  Prince  Arthur  and  afterward 
to  Henry  YIII.  of  England),  had  been  married 
in  1496  to  the  archduke  Philip,  son  of  the  em- 
peror Maximilian ;  and  on  the  death  of  Isabella 
in  1504,  this  young  prince  claimed  the  regency 
of  Castile  in  the  name  of  his  wife.  This  brought 
on  a  contest  between  him  and  his  father-in-law, 
which  terminated  in  favor  of  Ferdinalid,  who 
was  appointed  regent  in  place  of  the  young 
heir  Charles  on  account  of  the  premature  death 
of  Philip  in  1506  and  the  insanity  of  his  wife 
Juana.  The  king  now  found  himself  at  lib- 
erty to  give  undivided  attention  to  the  affahv 
of  Italy,  and  exercised  there  a  paramount  in- 
fluence, not  by  his  arms  only,  but  by  his  su- 
perior political  talents.  He  took  part  in  the 
league  of  Cambrai  against  Yenice  in  1508 ;  then 
in  the  holy  league  in  1511  against  the  French, 
whom  the  princes  of  Italy  desired  to  expel 
from  the  peninsula ;  and  in  all  these  transac- 
tions he  was  generally  the  gainer.  Besides 
the  kingdom  of  Naples,  he  added  to  his  do- 
minions several  towns  and  fortresses  on  the 
coast  of  Africa,  which  were  conquered  by  Car- 
dinal Ximenes  and  Count  Navarro  in  1509  and 
1510,  and  the  kingdom  of  Navarre,  which  he 
wrested  from  Catherine  de  Foix  and  her  hus- 
band Jean  d^Albret  in  1512.    By  a  singular 


FERDINAND  (Spain) 


137 


whim,  or  perhaps  through  the  troubles  cre- 
ated bj  the  archduke  Philip,  Ferdinand  had 
been  estranged  from  his  grandson  Charles, 
afterward  emperor  under  the  title  of  Charles 
V. ;  and  he  thought  of  depriving  him  of  part 
at  least  of  his  inheritance.  He  had  conse- 
quentlj  married  in  1505  Germaine  de  Foix, 
a  niece  of  Louis  XII.  of  France ;  but  the  child 
he  had  by  her  died,  and  he  was  thus  disap- 
pointed in  his  hopes.  In  1518  he  took  a  phil- 
tre for  the  purpose  of  restoring  his  exhausted 
vigor ;  but  the  potion  produced  a  lingering  ill- 
ness which  ended  in  death.  Ferdinand  was 
the  founder  of  the  greatness  of  Spain ;  he  con- 
solidated the  whole  peninsula,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  Portugal,  into  a  single  political  body ; 
gained  for  the  crown  a  power  which  it  had 
never  possessed  before ;  extended  its  influence 
beyond  the  peninsula,  and  gave  it  weight  in 
the  genertd  affidrs  of  Europe.  To  reach  the 
aim  of  his  ambition  he  was  far  from  being  over 
scrnpulons  in  his  means ;  a  crafty  politician  and 
avaricious  in  every  respect,  he  did  not  hesitate 
to  break  his  word,  or  even  his  oath,  when  in- 
terest or  bigotry  commanded.  But  notwith- 
standing his  perfidy  and  treachery,  his  memory 
has  been  held  in  great  reverence  in  Spain;  and 
the  severity  shown  toward  him  by  some  his- 
torians cannot  prevent  posterity  from  regard- 
ing him  as  one  of  the  ablest  princes  of  his  age. 
A  just  appreciation  of  his  life  and  times  may 
be  found  in  Prescott^s  ^^  History  of  Ferdinand 
and  Isabella."    (See  Isabella.) 

FEBDlIVAlf  D  TI.,  surnamed  the  Wise,  king  of 
Spam,  bom  Sept  23,  1713,  died  Aug.  10,  1759. 
He  was  the  son  of  Philip  Y.  and  Louisa  Maria 
of  Savoy,  and  ascended  the  throne  in  1746. 
His  government  was  one  of  justice,  prudence, 
and  peace.  He  encouraged  manufactures,  arts, 
and  literature.  He  was  one  of  the  signers  of 
the  treaty  of  Aix-Ia-ChapeUe  (1748).  He  was 
nicceeded  by  his  half  brother  Charles  HI. 

FERDUIAND  VIL,  king  of  Spain,  born  in  San 
Udefonso,  Oct.  13,  1784,  died  in  Madrid,  Sept. 
29, 1833.  He  was  the  eldest  son  of  Charles  I V. 
and  Louisa  Maria  of  Parma.  In  1789  he  was 
declared  prince  of  Asturias  and  heir  apparent 
to  the  crown.  Under  the  influence  of  nis  pre- 
ceptor, the  canon  Esooiquiz,  he  early  felt  a 
strong  aversion  to  Godoy,  prince  of  the  peace, 
the  favorite  of  both  his  parents.  This  was  ag- 
gravated by  Maria  Antonietta  of  Naples,  whom 
he  married  in  1802,  and  kindled  into  hatred  in 
1806  upon  the  sudden  death  of  his  wife,  whom 
he  asserted  without  sufficient  proofs  to  have 
been  poisoned.  Henceforth  two  hostile  fac- 
tions openly  divided  the  court :  that  of  Godoy, 
Bnpported  by  the  king  and  queen,  and  that  of 
the  prince  of  Asturias,  comprising  the  great 
Bugority  of  the  nation,  who  shared  in  his  hatred 
of  the  favorite.  The  dissensions  between  the 
son  and  the  father,  who  was  but  a  tool  in  the 
^ds  of  his  queen  and  Godoy,  grew  into 
scandalous  quarrels.  The  crown  prince,  at  the 
instigation  of  Escoiqniz  and  others,  addressed 
ft  letter  to  Napoleon,  complaining  of  Godoy^s 


conduct,  and  proposing  to  place  himself  under 
his  protection,  and  to  marry  a  member  of  his 
family.  He  also  copied  a  memorial  to  the  king 
against  Godoy,  which  he  was  to  have  read  to 
him  in  person;  but  Charles  had  him  arrest- 
ed and  kept  in  close  confinement.  A  royal 
proclamation  issued  Oct.  80,  1807,  denounced 
Ferdinand  as  having  laid  a  plot  against  the 
power  and  even  the  life  of  his  father.  In  a 
vague  but  humble  letter,  Ferdinand  confessed 
that  he  had  sinned  against  his  father  and  kmg, 
implored  forgiveness,  and  was  publicly  par- 
doned. These  transactions  were  soon  foUowed 
by  more  serious  events.  The  royal  family,  who 
acted  under  the  advice  of  Godoy,  having  at- 
tempted to  leave  Araxguez  with  the  ultimate 
view  of  embarking  for  America,  a  sedition 
broke  out,  March  18, 1808 ;  the  departure  was 
prevented,  and  the  people,  infuriated  against 
Godoy,  stormed  his  palace,  seized,  wounded, 
and  would  have  murdered  him,  had  not  the 
prince  of  Asturias,  moved  by  the  tears  of  his 
mother,  used  his  influence  over  the  crowd  to 
save  his  life.  The  king  was  so  much  frighten- 
ed that  he  abdicated  the  next  day  in  favor  of 
his  son.  Two  days  later  he  attempted  a  re- 
traction, mamtaining  that  his  abdication  had 
been  forced;  but  the  prince,  who  had  been 
active  in  all  these  transactions,  assumed  the 
title  of  king,  and  made  his  solenm  entry  into 
Madrid,  March  24.  The  peninsula  was  already 
invaded  by  French  troops,  and  Murat  soon 
marched  into  the  capital.  Ferdinand  hoped 
to  conciliate  Napoleon  by  submission ;  he  went 
as  far  as  Bayonneto  meet  him ;  here,  notwith- 
standing the  empty  honors  which  were  paid 
to  him,  he  found  himself  a  prisoner,  and  was 
made  to  understand  that  he  must  restore  the 
crown  to  his  father.  The  old  king,  his  queen, 
her  favorite,  and  the  infantes  hcMd  also  been 
brought  to  Bayonne ;  and  yielding  to  a  pres- 
sure which  he  was  unable  to  resist,  Ferdinand 
assented  to  the  surrender  of  his  royal  title. 
But  this  title,  and  all  the  rights  it  conferred, 
had  already  been  resigned  (May  5)  by  Charles 
into  the  hands  of  Napoleon.  The  emperor  de- 
clared that  "the  house  of  Bourbon  had  ceased 
to  reign  in  Spain,^*  and  placed  his  brother 
Joseph  on  the  vacant  throne.  Ferdinand  was 
immediately  transferred  to  the  castle  of  Va- 
len^ay,  where  he  remained  nearly  six  years. 
At  length  Napoleon,  in  the  hope  of  diverting 
Spain,  which  Joseph  had  lost,  from  the  co- 
alition agamst  him,  liberated  his  captive;  by 
the  treaty  of  Dec.  11,  1813,  he  restored  to  him 
the  Spanish  crown,  on  condition  that  he  would 
make  the  English  evacuate  the  peninsula,  se- 
cure a  large  income  to  his  parents,  and  keep  in 
their  oflices  and  immunities  all  the  Spaniards 
who  had  been  in  the  service  of  King  Joseph. 
On  March  10,  1814,  Ferdinand  left  Valen^ay ; 
and  on  his  arrival  in  Spain  he  was  welcomed 
by  popular  acclamations.  He  did  not  abide  by 
the  terms  of  the  treaty  with  Napoleon,  but 
expelled  at  once  the  qfrancesados  (supporters 
of  the  French  government),  annulled  the  pro- 


138 


FERDINAND  (Spain) 


FERDINAND  (Tuscany) 


ceedings  of  the  cortes,  and  abolished  the  con- 
Btitation.  All  the  members  of  the  cortes  or 
the  regencies  who  had  participated  in  the 
framing  of  the  constitution  of  1812,  or  had 
faithfally  adhered  to  it,  were  arraigned  before 
courts  martial,  tried,  and  sentenced.  A  number 
perished  on  the  scaffold ;  hundreds  of  the  most 
illustrious  were  sent  to  dungeons  in  Africa  or 
imprisoned  at  home ;  the  most  fortunate  were 
ezUed.  For  six  years  Spain  was  given  up  to 
the  unrelenting  cruelty  of  a  revengeful  tyrant, 
whose  gross  personal  appearance  and  habits 
but  added  to  the  disgust  of  the  people.  At 
last  discontent  ripened  into  insurrection,  the 
signal  for  which  was  given  by  the  army. 
Troops  assembled  at  the  Isla  de  Leon  to  sful 
for  South  America  revolted  under  Col.  Riego, 
Jan.  1,  1820,  and  proclaimed  the  constitution 
of  1812,  and  the  whole  army  followed  their 
example.  Ferdinand  convoked  the  cortes  and 
swore  (March  9)  faithfully  to  observe  the  in- 
strument he  had  formerly  annulled.  Under 
the  influcDce  of  a  provisional  junta  who  as- 
sumed the  direction  of  affairs,  he  abolished  the 
inquisition,  banished  the  Jesuits,  and  reestab- 
lished the  freedom  of  the  press.  On  the  open- 
ing of  the  cortes,  July  9,  ne  renewed  his  oath 
to  the  constitution,  and  appeared  to  act  in  per- 
fect accord  with  that  assembly,  while  at  the 
same  time  he  was  intriguing  to  defeat  the  plans 
of  his  own  cabinet  and  to  encourage  the  plots 
of  the  opposite  party.  This  double  dealing 
soon  brought  about  bloody  riots  and  finally 
civil  war  in  the  capital  and  nearly  all  the  prov- 
inces. The  liberals  or  coustitutionalists,  who 
formed  a  large  m^ority  of  the  nation,  were 
strenuously  opposed  by  the  serviles  or  ultra 
royalists.  The  latter,  pretending  that  the  king 
was  a  prisoner  in  the  hands  of  the  cortes,  or- 
ganized an  apostolic  junta,  and  raised  bands  of 
insurgents  in  Navarre  and  Catalonia,  under  the 
name  of  ^^  army  of  the  faith."  Monks  and  friars, 
among  whom  Merino  was  conspicuous,  were  at 
the  head  of  these  bands.  At  Madrid,  the  royal 
guards,  secretly  incited  by  their  own  master, 
attempted  in  July,  1822,  to  reestablish  by  force 
his  absolute  power ;  but  after  a  violent  struggle 
they  were  put  down.  Henceforth  the  constitu- 
tionalists held  Ferdinand  in  a  kind  of  imprison- 
ment scarcely  disguised  under  court  ceremonial. 
A  liberal  ministry  was  appointed;  energetic 
measures  were  resorted  to;  the  "  army  of  the 
faith  "  was  totally  defeated ;  its  chiefs  and  sol- 
diers, as  well  as  the  ultra-royalist  committee 
known  as  the  regency  of  Urgel,  fled  to  France. 
The  revolution  was  thus  triumphant;  but  the 
"  holy  alliance  "  were  preparing  for  its  over- 
throw. France,  which  had  assembled  an  army  of 
observation  near  the  Pyrenees,  received  orders 
from  the  congress  of  Verona  to  march  into 
Spain  for  the  purpose  of  restoring  Ferdinand's 
authority.  On  the  news  of  the  threatened  in- 
vasion, the  king  was  removed  to  Seville,  March 
20,  1828 ;  and  on  the  rapid  advance  of  the 
French  under  the  command  of  the  duke  d'An- 
goul^me  through  the  peninsula,  he  was  declared 


to  be  insane,  suspended  fVom  his  power,  super- 
seded by  a  regency,  and  taken  to  Cadiz,  where 
the  constitutionalists  intended  to  make  a  stand. 
But  this  project  was  baffled  by  the  French 
army,  which  stormed  the  Trocadero,  Aug.  31. 
The  cortes  then  decided  on  declaring  King 
Ferdinand  reestablished;  and  the  monarch  at 
once  published  (Sept.  80)  a  proclamation  grant- 
ing a  general  amnesty,  and  securing  the  en- 
gagements entered  into  by  the  constitutional 
government.  But  having  left  Cadiz  the  next 
day,  he  revoked  the  proclamation  and  all  his 
acts  since  March  7, 1820.  lie  made  his  solemn 
entrance  into  Madrid,  with  the  applause  of  the 
ultra  royalists,  Nov.  18,  and  the  work  of  ven- 
geance commenced,  and  was  continued  for 
years.  The  noblest  victims  fell  under  the 
sword  of  the  executioner,  and  terror  reigned 
throughout  Spain.  Ferdinand  did  not  even 
evince  the  least  forbearance  toward  those  who 
had  served  him  most  faithfully,  but  used  his 
power  against  his  friends  as  well  as  his  foes. 
The  most  important  Spanish  colonies  in  Ameri- 
ca gained  their  independence  during  his  reign. 
He  had  already  been  married  three  times  and 
had  no  children,  and  took  as  h!s  fourth  wife, 
Dec.  11,  1829,  Maria  Christina,  daughter  of 
King  Francis  of  Naples.  This  queen,  much 
younger  than  her  husband,  gave  him  two 
daughters,  and  procured  from  him  the  publi- 
cation of  a  decree  abrogating  the  Salic  law. 
This  excited  the  anger  of  the  partisans  of  Don 
Carlos,  the  king's  brother ;  and  insurrectionary 
movements  broke  out  in  the  provinces,  while 
intrigues  were  set  on  foot  at  the  court  for  the 
recaU  of  the  decree.  During  a  temporary  ill- 
ness the  king  was  prevailed  upon  to  abrogate 
it ;  but  Christina,  resuming  her  sway  over  her 
husband^s  mind,  had  it  confirmed,  and  re- 
ceived herself  the  title  of  regent,  while  Carlos 
and  many  of  his  adherents  were  ordered  out 
of  the  kingdom.  This  rekindled  civil  war, 
which  broke  out  with  great  violence  soon  after 
the  death  of  Ferdinand.  His  daughter  Isa- 
bella, a  child  of  three  years,  inherited  the 
crown ;  but  it  was  not  secured  to  her  till  after 
a  protracted  and  bloody  contest. 

IV.    TUSCANY. 

FERDINAND  III.,  grand  duke  of  Tuscany  and 
archduke  of  Austria,  born  in  Florence,  May 
6,  1769,  died  there,  June  18,  1824.  He  came 
into  possession  of  Tuscany  in  1790,  when  his 
father  Leopold  II.  was  called  to  the  imperial 
throne  of  Germany.  The  French  invaded  his 
dominions  in  1796,  under  Bonaparte,  and  con- 
quered them  in  1799.  Ferdinand  became  dis- 
possessed by  the  treaty  of  Lun6ville  in  '1801, 
but  in  1808  obtained  as  indemnity  the  arch- 
bishopric of  Salzburg,  with  the  title  of  elector 
of  the  empire.  This  electorate  he  exchanged 
in  1805  for  Wtirzburg,  and  in  1806  was  ad- 
mitted into  the  confederation  of  the  Rhine. 
After  Napoleon's  abdication  in  1814  Ferdinand 
was  restored  to  the  grand  duchy  of  Tuscany, 
but  was  again  obliged  to'  abaudon  his  capital 


FERDINAND  (TxiBOLjsrz) 


FERGUSON 


139 


for  a  short  time  in  1815,  when  Mnrat  pro- 
claimed the  independence  of  Italy.  The  hattle 
of  Waterloo  restored  him. 

FERDLVAND  1V«,  grand  duke  of  Tuscany  and 
archduke  of  Austria,  grandson  of  the  prece- 
ding, born  June  10,  1886.  He  married  Anna 
Maria,  daughter  of  the  king  of  8axony,  in  1856, 
Bud  began  to  reign  in  1859,  after  the  abdica- 
tion of  his  father  Leopold  II. ;  but  a  few 
months  later  the  Tuscan  constituent  assembly 
declared  in  favor  of  annexation  to  Sardinia, 
▼hicb  was  consummated  March  22, 1860,  and 
which  involved  the  forfeiture  of  the  grand- 
ducal  crown  of  Tuscany. 

FEKDINAND  (Aigistu  Fnauls  imthMj),  titular 
king  of  Portiu^al,  bom  Oct  29,  1816.  He  is  a 
ton  of  Prince  Ferdinand  of  Saze-Coburg-Gotha. 
In  1886  he  became  the  second  husband  of 
Qneen  Maria  II.  of  Portugal,  and  the  title  of 
king  was  conferred  on  him,  Sept.  16,  1887. 
After  the  death  of  the  qneen  (Nov.  15,  1858) 
he  was  regent  during  the  minority  of  his  son, 
the  kte  Pedro  V.,  which  ended  Sept  16, 1855. 
In  1870  he  declined  the  Spanish  crown  offered 
to  him  by  Prim  and  Serrano.  He  excels  as  a 
painter  and  engraver,  and  possesses  many  other 
accomplishments.  He  married  on  June  10, 
1869,  Eliza  Hensler,  bom  in  Boston,  Mass.,  in 
1840.  She  is  the  daughter  of  a  German 
shoemaker.  Possessing  remarkable  beauty  of 
person  and  voice,  she  was  educated  for  the 
opera,  and  first  appeiired  in  New  York  in  her 
16th  year.  She  afterward  studied  in  Paris, 
lang  at  the  Grand  Op6ra  with  little  success, 
and  went  to  Lisbon,  Where  she  became  a  favor- 
ite. Ferdinand  procured  for  her  the  title  of 
countess  of  £dla  previous  to  marrying  her. 

FEURTINO  (ano.  Ferentinum),  a  town  of 
Italy,  in  the  province  and  40  m.  S.  £.  of  the 
city  of  Rome ;  pop.  about  8,000.  It  ia  situated 
nearly  1,600  ft  above  the  sea,  and  is  sur- 
rounded by  ancient  walls  built  of  hewn  stone 
without  mortar.  The  cathedral  is  paved  with 
ancient  marbles  and  mosaics.  Ferentino  is  cel- 
ebrated for  its  splendid  view  over  the  Volscian 
moantaina,  for  its  mineral  springs,  and  for  its 
antaqoities.  Besides  '  large  portions  of  the 
walls  built  in  the  Cyclopean  style  of  large  ir- 
regular and  polygonal  blocks,  there  are  many 
other  interesting  remains  of  Roman  structures 
and  numerous  inscriptions.  The  ancient  Fe- 
rentinum  seems,  judging  from  the  remains,  to 
have  been  an  important  place,  although  little 
mention  is  made  of  it  in  history  beyond  the 
fact  that  Hannibal  devastated  it  in  211  B.  0. 
Horace  alludes  to  Ferentinum  as  a  remote 
country  town,  but  he  is  supposed  to  refer  to 
another  place  of  the  same  name  in  Tuscany. 

FBICP80N,  Adas,  a  Scottish  philosopher  and 
historian,  bom  at  Logierait,  Perthshu'e,  in  1724, 
died  in  St  Andrews,  Feb.  22,  1816.  He  was 
educated  in  Perth  and  in  the  university  of  St 
Andrews,  and  studied  theology  in  Edinburgh, 
where  he  became  associated  widi  Robertson, 
Blur,  and  Home.    In  1745,  though  he  had  stu- 


died but  half  the  required  term,  he  was  ordained, 
in  consequence  of  having  been  selected  for  his 
knowledge  of  the  Gaelic  language  to  act  as 
chaplain  of  one  of  the  highland  regiments, 
which  he  accompanied  to  Flanders.  He  re- 
mained in  this  situation  till  1757,  when  he  be- 
came conspicuous  by  his  defence  of  the  moral- 
ity of  stage  plays,  written  upon  occasion  of 
the  success  of  his  friend  Homers  tragedy  of 
"  Douglas."  In  1759  he  was  elected  professor 
of  natural  philosophy  in  the  university  of  Ed- 
inburgh, and  in  1764  of  moral  philosophy.  In 
1778  he  came  to  America  as  secretary  of  the 
commission  appointed  to  negotiate  with  the 
revolted  colonies,  his  place  in  the  university 
being  supplied  during  his  yearns  absence  by 
Dugald  Stewart,  who  in  1785  became  his  suc- 
cessor. In  his  70th  year  he  paid  a  visit  to 
the  principal  cities  of  the  continent,  and  was 
elected  a  member  of  several  learned  societies. 
The  last  years  of  his  life  were  passed  in  St 
Andrews,  where  he  observed  a  strictly  Pytha- 
gorean diet  His  "  History  of  the  Progress  and 
Termination  of  the  Roman  Republic"  (1788) 
is  valuable  for  its  philosophical  reflections, 
clearness  of  style,  and  masterly  portraitures 
of  character.  His  '^  Essay  on  the  History  of 
Oivil  Society  "  (1767)  discusses  the  origin,  end, 
and  form  of  government,  affirms  the  natural 
sociability  of  men,  in  opposition  to  the  hy- 
pothesis of  Hobbes  of  their  natural  hostility, 
and  defends  civilization  against  the  charges  of 
Rousseau.  His  philosophical  views  are  con- 
tained in  his  *^  Institutes  of  Moral  Philosophy  " 
(1769),  and  in  his  "  Principles  of  Moral  and 
Political  Science '!  (1792).  He  belongs  by  his 
general  method  to  the  school  of  Bacon,  recom- 
mending everywhere  experience  and  the  study 
of  facts  as  the  condition  of  successful  research. 
FER6PSOII9  Jaaei,  a  Scottish  experimental 
philosopher  and  astronomer,  bom  near  Keith, 
Banffshire,  in  1710,  died  in  London,  Nov.  16, 
1776.  His  father,  a  day  laborer,  taught  him 
to  read  and  write,  which  was  the  only  educa- 
tion he  was  able  to  bestow  on  his  children. 
When  seven  or  eight  years  of  age  his  attention 
was  attracted  to  mechanics  by  observing  his 
father  raise  a  heavy  weight  with  a  lever.  He 
investigated  the  principle  and  made  several 
machines  combining  the  lever  and  the  pulley, 
which  he  described  in  a  treatise  with  draw- 
ings. On  showing  this  to  a  gentleman,  he  was 
surprised  to  find  that  those  things  had  been 
treated  of  before,  but  was  equally  pleased  that 
he  had  discovered  the  true  principle.  While 
tending  sheep  he  made  models  of  mills,  spinning 
wheels,  and  other  machines,  acquired  the  rudi- 
ments of  astronomy,  taught  himself  to  draw, 
made  maps,  and  learned  the  principles  of  ge- 
ography. By  the  aid  of  patrons  he  afterward 
studied  portrait  painting  in  Edinburgh,  and 
next  medicine,  but  finally  devoted  himself  to 
astronomy.  In  1743  he  removed  to  London, 
where  he  attracted  attention  by  a  publication 
of  astronomical  tables.  In  1747  he  published 
"A  Dissertation  on  the  Phenomena  of  the 


140 


FERGUSON 


FERISHTAH 


Harvost  Moon,*'  and  afterward  lectured  in 
many  places  on  experimental  philosophy  and 
astronomy.  George  III.  settled  on  him  a  pen- 
sion of  £50.  His  latter  years  were  mostly  de- 
voted to  the  delivery  of  his  lectures^  which 
had  become  very  popular.  The  most  important 
of  his  works  are :  *^  Astronomy  Explained  on 
Sir  Isaac  Newton^s  Principles  "  (4to,  London, 
1766);  "Lectures  on  Mechanics,^'  &c.  (8vo, 
1764) ;  **  An  Easy  Introduction  to  Astronomy  " 
(1769)  ;  "  An  Introduction  to  Electricity " 
(1770) ;  and  **  Art  of  Drawing  in  Perspective  " 
(1776).  Sir  David  Brewster  published  cor- 
rected editions  of  his  " Lectures '*  and  "As- 
tronomy ''  in  1805  and  1811. 

FERGUSOlf,  Robert,  an  English  physician, 
bom  in  India  in  1799,  died  June  26,  1866.  He 
studied  medicine  at  the  universities  of  Heidel- 
berg and  Edinburgh,  took  the  degree  of  M.  D. 
in  1826,  and  settled  in  London,  where  he  rap* 
idly  acquired  a  large  and  lucrative  practice. 
He  became  physician  to  the  general  lying-in 
hospital,  professor  of  midwifery  at  King's  col- 
lege, and  physician-accoucheur  to  King's  col- 
lege hospital.  He  was  also  physician  extraor- 
dinary to  the  queen,  whom  he  attended  In  all 
her  confinements.  His  chief  publications  are 
an  "  Essay  on  Puerperal  Fever "  and  an  edi- 
tion of  Gooch's  works. 

FERGUSSOlf,  JiHCS,  a  British  writer  on  archi- 
tecture, bom  at  Ayr,  Scotland,  in  1808.  He 
was  educated  at  the  high  school  of  Edinburgh, 
and  after  several  years'  experience  in  a  count- 
ing house  in  Holland  and  England,  went  in 
1829  to  India,  where  for  ten  years  he  was  en- 
gaged in  mercantile  pursuits.  Retuming  to 
England,  he  devoted  himself  to  art  and  litera- 
ture. During  his  residence  in  India  he  had 
taken  great  interest  in  the  ancient  architectu- 
ral remains,  and  among  the  fi*uits  of  his  ob- 
servations was  a  description  of  the  rook-cut 
temples  with  illustrations  by  himself  (1845), 
and  "Picturesque  Illustrations  of  Ancient 
Architecture  in  Hindostan"  (1847 -'8).  In 
1847  he  published  "Ancient  Topography  of 
Jerusalem,"  in  which  he  undertook  to  show 
that  the  building  known  as  the  mosque  of 
Omar  Is  the  church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre.  In 
1849  appeared  the  first  volume  of  his  "His- 
torical Inquiry  into  the  True  Principles  of 
Beauty  in  Art,  more  especially  with  reference 
to  Architecture,"  which  was  succeeded  by 
the  "  Illustrated  Handbook  of  Architecture  " 
(1866),  in  the  preparation  of  which  he  used 
the  materials  already  collected  for  the  succeed- 
ing volumes  of  the  former  work.  In  these 
works  he  gives  a  complete  survey  of  the  archi- 
tectural monuments  of  the  chief  nations  of 
ancient  and  modern  times,  and  offers  many 
suggestions  of  great  practical  value.  His 
"  Palaces  of  Nineveh  and  Persepolis  Restored  " 
(1861),  published  while  Mr.  Layard's  excava- 
tions were  proceeding,  exhibits  a  profound 
knowledge  of  the  architecture  of  the  Assyrians 
and  Persians ;  and  upon  the  subsequent  estab- 
lishment of  the  crystal  palace  at  Sydenham, 


of  which  he  was  the  general  manager  for  some 
time  after  its  opening,  he  personally  snperin- 
tended  the  arrangement  of  the  Nineveh  court. 
His  attention  had  been  drawn  in  India  to  the 
use  and  application  of  earthworks  in  modem 
fortifications,  and  he  proposed  the  substitution 
of  circular  forms  for  angles  and  bastions,  and 
of  earthworks  for  masonry.  On  this  subject 
he  published  "  The  Peril  of  Portsmouth  "  and 
"Portsmouth  Protected,"  and  "Essay  on  a 
proposed  New  System  of  Fortification  "  (1849). 
His  system  was  put  in  practice  in  the  Russian 
defence  of  Sebastopol,  and  frequently  employed 
in  the  civil  war  in  the  United  States.  In  1859 
he  became  one  of  the  royal  commissioners  for 
the  defences  of  the  United  Kingdom.  In  1871 
he  received  the  royal  gold  meoal  of  the  insti- 
tute of  British  architects.  Besides  the  works 
mentioned,  he  has  published  "A  History  of 
Architecture  in  all  Countries,"  a  reconstruction 
of  his  "Handbook"  (8  vols.,  1862-'7),  "Rude 
Stone  Monuments  of  all  Ages  "  (1872),  and  "  Tree 
and  Serpent  Worship  "  (new  ed.,  1874). 

FfSCWSSON,  Sir  Wflllaii,  a  Scottish  snrgeoD. 
bom  at  Prestonpans,  March  20,  1808.  diea 
Feb.  10,  1877.  He  early  became  confidential 
assistant  to  the  celebrated  anatomists  Dr.  Knox 
and  John  Turner,  and  in  1828  licentiate  of  the 
college  of  surgeons.  He  began  to  lecture  on 
surgery  in  1881,  and  in  1840  was  called  to 
London  as  professor  of  surgery  in  King's  col- 
lege. He  was  surgeon  in  ordinary  to  the 
pnnce  consort  Albert,  and  was  created  a  bar- 
onet in  1866.  He  was  elected  president  of  the 
royal  coDege  of  surgeons  July  11, 1870.  Be- 
sides special  papers  on  cleft  palate,  lithotomy, 
lithotnty,  aneurism,  and  others,  he  published 
"A  System  of  Practical  Surgery"  (London, 
1848),  and  "  Progress  of  Anatomy  and  Surgery 
in  the  19th  Century  "  (1867).  He  was  also  the 
inventor  of  numerous  surgical  instrnments. 

FERISirrAH,  M«IUHme4  Kadn,  a  Persian  his- 
torian, bom  in  Astrabad  about  1660,  died  prob- 
ably about  1611.  His  father  left  his  native 
country  to  travel  in  India,  where  he  settled  in 
the  Deccan  as  instractor  to  the  son  of  one 
of  the  reigning  princes.  The  young  Ferish- 
tah  was  advanced  to  lienors  at  court,  but 
subsequently,  induced  by  civil  commotions  and 
changes  of  government,  repaired  to  the  court 
of  Ibrahim  Adil  Shah  in  Bejapore,  where  he 
passed  the  remainder  of  his  life,  and  wrote  his 
history  of  India.  This  work,  which  was  first 
published  in  1606,  is  one  of  the  most  authorita- 
tive oriental  histories ;  it  contains  all  the  facts 
which,  the  author  deemed  worthy  to  extract 
from  more  than  80  older  histories,  and  is  still 
in  India  the  most  popular  history  of  the  coun- 
try. The  introduction  gives  a  brief  account 
of  India  prior  to  the  Mohammedan  conquest^ 
and  then  follows  in  12  books  a  history  m  the 
kings  of  the  different  provinces,  and  of  the 
European  settlers.  At  the  conclusion  there  is 
a  short  account  of  the  geography,  climate,  and 
other  physical  circumstances  of  the  country. 
It  was  several  times  partially  translated  into 


FERLAND 


FERMENTATION 


141 


English,  and  the  whole  work,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  some  passages  which  have  been  since 
discovered,  was  published  in  London  in  1829 
bj  CoL  John  Briggs,  under  the  title  of  "  The 
UistorjT  of  the  Rise  and  Progress  of  the  Mo- 
hammedan Power  in  India,  from  its  commence- 
ment in  1000  to  1620/'  Col.  Briggs  also  pub- 
lished an  edition  in  Persian  atBombaj,in  1881. 

FEBLABf  D,  Jctt  Baptiste  iBtolM,  a  Canadian  his- 
torian, bom  in  Montreal,  Dec.  25, 1805,  died  in 
Quebec,  Jan.  8, 1664.  He  was  ordained  priest 
iu  1828,  and  afterward  appointed  professor  of 
history  in  Laval  university.  He  published  a  re- 
view of  Brasseur  de  Bourbourg's  "  History  of 
Canada ;''  '*  Notes  on  the  first  Register  of 
Quebec;"  "Journal  of  a  Voyage  on  the  Coast 
of  Gaspesie;"  "Labrador;"  and  a  "Life  of 
Bishop  Plessis."  At  the  time  of  his  death  he 
was  engaged  on  a  "  Course  of  Canadian  His- 
tory ;'^  the  first  volume  had  appeared,  and  the 
second  was  in  the  press. 

FiSXAKAGH,  an  inland  county  of  Ireland, 
province  of  Ulster,  bordering  on  the  counties 
Donegal,  Tyrone,  Monaghan,  Cavan,  and  Lei- 
trim;  area,  714  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  92,688. 
It  lies  almost  wholly  in  the  basin  of  Lough 
Erne,  which  divides  it  lengthwise  into  two 
nearly  equal  portions.  Its  S.  W.  part  is  moun- 
tainous, and  the  N.  E.  part  rises  into  steep 
hills.  The  soil  is  as  varied  as  the  surface,  but 
except  a  wide  belt  in  the  south  is  not  remark- 
ably fertile.  The  productions  are  oats,  barley, 
wheat,  flax,  potatoes,  turnips,  and  hay.  Cattle 
are  bred  on  the  high  grounds,  and  butter,  eggs, 
&c.,  are  exported.  Limestone,  marl,  potter's 
clay,  and  small  quantities  of  coal  and  iron,  are 
the  chief  mineral  products.  Timber  is  more 
abondant  than  in  most  Irish  counties,  but  is 
grown  principally  on  the  large  estates,  many 
parts  of  the  county  having  a  desolate  appear- 
ance. There  are  no  important  manufacturos, 
and  few  large  towns ;  those  worthy  of  notice 
are  Enniskillen,  Lisnaskea,  and  Lowtherstown. 

FIUAT9  Pierre  de,  a  French  mathematician, 
bom  in  southern  France  in  August,  1601,  died 
in  Toulouse,  Jan.  12, 1665.  He  studied  law,  and 
became  in  1681  councillor  at  the  parliament 
of  Toulouse,  devoting  his  leisure  to  mathemati- 
cal studies.  D^Alembert,  Lagrange,  and  other 
French  authorities  cldm  for  him  the  honor  of 
having  been  the  principal  inventor  of  the  differ- 
ential calculus ;  and  li^lace  states  that  it  was 
^ae  to  Fermat  and  his  oolaborer,  Pascal.  His 
theories  are  chiefly  contained  in  his  treatise  De 
MaximU  et  MinimU^  republished  in  1679  with 
his  miscellaneous  scientific  writings.  Descartes 
combated  his  propositions  concerning  the  cal- 
culus, and  Fermat  opposed  Descartes^s  views 
in  respect  to  geometry  and  optics. 

FQUIEIITATIOjV  (Lat.  fermentum^  leaven,  a 
contraction  of  fervimentum^  from  ferverey  to 
boil),  the  conversion  of  an  organic  substance 
into  one  or  more  new  compounds,  under  the 
influence  of  a  body  which  is  called  a  ferment. 
It  is  a  process  which  with  more  or  less  skill 
has  been  employed  from  the  earliest  times  in 


the  manufacture  of  alcoholic  beverages,  but  its 
philosophy  has  been  but  imperfectly  understood 
until  recent  times,  and  several  questions  still 
remain  involved  in  doubt,  and  are  matters  of 
warm  controversy.  Formerly  chemists  recog- 
nized four  kinds  of  fermentation,  the  vinous, 
the  panary,  the  acetous,  and  the  putrefactive ; 
but  now  the  panary  is  included  in  the  vinous, 
while  other  kinds  have  been  added,  the  number 
not  being  definitely  settled.  The  following  list 
may  be  given  as  the  one  usually  recognized, 
although  it  will  be  seen  that  some  of  them  are 
probably  parts  of  the  processes  of  others:  1, 
saccharine;  2,  alcoholic  or  vinous;  8,  acetic; 
4,  lactic ;  6,  butyric ;  6,  mucous  or  viscous ;  7, 
putrefactive.  To  these  there  might  be  added 
without  impropriety  the  benzoic,  in  which  the 
amygdaline  of  the  bitter  almond,  under  the 
influence  of  emulsine,  forms  prussic  acid  and 
other  bodies ;  and  the  sinapic,  in  which  oil  of 
mustard  is  produced  during  fermentation  of  the 
flour  of  black  mustard.  The  act  of  digestion 
may  also  not  improperly  be  regarded  as  a 
species  of  fermentation,  because  it  involves, 
under  the  influence  of  minute  organic  cells, 
furnished  by  the  mucous  coat  of  the  stomach, 
a  transformation  of  proteine  compounds  into 
albuminose,  which  is  just  as  truly  a  change  by 
the  influence  of  a  ferment  as  the  formation  of 
lactic  acid  from  lactic  sugar,  or  of  glucose  from 
dextrine. — 1.  Saccharine  Fermentation,  In  the 
article  Bbbwino  is  described  the  process  for 
the  malting  of  barley,  in  which  the  produc- 
tion of  diastase  from  albuminous  matter  accom- 
panies the  evolution  of  the  grain  into  plumula 
and  radicle.  This  diastase  is  the  ferment  of 
saccharine  fermentation,  by  whose  influence  the 
starch  of  the  grain  is  converted  into  sugar ;  the 
steps  in  the  process  being,  first,  the  formation 
of  soluble  starch,  then  dextrine  or  gum,  which 
next  passes  into  glucose  or  grape  sugar.  Starch, 
soluble  starch,  and  dextrine  have  the  same 
chemical  constitution,  or  more  strictly  speaking 
have  the  same  proportion  of  elements,  and  may 
therefore  be  considered  as  allotropic  conditions 
of  each  other.  The  transformation  of  dextrine 
into  glucose  consists  in  the  assimilation  of  the 
elements  of  water,  and  may  be  represented  in 
the  following  equation : 

C.HjoOft     +    HaO    =    C.H„0, 
Dextrine.        Water.         Qlucoae. 

There  is  Usually  at  the  same  time  produced  a 
small  quantity  of  lactic  acid,  in  consequence  of 
a  catalytic  action,  probably  of  the  diastase,  by 
which  the  glucose,  having  the  same  piroportion 
of  elements  as  lactic  sugar,  but  dificrently 
grouped,  takes  on  the  functions  of  the  latter  sub- 
stance and  splits  up  into  lactic  acid.  The  sac- 
charine fermentation,  which  takes  place  in  malt- 
ing, is  promoted  by  the  action  of  heat,  which 
should  commence  at  about  85°  and  terminate 
at  about  185°  F. ;  but  in  a  decoction  of  malt,  as 
in  the  mash  tnn  of  the  brewer,  it  is  conducted  at 
a  higher  temperature,  from  158°  to  167°.  The 
drying  of  the  malt  in  kilns  at  this  stage  arrests 


142 


FERMENTATION 


the  conversion  of  the  sagar  into  lactic  acid, 
which  is  evolved  in  considerable  quantity  if 
the  malt  is  allowed  to  cool  in  a  moist  state, 
llie  action  of  dilute  acids,  assisted  by  heat, 
also  has  the  power  of  converting  starch  into 
dextrine  and  grape  sugar.  (See  Dbxtbine.) 
— 2.  Alcoholic  or  Vinous  Fermentation.  If  a 
decoction  of  malt  is  allowed  to  stand  for  a 
time  in  the  open  air  at  a  temperature  varying 
from  40**  to  S6°  F.,  a  change  takes  place,  in 
which  bubbles  of  carbonic  acid  gas  may  be 
seen  to  rise  from  the  mass ;  and  upon  exami- 
nation iC  will  be  found  that  portions  of  the 
sugar  and  gluten  have  disappeared,  and  in  their 
place  will  be  found  alcohol,  lactic,  acetic,  and 
succinic  acids,  and  some  glycerine,  in  varying 
proportions,  depending  upon  the  temperature 
and  the  amount  of  saccharification  that  had 
taken  place  in  the  malt.  There  will  also  be 
found  more  or  less  of  a  viscous  substance  con- 
taining yeast  cells  and  germs  and  other  micro- 
scopic organisms,  and  some  mannite.  If,  how- 
ever, instead  of  allowing  the  decoction  of  mdt 
to  ferment  spontaneously,  it  be  kept  at  a  tem- 
perature of  168*"  to  167**  F.  until  most  of  the 
dextrine  has  been  converted  into  glucose,  and 
then  filtered  and  cooled  to  70**  or  85°  with  suffi- 
cient rapidity  to  prevent  the  commencement 
of  premature  fermentation,  and  then  a  quantity 
of  brewer^s  yeast  which  has  been  kept  in  a 
warm  place  -  until  it  begins  to  decay  be  stirred 
in  the  mass,  brisk  fermentation  will  soon  be 
induced,  by  which  nearly  all  the  glucose  will 
be  transformed  into  alcohol  and  carbonic  acid, 
as  represented  in  the  following  equation : 

C^HijO,    =    2C,H.O    +    acOj 
Glaooee.  Alcohol.   Carbonic  odd. 

Under  the  most  favorable  circumstances  not 
more  than  95  per  cent,  of  the  sugar  passes  into 
alcohol  and  carbonic  acid,  the  remainder  being 
converted  into  succinic  acid  and  glycerine. 
Both  these  bodies  are  formed,  according  to 
Pasteur,  as  follows : 

49C«H„0«  +  80H,0  =  1«C4H,04  +  72C,Hs03  +  SOCOj 
Glaooee.        Water.    Buoeinic  add.  Glycerine.  Carb.acid. 

The  production  of  succinic  acid  in  alcoholic 
fermentation  was  discovered  by  0.  Schmidt  in 
1847.  Pasteur  discovered  a  few  years  ago  that 
glycerine  was  also  one  of  the  products.  A  my  lie 
alcohol  or  fusel  oil  is  also  frequently  produced 
in  alcoholic  fermentation.  Cane  sugar,  CitHtt 
On,  does  not  pass  into  alcohol  and  carbonic 
acid  directly,  but  is  first  converted  into  glucose 
by  assimilating  one  equivalent  of  water,  thus : 

C,aHj,0,,     +    HjO    =    2C,H,aO, 
Cane  sugar.        Water.  Ghicose. 

It  then  passes  into  alcohol  and  carbonic  acid  as 
before  represented.  Milk  sugar,  OnHiiOit, 
which  has  the  same  proportion  of  elements  as 
grape  sugar,  but  with  a  different  molecular  ar- 
rangement, is  also  transformed  into  alcohol  and 
carbonic  acid  under  the  influence  of  cheese  or 
other  proteine  bodies  in  a  state  of  decay ;  first 


passing,  according  to  some  observers,  into  ^la« 
cose.    Must  of  grape  or  juice  of  fruit,  if  boiled 
and  suspended  in  a  bladder  in  the  midst  of 
fermenting  must  or  wort,  will  not  ferment; 
and  it  has  been  stated  that  if  yeast  cells  be 
prevented  from  coming  in  contact  with  the 
fermentable  liquid,  fermentation  wiU  not  take 
place,  although  the  soluble  contents  of  the 
cells  may  pass  through  the  membrane.    Should 
this  statement  be  substantiated  by  further  ob- 
servation, it  would  go  to  show  that  the  exceed- 
ingly minute  germs  of  yeast  cannot  penetrate 
through  the  coats  of  animal  membranes,  al- 
though so  small  as  to  be  scarcely  visible  under 
a  magnifying  power  of  2,800  diameters,  and 
would  also  show  that  fermentation,  whatever 
may  be  the  question  as  to  its  being  itself  a  vital 
process  or  a  chemical  one,  cannot  take  place 
without  the  influence  of  these  vitalized  germs. 
Yeast,  torula  eerecina  or  myeoderma  vini^  is  a 
fungoid  vegetable  organism,  composed  of  mi- 
croscopic globules  which  attain  a  maximum 
diameter  of  about  j-^  of  an  inch.     Each 
globule  is  composed  of  a  tliin  membranous  cell 
wall  having  the  composition  of  cellulose,  C« 
HioOft,  and  is  filled  with  a  gelatinous  proteine 
compound,  principally  consbting  of  exceeding- 
ly minute  germinal  granules.    There  are  two 
varieties  of  yeast,  depending  upon  the  mode 
of  propagation.     When  fermentation  is  con- 
ducted below  45^  F.,  the  propagation  is  carried 
on  by  an  increase  of  the  germinal  grannies 
within  the  cells  by  assimilation  of  nutriment 
from  the  fermenting  liquid,  until  the  cell  wall 
bursts  and  the  partially  organized  grannies 
which  are  liberated  proceed  in  their  develop- 
ment, forming  in  turn  parent  cells.     Teaat 
formed  in  this  manner  is  called  by  the  German 
brewers  bottom  yeast  {Unterhrfe\  and  is  the 
kind  used  in  the  fermentation  of  Bavarian  beer. 
It  is  deposited  during  the  process  at  the  bot- 
tom of  the  fermenting  tun  in  the  form  of  a 
grayish  viscid  or  gelatinous  mass,  the  yeast 
being  more  or  less  mixed  with  other  sedimen- 
tary matter.    When,  however,  the  temperature 
at  which  the  fermentation  is  conducted  is  much 
above  46",  say  from  70"  to  85",  the  develop- 
ment of  germinal  matter  becomes  much  more 
rapid,  and  it  passes,  according  to  Dr.  Lionel 
Beale,  through  pores  of  the  parent  cell  wall,  per- 
haps carrying  a  thin  pellicle  with  it,  and  makes 
its  appearance  upon  the  outside  in  the  form  of 
what  have  been  called  buds,  first  discovered  by 
Cagniard  de  la  Tour.    (See  fig.  1.)    These  buds, 
which  for  a  time  remain  attached  by  pedicles  to 
the  parent  cells,  then  go  on  developing,  and  in 
time  become  detached  and  assume  the  flinctions 
of  parent  cells ;  or  buds  may  spring  from  them 
before  their  separation,  and  thus  branches  ex- 
tending to  some  distance  may  be  formed,  as  in 
fig.  2.      Fig.  8  exhibits  an  appearance  oiten 
noticed :  several  buds  growing  from  one  parent 
cell,   each  filled  with  granular  matter,   and 
presenting  an  irregular  outline.    On  account 
of  its  branching  structure,  yeast  which  grows 
in  this  way  becomes  buoyant  from  the  coUec- 


FERMENTATION 


143 


tion  of  bubbles  of  carbonic  acid  gas  between 
the  branches^  and  rises  to  the  top  of  the  liquid, 
and  therefore  is  called  top  yeast  ( Oherhtfe).  It 
is  the  kind  used  in  the  fermentation  of  Uie  wort 
of  ale  and  strong  spiritaons  liqnors.  It  wonld 
appear,  however,  that  the  mode  of  propagation 


9 


Fig.  1.— Orowlng  reast 
cella  and  most  minute 
frerma,  ma^ifled  2,000 
dlaaoeten  (Beale). 


ic8  flf      ^ 


Fio.  2.-~YeastoeIl0.  grow- 
ing^ during  48  hours, 
magnified  890  diame- 
ters (Beale). 


does  not  instantly  change  in  either  variety 
upon  a  change  of  temperature.  Thus  top  yeast 
placed  in  a  fermentable  liquid  having  a  tem- 
peratore  of  45°  is  said  not  to  pass  into  bottom 
jeast  at  once,  as  though  a  habit  had  been  ac- 
quired; and  conversely, 
bottom  yeast  will  not  de- 
velop as  top  yeast  under 
a  certain  length  of  time. 
Yeast  globules  do  not  in- 
crease in  number  in  pure 
sugar  solutions,  but  the 
older  globules  waste  away 
while  the  new  buds  grow 
at  the  expense  of  their  F'»-  ,?•  — ^^'^^'^..y*"* 

contents.  To  eflfect  the  ^SS?  "or'^bSSaf  *IS2- 
fermentation  of  100  parts  nifled  i,800  diameters 
of  sugar  requires  about  (B«»^)- 
ODs  part  of  yeast,  weighed  when  dry.  When 
the  proportion  of  sugar  is  greater  the  excess 
remains  unaltered,  the  cells  will  be  ruptured, 
and  the  solution  will  be  found  to  contain  a 
certain  quantity  of  lactate  and  acetate  of  am- 
monia, and  other  ammoniacal  salts.  When, 
however,  instead  of  a  pure  sugar  solution,  a 
saccharine  vegetable  infusion,  as  sweet  wort, 
is  employed  as  the  fermentable  liquid,  the  yeast 
cells  rapidly  increase  at  the  expense  of  the 
azotized  matters  which  are  present  and  which 
are  essential  as  their  nutriment.  During  the 
fermentation  of  beer  they  often  increase  to  eight 
or  ten  times  their  original  Quantity.  The  fol- 
lowing table,  according  to  Mitscherlich,  gives 
the  composition  of  yeast  in  its  active  and  in  its 
exhausted  state,  the  amount  of  ash  being  de- 
ducted : 


CONSTITUENTS. 

AetlT«<MUa. 

8p«o(  etUs. 

Carbon 

47- 0 

6-6 

100 

85-8 

0-6 

47-6 

H7dr^>en 

7-2 

Sltwjten 

6-0 

On^ffen 

Subhar. 

The  inorganic  matter  represented  by  the  ash 
amounts  to  about  7'5  per  cent,  of  the  dried 

817  VOL.  vn.--10 


yeast,  and  is  composed,  according  to  Mulder, 
entirely  of  phosphates  of  potash,  soda,  lime, 
and  magnesia. — 8.  Acetic  Fermentation,  Liebig 
regarded  the  conversion  of  alcohol  into  acetic 
acid  rather  as  a  process  of  eremacausis,  or  slow 
oxidation,  by  which  hydrogen  was  removed  and 
oxygen  sub^ituted;  but  as  the  process  is  facili- 
tated by  ferments,  particularly  by  the  myeoder- 
ma  aeeti^  it  is  generally  regarded  as  a  species 
of  fermentation.  Alcohol  is  readily  oxidized 
by  the  influence  of  finely  divided  platinum  into 
acetic  acid,  and  also  by  binoxide  of  manganese 
and  bichromate  of  potash.  It  is  supposed  that 
the  reaction  includes  two  stages :  first  the  for- 
mation of  aldehyde  by  the  abstraction  of  two 
equivalents  of  hydrogen,  water  being  at  the 
same  time  formed ;  and  subsequently  the  ad- 
dition of  one  equivalent  of  oxygen,  as  repre- 
sented by  the  following  equations : 

C,HeO     +    O    =    C,H40     +     H,0 

AloohoL  Aldehyde.      Water. 


CaH40    + 
Aldehyde. 


Aoetle  acid. 


If  the  supply  of  oxygen  be  insufficient,  much 
of  the  aldehyde  remains  unconverted  into  acetic 
acid,  and  on  account  of  its  great  volatility  may 
pass  away  in  vapor.  Pure  diluted  alcohol  does 
not  absorb  oxygen  from  the  air,  but  requires 
the  presence  of  some  inducing  body  which 
shall  modify  the  atomic  character  of  the  oxy- 
gen, and  also  perhaps  of  that  of  the  alcohol, 
so  that  the  affinity  of  the  constituent  hydrogen 
and  the  atmospheric  oxygen  shall  be  increased. 
— i.  Lactic  Fermentation,  When  milk  is  left 
to  stand  for  a  time,  the  lactic  sugar  (OitHs40is) 
which  it  contains  decomposes  into  lactic  acid. 
The  transformation  is  exceedingly  simple,  con- 
sisting merely  in  the  splitting  up  of  the  mole- 
cules of  sugar  into  a  less  complex  arrangement, 
OitHs«Ois  becoming  2GiHeO«,  or  lactic  acid. 
Oaseine  while  passing  into  a  state  of  decay  was 
formerly  supposed  to  be  the  ferment  which  in- 
duced the  process ;  but  according  to  Uallier 
and  others,  it  consists  of  minute  organisms 
which  are  developed  from  spores  of  penieillium 
entataceum,  (See  figs.  4,  5,  6,  7.)  The  pro- 
cess is  usually  accompanied  or  immediately  fol- 
lowed by  the  coagulation  of  the  milk,  an  ac- 
tion which  is  generally  ascribed  to  the  ab- 
straction of  the  alkahne  constituents  of  the 
caseine,  which  are  supposed  to  hold  it  in  so- 
lution; but  it  is  asserted  by  some  observers 
that  coagulation  of  new  milk  by  rennet  often 
commences  before  any  lactic  acid  makes  its 
appearance.  Another  mode  of  producing  lac- 
teous  fermentation  is  by  the  employment  of 
glucose.  When  a  solution  of  glucose  is  mixed 
with  new  sour  cheese,  or  with  milk  and  chalk, 
and  exposed  to  a  temperature  of  75°  or  80°  F. 
for  some  weeks,  with  frequent  stirring,  the 
sugar  is  converted  into  lactic  acid,  which  when 
chalk  is  used  combines  with  the  base,  forming 
lactate  of  lime.  The  chalk  is  used  for  the  pur- 
pose of  combining  with  the  acid,  the  accumu- 


144 


FERMENTATION 


lation  of  which  to  a  certain  amonnt  arrests 
the  process. — 5.  Butyric  Fertnentation,  To- 
ward the  close  of  lactic  fennentation  butyric 
acid  makes  its  appearance,  accompanied  bj  the 
evolution  of  hydrogen  and  carbonic  acid,  par- 
ticularly when  sugar  of  milk  and  lime  are  em- 
ployed. The  formation  is  represented  by  the 
following  equation : 


2C,H«0,    =    CfHgO,     -I- 
Lactic  add.     Butyric  add. 


2CO,    -I-    4H 


— 6.  VueouB  or  Mueaua  Fermentation,  When 
the  juices  of  beet  root  and  carrot  are  left  in  a 
warm  place  for  a  few  days,  they  spontaneously 
pass  into  the  viscous  state,  for  which  reason 
this  has  been  called  the  viscous  fermentation. 
During  the  process  there  is  an  escape  of  car- 
bonic acid  and  hydrogen,  as  in  the  case  of 
butyric  fermentation,  and  the  formation  of 
mannite,  gum,  and  lactic  acid.  It  has  been 
described  as  taking  place  under  the  influence 
of  a  peculiar  ferment  composed  of  minute 
spherules,  which  are  probably  a  species  of  pe- 
nicillium.  It  is  doubtful  whether  this  should 
be  considered  as  a  distinct  species,  or  as  an 
incident  in  lactic  or  butyric  fermentation. — 
7.  Putr^aetive  Fermentation.  This  occurs 
when  bodies  containing  nitrogenous  compounds 
decompose  spontaneously  in  a  limited  amount 
of  air.  When  the  decomposing  substance  is 
freely  exposed  to  the  air,  and  there  is  not  too 
much  moisture  present,  eremacausis  or  slow 
combustion  takes  place  (see  Eremacausis)  ; 
but  if  the  access  of  air  is  much  obstructed, 
as  when  the  decaying  body  is  submerged  in 
water,  a  more  complex  reaction  takes  place, 
in  which  several  very  offensive  gases  are  evol- 
ved, prominent  among  which  is  sulphuretted 
hydrogen,  the  gas  which  gives  the  odor  of 
rotten  eggs.  Phosphuretted  hydrogen,  carbu- 
retted  hydrogen,  ammonia,  free  nitrogen  and 
hydrogen  gases,  and  acetic,  lactic,  butyric,  and 
valeric  acids,  as  well  as  several  noxious  com- 
pounds, the  nature  of  many  of  which  is  not 
perfectly  understood,  are  also  formed.  The 
putrefaction  which  takes  place  soon  after  the 
death  of  a  person  or  animal  generates  poisonous 
matter  of  great  virulence.  It  is,  however,  the 
opinion  of  Dr.  Lionel  Beale  that  the  peculiar 
matter  which  is  the  most  poisonous  is  engen- 
dered at  about  the  time  of  death,  and  perhaps 
a  few  hours  before.  ("  Disease  Genns,  their 
Nature  and  Origin,"  London,  1872.)  Com- 
plete exclusion  of  the  air  prevents  putre- 
faction. If  fermentable  liquids  are  first  boiled 
and  sealed  tightly  in  close  jars,  they  may  be 
kept  for  an  indefinite  time  without  undergo- 
ing either  vinous  or  putrefactive  fermentation. 
The  commencement  of  the  process  is  a  matter 
which  is  involved  in  some  obscurity.  A  piece 
of  wood  or  animal  tissue  undergoing  erema- 
causis, if  supplied  with  sufiScient  moisture  and 
nearly  excluded  from  the  air,  immediately  be- 
gins to  putrefy.  Whether  the  ferment  is  the 
decaying  matter  itself,  or  consists  of  living  or- 
ganisms, is  a  question  that  has  not  been  decided. 


Pasteur  regards  putrefaction  as  a  peculiar  spe- 
cies of  fermentation  caused  by  animal  organ- 
isms of  the  genus  f>ibrio,  of  which  there  are  six 
known  species;  and  he  also  regards  each  of 
them  as  having  the  power  of  exciting  a  particu- 
lar mode  of  putrefaction.  If  a  putrescible 
liquid  holding  air  in  solution  is  sealed  in  a  glass 
vessel  and  left  to  stand  for  a  time,  certain  infu- 
soria, monas  erepuscvlum  and  bacterium  termOy 
are  first  developed.  They  absorb  oxygen  from 
the  air  and  evolve  carbonic  acid,  and  then  die 
and  fall  to  the  bottom  as  a  sediment.  If  germs 
of  the  viMo  are  present,  they  become  devel- 
oped, and  the  process  of  putrefaction  com- 
mences. These  vibrions,  according  to  Pasteur, 
cannot  exist  in  a  liquid  which  contains  oxygen. 
If  the  putrescible  liquid  is  exposed  to  the  air, 
the  monads  and  bacteria  are  first  developed, 
and  forming  a  pellicle  on  the  surface  prevent 
the  access  of  oxygen  to  the  interior.  Putrefac- 
tion then  commences,  but  the  products  are  par- 
tially decomposed  by  the  infiuence  of  the  layer 
of  infusoria,  and  receiving  oxygen  are  converted 
into  water,  carbonic  acid,  and  ammonia.  Pas- 
teur also  regards  the  slow  oxidation  of  animal 
and  vegetable  matters,  such  as  moistened  saw- 
dust, as  dependent  upon  the  infiuence  of  the 
lower  cryptogamio  and  infusorial  organisms, 
without  the  presence  of  which  he  thinks  dead 
organized  matter  would  be  subject  to  but  little 
change. — There  is  a  tendency  at  the  present 
time  to  regard  all  kinds  of  fermentation  as 
due  to  the  development  of  living  organisms, 
either  animal  or  vegetable,  depending  princi- 
pally upon  the  nature  and  condition  of  the  fer- 
menting liquid.  According  to  Pasteur,  it  is 
always  accompanied  by  an  incessant  inter- 
change of  molecules  between  the  fermenting 
substance  and  the  living  cells  which  develop 
themselves  within  it.  In  the  souring  of  wine, 
a  growth  of  myeoderma  aceti  forms  on  the 
surface,  and  has  the  power  of  condensing  the 
oxygen  of  the  air,  like  that  of  platinum  black, 
or  of  the  blood  globules,  and  conveying  it  to 
the  liquid  on  which  it  rests.  Pasteur  also  says 
that  the  germs  which  cause  the  fermentation 
of  grape  juice  come  from  the  exterior  of  the 
fhiit.  He  finds  with  the  microscope  organized 
corpuscles  attached  to  the  grape  skins,  which 
he  regards  as  germs  of  the  ferment.  He  more- 
over holds  that  alcoholic  fermentation  may  be 
conducted  without  the  presence  of  atmospheric 
oxygen,  and  in  an  atmosphere  composed  en- 
tirely of  carbonic  acid;  in  accordance  with 
which  idea  he  has  invented  and  patented  ap- 
paratus for  brewing,  by  which  atmospheric  air 
is  excluded  during  fermentation,  one  great  ad- 
vantage of  which  he  claims  is  that  the  germs 
of  other  ferments  which  produce  lactic,  acetic, 
and  butyric  acids  are  excluded,  and  beer  yeast 
or  true  alcoholie  ferment  alone  allowed  to  act, 
by  which  a  greater  percentage  and  also  better 
quality  of  product  is  obtain^,  and  in  a  more 
economical  way.  Experiments  have  been  made 
by  Pasteur  and  others  in  which  boiled  must 
and  other  fermentable  liquids  have  been  sub- 


FERMENTATION 


145 


jected  to  the  action  of  filtered  and  heated  air 
and  oxygen  without  the  production  of  fermen- 
tation ;  and  thej  have  also  introdaced  the  pulp 
of  froits  into  boiled  must,  with  the  same  result 
when  it  was  excluded  from  the  presence  of  un- 
filtered  air.  Fermentation  has  also  been  car- 
ried on  in  tubes  having  their  ends  closed  by 
thin  membranes,  and  placed  in  fermentable 
liquids,  but  without  exciting  in  the  latter  any 
fermentation  except  when  natural  air  was  ad- 
mitted, which,  it  is  contended,  always  carries 
the  germs  of  ferments.  M.  Fr^my  maintains 
that  certain  experiments  which  he  has  made 
controvert  the  position  of  the  upholders  of 
the  physiological  theory.  At  a  session  of  the 
French  academy  of  sciences  held  in  October, 
1872,  a  discussion  of  the  subject  took  place 
between  M.  Pasteur  and  M.  Fr^my,  in  which 
the  latter  contended  that  the  influence  of  at- 
mospheric dust  in  the  phenomena  of  fermenta- 
tion is  only  secondary  and  accidental,  and  that 
the  true  origin  of  ferments  is  in  the  mass  of 
the  fermentable  substance.  Fr^my  is  disposed 
to  believe  that  Pasteur  did  not  establish  fer- 
mentation in  the  boiled  must  in  which  he  had 
placed  grape  juice,  because  he  placed  it  in  other 
conditions,  besides  those  of  exclusion  of  air,  in 
which  alcoholic  fermentation  could  not  take 
place.  He  recounted  some  experiments  which 
he  had  made,  among  which  was  the  following : 
lie  squeezed  the  pulp  of  some  pears  and  other 
fmits,  but  without  breaking  the  skins,  and 
placing  them  in  favorable  situations,  foimd  at 
the  end  of  several  days  that  they  contained 
notable  quantities  of  alcohol;  fermentation 
having  been  produced  in  the  interior  of  the 
frait  where,  in  his  opinion,  the  dust  of  the  air 
could  not  exert  any  influence.  Fr6my  there- 
fore believes  that  the  parenchyma  of  fruits  con- 
tains the  material  which  is  capable  of  taking 
on  conditions  by  which  it  may  form  ferments. 
He  contends  that  there  is  a  great  number  of 
ferments  that  are  neither  organized  nor  living, 
which  are  capable  of  producing  various  kinds 
of  fermentation,  depending  upon  the  conditions 
in  which  the  fermentable  matter  is  placed. 
Liebig  compares  the  action  of  a  ferment  to 
that  of  heat,  by  which  the  atomic  constituents 
of  organic  molecules  are  shaken  asunder  and 
left  to  recombine  under  the  influence  of  forces 
that  may  be  present.  Acetic  acid  is  separated 
bj  beat  into  carbonic  acid  and  acetone ;  just 
as  sugar  is  separated  by  yeast  into  carbonic 
acid  and  alcohol.  He  regards  vital  action  and 
chemical  action  as  phenomena  which  must  be 
considered  separately  in  seeking  an  explana- 
tion of  fermentation,  and  holds  that  the  fact 
that  yeast  causes  fermentation  in  a  pure  so- 
lution of  sugar  is  opposed  to  the  idea  that  the 
decomposition  of  su^r  is  caused  by  the  devel- 
opment and  increase  of  yeast  cells ;  for  yeast 
consists  chiefly  of  a  substance  containing  nitro- 
gen and  sulphur,  besides  phosphates,  and  these 
cannot  be  furnished  by  the  sugar ;  and  more- 
over, beer  yeast  causes  a  similar  decomposition 
of  other  substances,  malate  of  lime  being  con- 


verted into  carbonic  acid,  acetate,  carbonate, 
and  succinate  of  lime.  Salicine  is  also  decom- 
posed by  yeast  into  saligenine  and  salicylic 
acid ;  ^*  and  a  similar  decomposition  of  salicine 
is  produced  by  emulsine  without  any  recogni- 
zable physiological  process  being  concemea  in 
the  change.  Emulsine  acts  upon  amygdaline 
in  like  manner,  its  effects  being  recognizable  in 
a  few  minutes  by  the  new  products.  Emulsion 
of  sweet  almonds  also  undergoes  active  vinous 
fermentation  when  mixed  with  grape  sugar. 
But  if  substances  containing  sulphur  and  nitro- 
gen, like  emulsine,  are,  by  reason  of  alteration 
in  the  arrangement  of  their  atoms,  capable  of 
inducing  change  in  other  organic  molecules, 
so  that  they  separate  into  new  products,  there 
is  reason  for  suspecting  that  in  the  action  which 
yeast  exerts  upon  sugar  its  sulphuretted  and 
nitrogenous  constituent  plays  a  similar  part.^' 
On  the  other  hand,  the  experiments  of  Iiallier 
are  more  in  support  of  the  views  of  Pasteur. 
According  to  this  observer,  the  same  germinal 
molecules  develop,  according  to  the  nature  of 
the  fermentable  substances  in  which  they  are 
deposited,  into  the  fungoid  forms  peculiar  to 
each  fermentation.  The  forms  which  induce 
putrefaction,  fermentation^  and  mildew  are  all 
varieties  of  one  another.  When  they  are  de- 
veloped within  the  fluids  they  are  cellular  for- 
mations, but  when  they  grow  upon  the  surface 
they  produce  fructification.  HaUier  agrees  with 
Pasteur^s  view  that  the  germs  are  all  carried 
by  the  air.  The  following,  condensed  from  the 
"  Quarterly  Journal  of  Science,"  is  a  brief  sum- 
mary of  Hallier's  views.  The  most  abundant 
source  of  germs  appears  to  be  the  penicillium 
erusta^eum  (fig,  4),  whose  spores  are  universal-  , 
ly  spread  because  it  is  more  hardy,  more  fertile, 
and  develops  at  lower  temperatures  than  others 
of  its  kind.  A  spore  of  penieiUium  ftdling  into 
a  watery  fluid  bursts  into  a  multitude  of  parti- 
cles, each  of  which  may  be  the  radicle  of  a 
living  fungus.  The  minute  particles  imite  in 
twos,  forming  a  double  cell,  and  divide  with 
great  rapidity.  (See  fig.  5.)  The  mmute  parti- 
cles then  unite  in  chains,  constituting  Upto- 
thriXj  which  is  not  a  species,  but  a  form  of  vege- 
tation common  to  many  species.  In  pure  water 
development  can  go  no  further,  and  after  a  few 


•  • 


Fio.  5.->  Spores  of  PeniclIUnm  eras- 
tao(>um  bursting  In  water  and 
Betting  free  tbelr  contained  par- 
ticles, microcoeeiy  which  onite 
in  rows  or  chains  (Hallier). 

hours  the  organisms  cease  to  be  formed,  the 
presence  of  a  nitrogenous  substance  being  ne- 
cessary for  further  development  The  minute 
spherules,  micrococci^  are  the  special  ferment 
of  putrefaction.  In  the  presence  of  sugar  the 
spherule  enlarges  and  becomes  a  nucleated  cell, 


Fio.  4.—  Pmctiflcatlon 
of  Penicillium  eras- 
taceom  (HaUier). 


lie 

eryptoeoeettt,  which  ii  identical  with  the  yeoat 
cell.  (See  &g.  0.)  la  millc,  during  lacteone  fer- 
mentation, the  mi£7oa>eeua  elongfttea  and  foiTDS 
Join t«d  ataff-like  cells,  aiiiaig.7,aTthrococeu»; 
and  in  acetic  fermentatioD  the  cells  become  lan- 
oet-sba[>ed.  According  to  these  views,  alcoholic 


*,0;i>»Di» 


Fio.  *.— Ciyplococeni  In  mi-       Fio. 

OTu  graaee  of  deielopmsiit  fband    In   Hur   inilk 

from  FSDlcUUum  (IlajHer),  (II''!'")' 

and  putrefactive  fermentationa  are  both  due  to 
the  influence  of  a  single  agent,  transpiorted  frcm 
place  to  place  in  the  air,  which  everywhere 
ooiitaiDBg«nninalmatter,  protoplasm,  bioplasm, 
or  whatever  it  ma;  be  called ;  the  living  mole- 
cules growing  wherever  thej  find  a  snitable 
soil,  and  in  different  soils  developing  into  differ- 
ent forms,  producing  b;  theirvibd  acts  different 
effects.  The  microscopic  investigations  of  Dr. 
Benle  upon  the  development  of  the  yeast  plant 
show  that  the  cells  vary  in  size  more  than  is 
usually  represented,  and  that  the  development 
of  buds  is  greater,  the  layer  cells  having  as  many 
as  ten  or  more  buds.  {See  flgs.  1  and  3.)  He 
SBjs:  "The  different  germinal  matter  within  the 
yeast  cell  is  the  material  upon  which  alone  all 
growth  and  action  depends.  Were  it  not  for 
the  bioplasm  or  germinal  matter,  the  cell  wonld 
be  lifeless  and  passive,  incapable  of  exciting  fer- 
mentation or  any  change  wnatever ;  and  it  may 
nnder  favorable  circumstances  undergo  darel- 
opment  into  complete  yeast  celts,  so  that  by 
the  artificial  division  of  one  thousands  may  re- 
Bult.  And  if  the  soft,  bioplasmic  matter  which 
can  be  expres.ied  from  the  yeast  cell  be  placed 
nnder  favorable  conditions,  every  particle  of  it 
may  germinate.  This  matter  alone  furnishes 
the  germs,  it  alone  grows  and  appropriates  the 
nutrient  material ;  in  sliort,  it  alone  manifests 
the  phcnoroeOB  peculiar  to  living  things.  The 
little  buds  or  gemmules  above  referred  to,  de- 
tached from  the  parent  mass,  and  capable  of 
independent  existence,  are,many  of  them,  much 
less  than  Tit^Vini  "^  ""  '"'^l'  '"  diameter;  but 
each  is  living,  and  will  grow  under  favorable 
circumstances  into  a  body  like  the  parent  cell, 
(riving  origin  in  its  turn  to  countless  descen- 
dants. Those  very  minute  particles  divide  and 
enbdivide  independently,  producing  still  more 
minnte  particles,  capable  of  growth  and  divi- 
sion like  themselves;  .  .  .  and  this  mode  of 
mniti plication  may  go  on  for  a  long  period, 
perhaps  for  an  indefinite  time,  if  certain  con- 
ditions persist.    But  if  any  one  of  these  exces- 


taining  suitable  pabulum,  it  will  appropriate  it 
and  soon  pasa  on  to  a  higher  stage  of  develop- 
ment In  this  cose  branches  may  i>e  formed, 
and  from  them  may  proceed  stems  which  grow 
upward  into  the  air,  and  bear  upon  their  enm- 
mits  beoda  in  which  spores  are  found,  these 
last  being  so  well  protected  from  the  influ- 
ence of  destructive  agents  that  the  germinal 
matter  within  can  rettun  its  vitality  for  a 
great  length  of  time.  The  spores  just  re- 
ferred to  are  so  light  as  to  be  easUj  sup- 
ported in  the  atmosphere,  and  they  may  be 
carried  a  long  distance  by  currents  of  air." 
B^champ  has  made  an  investigation  into  the 
action  of  chalk  which  is  used  in  lactic  and 
butyric  fermentation.  As  has  been  stated, 
the  chalk  is  added  for  the  purpose  of  pre- 
venting an  acciminlation  of  acid  in  the  so- 
lution ;  and  although  thia  is  an  important  ac- 
tion, B^champ  has  shown  that  cbalk  is  itself 
capable  of  e«tabliahiDg  alcoholic,  lactic,  and 
bntyrio  fermentations.  The  chalk  formation 
consists  principally  of  tiie  remains  of  minute 
organisms ;  but  independently  of  these  fossils, 
he  finds  that  chalk  contains  living  organisms 
of  extreme  minuteness,  which  be  has  named 
mitrotyma  ereta,  and  regards  as  the  most 
powerful  ferments  known.  A  sample  of  native 
chalk,  taken  from  the  centre  of  a  large  block 
and  mixed  with  water,  reveals  under  the  mi- 
croscope numerous  bright  points  having  very 
lively  trepideting  movements,  which  arc  the 
organisms  in  question.  The  following  experi- 
ment sbows  their  power  of  inducing  fermenta- 
tion ;  There  were  mtimately  mixed  490  grms. 
of  starch  paste,  SO  grms.  of  chalk,  and  4  drops 
of  creosote.  At  the  same  time  a  similar  mix- 
ture was  made,  except  that  pure  carbonate  of 
lime  was  used  in  place  of  chalk.  In  three  days 
the  starch  in  the  mixture  containing  clinik 
was  liquefied,  but  no  change  was  produced  in 
tlie  one  containing  pare  carbonate  of  lime.  On 
Nov.  14,  1864,  100  grms.  of  starch,  1,500  cc. 
of  water,  and  10  drops  of  creosote  were  mixed 
with  100  grms.  of  chalk.  On  March  80,  18fi6, 
the  mixture  was  analyzed  and  found  to  contain 
4  cc.  of  absolute  alcohol,  8  grms.  of  butyric 
acid,  and  5-2  grms.  of  crystallized  acetate  of 
soda.  On  April  26,  1866,  80  grms.  of  cnno 
sugar,  1,400  grms.  of  chalk  were  mixed  with 
1,600  cc.  of  water  containing  creosote,  and 
when  examined  on  Jane  14  following  yielded 
2-8  cc.  of  absolute  alcohol,  46  grms.  of  btity- 
ric  acid,  6'S  grms.  of  acetate  of  soda,  and  9 
grms.  of  lactate  of  lime.  When  proper  pre- 
cautions are  taken  no  other  ferment  is  found 
in  the  liquid  after  fermentation  besides  those 
contained  in  the  chalk,  and  which  have  be- 
come considerably  augmented. — Fermentation 
is  retarded  or  arrested  by  the  action  of  vari- 
ous substances.    An   accumulation  of  about 


a  .certain    quantity  of  lactic  acid    accunin- 
lates.    SalpnDrona  acid,  even  in  small  quan- 


FERMENTATION 


FERMOY 


147 


titles,  has  a  remarkable  effect  in  arresting  fer- 
mentation, especially  the  acetic,  and  sulphite 
of  calciam  is  extensively  nsed  by  manufacta- 
rera  of  cider  and  wine,  and  judiciously  em- 
ployed does  not  injure  the  beverage.  Sulphur- 
oas  acid  is  coming  into  use  in  distilleries  in  the 
process  of  mashing,  with  a  view  to  prolong  it 
so  that  an  increased  amount  of  dextrine  and 
fecula  may  be  converted  into  glucose  before  fer- 
mentation commences.  The  mineral  acids  gen- 
erally, chlorine,  chloroform,  camphor,  carbolic 
and  formic  acids,  and  creosote,  as  well  as  most 
mineral  salts,  also  turpentine  and  essential  oils, 
have  in  varying  degrees  the  property  of  arrest- 
ing or  preventing  fermentation.  The  employ- 
ment of  common  salt  to  prevent  putrefactive 
fermentation  is  a  familiar  example  of  antisep- 
tic action.  According  to  Dumas,  alcoholic  fer- 
mentation is  not  affected  by  earthy  carbonates 
and  neutral  salts  of  potash  and  lime,  and  it  is 
accelerated  by  a  solution  of  bitartrate  of  potash, 
the  yeast  cells  becoming  more  perfect,  and 
filled  with  plastic  matter  containing  numerous 
germs  and  mobile  corpuscles. — ^From  all  the 
researches  which  have  been  made  into  the 
subject  of  fermentation,  whether  the  ferment 
he  considered  merely  as  an  organic  body  in  a 
state  of  change,  or  as  a  living  organism,  the 
explanation  of  the  process  is  assisted  by  a  con- 
sideration of  the  vibratory  theory  of  molecular 
physics.  When  two  or  more  bodies  are  brought 
into  intimate  contact  with  each  other,  as  where 
a  ferment  is  suspended  or  stirred  in  a  ferment- 
able liquid,  so  that  the  molecules  are  intermin- 
gled, a  tendency  to  produce  a  change  of  vibra- 
tory motion  in  them  must  follow  as  a  necessary 
consequence ;  and  this  tendency  is  much  modi- 
fied by  the  addition  or  abstraction  of  heat. 
The  difficulty  of  ascertaining  experimentally 
whether  any  of  the  minute  germs,  which  re- 
quire the  highest  powers  of  the  microscope 
yet  attained  to  enable  them  to  be  seen,  may 
be  present  in  a  liquid,  places  the  question  as 
to  the  ultimate  cause  of  fermentation  in  doubt, 
and  it  seems  that  the  nearest  approach  to  a  so- 
lution of  it  must  thus  far  depend  upon  logical 
inferences.  Bucholz  found  that  no  fungi  could 
be  detected  in  milk  mixed  with  a  small  quan- 
tity of  carbolic  acid,  but  that  nevertheless  it 
slowly  turned  sour.  He  therefore  inferred 
that  lactic  fermentation  is  not  due  to  the  ac- 
tion of  living  organisms,  but  to  a  chemical  fer- 
ment contained  or  formed  in  the  milk.  But 
although  he  found  no  fungi,  minute  organic 
germs  may  have  been  present,  undiscoverable 
by  the  microscopic  power  which  he  employed. 
B^hamp,  before  making  the  experiments  with 
chalk  described  above,  had  also  found  that 
creosote  in  certain  quantities  prevented  the 
development  of  spores  of  fungi  and  germs  of 
infusoria,  without  interfering  with  the  action 
of  ferments.  The  influence  which  may  be  ex- 
erted by  undeveloped  germs  under  similar  cir- 
cumstances is  a  matter  difficult  to  determine. 
There  Ls  a  suggestion  contained  in  the  results 
of  experiments  which  have  been  made  by  Pas- 


teur and  others  with  boiled  fermented  liquors. 
It  is  asserted  that  they  may  be  preserved  for 
an  indefinite  time  if  filtered  air  or  pure  oxygen 
only  is  admitted  into  the  vessel.  Now,  Pay  en 
found  that  certain  organic  spores  did  not  lose 
the  power  of  germination  till  heated  to  284°  F. ; 
and  others  maintain  that  organic  germs  will  re- 
tain their  vitality  at  much  higher  temperatures 
than  this.  It  is  certain  that  the  decomposition 
of  the  proteine  body  is  arrested  by  boiling,  so 
that  its  influence  is  destroyed ;  but  it  is  quite 
probable  that  germs  which  have  hitherto  es- 
caped detection  by  means  of  the  microscope 
may  yet  remain  alive.  If,  therefore,  it  be  a 
fact  that  boiling  will  for  an  indefinite  time 
preserve  a  fermentable  liquor  when  natural  air 
IS  excluded,  this  would  seem  to  indicate  that 
something  more  than  the  presence  of  organic 
germs  is  necessary  to  induce  fermentation, 
such  as  proteine  compounds  in  a  certain  state 
of  change,  the  peculiar  action  of  which,  how- 
ever, may  be  advantageously  manifested  in  the 
presence  of  yeast  or  some  living  organism. 
The  facts  also  that  brewers  find  in  their  prac- 
tice that  yeast  does  not  exert  its  powers  advan- 
tageously unless,  before  being  added  to  the  fer- 
menting tun,  it  be  kept  in  a  warm  place  till 
incipient  putrefaction  takes  place,  and  that 
washed  yeast  when  added  to  wort  does  not 
produce  fermentation  until  a  certain  time  has 
elapsed,  strengthen  the  opinion.  The  fact, 
however,  that,  although  undecomposod  pro- 
teine compoimds  may  be  contamed  in  the 
boiled  liquor,  they  will  not  begin  to  decay  in 
the  presence  of  filtered  air  or  pure  oxygen, 
but  require  the  admission  of  natural  air,  would 
indicate  that  they  also  require  the  presence  of 
some  body  having  a  chemical  or  catalytic  force 
not  possessed  by  pure  oxygen,  which  is  re- 
moved from  the  atmosphere  by  filtration. 

FERMO  (anc.  Firmum  Pieenum\  a  town  of 
Italy,  in  the  province  of  Ascoli,  82  m.  8.  E.  of 
Ancona,  and  8  m.  from  the  Adriatic;  pop. 
about  20,000.  It  is  the  seat  of  an  archbishop, 
has  a  cathedral  and  seven  other  churches, 
a  lyceum,  a  communal  gymnasium,  a  public 
library,  and  a  theatre.  It  exports  corn,  silk, 
and  woollens.  It  was  founded  by  the  Sabines 
before  Rome  existed,  and  became  in  264  B.  0. 
a  Roman  colony.  From  the  8th  century  it 
generally  belonged  to  the  papal  dominions  till 
1860,  when  it  became  part  of  the  kingdom  of 
Italy.    It  is  the  birthplace  of  Lactantius. 

FEBMOT,  a  town  of  Ireland,  in  the  county 
and  19  m.  N.  E.  of  the  city  of  Cork,  on  both 
sides  of  the  Blackwater,  which  is  here  spanned 
by  a  fine  stone  bridge,  built  in  1866 ;  pop.  in 
1871,  7,611.  At  the  beginning  of  the  present 
century  there  were  here  only  a  few  cabins, 
until  Mr.  John  Anderson,  the  owner  of  the  es- 
tate, built  a  hotel,  and  erected  for  the  govern- 
ment barracks  sufficient  for  8,000  men.  Fer- 
moy  thus  became  the  central  military  station 
of  Ireland.  Mr.  Anderson  also  laid  out  streets 
and  built  houses  which  constitute  the  greater 
part  of  the  town.    It  has  a  Roman  Catholic 


148 


rERN 


cathedral,  several  Protestant  chnrcbes,  two 
colleges  (Fermoy  college,  and  St.  Cotman'a 
Roman  Catholio  ooUege),  two  convents,  and 
three  branch  banfc& 

FEBN,  Hale.    8ee  Male  Fasy. 

FESNilTDni,  a  port  of  entrj  and  the  capi- 
tal of  Naasan  co.,  Florida,  situated  on  the  W. 
shore  of  Amelia  island,  at  the  entrance  of 
Amelia    river,   which   separatea   it   from   the 
mdnland,  into  Onmberland  sound,  160  m.  E. 
by  N.  of  Tallahassee ;  pop.  in  1870,  1,732,  of 
whom  969  were  colored.    The  harbor  is  land- 
looked  aod  capacione,  and  is  unBurpaased  on 
the  Atlantic  coast  8.  of  Chesapeake  bay.    Ves- 
sels drawing  19  or  20  feet  of  water  can  cross 
the  bar  at  high  tide,  and  the  larfteat  ships  can 
nnload  at  the  wharves.    The  climate,  mild  in 
winter  and  tempered  in  summer  hj  the  aea 
breezes,  is  very  healtlifnl.    In  the  vicinitj  are 
nnmerons  sngar,  cotton,  and  orange  planl«' 
tioDS.    The  town,  which  is  the  seat  of  the 
Protestont  Epianopal  bishopric  of  Florida,  con- 
tains seven  churches,  a 
young  ladies'  seminary 
under  the  charge  of  the 
bishop,  and  a  weekly 
newspaper.    It  has  on 
importaiit  trade  in  Inm- 
ber,    and    possesses  a 
large  cotton-ginning  es- 
tabliBbroent  and  a  man- 
nfactory  of  cotton-seed 
oil.    Lines  of  steamers 
to  Savannah,  Charles- 
ton, and    New    York 
touch  here.    The  value 
of  the  foreign  commerce 
for   the    year   ending 
June    80,    1878,    was 
tS27,S69;     52    vessels 
of  14,789  tons  entered 
from,  and  63  of  22,217 
tons  cleared  for  foreign 
ports;  entered  in  the 
coastwise    trade,    113 
steamers  of  77,708  tons, 

and  105  sailing  vessels  of  28,493  tons;  cleared, 
110  steamers  of  7fl,29S  tons,  and  106  sailing 
vessels  of  20,021  tons.  Femandina  was  built 
by  the  Spaniards  in  the  early  part  of  this 
century,  but  was  of  little  importance  until  the 
completion  of  the  Florida  railroad,  extending 
from  this  point  to  Oedor  Keys. 

FiXtUNDO  DE  IfOBORHl,  a  groap  of  small 
islands  in  the  Atlantic  ocean,  belonging  to 
Braril,  situated  about  210  m.  N.  E.  of  Oape  St 
Roqne;  lat  of  S.  E.  extremity  of  the  principal 
island,  8°  60'  S.,  Ion.  82°  28'  W.  The  shorea 
arc  rocky,  and  difficnit  of  access  on  account 
of  the  violence  of  the  surf.  The  largest  island, 
which  gives  the  name  to  the  group,  is  about 
20  m.  in  circumference.  In  it  is  a  conical 
incuntain  about  1,000  ft.  high,  the  upper  part 
of  which  is  very  steep,  and  on  one  side  over- 
hangs its  base.  It  is  composed  of  phonolitic 
rock,  which  has  been  severed  into  irregular 


FERNANDO  PO 

columns.  The  island  is  covered  with  wood, 
but  such  is  the  aridity  of  its  climate,  there 
being  sometimes  do  rain  for  two  years,  that 
vegetable  production  is  very  limited.  It  con- 
tains two  harbors,  and  the  coasts  abound  with 
fish.  It  is  used  as  a  place  of  banishment  by 
Brazil,  whose  government  maintains  a  garrison 
there  to  prevent  the  escape  of  criminals.  No 
woman  is  permitted  to  land  on  it.  Another 
of  these  islands  is  about  1  m.  square,  and  the 
rest  are  mere  rocky  islets,  separated  from  the 
main  islands  by  very  narrow  channels. 

FEKNAMDO  PO  (Port.  FervOo  do  Po),  an 
island  in  the  bight  of  Biafira,  W.  coast  of 
Africa,  about  26  m.  from  the  munland,  lying 
between  lat.  8°  12'  and  8°  47'  N.,  and  Ion.  8* 
26'  and  8°  57'  E. ;  pop.  variously  estimated  at 
from  6,000  to  20,000.  It  is  about  44  m.  long 
and  20  m.  broad.  Rising  in  bold  precipitous 
tAiffa  from  the  sea,  its  surface  gradually  be- 
comes more  and  more  elevated,  until  in  Clar- 
ence peak,  near  the  N.  extremity,  it  attains  an 


CUniioB  Fuk,  Feruodo  Fo. 

altitude  of  10,B60  ft.  The  rocks  are  wholly 
of  volcanic  formation.  The  soil,  which  is 
mostly  covered  with  wood,  is  every  where  well 
watered  and  fertile.  The  scenery  is  pictn- 
resqne  and  beautiful,  the  highest  summits  and 
the  deepest  vales  being  alike  adorned  with 
Inzuriant  vegetation.  The  principal  vegetable 
products  are  palms,  the  bombax  or  silk  cotton 
tree,  the  goora  (tUreulia),  a  species  of  ebony, 
the  sugar  cane,  here  growing  wild,  and  yams, 
which  form  the  staple  food  of  the  inbabitanta. 
The  most  numerous  quadrupeds  are  antelopes, 
monkeys,  squirrels,  and  rats.  The  rivers 
abound  in  S^  and  alligators.  The  coast  is  in- 
dented with  several  creeks  and  bays,  the  most 
capacious  of  which  is  Maidstone  bay,  at  the 
N.  E.  extremity,  where  is  situated  the  capital, 
ClorencetowD.  The  aborigines  of  Fernando 
Po,  called  Edeeyaha,  are  widely  different  in 
appearance  and  langoage  from  the  natives  of 


FERNEY 


FERNS 


149 


the  continent.  Thej  are  of  lighter  complexion 
and  better  featnrea,  well  made  and  muscular, 
and  in  disposition  brave,  generous,  and  amiable. 
Their  dwellings  are  of  very  rude  construction, 
consisting  merely  of  palm-leaf  mats  thrown 
loosely  over  upright  poles. — ^This  island  was 
discovered  by  the  Portuguese  in  1471,  and 
named  after  the  leader  of  the  expedition.  In 
1778  it  was  ceded  to  the  Spaniards,  who  at- 
tempted to  colonize  it  and  carry  on  a  slave 
trade,  but  were  repelled  by  the  natives.  In 
1827  Spain  permitted  it  to  be  occupied  by  the 
British,  who  in  1884  abandoned  it  on  account 
of  its  insalubrity ;  since  which  period  the 
Spaniards  have  again  claimed  it  and  changed 
its  name  to  Puerto  de  Isabel,  and  now  use  it 
as  a  phice  of  banishment  for  criminals.  During 
the  British  possession  a  Baptist  mission  was 
established  here;  but  in  1858  the  missionaries 
were  expelled  by  the  Spanish  government. 

FEUTET,  or  Fenex,  a  town  of  France,  in  the 
department  of  Ain,  on  the  frontier  of  Switzer- 
land, at  the  foot  of  tiie  Jura  mountains,  5  m. 
N.  W.  of  Geneva;  pop.  about  1,200.  It  was 
a  place  of  refbge  for  the  Huguenots  during  the 
era  of  religions  persecution  in  France,  and 
was  for  20  years  the  residence  of  Voltaire. 
When  he  bought  the  land,  about  1758,  Ferney 
was  a  miserable  hamlet,  consisting  only  of  a 
few  hovels.  By  his  exertions  it  became  a 
prosperous  town,  with  nearly  1,500  inhabi- 
tants. He  drained  and  cultivated  the  a^a- 
cent  grounds,  and  caused  Geneva  watchmakers 
and  other  industrious  artisans  to  settle  there, 
while  the  constant  concourse  of  visitors  and 
travellers  contributed  to  enhance  the  general 
prosperity.  The  deat^  of  Voltaire  proved 
disastrous  to  the  industry  of  the  place,  the 
persons  employed  in  the  manufacture  of 
watches  being  reduced  from  800  to  about  200. 
The  chateau  in  which  he  lived  has  undergone 
many  alterations,  so  that  few  relics  of  him  re- 
main.  Adjoining  the  chAteau  are  two  small  edi- 
fices, one  the  theatre  and  the  other  the  church 
built  by  Voltaire.  Upon  the  porch  of  the  lat- 
ter is  the  following  inscription:  Deoerexit  Vol- 
tarius.  In  front  of  the  chateau  is  the  mauso- 
leum which  he  had  built  with  the  utmost  atten- 
tion to  artistic  execution. 

mnUS,  F^llctt^  and  Th^hfle  de,  French 
heroines,  sisters,  bom  at  Mortagne,  depart- 
ment of  Le  Nord,  F6licit6  in  1776,  Th6ophile 
in  1779.  They  distinguished  themselves  by 
bravery  on  many  occasions,  especially  at  the 
battles  of  Valmy  and  Jemmapes,  having  enlist- 
ed without  their  father^s  knowledge  in  a  com- 
pany of  national  guards  which  he  conunanded 
in  1792.  Their  services  were  officially  recog- 
nized, and  are  conunemorated  in  Lamartine^s 
"  History  of  the  Girondists."  Th6ophile,  who 
had  musical  and  poetical  talents,  died  in  Brus- 
Bels  in  1818.  F^licitd  became  the  wife  of  M. 
Van  der  Walen,  a  Belgian  officer,  whose  life 
she  had  saved,  and  died  much  later. 

PBIHKORN,  AmUm  Dtnlilk,  a  German  sculptor 
and  bronze  founder,  bom  at  Erfurt,  March  17, 


1818,  died  Nov.  16, 1878.  He  spent  a  number 
ot  years  in  a  foundery  at  Munich,  and  attended 
the  academy  of  Schwanthaler.  In  1840  he 
settled  in  Vienna,  and  having  produced  sev- 
eral excellent  works  was  made  director  of  a 
government  bronze  foundery.  Among  his  best 
productions  are  the  colossal  equestrian  statue 
of  the  archduke  Charles,  finished  in  1860,  and 
the  monument  to  Prince  Eugene  in  1865.  In 
1866  he  became  insane,  and  was  placed  in  a 
private  asylum  at  Ddbling,  near  Vienna. 

FEKN8,  the  highest  order  of  cryptogamous 
plants,  forming  a  natural  group  distinguished 
for  beauty  and  elegance,  and  much  cultivated 
for  ornament.  Ferns  are  leafy  plants  producing 
a  stem  or  rhizome,  which  creeps  below  or  upon 
the  surface  of  the  earth,  and  sometimes  rises 
to  the  height  of  60  ft.  as  a  tree  trunk,  crowned 
with  terminal  leaves  or  fronds.  The  rhizome 
is  a  fibrous  woody  cylinder,  growing  only  at 
the  end,  and  so  of  equal  diameter  throughout, 
giving  out  rootlets  anywhere  on  its  surface, 
and  presenting  on  a  cross  section  a  hard  fibrous 
rind  composed  of  the  angular  bases  of  fallen 
fronds,  enclosing  a  cellular  tissue  with  a  ring 
of  woody  plates,  folded  and  curled,  which  are 
in  £act  the  bases  of  the  leaf  stalks,  and  in  the 
centre  a  cellular  mass  or  highly  developed  pith. 
The  stem  is  in  &ct  a  consolidated  bundle  of  leaf 
stalks.  The  frond  is  circinate  or  coiled  in  ver- 
nation, and  when  unfolded  is  often  of  great 
size  (25  ft.  long).  From  this  and  the  minute 
subdivision  of  the  frond  it  has  been  considered 
rather  a  leaf-bearing  branch  than  a  proper 
leaf;  but  there  are  all  gradations  from  an  en- 
tire frond  to  one  most  minutely  divided,  and  in 
the  latter  case  the  membranous  portion  proves 
on  examination  to  be  one,  however  deeply  in- 
cised. The  petiole  is  never  sheathing  or  articu- 
lated at  the  base,  although  in  some  tropical 
species  the  base  is  much  enlarged  and  forms 
an  elastic  joint,  quite  edible.  The  size  of  the 
fronds  varies  from  a  diameter  of  less  than  a 
quarter  of  an  inch  to  an  expansion  unequalled 
by  any  other  vegetable  except  some  seaweeds. 
In  several  cases  buds  spring  out  on  the  surface 
or  edges  of  the  frond,  and  thus  multiply  the 
species;  this  is  the  case  in  the  walkii^  fern, 
eamptosoruiy  where  the  tip  of  the  elongatea 
hastate  frond  bends  to  the  earth  and  takes 
root,  giving  rise  to  new  plants.  The  veins  of 
the  pinnie  or  leaflets  of  the  fronds  are  various- 
ly arranged,  and  usually  so  definitely  in  each 
genus  as  to  be  used  in  generic  distinctions. 
The  fructification  of  ferns  is  always  on  the 
lower  face  of  the  fronds,  which  sometimes  un- 
der its  influence  are  reduced  to  simple  supports 
in  the  shape  of  a  spike  or  panicle ;  it  consists 
of  iporangia  or  capsules,  each  containing  many 
spores,  and  usually  attached  to  the  nerves  or 
veins,  but  sometimes  covering  the  whole  sur- 
face. These  capsules  are  grouped  in  clusters 
of  various  forms  called  iori,  and  each  cluster  is 
often  covered  until  ripe  by  a  fold  of  the  leaf 
membrane  called  an  indunum. — The  order  of 
ferns  .is  divided  into  suborders,  most  botanists 


150  FEl 

recognizing  m  taanj  u  ei^t,  founded  npon  the 
BtrQcture,  manner  of  attachment,  and  mode  of 
opening  of  the  sporangia.  Bj  far  the  largest  of 
these  suborders  is  the  polypodiaetm,  or  trne 
ferns,  which  inclndes  the  great  m^ority  of 
ihose  with  which  we  are  familiar  in  the  wild 


Bock  Farn  (Polfpodlnm  *iilg*r»). 

state  or  in  ooltivation.  In  fema  of  this  sub- 
order the  Htracture  of  the  sporangium  is 
curious.  A  little  bnndle  of  cellular  pores  on 
a  stem  of  the  same  cell  fonnatjoo  is  clasped 
aroimd  by  a  ring  of  thick  and  elasUc  segments, 
eacb  resembling  a  U  with  the  rounded  part  in- 
ward and  the  udes  united.  While  the  sporan- 
gium is  alive  and  full  of  sep  the  arms  of  the  U 


Hut'i  Tongne  (Swlopendrluin  QlBcLiiiniin). 

remain  almost  parallel ;  but  as  the  ring  drioa 
the  arms  shrink  together,  and  the  capsule  is 
ruptured,  often  with  force  enough  to  throw  the 
minute  spores  to  some  distHuce.  The  position 
of  the  sporangia  on  the  frond  is  an  import- 
flnt  generic  distinction.    In  the  common  rock 


fern  (pol^fpfidium)  they  are  ronnd,  oinnamcm- 
colored  dots  in  rows  each  side  of  tbe  midrib ; 
in  hart's  tongne  (teohpendrium)  they  form 
numerous  obliquely  transverse  lines;  in  maiden- 
hair (adiantura)  a  bit  of  the  edge  of  tlie  frond 
folds  over  the  capsules;  in  the  brake  {pterit) 


UiUanhalr  (AdlontDm  peditnm). 

the  whole  edge  is  folded 


the 


lupUnium  and  many  other  ferns  the  sporangia 
are  in  oblong  masses  pinnatelj  arranged  each 
side  of  the  midrib  of  the  smaller  divisions  of 
the  frond.  In  hymenopkyllum,  of  a  different 
Boborder,  the  capaules  are  contained  in  a  caljr- 
like  am  springing  from  the  terminal  veins.  In 
the   ophioglouacta.   n'hich   include    our  com- 


Common  Dnka  (Ptnig  •quUlui). 

mon  adder's  tongue  and  moon  wort,  the  spo- 
rangia are  entirely  without  the  elastic  ring,  and 
open  by  a  transverse  slit  Into  two  valves.  The 
spores  are  very  minute  and  of  various  shapes, 
and  form  the  brown  (rarely  ftTeen)  dust  which 
&lls  when  a  ripe  frond  is  shaken.    The  mode 


le  (Ophlo- 


in  which  fenu  an  feonndatod  ia  a  modem 
ditcorerj,  but  the  prooeas  ma;  be  watched  ud- 
ier  Che  microscope  by  BowingCbe  spores  ufan^T 
coDnnoD  fern  in  a  moist  place.  The  spore  swells 
with  the  moisture  and  ruptures  its  walla;  a 
little  radicle  or  rootlet 
I  is  thrown  oat,  oonsiat- 
ing  of  a  single  cell,  end 
at  the  same  time  an- 
other cell  spreads   oat 
as  a  tobe   of  irregular 
form,  which  soon  forma 
partitions  through    its 
mass,  and  hj  multiplica- 
tion of  those  cells  be- 
comes a  small  greeu  leaf- 
like expansion  celled  b. 
prothallui.    On  the  un- 
der surface  of  this  spring 
organs    of   two    kinds, 
the     antkeridia     and 
arehegonia.   The  former 
are  filled  with  minute 
spiral  I>odiea  colled  an- 
theroKoids,  which  have 
cilia  and  the  power  of 
motion  in  water,  which 
is  always  abundant  on 
tlie   under   side   of  the 
pnithallus ;  when  mature  they  pass  into  the 
urch^nia,  which  are  cap-lika  organs,  open 
when  mature,  and  containing  one  or  more  cells 
nliich  the  contact  of  the  antherozoids  causes 
toderelop,  and  soon  a  root  appears,  then  the 
first  frond,  and  so  on  nstil  the  complete  fern  ia 
the  result. — The  species  of  ferns  at  present  de- 
scribed are  2,S3o,  althongh  some  botanists  make 
tlie  number  above  8,000.    In  the  earlier  geolo- 
gical ages  ferns  formed  a  most  important  part 
of  the  yegetaCiou,  aa  is  plainly  seen  in  the  coal 
fields,  where  namerons  fronds  and  atema  are 
preserred ;  hut  from  the  general  absence  of 
fmctiflcation  on  theae  remains,  it  is  often  im- 
pos^ble  to  distinguish  the  species.     They  are 
now  found  all  over  the  world,  but  especially  in 
the  warmer  and  moister  climates;  thas  in  the 
Autillea  they  comprise  -^  of  the  vegetation,  in 
Oceanioa  J  or  |,  in  St.  Helena  J,  in  Jnan  Fer- 
nandez i,  and  in  England  ^.    The  Hawaiian 
islands  and  New  Oaledonia  are  particularly  rich 
in  species.    The  tree  ferns  ore  chiefly  oonfined 
to  the  torrid  zone,  but  Martens  found  them  SO 
(i-  high  in  Japan,  and  Robert  Brown  found 
arborescent  ferns  at  the  eitremity  of  Tasmania, 
and  even  at  Dusky  bay  in  New  Zealand,  near 
laL  13°  S.    Most  tree  ferns  are  easily  propa- 
pted  by  planting  sections  of  their  stems,  which 
reidilj  leaf  out. — For  the  classification  of  ferns, 
which  is  very  unsettled  and  depends  on  techni- 
cal differeneea,  see  Hooker's  "  Genera,"  Hooker 
and  Baker's  "Synopsis,"  or  Smith's  "Ferns, 
Britiab  and  Foreign;"  and  for  local   descrip- 
tions see  local  floras.— The  uses  of  ferns  are 
not  very  prominent.    Od  the  Hawaiian  islands 
the  slem  of  a  tree  fern  is  often  baked  in  the 
steam  cracks  of  the  volcanoes,  and  by  long 


NS  151 

cooking  becomes  qnite  palatable,  althoogh  ra- 
ther leathery,  and  tasteless  without  salt.  The 
enlarged  bases  of  the  petioles  of  other  spe- 
cies are  cooked  and  eaten  in  times  of  scarcity ; 
when  raw  they  smell  precisely  like  a  raw  po- 
tato. The  stems  and  midribs  of  soma  amsller 
species  are  woven  into  baskets  and  bats.  A 
few  species  are  conudered  medicinal,  and  some 
are  aromatic  and  used  to  scent  cocoanut  oil. — 
In  cultivation  ferns  may  be  adapted  to  a  va- 
riety of  localities ;  for,  although  generally  found 
in  shady  places,  many  thrive  in  the  full  tropical 
sun  if  the  air  be  moiat,  and  some  grow  on  dry 
rockaand  even  on  the  uninviting  surface  of  lava 


Dryomi 


T.  PUUwr 


^  ]Jeinlt«Ui   ipccloH. 


streams.  A  compost  of  peat  or  bog  earth,  de- 
cayed leaf  mould,  yellow  loom,  and  silver  sand 
in  equal  proportions,  may  be  used  in  potting 
ferns;  but  it  most  be  well  underdrained,  and 
the  addition  of  a  few  fragments  of  mortar  or 
limestone  is  advantageous.  Several  species 
climb  on  rocks,  like  iviea;  others  cling  i« 
trees,  or,  like  the  beautiful  climbing  fern  (lygo- 
dium),  run  over  bushes.  About  1880  Mr.  N.  B. 
Ward  of  England,  in  investigating  the  trans- 
formations of  an  insect,  buried  Its  chrysalis  in 
some  earth  in  a  closed  glass  bottle.  A  seedling 
fern  and  a  grasa  sprang  up  from  the  soil  anil 
grew  within  the  confined  atmosphere  of  the 


152 


FfiRON 


FERRAKA 


vessel.  This  led  to  experiments  upon  the  growth 
of  plants,  especially  ferns,  in  close  cases,  and  re- 
sulted in  establishing  the  fact  that  these  plants 
would  not  only  grow  under  such  conditions, 
but  that  roost  ferns  would  flourish  much  better 
than  in  the  open  air.  Wardian  cases,  which 
resulted  from  this  discovery,  are  now  in  gen- 
eral use  for  the  cultivation  of  ferns,  and  are 
among  the  most  popular  as  they  are  the  most 
beautiful  of  household  ornaments. 

lISROir,  Flrmln  Isiol,  a  French  painter,  bom 
in  Paris,  Dec.  1, 1802.  Ue  studied  under  Gros, 
and  received  the  great  prize  in  1825  for  his 
picture  of  **  Damon  and  Pythias.^'  Among 
his  subsequent  works  are  **  Hannibal  in  the 
Alps"  (1883),  "The  Resurrection  of  Lazarus  " 
(1835),  and  "Christ  arrested  by  Judas"  and 
"Souvenir  of  Tunis"  (1855).     Many  of  his 

Pictures  are  in  the  museum  of  Versailles,  and 
e  was  a  favorite  painter  of  Louis  Philippe 
and  his  sons ;  but  his  reputation  has  declined. 

FEROZEPOOR,  a  town  of  British  India,  in 
the  Puig^^^}  about  8  m.  S.  of  the  river  Ghara, 
45  m.  S.  8.  £.  of  Lahore ;  pop.  about  10,000. 
The  ruins  which  surround  it  show  that  it 
was  once  a  large  city.  It  came  into  pos- 
session of  the  British  in  1835,  since  when  it 
has  been  greatly  improved,  and  bids  fair  to 
become  of  considerable  military  and  commer- 
cial importance.  In  May,  1857,  during  the 
sepoy  rebellion,  a  regiment  of  native  infantry 
revolted,  but  were  driven  out  of  the  fort  by  a 
handful  of  Europeans,  and  fied  after  plundering 
and  burning  the  houses,  hospitals,  and  church. 
In  August  following  a  regiment  of  cavalry  re- 
volted, but  after  killing  several  persons  were 
repulsed  and  dispersed. 

FERRAND,  ABtolne  Francois  Cbiide,  count,  a 
French  politician  and  historian,  bom  in  Paris, 
July  4, 1751,  died  there,  Jan.  17, 1825.  At  the 
age  of  18  years  he  was  admitted  a  counsellor 
in  the  parliament  of  Paris  by  special  dispen- 
sation. He  left  Paris  in  1789,  and  attached 
himself  to  the  prince  of  Cond6 ;  and  after  the 
death  of  Louis  XYI.  he  waa  appointed  a  mem- 
ber of  the  council  of  regency.  He  returned 
to  France  in  1801,  devoted  himself  to  litera- 
tare,  and  published  a  work,  on  which  he  had 
been  long  engaged,  entitled  De  Veiprit  de 
Vhistoire,  which  was  a  bold  defence  of  abso- 
lute monarchy.  He  was  engaged  to  complete 
Rulhidre^s  unfinished  Histaire  de  Vana^ehie  de 
Pologne  et  du  dSmemhrement  de  eette  r^u- 
hlique ;  but  the  imperial  police  prevented  the 
publication  on  the  ground  that  the  work  be- 
longed to  the  government,  it  having  been  ori- 
f'nally  written  for  the  instruction  of  Louis 
VI.,  then  dauphin.  After  the  restoration  of 
the  Bourbons  he  was  appointed  minister  of 
state  and  postmaster  general.  He  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  academy,  and  author  of  several  dra- 
matic and  a  large  number  of  poUtical  works, 
the  latter  of  which  were  conservative  and 
many  of  them  reactionary  in  their  tendency. 

FERRARA.  I.  A  province  of  Italy,  formerly 
0  part  of  the  Papal  States,  bounded  N.  by 


the  main  branch  of  the  Po,  which  divides  it 
from  Lombardy,  £.  by  the  Adriatic,  S.  by  the 
provinces  of  Ravenna  and  Bologna,  and  W. 
by  Modena,  from  which  it  is  partly  separated 
by  the   river   Panaro ;   area,   1,009  sq.   m. ; 
pop.  in  1871,  215,869.      The  surface  is  flat, 
and  in  many  parts  below  the  level  of  the  Po, 
and  protected  from  inundation  by  embank- 
ments along  the  river.    A  considerable  portion 
of  the  £.  part  of  the  province  is  almost  con- 
stantly under  water.     In  June,  1872,  there 
was  a  terrible  inundation  by  which  20,000 
people  were  rendered  homeless.     The  soil  is 
rich  and  fertile,  but  the  vast  swamps  render 
the  atmosphere  more  or  less  unwholesome, 
especially  in  summer.    The  chief  products  are 
grain,  rice,  flax,  hemp,  wine,  olives,  and  silk. 
Extensive  pastures  favor  the  rearing  of  cattle, 
and  the  fisheries  are  of  some  importance.     The 
province  formerly  constituted  the  greater  part 
of  the  duchy  of  Ferrara,  which  was  ruled  by 
the  house  of  £ste  from  the  early  part  of  the 
18th  century  to  1598,  when  it  was  annexed  to 
the  Papal  States.    In  1796  it  was  taken  by 
the  French  and  formed  part  first  of  the  Cisal- 
pine republic,  and  afterward  of  the  kingdom 
of  Italy,  till  1814,  when  it  was  restored  to  the 
pope,  with  the  exception  of  a  small  portion 
between  the  Po  di  Goro  and  the  Po  della 
Maestra,  which  was  secured  to  Austria  by  the 
congress  of  Vienna,  together  with  the  right 
of  garrisoning  the  citadel  of  Ferrara.    The 
province,  was  governed  by  a  papal  legate  or 
cardinal,  and  was  called  a  legation,  until  No- 
vember, 1850,  when  it  came  under  the  admin- 
istration of  an  inferior  prelate.    In  June,  1859, 
the  Austrian  troops  were  withdrawn  from  the 
capita],  and  in  March,  1860,  it  waa  annexed 
to  the  kingdom  of  Sardinia.    The  principal 
towns  besides  the  capital  are  Lugo,  Cento, 
Bagnaoavallo,  and  Comacchio,  the  last  a  forti- 
fied town,  situated  on  an  island  in  the  midst 
of  extensive  swamps,  and  noted  for  its  fish- 
eries, which  are  celebrated  by  Tasso  and  Ari- 
osto.    II.  A  city,  capital  of  the  province,  situ- 
ated in  a  fiat  unhealthy  country,  only  about  7 
ft.  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Volano,  branch  of  the  Po,  about  6  m. 
S.  of  the  main  channel  of  that  river,  26  m.  N. 
E.  of  Bologna  and  88  m.  K.  W.  of  Ravenna ; 
pop.  as  a  commune,  in  1871,  72,447,  of  whom 
less  than  one  half  were  in  the  city  proper. 
Ferrara  was  a  small  village  until  the  beginning 
of  the  7tb  century,  when  it  was  walled  by  the 
exarch  of  Ravenna.    The  bishopric  of  Fer- 
rara dates  from  661,  the  archbishopric  from 
1785.    A  general  council  was  convened  here 
in  1488,  but  was  removed  to  Florence.    (See 
EuGKinus  IV.,  and  Flobencb,  Council  of.) 
Under  the  rule  of  the  princes  of  Este  the  city 
gained  great  importance,  especially  in  the  16th 
century,  when  it  was  celebrated  for  learning, 
poetry,  art,  and  the  refinement  and  splendor 
of  its  ducal  court.    In  the  15th  century  it  was 
famous  for  its  school  of  painting.    In  the  early 
part  of  the  16th  it  gave  an  asylum  to  Calvin 


FEBRABA 

and  other  religious  reformers.  Qnaritii,  Bolar- 
do,  Arioato,  and  Taeeo  were  among  the  most 
illuelrionfl  omaineDtg  of  ita  conrt.  The  cilj 
hftd  in  its  most  proeperoas  period  about  100,- 
000  inhabitants.  It  Btill  retains  many  ves- 
tigee  of  its  former  splendor.  The  churches 
contwD  fine  works  of  art,  eapeciallj  that  of  the 
Campo  Santo,  which  occupies  the  site  of  the 
old  Certosa  convent  The  cathedral  of  Bt, 
Pauln-aa  consecrated  inllSG,  and  contMns  the 
tomb  of  Urban  III.  Banta  Uaria  del  Yado 
is  the  oldest  church,  but  has  been  entirely 
altered  h;  modern  restoration.  Tliat  of  San 
Francesco  ia  famous  for  its  echo,  vbich  has  16 
reTerberationa.  Ariosto  was  haried  in  the 
church  of  San  Benedetto,  but  in  1801  his  re- 
mains were  removed  to  the  pnblio  library. 


FERRARI 


163 


The  fioeat  of  the  palace*  of  Ferrara  are  the 
Diamond  palace,  or  Villa  Ercole,  and  the 
palazzo  del  Magistro,  where  the  aeeademia 
ArioitM  holds  ita  sittings.  In  the  hospital  of 
Santa  Anna  a  small  room  on  the  gronnd  fioor 
is  still  shown  in  which  Tasso  is  said  to  have 
been  confined  as  a  Innatio  for  many  years  by 
Alfonso  II.,  bnt  the  identity  of  this  room  witii 
his  place  of  confinement  is  now  very  generally 
disb«lieved;  and  near  the  city  Is  the  villa  Bd 
Rigaardo,  where  the  poet  ei^joyed  the  society 
of  Eleonora  of  Este.  The  aniversity  of  Fer- 
rara was  fonnded  in  1821,  renovated  in  1402, 
closed  in  1T6T,  and  reopened  in  1824.  It  wsa 
again  closed  dnring  the  revolntionary  tronbles 


of  1848-'9,  and  reopened  Kov,  1,  1850,  after 
the  reSstablishment  of  the  papal  anthority.  It 
is  cbiefl;  renowned  as  a  school  of  jurispni- 
dence  and  medicine,  and  is  attended  by  200  to 
800  students.  It  contains  a  collection  of  an- 
tiquities, a  library  of  80,000  volumes  and  800 
MSS.,  comprising  some  of  Gaarini,  Ariosto, 
and  Tasso,  and  many  valuable  editions  of  the 
16th  and  16th  centuries.  Ferrara  possesses 
one  of  the  finest  and  largest  theatres  of  Italy, 
a  botanical  garden,  and  many  charitable  in- 
Btitntions  and  conrenla.  In  the  centre  of  the 
city  is  a  castle  flanked  with  towers  and  snr- 
ronnded  by  wet  ditches,  which  was  formerly 
the  palace  of  the  dnkes.  The  popalation  is 
chieny  collected  in  the  vicinity  of  this  castle, 
and  bat  thinly  scatt«red  elsewhere.  The  city 
is  enclosed  with  walls  and  defended  on  the  W. 
side  by  the  citadel.  The  Austrians  took  pos- 
session of  the  whole  city  in  Angost,  1847,  bnt 
the  troops  were  withdrawn  in  December,  and 
the  Angtrian  oocopation  remained  confined  to 
the  citadel  nntil  Jnly  14,  1848,  when  the  city 
was  again  seized  by  Prince  Liechtenstein.  On 
Feb.  IS,  1849,  it  wasoocnpied  for  a  short  time 
by  Gen.  Haynan,  who  imposed  upon  the  in- 
habitaoti  a  contribution  of  200,000  aoudi.  In 
Jnne,  18S9,  after  the  battle  of  Magenta,  the 
Anatrian  forces  withdrew  from  the  (utadel, 
and  it  was  destroyed. 

FEXBUL  CuiMd^  a  painter  of  the  Uilan- 
ese  school,  bom  at  Valduggia  in  1484,  died  in 
Milan  in  ISGO.  His  principal  works  are  illns- 
trative  of  the  story  of  creation  and  of  the  early 
events  of  Christianity,  and  are  found  in  the  gal- 
leries and  chorches  of  Lombardy.  He  was  also 
a  sculptor,  architect,  mathematician,  and  poet. 

FORUI,  (UiMwe,  an  Italian  philosopher 
and  histonan,  born  in  Milan  in  1812,  died 
there,  July  2,  1876.  In  1831  he  grndnated  aa 
a  doctor  of  law  at  Pavia,  but  devot«d  himself 
to  literature  and  philosophy,  and  became  a 
disciple  of  Bomagnosi.  In  168S  appeared  his 
complete  edition  of  the  works  of  Vico,  re- 
printed in  1858,  in  Milan,  )n  the  collection  of 
Italian  otassics.  In  1887  he  went  to  France, 
and  published  in  188B  FMOstr/talM.  In  1840 
he  became  professor  of  philosophy  at  the  col- 
lege of  Roohefort,  and  afterward  at  Strasburg, 
but  soon  lost  his  ofiloe  on  account  of  his  radi- 
calism. In  1847  he  published  £aai  sur  It 
prin&ipt  tt  Itt  limite*  (U  la  philotophit  d« 
PhUtoire,  big  most  important  work.  After 
the  revolntion  of  Feb.  24,  1848,  he  was  rein- 
stat«d  in  his  obur  at  Strasburg;  but  the  dislike 
of  the  French  clergy  followed  him  there,  and 
to  Bonrges,  whither  he  removed  at  the  end  of 
that  year,  and  the^  eventually  snoceeded  in 
procuring  his  dismissal  (Jnne  18,  1849).  In 
1869  be  returned  to  Italy  and  became  a  mem- 
ber of  parliament,  and  sncceaenvely  professor 
in  Turin,  Milan,  and  Florence.  He  waa  the 
foremost  Italian  representative  of  positivism, 
and  attempted  a  philosophical  reoonatmotion 
of  the  political  development  of  nations,  found- 
ed eiolnaively  npon  experience  and  induction. 


134 


FERRARI 


His  ]ater  works  include  Fihmjia  della  rivo- 
lutione  (1851);  ffutmre  de*  rholution»  tTIta- 
lie  (4  vola.,  Paris,  1856-'8) ;  and  Oorio  iH  leiioat 
tugli  terittori  poHltei  italiani  (1882-'B). 

FEBUll,  Lilgt,  an  Italian  acnlntor,  bom  in 
Venice  in  1810.  He  studied  anaer  hie  father 
Bartolommeo,  an  eminent  artiat,  and  was  earlj 
emplored  in  conneotion  with  CanoTa's  monn- 
ment  to  Titian.  In  1837  he  exhibited  hia  first 
work,  a  stataette  of  the  Virgin ;  and  since  18G1 
he  baa  been  professor  of  atatuar^  at  the  acad- 
emy of  fine  arts  in  Venice.  Among  hia  prin- 
cipal worlcs  are  "LaoooOn,"  in  the  mnsenai  of 
Brescia;  two  figorea  repreaenting  a  "Nymph 
collecting  Lotus  "  and  "  Melancholy  ;"  and 
marble  statues  of  Kins  David,  of  the  Uadonna 
della  Concezione,  of  Marco  Polo,  and  of  Bt. 
Justus,  in  Trieste.  He  has  executed  many 
funeral  monaments,  and  busts  and  statues  of 
angels,  nymphs,  and  children. 

FEBU,  niiapUle  Charles,  a  French  commu- 
nist,- born  about  184^,  executed  at  Satory,  near 
Paris,  Not.  28,  18T1.  He  was  a  merchant'a 
clerk,  and  was  early  implicated  in  revolutionary 
movements.  During  the  insurrection  of  Marcli, 
1871,  be  favored  the  assassination  of  Gens.  Le- 
comte  and  Clement- Thorn  as,  and  became  a 
member  of  the  commnne  and  of  the  commisnon 
of  public  safety,  adjunct  procurator  general, 
and  prefect  of  police.  Oa  May  27  lie  presided 
over  a  massacre  of  hostages,  after  having  re- 
leased and  armed  the  inmates  of  the  peniten- 
tiary and  converted  them  into  executioners. 
One  of  tlio  most  ferocious  terrorists,  he  set  fire 
to  the  prefecture  of  police,  and  ordered  the 
burning  of  tlie  ministry  of  finance.  Previoua 
to  Ilia  execution,  he  wrote  to  his  sister  that  be 
died  as  he  liad  lived,  a  materialist. 

FEKBEIRl,  iitaol*,  a  Portuguese  poet,  bom  in 
Lisbon  in  1638,  died  there  of  the  plague  in 
1589.  He  waa  a  contemporary  of  CamoEns, 
and  perfected  the  elegiac  and  epistolary  style 
already  introduced  with  succesa  by  Sa  da  Mi- 
randa. He  enriched  Portuguese  poetry  with 
the  epithalnmium,  the  epigram,  ode,  and  tra- 
gedy, and  the  influence  which  he  exerted  in 
kindling  a  love  for  classical  scholarship  caused 
bim  to  be  called  the  Horace  of  Portugal.  His 
Poemat  hitiUinot,  which  are  distingnislied  by 
remarkable  purity  of  language,  appeared  in 
1598,  and  his  complete  worts  in  1771.  His 
best  comedy  is  Comedia  dc  cioeo  (the  "Jealous 
Kan"),  and  his  masterpiece  is  the  tragedy  of 
/n«4  de  Cattro.  An  English  translation  of  this 
tragedy,  by  Mr,  Mnagrave,  appeared  in  1836. 

FEBBET,  a  carnivorous  digitigrade  animal, 
belonging  to  the  weasel  family,  and  tlie  genus 
putorUia  (Ouv.).  The  dentition  ia :  incisors, 
i  ;  canines,  \'.\\  molars,  |:J,  two  above  and 
throe  below  being  fklse  molars.  Bince  the 
time  of  LinnsBua  the  ferret  has  been  generally 
considered  a  southern  or  albino  variety  of  the 
polecat  {P.  /(Ptid'it,  Klein),  principally  from 
their  producing  offspring  together;  but  they 
may  more  properly  ba  considered  distinct 
species  for  the  following  reasons:  the  ferret  is 


FERRET 

a  native  of  AfWca  and  warm  regions,  and  only 
exists  in  Europe  in  a  domesticated  state,  being 
very  sensitive  to  cold,  and  roqiiiring  the  pro- 
tection of  man;  its  size  is  smaller,  its  shane 
more  slender,  and  its  snout  sharper  than  in  tne 
polecat ;  and  its  habits,  though  quite  as  san- 
guinary, do  not  enable  it  to  live  wild  in  the 
woods.  The  length  of  the  ferret  {P.  Jvro, 
Linn.)  is  from  12  to  14  in.  from  nose  to  base  of 
tail,  the  latter  being  about  G  in.  long.  It  is  an 
error  to  suppose  that  the  ferret  is  always  white, 
with  pink  eyes,  as  such  individuals  are  only 
albino  varieties,  such  as  occur  in  many  other 
animals ;  the  general  color  ia  an  irregnlar  mix- 
ture of  yellow  and  black,  the  fur  being  long 
and  fine,  with  an  undergrowth  of  cinereous 
woolly  hair;  the  yellowest  animals  are  most 
subject  U)  albinism.  Both  sexes  are  alike  in 
color,  but  the  male  is  the  larger,  being  about  S 
in.  high  at  the  shoulder  and  4  in.  at  the  sa- 
crum. Though  ranked  as  a  domesticated  ani- 
mal, and  employed  by  man  to  hunt  rabbits  and 
rats,  it  is  far  from  docile  or  gentle,  and  never 
seems  to  have  any  affection  for  those  who  feed 


Fcmt  (Potorine  flim). 

and  take  care  of  it  According  to  Strabo,  it  was 
introduced  from  northern  Africa  into  Spain, 
whence  it  has  spread  over  Europe.  In  its  nat- 
ural condition  it  haa  the  habits  of  the  polecat 
and  weasels,  sucking  the  blood  of  small  quad- 
rupeds and  birds,  and  devouring  eggs ;  itis  noc- 
turnal, sleeping  nearly  oil  day ;  in  captivity  it  is 
fed  on  bread  and  milk  and  raw  meat.  It  pro- 
duces young  twice  a  year,  and  from  five  to  eight 
at  a  time ;  gestation  is  about  six  weeks,  and  the 
yonng  are  said  by  P.  Cuvier  to  be  bom  hair- 
less and  with  closed  eyes,  and  to  be  frequently 
devoured  by  the  mother.  Its  natural  enmity 
to  the  rahbit  has  been  taken  advantage  of  by 
man,  who  trains  it  to  enter  the  burrows  of 
these  animals,  and  to  drive  them  out  into  nets 
spread  over  the  entrance ;  the  ferret  is  muzzled 
to  prevent  its  killing  the  rabbits,  otherwise  it  is 
believed  it  would  suck  their  blood,  and  go  to 
sleepin  the  burrow.  Itwill  also  soon  rid  a  bouse 
of  rats  and  mice.  For  these  reasons  the  ferret  is 
oared  for  by  man,  without  whose  aid  it  would 
not  survive  in  Europe;  itis  carefully  bred  in 


FERRIER 


FERRY 


155 


captivitj,  and  sometimes  crossed  with  the  pole- 
cat, which  is  supposed  to  increase  its  ferocity. 
The  ferret  is  elBsily  irritated,  and  then  emits  a 
strong  disagreeable  odor.  It  is  generally  be- 
lieved that  the  ferrets  kill  by  sucking  the  blood 
of  their  victims,  aiming  at  the  jugular  vein  or 
the  great  vessels  of  the  neck ;  but  the  rapidity 
of  the  death  is  entirely  inconsistent  with  so 
long  a  process  as  this.  Experiments  have 
shown  that  the  ferret  often  inflicts  but  a  single 
wouod,  which  is  almost  instantly  fatal,  and 
frequently  immediately  disengages  itself  from 
the  body  of  its  victim  to  attack  and  kill  another 
in  a  similar  manner ;  the  single  wound  is  in  the 
side  of  the  neck,  under  or  behind  the  ear,  and 
may  or  may  not  pierce  the  large  blood  vessels ; 
the  canines  enter  the  spinal  cord  between  the 
skull  and  the  first  vertebra  of  the  neck,  de- 
stroying its  victim  by  the  same  process  as  the 
boll-fighter  with  his  keen  sword,  or  the  Spanish 
executioner  with  the  steel  point  of  the  garrote, 
making  neither  a  lacerated  nor  a  contused 
wound,  but  penetrating  into  the  medulla  ob- 
longata, the  very  centre  of  life,  instantly  ar- 
resting the  action  of  the  heart  and  respiratory 
muscles,  and  at  once  destroying  consciousness, 
sensation,  and  motion.  This  is  one  of  many 
instances  in  which  the  instinct  of  animals  has 
anticipated  the  slow  deductions  of  science. 
The  truth  seems  to  be  that  when  the  animal 
is  of  small  size,  it  is  killed  by  the  ferret  by 
wounding  the  upper  part  of  the  spinal  cord ; 
but  that  when  it  is  of  superior  size  a|id  strength, 
the  ferret  seizes  it  wherever  it  can,  producing 
death  by  loss  of  blood,  pain,  and  exhaustion  of 
4rength.  After  the  animal  is  dead,  the  ferret, 
like  other  weasels,  no  doubt  sucks  its  blood, 
though  the  statement  generally  made  in  works 
on  natural  history,  from  BufTon  to  F.  Cuvier 
and  Geoffi'oy  Saint-Hilaire,  that  death  is  uni- 
formly caused  in  this  manner,  is  untrue. 

FERSIEE,  Janes  Frederick,  a  Scottish  meta- 
physician, bom  in  Edinburgh  in  November, 
1808,  died  at  St.  Andrews,  June  11, 1864.  He 
was  a  nephew  of  Miss  Ferrier  the  authoress, 
graduated  at  Oxford  in  1832,  and  was  admitted 
the  next  year  to  the  Scottish  bar.  He  married 
a  daughter  of  Prof.  James  Wilson,  whose  col- 
lected works  he  subsequently  edited ;  and  he 
early  contributed  to  *^  Blackwood's  Magazine  " 
essays  on  philosophical  and  literary  subjects. 
In  1842  he  was  elected  professor  of  history 
in  the  university  of  Edinburgh,  and  in  1845 
of  moral  philosophy  at  St.  Andrews.  His  lec- 
tures and  conversation  displayed  great  learn- 
ing, independence  of  thought,  and  felicity  of 
eipression,  and  he  was  one  of  the  ornaments 
of  the  intellectual  circles  of  Edinburgh.  His 
principal  work,  *^ Institutes  of  Metaphysics: 
the  Theory  of  Knowing  and  Being,"  appeared 
in  1854;  and  his  "Lectures  on  Greek  Philoso- 
phy "  and  other  philosophical  remains  were 
edited  by  Sir  A.  Grant  and  E.  L.  Lushington 
(2  vols.,  1866).  He  attempted  to  construct  a 
system  of  idealism,  which  however  has  found 
few  if  any  disciples ;  but  he  called  attention 


to  many  vital  principles  of  thought,  and  Ueber- 
weg  accords  to  him  in  his  "  History  of  Philos- 
ophy "  a  rare  preeminence  among  English  phi- 
losophical writers. 

FERRIER,  Susan  Edmonston,  a  Scottish  novel- 
ist, born  in  Edinburgh  about  1782,  died  there 
in  November,  1854.  Her  works,  all  published 
anonymously,  are:  "Marriage"  (1818),  "The 
Inheritance"  (1824),  and  "Destiny,  or  the 
Ohief^s  Daughter"  (1831).  She  possessed  a 
rare  ability  for  delineating  national  character- 
istics, genial  wit,  and  a  quick  sense  of  the  lu- 
dicrous. Sir  Walter  Scott  pays  a  tribute  to 
her  talent  at  the  conclusion  of  his  "  Legend  of 
Montrose."  She  was  his  frequent  guest  at 
Abbot«ford,  and  contributed  by  her  society  to 
relieve  the  sadness  which  clouded  the  last  days 
of  his  life.    She  was  never  married. 

FERRIERES,  a  village  of  France,  in  the  de- 
partment of  Seine-et-Mame,  15  m.  E.  of  Paris ; 
pop.  about  800.  In  the  17th  century  it  was  a 
marquisate,  afterward  belonged  to'Fouch^,  and 
was  finally  purchased  by  Baron  Rothschild,  for 
whom  the  English  architect  Pazton  built  here 
one  of  the  most  magnificent  ch&teaux  in  France, 
in  the  style  of  the  last  period  of  Italian  renais- 
sance. From  Sept.  19  to  Oct.  6,  1870,  it  was 
the  headquarters  of  King  William  of  Prussia. 
An  interview  between  Jules  Favre  and  Bis- 
marck took  place  there  immediately  after  the 
arrival  of  the  king. 

FERRO,  or  HIeiTO,  the  most  westerly  and 
smallest  of  the  Canary  islands,  in  lat.  27°  40' 
N.,  Ion.  18°  W. ;  length  18  m.,  greatest  breadth 
9  m. ;  area,  about  100  sq.  m. ;  pop.  about  4,600. 
The  ancient  geographers  supposed  this  to  be 
the  westernmost  point  of  the  world,  and  drew 
through  it  the  first  meridian ;  they  are  imitated 
by  the  Germans  (who  place  it  at  17°  40'  from 
Greenwich),  and  others  of  eastern  Europe  who 
follow  them.    Chief  town,  Valverde. 

FERROL,  a  seaport  city  of  Spain,  on  the  K. 
arm  of  the  bay  of  Betanzos,  in  the  province 
and  12  m.  N.  E.  of  the  city  of  Coranna;  pop. 
about  28,000.  Its  harbor,  which  is  defended 
by  Forts  Palma  and  San  Felipe,  is  one  of  the 
best  in  Europe.  The  town  is  well  built,  and 
protected  on  the  land  side  by  formidable  forti- 
fications. It  has  an  immense  marine  arsenal, 
covering  nearly  24  acres,  with  a  basin  and 
docks,  which  are  among  the  finest  in  Europe. 
The  marine  barracks  afford  accommodation  for 
6,000  men.  In  connection  with  the  arsenal 
there  is  a  school  for  seamanship  and  engineer- 
ing ;  there  is  also  a  naval  observatory.  Ferrol 
has  a  few  manufactures,  but  being  a  military 
port,  foreign  merchant  vessels  are  excluded 
from  it.  It  was  but  a  small  fishing  town  prior 
to  1752,  when  its  fortifications  were  begun  by 
Ferdinand  YI.  The  English  failed  in  an  attack 
upon  it  in  1799,  but  it  was  taken  by  the  French 
in  1809  and  1828. 

FERRUHL    See  Ibon. 

FERRT,  a  place  where  persons,  animals,  or 
goods  are  carried  across  a  river  or  other 
water;   in  law,  a  liberty  or  franchise  so  to 


156 


FERSEN 


FESOH 


transport  persons  or  things.  Snch  a  franchise 
can  exist  in  England  onlj  by  grant  from  the 
king,  or  by  a  prescription  which  supposes  a 
grant;  and  being  granted  and  accepted,  the 
grantee  is  indictable  if  he  have  not  suitable 
means  of  transport.  In  the  United  States,  fer- 
ries are  created  as  well  as  regulated  generally 
by  statutes,  although  there  may  be  ancient  fer- 
ries resting  on  usage  and  prescription.  The  ter- 
mini of  the  ferry  are  at  the  water^s  edge,  and 
shift  with  that  if  it  varies ;  but  the  owner  has  a 
right  of  way  to  and  from  the  ferry.  Ferrymen 
are  common  carriers,  and  have  the  rights  and 
come  under  the  obligations  of  common  carriers. 
Thus,  they  may  determine  (within  reasonable 
limits)  when  and  how  often,  and  upon  what 
terms,  their  boats  shall  cross  the  water,  and 
what  they  will  transport ;  but  all  these  things 
they  must  do  by  general  rules,  without  favor- 
itism or  arbitrary  exception.  They  are  liable 
for  all  loss  9f  or  iiyury  to  property  in  their 
possession,  unless  it  be  caused  by  the  act  of 
God  or  oif  the  public  enemy.  This  liability 
does  not  attach  when  persons  or  things  are 
coming  toward  or  going  from  their  boats,  but 
begins  as  soon  as  they  are  on  the  boat,  or  on 
the  slip  or  flat,  and  continues  while  they  are 
there.  One  who  owns  a  ferry,  and  employs 
persons  to  do  all  tlie  labor  and  the  actual  trans- 
port, is  in  law  the  ferryman,  and  liable  ac- 
cordingly. But  if  he  leases  the  ferry,  reserving 
only  his  rent,  the  lessee  in  possession,  and  not 
the  owner,  is  the  responsible  ferryman;  and 
this  is  true  even  if  the  rent  reserved  be  a  cer- 
tain proportion  of  the  receipts. 

FEKSEN,  Axel,  count,  a  Swedish  soldier,  bom 
in  Stockholm  about  1750,  killed  June  20, 1810. 
He  was  educated  at  the  military  academy  of 
Turin,  and  entered  the  Swedish  army,  but 
afterward  went  to  Versailles,  and  was  made 
colonel  of  the  royal  regiment  of  Swedes,  the 
body  guard  of  Louis  XVI.  He  served  in  the 
American  revolutionary  war  with  distinction, 
and  was  aide-de-camp  of  Kochambeau  at  York- 
town.  Upon  his  return  to  France  he  became 
a  devoted  adherent  of  the  Bourbons,  and  Marie 
Antoinette  especially  distinguished  him.  In 
the  flight  to  Varennes  Fersen  was  the  disguised 
coachman  of  the  royal  fugitives.  After  their 
capture  he  escaped,  and  was  employed  by  Gus- 
tavus  III.  in  furthering  the  project  of  reinstating 
the  Bourbon  dynasty  in  France.  Toward  the 
end  of  his  life  he  became  the  favorite  of  Charles 
XIII.,  and  his  sister  enjoyed  in  an  equal  degree 
the  favor  of  the  queen ;  but  both  were  unpop- 
ular with  the  people.  Fersen  was  made  grand 
marshal  of  the  kingdom ;  but  the  sudden  death 
of  the  crown  prince,  Christian  Augustus  of 
Augustenburg,  gave  rise  to  suspicion  that  Fer- 
sen had  poisoned  him.  A  tumult  occurred  at 
the  Mineral,  and  while  the  troops  looked  on 
with  indifference,  the  mob  killed  Fersen  with 
sticks  and  stones  in  the  great  square  of  the 
Riddarhus  in  Stockholm.  His  sister  escaped 
in  disguise.  It  is  now  universally  acknowl- 
edged that  Fersen  was  guiltless. 


FiSCA.  L  Frledridi  Enst,  a  German  com- 
poser and  musician,  bom  in  Magdeburg,  Feb. 
16,  1789,  died  May  24,  1826.  His  father  held 
a  minor  municipal  office  in  Magdeburg,  and 
devoted  much  of  his  time  to  the  practice  of  the 
violoncello  and  piano,  and  his  mother  had  been 
a  professional  vocalist  in  early  life.  When  he 
was  but  four  years  of  age  he  could  perform 
pieces  of  moderate  difficulty  upon  the  piano, 
and  began  the  violin.  He  studied  harmonj 
and  counterpoint  under  the  instruction  of  Mtll- 
ler  at  Leipsic.  In  1806  he  made  his  first  public 
appearance  as  a  violinist,  playing  a  concerto 
of  his  own  in  £  minor.  He  soon  after  became 
attached  to  the  chapel  royal  at  Cassel,  where 
he  remained  till  1818.  After  the  dissolution 
of  the  kingdom  of  Westphalia  he  went  to 
Vienna,  and  thence  to  Carlsruhe,  where  he  be- 
came attached  to  the  court  of  the  grand  duke 
of  Baden.  Here  he  remained  11  years  and 
composed  the  majority  of  his  works,  including 
quartets  and  quintets  for  stringed  instruments, 
overtures,  symphonies,  two  operas,  and  settings 
of  several  of  the  psalms  for  solo  voices,  chorus, 
and  orchestra.  He  was  a  man  of  noble  disposi- 
tion, kindly  heart,  and  much  devotional  feel- 
ing. His  works,  formed  on  the  best  models, 
display  a  refined  and  elevated  taste  and  a 
delicate  fancy.  IL  Alexander  Ernst,  a  German 
composer  and  musician,  son  of  the  preceding, 
bom  in  Carlsruhe,  May  22, 1820,  died  in  Bruns- 
wick, Feb.  22,  1849.  He  studied  the  piano 
under  Taubert  and  composition  under  Bungen- 
hagen  and  Wilhelm  Bach.  At  the  age  of  18 
he  brought  out  at  Carlsruhe  a  comic  opera 
'  entitled  MarietU,  His  compositions  evinced  a 
fine  original  and  progressive  talent,  especially 
his  chamber  music  and  songs,  many  of  which 
have  been  republished  in  this  country. 

FESCENiriNE  VERSES,  licentious  poems  snng 
at  the  private  festivals  of  the  ancient  Romans, 
particularly  at  nuptial  celebrations.  They  de- 
rived their  name  and  origin  from  Fescennium, 
an  Etruscan  city,  where  they  seem  to  have 
been  a  rude  dramatic  entertainment  improvised 
in  the  intoxication  of  rustic  festivals.  They 
were  composed  with  the  most  unbounded  li- 
cense, accompanied  with  uncouth  posturing 
and  dances,  and  gave  delight  to  the  yet  savage 
and  untaught  Romans.  The  later  satire  and 
comedy  took  their  origin  from  them,  and  Catul- 
lus introduced  them  into  his  epithalamia ;  but 
in  attaining  a  better  literary  character  these 
verses  hardly  improved  their  morals. 

FESCH,  Joseph,  cardinal,  and  archbishop  of 
Lyons,  bom  in  Ajaccio,  Corsica,  Jan.  8,  1768, 
died  in  Rome,  May  18,  1889.  He  was  the  aon 
of  a  Swiss  officer  in  the  Genoese  service,  and 
half  brother  of  Letizia  Ramolino,  the  mother 
of  Napoleon  Bonaparte.  He  was  archdeacon 
of  the  chapter  of  Ajaccio  when  the  chapters 
were  suppressed  by  the  revolution  of  1789.  In 
1798  he  was  exiled  with  the  Bonapartes,  and 
being  without  resources  laid  aside  his  priesthood 
and  was  appointed  commissary  of  war  to  the 
army  of  Italy,  of  which  subsequently  his  nephew 


FESSENDEN 


FESSLEB 


157 


Napoleon  received  the  command.  He  resumed 
his  ecelesiastical  functions  when  the  first  consol 
determined  to  re^stahlish  in  France  the  Oath- 
olic  worship,  and  was  active  in  the  negotiations 
between  Napoleon  and  Pins  YII.  which  pre- 
pared for  the  concordat  of  July  15, 1801.  The 
influence  of  his  nephew  made  him  archbishop 
(if  Lyons  in  1802,  and  obtuned  a  cardinaVs  hat 
for  him  in  1808.  As  ambassador  of  France  at 
Rome  in  1804,  after  conducting  the  negotia- 
tions, he  accompanied  Pius  VII.  on  his  way  to 
Paris  to  crown  the  emperor.  Many  civil  digni- 
ties and  emoluments  were  subsequently  con- 
ferred upon  him,  but  in  1809  he  declined  the 
archbishopric  of  Paris,  to  which  Napoleon, 
wishing  to  make  some  one  of  his  family  the 
head  of  the  French  clergy,  nominated  him. 
He  was  president  of  the  council  which  sat  in 
Paris  in  1810,  and  aJso  of  the  national  council 
of  1811,  called  to  consider  the  disagreement 
between  Napoleon  and  the  holy  see  concern- 
ing the  nomination  of  bishops.  In  this  capa- 
city he  did  not  satisfy  the  emperor,  and  for  a 
time  he  disappeared  from  court ;  and  he  after- 
ward adhered  to  the  pope,  greatly  to  the  dis- 
pleasure of  his  nephew.  Upon  the  fall  of 
Napoleon  he  retired  to  Rome,  but  was  recalled 
to  Paris  during  the  hundred  days.  After  the 
battle  of  Waterloo  he  lived  in  retirement  in 
Rome.  His  collection  of  paintings,  one  of  the 
largest  ever  brought  together  by  a  single  per- 
son, was  dispersed  after  his  death. 

FES8EMDM,  Thevas  Green,  an  American  au- 
thor and  journalist,  bom  in  "Walpole,  N.  H., 
April  22,  1771,  died  in  Boston,  Nov.  11,  1837. 
He  graduated  at  Dartmouth  college  in  1796, 
and  studied  law  in  Vermont,  employing  his 
leisure  hours  in  writing  humorouspoems  and 
other  papers  for  the  "Farmer's  Weekly  Mu- 
Beum"  of  Walpole,  then  edited  by  Joseph 
Dennie.  In  1801  he  went  to  England  as  the 
a^ent  for  a  newly  invented  machine,  the  failure 
of  which  to  answer  its  purpose  involved  him 
in  pecuniary  difficulties.  He  produced  in  1803 
a  poem  entitled  "Terrible  Tractoration,"  in 
which  the  metallic  tractors  of  Perkins  are 
advertised,  and  the  medical  profession  is  sati- 
rized. It  was  successful  in  London,  where  it 
was  published  anonymously.  It  was  repub- 
lished in  New  York  in  1804,  and  again  in  1806 
in  an  enlarged  form,  under  the  title  of  "The 
Minnte  Philosopher."  A  third  edition  ap- 
peared toward  the  close  of  the  author's  life. 
He  returned  to  America  in  1804,  and  was  en- 
gaged in  various  avocations  till  1822,  when  he 
commenced  the  publication  of  the  "  New  Eng- 
land Farmer,"  with  which  he  remained  con- 
nected during  the  remainder  of  his  life.  He 
also  edited  the  "  Horticultural  Register "  and 
the  **Silk  Manual,"  and  contributed  articles  to 
a  variety  of  journals.  His  remaining  works 
are:  ^* Original  Poems,"  published  in  England 
and  America ;  "  Democracy  Unveiled  "  (1806) ; 
'*  American  Clerk's  Companion  "  (1816) ;  "  The 
Ladies'  Monitor"  (1818):  and  "Laws  of  Pat- 
ents for  new  Inventions  '*  (1822). 


FESSEBTDEH,  WlDiam  Pitt,  an  American  states- 
man, born  in  Boscawen,  N.  H.,  Oct.  16,  1806, 
died  in  Portland,  Me.,  Sept.  8, 1869.  He  grad- 
uated at  Bowdoin  college  in  1823,  was  admit- 
ted to  the  bar  in  1827,  and  commenced  practice 
in  Bridgton,  Me.,  but  in  1829  removed  to  Port- 
land, where  he  soon  attained  eminence  as  a 
counsellor  and  advocate.  He  belonged  to  the 
whig  party,  was  a  member  of  the  legislature 
of  Maine  in  1882  and  again  in  1840,  and  from 
1841  to  1848  was  a  representative  in  congress. 
He  was  again  in  the  legislature  in  1845-'6  and 
1863-4.  In  the  latter  year,  although  the  legis- 
lature was  democratic  in  both  branches,  he  was 
chosen,  by  a  union  of  the  whigs  and  freesoil 
democrats,  United  States  senator,  an  office 
which  he  held  almost  uninterruptedly  until  his 
death.  This  election,  broaght  about  by  the 
disturbing  elements  introduced  by  the  Kansas- 
Nebraska  question,  was  the  preliminary  step 
toward  the  establishment  in  Maine  of  the  re- 
publican pa^y,  of  which  he  was  one  of  the 
chief  organizers.  In  1861  he  was  a  member 
of  the  "peace  congress."  In  July,  1864,  he 
was  appointed  by  President  Lincohi  secretary 
of  the  treasury,  to  succeed  Salmon  P.  Chase ; 
but  he  resigned  the  position  in  1866  to  resume 
his  seat  in  the  senate.  During  his  connection 
with  this  body  he  served  as  chairman  of  the 
finance  committee  and  of  the  committee  on 
public  buildings  and  grounds,  as  a  member  of 
the  committees  on  foreign  relations  and  the 
library,  as  regent  of  the  Smithsonian  institu- 
tion, and  as  chairman  of  the  special  joint  com- 
mission on  reconstruction.  He  was  the  author 
of  the  report  of  the  last  named  committee,  rec- 
ommending an  amendment  to  the  constitution. 
On  the  impeachment  trial  of  President  Johnson, 
he  was  one  of  the  few  republican  senators  who 
voted  for  acquittal.  He  was  an  invalid  during 
the  later  years  of  his  life. 

FESSLEB,  Ignaz  iureliiig,  a  Hungarian  author, 
bom  in  1756,  died  in  St.  Petersburg,  Dec.  16, 
1839.  He  was  a  Capuchin  friar,  but  was  dis' 
missed  from  that  order  and  became  professor  of 
oriental  languages  and  hermeneutics  in  Lem- 
berg,  where  his  tragedy  of  Sidney  was  performed 
in  1787.  This  being  denounced  as  impious  and 
revolutionary,  he  was  obliged  to  flee,  and  re- 
paired to  Silesia.  He  embraced  Protestantism, 
and  in  1796  went  to  Berlin,  where  he  joined 
Fichte  in  reforming  a  lodge  of  freemasons.  In 
1809  he  became  professor  of  oriental  languages 
and  philosophy  at  St.  Petersburg,  but  soon  lost 
this  office  on  account  of  his  alleged  atheistic 
doctrines.  Subsequently  he  was  Protestant 
bishop  of  Saratov,  and  from  1838  till  his  death 
was  general  superintendent  and  ecclesiastical 
councillor  of  the  Lutheran  community  of  St. 
Petersburg.  He  was  often  involved  in  difficul- 
ties, especially  as  member  of  a  Russian  official 
committee  at  Sarepta,  where  he  was  charged 
with  wishing  to  convert  the  Moravian  com- 
munity of  that  city  into  a  Protestant  organiza- 
tion similar  to  that  of  the  Jesuits.  His  prin- 
cipal work  is  Geschichte  der  Ungam  und  aeren 


158 


FESSLEB 


FETIOHISM 


LandMuaen  (10  v^ols.,  Leipsio,  1812-25).  He 
aJso  wrote  several  historical  novels,  and  works 
relating  to  oriental  languages  and  philosophy, 
freemasonry,  and  literature,  and  an  autobiog- 
raphy {RHichblioke  ayfmeine  nebzi^dhrige  Pil- 
gerach^ft,  Breslau,  1826  ;  2d  ed.,  1861). 

FESSLER,  jMeph,  an  Austrian  prelate,  born 
at  Lochau,  Tyrol,  Dec.  2,  1818,  In  1887  he 
was  ordained  priest  in  Brixen,  and  devoted 
himself  to  teacning.  He  was  professor  of  his- 
tory and  canon  law  for  eleven  years  in  the 
seminary  of  Brixen,  and  for  four  years  in  the 
university  of  Vienna,  where  he  filled  for  four 
years  more  the  newly  established  chair  on  the 
*^  Decretals.'^  In  1861  the  pope  summoned 
him  to  Rome,  and  employed  him  in  managing 
the  affairs  of  the  eastern  churches,  appointing 
him  also  consultor  of  the  Propaganda  on  orien- 
tal rites.  The  bishop  of  Brixen  at  the  same 
time  named  him  his  vicar  general.  Pius  IX. 
nominated  him,  April  7,  1862,  bishop  of  Nyssa 
in  partibtu;  and  on  March  27,  1865,  he  was 
made  bishop  of  St.  Pdlten  in  Lower  Austria. 
His  long  studies  and  labors  on  patrology,  church 
history,  and  canon  law,  as  well  as  in  all  that 
relates  to  the  holding  of  diocesan,  provincial, 
and  general  councils,  caused  the  pope  to  desig- 
nate him  in  1869  as  secretary  of  the  council  of 
the  Vatican. 

FETH  iU,  Fitteh  All,  Fateh  All,  or  Fath'  iH, 
shah  of  Persia,  called  before  his  accession  Baba 
Khan,  bom  about  1762,  died  in  1884.  In  1797 
he  succeeded  his  uncle,  Aga  Mohammed,  found- 
er of  the  Kadljar  dynasty,  after  having  put 
down  several  claimants  to  the  throne.  In 
1799  Col.  Malcolm  was  sent  by  the  govemoV 
general  of  India  on  a  mission  to  Feth  Ali,  and 
concluded  a  treaty  by  which  the  latter  was  to 
attack  Khorasan  and  Afghanistan,  and  receive 
subsidies  from  England  for  that  purpose.  In 
1803  war  broke  out  between  Persia  and  Russia 
for  the  possession  of  Georgia,  whose  ruler  had 
transferred  his  allegiance  from  the  former  to 
the  latter  power.  In  1805  Napoleon  offered 
Feth  Ali  his  alliance  and  protection  in  the 
prosecution  of  the  war,  and  in  1807  sent  Gen. 
Gardanne  as  ambassador  to  Persia.  The  treaty 
of  Tilsit  having,  however,  put  an  end  to  hostili- 
ties between  France  and  Russia,  the  Persian 
king  abandoned  the  French  alliance  for  that 
of  the  English ;  but  he  was  obliged  in  1818  by 
the  successes  of  the  Russians  to  yield  Georgia 
to  the  czar  by  treaty.  In  1821  a  war  broke 
out  between  Persia  and  the  Ottoman  empire 
on  account  of  the  extortions  and  oppressions 
practised  by  Turkish  functionaries  upon  Per- 
sian pilgrims,  and  was  terminated  in  1828  by 
a  treaty  favorable  to  Persia.  In  1826  Feth 
Ali,  thinking  to  profit  by  the  death  of  the  czar 
Alexander,  and  to  reconquer  Georgia,  declared 
war  against  the  Russians ;  but  his  army,  com- 
manded by  his  favorite  son  Abbas  Mirza,  was 
vanquished  by  Gen.  Paskevitch,  and  he  was 
forced  in  1828  to  abandon  Persian  Armenia  to 
Russia,  and  to  make  the  Aras  the  boundary  of 
his  dominions.   He  amused  himself  in  his  leisure 


with  writing  verses,  and  left  a  collection  of 
odes  and  songs.  He  had  600  females  in  his 
liarem,  and  in  1826  is  said  to  have  had  81  bods 
and  53  daughters.  He  was  succeeded  by  his 
grandson  Mohammed,  tlie  son  of  Abbas  Mirza, 
who  died  shortly  before  his  father. 

FETIALES,  or  Fedales,  in  aucient  Rome,  a 
college  of  priests,  consisting  of  20  members  be- 
longing to  the  noblest  families,  who  held  ofiSce 
for  life,  with  power  to  fill  vacancies. in  their 
number,  and  whose  duty  it  was  to  carry  the 
complaints  and  grievances  of  the  Roman  people 
before  the  magistrates  and  rulers  of  offending 
cities  and  tribes,  to  ask  redress,  to  declare  in 
case  of  refusal  whether  there  was  sufiBcient 
reason  for  hostilities,  to  perform  the  religions 
rites  of  warning  the  enemy,  of  declaration  of 
war,  and  of  ratification  of  peace,  and  to  watch 
over  the  strict  observance  of  treaties.  This  in- 
stitution is  believed  to  have  existed  among  the 
people  of  Etruria.  Its  introduction  at  Rome  is 
attributed  by  some  to  Kuma,  by  others  to  An- 
cus  Marcius.  When  the  policy  of  Rome  be- 
came that  of  continual  conquest,  the  institution 
lost  its  influence,  preserving  only  its  religions 
character.  The  etymology  of  the  term  is  un- 
certain. It  has  been  variously  derived  from 
the  Latin  words  JideSy  /adzts^  ferio^  and  facio^ 
and  the  Greek  ^fu, 

FEnCHISH,  FetldflD,  or  FctisUsm  (Port,  fei- 
tifdo^  magic ;  perhaps  connected  with  the  Lot. 
faBcinum,  a  bewitching),  the  religious  worship 
of  material  things  (fetiches)  as  the  abodes  of 
spirits.  It  is  the  lowest  of  the  forms  of  wor- 
ship found  among  uncivilized  tribes,  and  exists 
especially  among  the  negroes  in  Africa.  There 
are  two  kinds  of  fetiches,  natural  and  artificial. 
Among  the  former  are  celebrated  rocks,  par- 
ticularly high  mountain  peaks  where  the  light- 
ning is  supposed  to  dwell;  single  trees,  and 
more  frequently  whole  forests ;  many  animals, 
as  serpents,  one  of  which  has  its  own  temple, 
where  the  snakes  are  kept  by  priestesses; 
snails,  crocodiles  (with  the  Ashantees),  goats, 
sheep,  &c.  Usefulness  and  hurtfulness  seem  to 
have  often  dictated  their  selection,  but  not  al- 
ways. Artificial  fetiches  are  either  public, 
preserved  by  priests,  or  private,  purchasable 
from  them  usually  at  a  very  high  price.  Kings 
and  princes  have  large  collections  of  fetiches, 
and  every  family  has  at  least  one.  They  are 
hereditary,  and  either  hung  up  in  the  dwell- 
ings or  worn  on  the  neck  or  elsewhere,  and 
even  fastened  on  domestic  animals.  Occa- 
sionally they  are  made  in  rude  imitation  of  the 
human  form,  and  the  public  fetiches  are  some- 
times of  gold  and  very  large.  The  worship- 
pers provide  their  fetiches  liberally  with  food, 
but  if  their  prayers  are  not  granted  they  fre- 
quently throw  them  away,  or  beat  them  to 
pieces.  They  have  also  festivals  and  sacrifices. 
For  the  latter  the  victims  are  oxen,  swine,  and 
other  animals ;  but  sometimes  criminals,  pris- 
oners, or  persons  of  the  lowest  classes  of  the 
tribe  are  immolated.  The  festivals  are  gene- 
rally attended  by  excess  in  drinking,  thefts. 


Ffins 


FEUDAL  SYSTEM 


159 


fights,  and  grom  lioentionsness.  The  priests 
form  a  separate  society,  with  hereditary  dig- 
nity, property,  and  privileges.  They  have  in 
particular  the  right  of  retaining  the  slaves  who 
come  to  them,  or,  as  they  call  it,  present  their 
bodies  to  the  fetich.  The  limits  of  the  term 
fetichism  are  yet  unsettled,  as  some  exclude 
from  it  the  worship  of  forests,  mountains, 
rivers,  &c.,  and  all  such  as  are  made  to  resem- 
ble  the  human  form. 

fins,  Fnuf^  Jaseph,  a  Belg^ian  composer 
and  writer  on  music,  bom  in  Mons,  March  26, 
1784,  died  in  Brussels,  March  27,  1871.  His 
father  was  an  organist,  and  at  the  age  of  ten 
he  was  engaged  as  organist  in  his  native  town. 
Subsequently,  after  taking  lessons  from  the 
most  eminent  teachers  in  Paris,  he  travelled  In 
Germany  and  Italy,  and  made  himself  familiar 
with  the  works  of  the  great  masters  of  those 
countries.  He  returned  to  Paris  in  1806,  mar* 
ried  a  rich  woman,  and  devoted  himself  to  the 
study  of  the  history  of  music,  especially  of 
that  of  the  middle  ages.  In  1818,  a  reverse 
of  fortune  obliging  him  to  return  to  the  prac- 
tice of  his  profession,  he  became  organist  and 
teacher  of  music  at  Douai,  and  in  1818  was 
appointed  professor  in  the  conservatory  of 
Paris,  and  soon  after  published  his  IVaite  du 
eontrepoint  et  de  la/uffue.  In  1827  he  found- 
ed the  first  journal  devoted  to  musical  criti- 
cbm  that  had  appeared  in  France,  the  £m>ue 
mtuiealsj  which  he  edited  till  1885.  At  the 
same  time  he  was  pursuing  his  researches  upon 
the  theory  of  harmony,  writing  articles  for 
various  periodicals,  and  volumes  upon  the  his- 
tory and  curiosities  of  music,  and  composing 
operas  and  pieces  of  sacred  music.  In  1882  he 
began  his  historical  concerts,  which  have  since 
found  imitators  in  Germany  and  England.  In 
1883  the  king  of  Belgium  appointed  him  chapel 
master  and  director  of  the  royal  conservatory 
of  Brussels.  In  1864  he  superintended  the 
production  of  Meyerbeer's  opera  L^JJrieaine^ 
in  accordance  with  a  direction  in  the  will  of 
the  composer.  His  own  most  successful  opera 
WAS  La  vieille,  which  was  performed  for  100 
nights.  As  a  writer  on  musical  history  he  is 
onrivalled,  and  his  works  on  almost  every  topic 
connected  with  music  are  numerous.  His  prin- 
cipal writings  are :  Biographic  universelU  des 
fnuticiefiA,  et  hibliographie  genSraU  de  la  mu- 
iique^  preceded  by  an  epitome  of  the  history 
of  music  (8  vols.,  Brussels,  lQS6-^44)  ;Traite 
wmplet  de  la  theorie  etdela  pratique  de  Vhar- 
nkonie^  eontenant  la  doctrine  de  la  science  et  de 
Vart  (Paris,  1853) ;  and  a  sketch  of  Meyerbeer 
in  the  Revue  contemporaine  (Paris,  1869). — 
His  son  SnouiLBD  Fbanqois  Louis,  born  at  Bou- 
rnes, May  12,  1816,  was  appointed  in  1838 
conservator  of  the  royal  library  of  Brussels, 
&nd  is  the  author  of  Lee  musiciens  helges  (2 
vols.,  1848),  Lee  artistes  beiges  d  VHranger 
(vols.  I  and  ii.,  1858),  &c. 

FECCHiftES,  8«pUe  de,  baroness,  mistress  of 
the  last  prince  of  Cond6  (Louis  Henri  Joseph, 
dnke  de  Bourbon),  bom  in  the  Isle  of  Wight 
818  VOL.  VII.— 11 


about  1795,  died  in  England,  Jan.  2,  1841. 
She  was  the  daughter  of  a  fisherman  named 
Clarke,  represented  herself  as  the  widow  of 
a  Mr.  Dawes,  and  is  believed  to  have  been  on 
the  stage;  but  the  accounts  of  her  life  are 
conflicting  until  about  1817,  when  she  became 
the  mistress  of  the  prince  of  Cond6.  At  his 
instigation  she  married  in  1818  the  baron 
Adolphe  de  Feuchdres,  who  became  a  member 
of  his  household,  when  the  prince  settled  upon 
her  72,000  francs  per  annum.  In  1822  she  was 
divorced  from  the  baron.  She  exercised  over 
Gond6  an  almost  unbounded  influence.  In 
1824  he  presented  her  with  the  domains  of 
Boissy  and  St.  Leu,  and  in  1825  with  1,000,000 
francs,  besides  leaving  her  2,000,000  by  his 
will,  dated  Aug.  80,  1829.  A  year  afterward 
(Aug.  27, 1880)  the  prince  was  found  hanging  in 
his  room,  under  circumstances  which  flxed  the 
suspicions  of  his  relatives  upon  the  baroness, 
and  also  upon  Louis  Philippe;  for  in  order 
to  ingratiate  herself  with  the  Orleans  family 
she  is  said  to  have  prevailed  upon  the  prince 
to  bequeath  the  bulk  of  his  large  fortune  to 
his  g<^on,  the  duke  d^Aumale,  a  disposition 
which  just  before  his  death  he  seemed  inclined 
to  revoke  in  favor  of  the  count  de  Ohambord« 
His  relatives  accused  her  of  having  murdered 
the  prince,  and  insisted  upon  a  judicial  investi- 
gation; but  nothing  could  be  proved  against 
her,  and  the  princess  death  was  ascribed  to 
suicide.  (See  ffistoire  compute  du  proe^  rela- 
t\f  d  la  mort  et  au  testament  du  due  de  Bour- 
bon^ Paris,  1882.)  She  left  her  immense  for- 
tune to  her  niece,  Mile.  Sophie  Tanceron.  The 
baron  de  Feuch^res  gave  to  the  hospitals  ot 
Paris  his  whole  share  in  the  property  of  his 
former  wife. 

FEUDAL  STOTEH,  the  name  given  to  the  con- 
dition of  society  that  prevailed  in  Europe  during 
the  middle  ages.  Its  germs  were  probably  Asia<- 
tic,  and  in  Asia,  thou^  never  so  fully  developed, 
it  has  outlasted  the  system  established  in  Eu- 
rope. It  had  the  firmest  existence  in  France, 
Germany,  Aragon,  a  large  part  of  Italy,  Eng- 
land after  the  conquest,  and  Scotland,  while 
other  European  countries  were  more  or  less 
influenced  by  it.  The  system  grew  up  in  Eu- 
rope from  the  6th  to  the  9th  century,  and  was 
the  consequence  of  the  perpetual  struggle  of 
civilization  against  barbarism.  Like  all  systems 
that  have  lived  for  any  great  length  of  time,  it 
had  a  progressive  formation.  The  struggle  out 
of  which  it  grew  began  with  the  fall  of  the 
imperial  authority  in  so  many  parts  of  the  Ro- 
man empire ;  and  when  feudalism  had  estab- 
lished itself,  the  way  had  been  prepared  for  a 
far  greater  advance  toward  the  establishment  of 
civilization.  In  France,  feudalism  was  brought 
into  a  rude  but  intelligible  form  in  the  10th 
century,  and  **  the  feudal  period "  is  held  to 
synchronize  with  the  ten  generations  during 
which  the  throne  of  that  country  was  held  by 
the  elder  branch  of  the  Capet  family,  987-1828. 
For  some  generations  previous  to  the  extinc- 
tion of  the  Carlovingian  dynasty  it  had  had  a 


160 


FEUDAL  SYSTEM 


rude  existence,  and  many  of  its  incidents  are 
traceable  in  legislation  to  the  reign  of  Charle- 
magne, throughout  the  limits  of  whose  vast 
dominion  feudalism  had  at  a  later  period  its 
fullest  continental  development.  "  The  regu- 
lar machinery  and  systematic  establishment  of 
feuds,  in  fact,"  says  Hallam,  *^  may  be  consid- 
ered as  almost  confined  to  the  dominions  of 
Charlemagne,  and  to  those  countries  which 
afterward  derived  from  them."  But  it  is  not 
until  a  much  later  time  that  we  find  ^*  the  feu- 
dal period  "  clearly  established.  As  the  chief 
object  of  the  great  monarchs  of  the  Carlovin- 
gian  line  was  the  establishment  of  a  consoli- 
dated empire,  it  can  scarely  be  held  that  they 
deliberately  sought  to  develop  a  system  whose 
very  essence  was  the  disintegration  of  every 
country  in  which  it  existed.  The  imbecility 
of  the  later  kings  of  the  second  race  favored 
the  advance  of  feudalism  *in  France ;  and  in 
that  country  it  was  known  earlier  than  any- 
where else,  and  there  it  received  its  essential 
peculiarities.  At  the  time  of  the  conquest  of 
Gaul,  and  the  rise  of  the  Merovingians,  there 
were  many  freeholds,  that  is,  independent 
properties ;  but  in  the  course  of  the  five  fol- 
lowing centuries  most  of  these  had  disappeared. 
The  beneficiary  condition  became  the  common 
condition  of  territorial  property.  Benefice  and 
fief  are  words  that  express  tibe  same  facts  at 
different  dates.  In  the  middle  of  the  12th 
century  feodum  and  hen^icium  were  used  in- 
terchangeably, as  they  had  been  used  for  some 
time  previously  to  that  date.  The  exact  nature 
of  benefices  has  been  the  source  of  consider- 
able dispute,  but  the  better  opinion  is  that 
their  ordinary  duration  was  the  life  of  the  pos- 
sessor, after  which  they  reverted  to  the  fisc ; 
yet  there  were  instances  of  hereditary  benefices 
as  early  as  the  Merovingian  times.  The  ten- 
dency to  retain  property  in  their  families  would 
lead  men  to  make  use  of  a  variety  of  means  to 
render  what  they  held  hereditary,  while  the 
weakness  of  the  kings  would  not  enable  them 
to  resist  claims  powerfully  urged  in  behalf  of  the 
sons  of  beneficiaries.  Under  the  feudal  svstem 
the  territorial  element  was  known  as  the  ^ef^ 
and  it  has  been  argued  that  this  did  not  mean 
originally  the  land  itself,  but  only  the  tenure 
thereof,  its  relation  of  dependence  toward  the 
suzerain;  but  the  weight  of  authority  is  ad- 
verse to  this  view,  though  it  is  admitted  that 
at  a  later  period  some  such  distinction  may 
have  been  made.  The  titles,  or  most  of  them, 
which  became  so  identified  with  feudalism, 
were  not  orij?inally  hereditary,  but  were  made 
so  gradually,  like  the  property  possessions  which 
rendered  the  great  vassals  so  powerful.  Dukes, 
counts,  and  marquises,  or  marjrraves,  were  at 
first  provincial  governors,  officers  intrusted 
with  certain  specific  duties,  the  margraves  be- 
ing charged  with  the  custody  of  the  frontiers. 
The  weakness  of  the  Merovingian  kings  made 
these  officers  very  important  persons  in  the 
state.  The  Carlo vingians  sought  to  lessen  their 
power,  and  with  some  success  so  long  as  that 


race  produced  able  kings ;  but  under  Charle- 
magne^s  successors  the  counts  rapidly  acquired 
infiuence  and  wealth,  and  politiccO  station.  The 
same  man  was  allowed  to  eigoy  several  coun- 
ties, in  all  of  which  he  endeavored  to  acquire 
landed  property,  and  to  assume  a  right  to  his 
dignities.  In  the  last  quarter  of  the  9th  cen- 
tury the  succession  of  a  son  to  a  father^s  countj 
was  a  recognized  usage;  and  *Mn  the  next  cen- 
tury," says  Hallam,  "there  followed  an  entire 
prostration  of  the  royal  authority,  and  the 
counts  usurped  their  governments  as  little  sov- 
ereignties, with  the  domains  and  all  regalian 
rights,  subject  only  to  the  feudal  superiority 
of  the  king.  They  now  added  the  name  of  the 
county  to  their  own,  and  their  wives  took  the 
appellation  of  countess.  In  Italy,  the  inde- 
pendence of  the  dukes  was  still  more  complete ; 
and  although  Otho  the  Great  and  his  descen- 
dants kept  a  stricter  rein  over  those  of  Ger- 
many, yet  we  find  the  great  fiefs  of  their  empire, 
throughout  the  10th  century,  granted  almost 
invariably  to  the  male  and  even  female  heirs 
of  the  last  possessor."  Thus  the  hereditary 
principle  was  recognized  in  a  double  respect — 
as  related  to  the  possession  of  land,  and  as  re- 
lated to  the  possession  of  political  power.  The 
counts  became  the  enemies  of  the  allodial  pro- 
prietors, whose  importance  was  derived  from  a 
system  entirely  unlike  that  upon  which  theircon- 
sequence  rested.  The  king  and  the  law  could 
not  protect  the  allodialists  or  independent  pro- 
prietors from  being  spoiled  by  their  enemies. 
Many  of  them  surrendered  their  lands,  and 
received  them  back  upon  feudal  conditions; 
or  they  acknowledged  themselves  vassals  of  a 
suzerain.  Yet  the  allodial  lands  were  not  en- 
tirely extinguished.  They  were  common  in  the 
south  of  France,  the  strength  of  the  feudal  ten- 
ures being  between  the  Somme  and  the  Loire. 
According  to  the  old  French  law,  allodial  lands 
were  always  noble,  like  fiefs,  down  to  1680. 
In  the  German  empire  many  estates  continued 
to  be  held  by  allodial  tenures.  This  part  of  the 
subject  is  involved  in  considerable  obscurity, 
for  in  the  royal  charters  of  the  10th  and  llth 
centuries  the  word  allodium  is  continually  used 
for  a  feud,  or  hereditary  benefice.  "Several 
passages  in  ancient  laws  and  instruments," 
says  Hallam,  "  concur  to  prove  that  besides  the 
relation  established  between  lord  and  vassal  by 
beneficiary  grants,  there  was  another  species 
more  personal,  and  more  closely  resembling 
that  of  patron  and  client  in  the  Roman  repub- 
lic. This  was  usually  called  commendation, 
and  appears  to  have  been  founded  on  two  very 
general  principles,  both  of  which  the  distracted 
state  of  society  inculcated.  The  weak  needed 
the  protection  of  the  powerful ;  and  the  gov- 
ernment needed  some  security  for  public  order. 
Even  before  the  invasion  of  the  Franks,  Salvian, 
a  writer  of  the  6th  century,  mentions  the  cus- 
tom of  obtaining  the  protection  of  the  great  by 
money,  and  blames  their  rapacity,  though  he 
allows  the  natural  reasonableness  of  the  prac- 
tice.   The  disadvantageous  condition  of  the 


FEUDAL  SYSTEM 


161 


less  powerful  freemen,  which  ended  in  the  ser- 
vitude of  one  part  and  in  the  feudal  vassalage 
of  anotiier,  led  such  as  fortunately  still  pre- 
served their  allodial  property  to  insure  its  de- 
fence by  a  stipulated  payment  of  money.  Such 
payments  may  be  traced  in  extant  charters, 
chiefly  indeed  of  monasteries.  In  the  case  of 
private  persons,  it  may  be  presumed  that  this 
voluntary  contract  was  frequently  changed  by 
the  stronger  party  into  a  perfect  feudal  depen- 
dence. From  this,  however,  as  I  imagine,  it 
probably  differed,  in  being  capable  of  dissolu- 
tion at  the  inferior's  pleasure,  without  incur- 
ring a  forfeiture,  as  well  as  having  no  relation 
to  land.  Homage,  however,  seems  to  have 
been  incident  to  commendation,  as  well  as  to 
vassalage.  Military  service  was  sometimes  the 
condition  of  this  engagement.  It  was  the  law 
of  France,  so  late  at  least  as  the  commencement 
of  the  third  race  of  kings,  that  no  man  could 
take  a  part  in  private  wars  except  in  defence 
of  his  own  lord.  Indeed,  there  is  reason  to 
infer  from  the  capitularies  of  Oharles  the  Bald 
that  every  man  was  bound  to  attach  himself 
to  some  lord,  though  it  was  the  privilege  of  a 
freeman  to  choose  his  own  superior.  And  this 
is  strongly  supported  by  the  analogy  of  our 
Anglo-Saxon  laws,  where  it  is  frequently  re- 
j)eated  that  no  man  should  continue  without  a 
lord." — By  the  edict  of  Milan,  issued  by  Oonrad 
II.,  emperor  of  Germany,  in  1087,  four  regula- 
tions are  established :  **  that  no  man  should  be 
deprived  of  his  fief,  whether  held  of  the  empe- 
ror or  a  mesne  lord,  bnt  by  the  laws  of  the 
empire  and  the  judgment  of  his  peers;  that 
from  such  judgment  an  immediate  vassal  might 
appeal  to  his  sovereign ;  that  fiefs  should  be 
inherited  by  sons  and  their  children,  or  on  their 
failure  by  brothers,  provided  they  were  feuda 
patema,  snoh  as  had  descended  from  the  fa- 
ther ;  and  that  the  lord  should  not  alienate  the 
fief  of  his  vassal  without  his  consent.*'  This 
edict,  though  relating  immediately  only  to  Lom- 
hardy,  is  thought  to  mark  the  fidl  maturity  of 
the  feudal  system,  and  the  last  stage  of  its  pro- 
gress. Its  object  was  to  put  an  end  to  disa- 
greements between  inferior  vassals  and  their 
immediate  lords,  which  had  been  caused  by 
the  want  of  settled  usage.  Guizot  is  of  opinion 
that  the  essential  facts  of  the  feudal  system 
may  be  reduced  to  three,  viz. :  1,  tiie  particular 
nature  of  territorial  property,  real,  full,  heredi- 
tary, and  yet  derived  from  a  superior,  impo- 
sing certain  personal  obligations  on  its  posses- 
sor, under  pain  of  forfeiture ;  in  a  word,  want- 
ing in  that  complete  independence  which  is 
now  its  characteristic ;  2,  the  amalgamation  of 
sovereignty  with  property,  the  attribution  to 
the  proprietor  of  the  soil,  over  all  the  inhabi- 
tants of  that  soil,  of  the  whole  or  nearly  the 
whole  of  those  rights  which  constitute  what 
we  call  sovereignty,  and  which  are  now  pos- 
sessed only  by  government,  the  public  power ; 
8,  the  hierarchal  system  of  legislative,  judicial, 
snd  military  institutions,  which  united  the  pos- 
SMsors  of  fiefs  among  themselves,  and  formed 


them  into  a  general  society.  Of  feudal  rela- 
tions, support  and  fidelity  were  the  principal, 
"the  vassal  owed  service  to  his  lord,  and  the 
lord  protection  to  his  vassal.  If  the  vassal 
failed  in  his  obligation,  his  land  was  forfeited ; 
if  the  lord  failed,  he  lost  his  seigniory.  It  is 
disputed  whether  the  vassal  w^as  bound  to  fol- 
low his  lord^s  standard  against  his  own  kin- 
dred. As  respected  the  king,  the  relations  were 
loose  and  shining.  There  are  instances  of  vas- 
sals aiding  their  immediate  superiors  against 
the  king ;  and  the  royal  power  was  always  in 
antagonism  to  the  feudal  system. — ^The  cere- 
monies which  took  place  when  a  fief  was  con- 
ferred were  principally  honmge,  fealty,  and  in- 
vestiture. The  first  expressed  the  submission 
and  devotedness  of  the  vassal  toward  his  lord. 
The  oath  of  fealty  differed  little  in  language 
from  the  act  of  homage,  bnt  was  indispensable, 
was  taken  by  ecclesiastics,  but  not  by  minora, 
and  could  be  received  by  proxy.  Investiture 
was  the  actual  conveyance  of  feudal  lands,  and 
was  proper  or  improper.  By  the  first,  the  vas- 
sal was  put  in  possession  upon  the  ground,  by 
the  lord  or  his  deputy,  which  the  English  law 
calls  livery  of  seisin ;  by  the  second,  possession 
was  given  symbolically,  by  the  delivery  of  a 
branch,  turf,  or  stone,  or  some  other  natural 
object^  according  to  custom.  Nearly  a  hundred 
varieties  of  investitnre  are  mentioned.  The 
vassal^s  duties  commenced  with  his  investitnre. 
These  were  very  numerous,  and  it  is  impossible 
to  define  them  at  large.  .  They  embraced  nearly 
every  obligation  that  can  exist  in  such  a  state 
of  society  as  then  prevailed  over  most  of  Chris- 
tendom. They  varied,  too,  with  place  and  time. 
Military  service  depended  upon  circumstances, 
though  40  days  was  the  usual  term  that  the 
tenant  of  a  knight^s  fee  was  bound  to  be  in  the 
field  at  his  own  expense.  Among  the  feudal 
incidents  advantageous  to  the  lord  were  relief^, 
fines  upon  alienation,  escheats,  aid,  wardship, 
and  marriage,  the  two  latter  placing  the  wards 
and  orphan  minors  among  his  vassals  almost 
entirely  at  his  mercy.  The  control  of  female 
vassals  with  respect  to  marriage  was  carried 
to  its  utmost  extent  in  the  Latin  kingdom  of 
Jerusalem,  founded  by  the  first  crusaders  at 
the  time  when  the  feudal  system  was  at  its 
height  Improper  fiefs,  as  they  were  called  to 
distinguish  tliem  from  the  military  fiefs,  were 
in  time  granted,  in  order  to  gratify  pride  or 
to  raise  money.  "They  were  granted  for  a 
price,  and  without  reference  to  military  service. 
The  language  of  the  feudal  law  was  applied 
by  a  kind  of  metaphor  to  almost  every  transfer 
of  property.  Hence,  pensions  of  money  and 
allowances  of  provisions,  howevw  remote  from 
right  notions  of  a  fief,  were  sometimes  granted 
under  that  name ;  and  even  where  land  was 
tihe  subject  of  the  donation,  its  conditions  were 
often  lucrative,  often  honorary,  and  sometimes 
ludicrous."  Fiefs  of  office,  too,  were  granted, 
by  which  persons  received  grants  of  land  on 
condition  of  performing  some  domestic  service 
to  the  lord.    The  mechanic  arts  were  carried 


162 


FEUDAL  SYSTEM 


FEUERBAOH 


on  in  the  hoiiseB  of  the  great  by  persons  receiv- 
ing lands  upon  these  conditions. — The  feudal 
system  was  exclusive  in  its  spirit.  In  strict^ 
ness,  a  person  not  noble  by  birth  could  not  pos- 
sess a  fief,  though  there  were  occasional  excep- 
tions to  this  rule,  which  increased  as  the  aris- 
tocratical  spirit  declined.  Three  descents  were 
necessary  to  remove  fully  the  stain  of  ignoble 
blood.  Children  bom  of  an  ignoble  moilier,  in 
lawful  wedlock,  were  looked  upon  as  of  ille- 
gitimate origin.  The  higher  clergy,  as  prelates 
and  abbots,  were  feudal  nobles.  Ecclesiastical 
tenants  came  within  the  scope  of  feudal  duty. 
Below  the  gentle  classes  were  the  freemen  and 
the  serfs.  The  former  were  dwellers  in  char- 
tered towns,  and  were  destined  to  have  an  im- 
portant part  in  destroying  the  feudal  system ; 
and  in  England,  the  yeomanry,  to  whose  exis- 
tence that  country  owed  its  leading  place  in  the 
military  system  of  Europe,  were  also  among 
the  freemen.  The  serfs,  or  villeins,  were  among 
the  most  abject  of  mankind,  and  were  despised 
find  maltreated  because  they  had  been  degraded 
and  injured.  In  some  countries  a  distinction 
was  made  between  villeins  and  serfs,  the  latter 
being  compelled  to  perform  the  vilest  labors, 
and  thoroughly  enslaved,  while  the  condition 
of  the  former  was  not  so  harsh,  their  payments 
and  duties  being  defined.  Probably  at  no  time 
in  the  world's  history  have  the  mass  of  the 
people  been  so  badly  treated  as  during  the  ex- 
istence of  the  feudal  system ;  and  many  of  those 
customs  and  opinions  that  still  impede  the 
growth  of  the  people  in  knowledge  and  happi- 
ness in  several  countries,  are  but  relics  of  that 
system,  and  yet  continue  to  do  its  work.— 
There  were  several  causes  for  the  decline  of 
feudalism.  The  two  extremes  of  society  were 
alike  interested  in  its  destruction,  and  continu- 
ally sought  it :  the  king,  feebly  grasping  a  scep- 
tre that  was  scarcely  more  than  a  fooPs  bau- 
ble ;  and  the  squalid  people,  who  were  treated 
by  the  ruling  classes  with  less  consideration 
than  they  bestowed  upon  beasts  of  chase.  The 
growth  of  the  institution  of  chivalry,  which 
was  one  of  the  children  of  feudalism,  was  inju- 
rious to  the  system  whence  it  sprung.  The 
feudal  system  had  much  to  do  with  the  crusades, 
and  it  was  probably  the  only  state  of  society 
in  which  those  expeditions  could  either  have 
been  undertaken,  or  have  been  renewed  from 
time  to  time  during  nearly  200  years ;  yet  they 
worked  most  injuriously  to  it,  and  helped  to 
prepare  the  way  for  its  fall.  The  growth  of  the 
towns,  the  increase  of  commerce,  the  develop- 
ment of  the  commercial  spirit,  the  acquisition 
of  military  knowledge  by  the  people  in  several 
countries,  scientific  inventions  and  discoveries, 
and  the  application  of  gunpowder  to  the  uses 
of  war,  aided  its  downfall.  In  France  it  failed 
utterly  as  a  bulwark  against  the  English  inva- 
sions of  the  14th  century,  which  rapidly  accel- 
erated its  fate.  It  might  have  remained  pow- 
erful during  the  first  century  of  the  Valois  kings 
had  it  not  proved  totally  unequal  to  the  busi- 
ness it  claimed  as  peculiarly  its  own,  that  of 


defending  the  soil  its  membere  owned,  and  the 
country  they  govemed.-r-See  Sismondi,  Hu- 
toire  des  franpais  and  HiUoire  de$  republigueB 
italienneg;  Guizot,  HUtoire  generale  de  la  ei- 
vilisation  en  France  and  Histoire  generale  de  la 
dvilieatian  en  Eur<me ;  Michelet,  EieUnre  de 
France;  Hallam,  ** Europe  during  the  Middle 
Ages;'*  Bell,  ''Historical  Studies  of  Feudal- 
ism "  (London,  1852) ;  and  Lacroix, ''  Manners, 
Customs,  and  Dress  during  the  Middle  Ages, 
and  during  the  Renaissance  Period  "  (transla- 
ted from  the  French,  London,  1874). ' 

FEIJERBACH.  I.  Pail  Jthana  AoselB,  a  Ger- 
man jurist,  born  in  Jena,  Nov.  34, 1776,  died  in 
Frankfort,  May  29,  1883.  He  studied  law  at 
Jena,  and  became  professor  of  feudal  law  there 
in  1801,  of  criminal  and  civil  law  at  Kiel  in  1802, 
and  at  Landshut  in  1804.  In  1805  he  was  ap- 
pointed to  prepare  a  civil  code  for  Bavaria,  in 
1808  became  privy  counciDor,  in  1814  a  judge 
at  Bamberg,  and  in  1817  president  of  the  court 
of  appeals  at  Anspach.  While  there  he  under- 
took to  investigate  the  story  of  Kaspar  Hauser, 
without  much  regard  to  the  sovereign  families 
thought  to  be  compromised  in  the  matter.  He 
was  the  author  of  many  standard  law  books. 
Of  these,  the  Lehrbuch  dee  gemeinen  in  Deutseh- 
land  guUigen  peinlichen  Bechte  (1801)  is  one  of 
the  higliest  authorities  on  the  subject  of  crimi- 
nal law  in  Germany.  11.  Lid  wig  Aidrcts,  a  Ger- 
man philosopher,  son  of  the  preceding,  bom  in 
Landshut,  July  28, 1804,  died  near  Nuremberg, 
Sept.  12,  1872.  He  studied  theology  and  phi- 
losophy at  Heidelberg  and  Berlin,  and  became  a 
tutor  at  the  university  of  Erlangen  in  1828,  but 
retired  into  private  life  soon  after,  occupying 
himself  solely  with  literary  labors.  In  1844  he 
delivered  a  brief  course  of  lectures  at  the  uni- 
versity of  Heidelberg.  He  subsequently  retired 
to  a  small  village  in  Franconia,  where  he  di- 
rected an  industrial  establishment,  and  devoted 
his  leisure  hours  to  literary  pursuits.  The  lat- 
ter part  of  his  life  was  passed  in  poverty,  and 
a  subscription  for  his  benefit  was  nused  not 
long  before  his  death.  Among  his  works  (a 
collection  of  which  has  been  published  in  10 
vols.,  Leipsic,  1846-*66)  the  following  are  the 
most  important:  Ahdlard  vni  HeMee  (Ans- 
pach, 1888);  Geechiehie  der  neuem  PhUeeth 
phie  von  Bacon  von  Verulam  hie  Spinoza  (1868) ; 
Daretellun^^  Entwiekelung  und  Eritik  der 
Leibniz' Bchen  Philosophie  0887) ;  Pierre  BayU 
(1888) ;  Dae  Weeen  dee  Chrittenihutne  (Leip- 
sic, 1841 ;  English  translation  by  Mrs.  Lewes, 
London,  1854) ;  Dae  Weeen  derBeligian  (2d  ed., 
1849);  and  Qottheit,  Freiheit  und  Uneterhlieh- 
keit  (1866).  Feuerbach  transformed  the  He- 
gelian doctrine  into  naturalism.  The  leading 
principle  of  his  philosophy  is  the  identification 
of  God  with  the  idealized  essence  of  man,  or  the 
deified  essence  of  nature.  His  own  statement 
is:  *^My  theory  may  be  condensed  in  two 
words:  nature  and  man.  That  being  which, 
in  my  opinion,  is  the  presupposition,  the  cause 
of  existence  of  man,  is  not  God — ^a  mysterioos, 
vague,  indefinite  term — but  nature.    On  the 


FEUILLANT8 


FEVEE 


163 


other  hand,  that  being  in  which  nature  becomes 
coascioas  of  itself,  is  man.  .  .  .  True,  it  fol- 
lows firom  mj  theory  that  there  is  no  God,  that 
is  to  say,  no  abstract  being,  distinct  from  na- 
ture and  man,  which  disposes  of  the  destinies 
of  the  universe  and  mankind  at  its  discretion ; 
bat  this  negation  is  only  a  consequence  of  the 
cognition  of  God's  identity  with  the  essence  of 
nature  and  man." 

FEVILLAMTS,  a  branch  of  the  order  of  Cister- 
cians, founded  in  France  in  1577  by  Jean  de  la 
Barri^re,  abbot  of  the  monastery  of  Feuillant, 
in  the  diocese  of  Rienx,  Languedoc,  for  the 
stricter  observance  of  the  rules  of  St.  Benedict, 
and  declared  independent  by  Siztns  V.  in  1586. 
It  received  originally  a  very  severe  discipline, 
its  members  being  obliged  to  go  with  naked 
head  and  feet,  to  sleep  upon  planks,  and  to  eat 
on  their  knees.  The  rules  were  subsequently 
greatly  relaxed,  and  the  order  spread  over 
France  and  Italy.  It  was  distinguished  by  the 
part  which  its  members,  especially  the  preach- 
er Bernard  de  Montgaillard,  called  Le  petit 
FeuiUanty  took  in  the  civil  wars  of  France  in 
the  time  of  the  league.  After  having  been  the 
centre  of  numerous  agitations,  the  Feuillants 
of  France  were  in  1630  separated  from  those 
of  Italy.  Their  costume  was  a  white  robe  with- 
out a  acq>nlar,  and  a  white  cowl.  De  la  Bar- 
ri^re  founded  at  the  same  time  a  female  order 
of  Feaillantes,  whose  convent  was  first  near 
Toolouse,  and  afterward,  by  invitation  of  Anne 
of  Austria,  in  Paris.  The  severe  discipline  to 
which  the  members  of  this  order  at  first  sub- 
jected themselves  caused  the  death  of  many  of 
them,  and  was  reprimanded  by  the  pope.  The 
order  lasted  till  1790. — ^In  the  French  revolu- 
tion a  club  founded  by  Lafayette,  Sieyds,  and 
others,  at  first  called  the  company  of  1789,  and 
opposed  to  the  Jacobins,  was  known  as  the 
Feuillants,  from  their  meeting  in  a  convent  of 
the  abolished  order.  In  March,  1791,  it  was 
broken  up  by  a  mob. 

FEOIIiiET,  OctaTe,  a  French  novelist  and 
dramatist,  bom  in  St.  L6,  La  Manche,  Aug.  11, 
1812.  He  was  educated  in  Paris  in  the  col- 
lege of  Louis-le-Grand,  and  in  1846  he  wrote, 
under  the  pseudonyme  of  D^sir^  Hazard,  in 
conjunction  with  Paul  Bocage  and  Albert 
Aubert,  a  romance  entitled  Le  grand  vieil- 
lard^  published  in  the  National.  Since  then 
he  has  written  a  large  number  of  romances^ 
comedies,  dramas,  and  farces,  nearly  all  of 
which  have  been  received  favorably.  In  1868 
he  succeeded  Scribe  as  a  member  of  the  French 
academy.  He  was  afterward  appointed  libra- 
rian of  the  imperial  residences,  which  position 
he  held  until  the  revolution  of  Sept.  4,  1870. 
Among  his  novels  are:  Poliehinelle  (184B); 
Onesta  (1848);  Redemption  (1849);  Bellah 
(1850);  Le  eheveu  hlanc  (1858);  La  petite 
eomtene  (1856) ;  Le  roman  d^un  jeune  Iwmme 
pauwe  (1858),  which  has  been  translated  into 
many  languages ;  Hietoire  de  SibylU  (1862), 
scarcely  less  popular  than  the  preceding ;  and 
MojMieur  de  (famore  (1867),  a  story  remark- 


able for  invention  and  vigor,  but  regarded  as 
exceedingly  demoralizing  in  its  tendencies. 
His  plays  include  La  nuit  terrible  (1845),  Le 
bourgeois  de  Borne  (1846),  La  eriee  (1848),  Le 
pour  et  le  contre  (1849),  Dalila  (1857),  Afontjcye 
(1863),  La  belle  au  boi$  dormant  (1865),  Le  eae 
de  eomcienoe  (1867),  JvXie  (1869),  and  Le 
Sphinx  (1874),  the  last  the  most  sensational 
of  them  all.  He  has  written  also,  jointly  with 
Paul  Bocage,  a  number  of  other  dramas,  and 
has  published  several  poems. 

FEFAL,  Paal  Henri  Camtta,  a  French  novelist, 
bom  at  Rennes,  Nov.  28,  1817.  He  belongs 
to  an  old  legitimist  family,  studied  law,  but 
became  a  banker^s  clerk,  and  then  a  writer. 
His  Myet^ee  de  Londres  (11  vols.,  1844),  some- 
what m  the  vein  of  Sue  and  Souli^,  passed 
through  many  editions,  and  has  been  trans- 
lated into  foreign  languages.  He  has  since 
published  some  200  volumes,  including  Lee 
amoure  de  Paris  (6  vols.,  1845) ;  Le  file  du 
diable  (12  vols.,  1846) ;  Les  belles  de  nuit  (8 
vols.,  1850);  Le  bosm  (12  vols.,  1858);  and 
Les  tribunaux  secrets  (8  vols.,  1864).  Fnglish 
translations  of  some  of  his  novels  appeared  in 
1870. 

FEVfai  (Lat.  febris^  probably  a  transposition 
for  ferbis^  from  fervere^  to  be  hot),  or  Pyrexia 
(Gr.  iripe^tc^  from  rrvpiaaeiVy  to  be  feverish,  de- 
rived from  irvp,  fire),  a  morbid  state  character- 
ized especially,  as  the  names  denote,  by  an  in- 
crease of  the  temperature  of  the  body,  generally 
together  with  acceleration  of  the  circulation, 
loss  of  appetite,  thirst,  muscular  debility,  men- 
tal weakness,  lassitude,  and  derangement  of 
the  functions  of  most  of  the  important  organs 
of  the  body.  The  significance  of  the  term 
fever  has  been  enhanccKi  of  late  by  the  use  of 
the  thermometer  placed  either  in  the  armpit 
or  within  some  one  of  the  outlets  of  the  body. 
The  thermometer  shows  morbid  increase  of  the 
heat  of  the  body  in  some  cases  when  this  is  not 
apparent  to  the  hand  placed  on  the  skin,  and 
when  the  patient  may  have  a  sensation  of 
coldness.  During  the  so-called  cold  stage  of 
an  intermittent  fever,  the  thermometer  shows 
the  heat  of  the  body  to  be  moderately  raised. 
Fever  may  be  said  to  exist  whenever  the  heat 
of  the  body  is  raised  above  the  maximum  of 
health,  namely,  about  99°  F.  Fever  is  distin- 
guished as  symptomatic  when  it  is  dependent 
upon  a  local  inflammation;  and  it  is  said  to 
be  idiopathic,  or  essential,  whenever  it  cannot 
be  attributed  to  any  local  cause.  A  symptom- 
atic fever,  as  implied  in  the  name,  is  only  a  symp- 
tom of  disease ;  it  does  not  constitute  per  se  the 
disease ;  but  an  idiopathic  or  essential  fever  is 
reckoned  as  a  disease.  In  the  classification  of 
diseases  there  are  numerous  fevers,  which  will 
be  separately  considered  under  the  title  Fe- 
vers, exceptmg  measles,  smallpox,  plague,  and 
a  few  others,  which  are  treated  under  their  own 
names.  In  both  symptomatic  and  idiopathic 
fever  the  increase  of  temperature  affords  not 
only  evidence  of  the  existence  of  the  febrile 
state,  but  a  criterion  of  its  intensity.    The  fever 


161 


FEVEK  BDSH 


is  intense,  in  proportion  to  the  increase  of  tlie 
heat  of  the  body,  as  determined  by  the  ther- 
mometer. The  range  of  the  morbid  rise  is 
from  OS"  to  110°,  Moreover,  the  teraperatnre 
both  in  symptomatic  fever  and  in  the  lerers  is 
a  criterion  of  the  immediate  danger  to  life. 
A  temperatare  above  lOG",  if  persiating,  always 
denotes  ^eat  gravity,  and  death  is  imminent 
if  the  temperature  remains  for  ooy  length  of 
time  above  that  point  The  increase  oiT  heat 
is  in  part  due  to  a  morbid  activity  in  the  mo- 
lecnlar  changes  incident  to  disintegration  of  tis- 
sue, bat  onr  existing  knowledge  does  not  enable 
the  pathoiof^st  to  give  a  full  explanation  of  tlie 
rationale  of  fever.  At  present  it  is  an  nnset- 
tled  pathological  question  to  what  extent  the 
increase  of  neat  is  causative  of  the  various 
morbid  phenomena  which  are  presented  in 
connection  with  symptomatio  and  essential 
fever.  This  question  is  important  as  bearing 
on  the  employment  of  drugs  and  other  mea- 
sures of  treatment  with  a  view  to  diniiu- 
ish  the  heat  of  the  body.  There  are  cer- 
tain remedies  which  from  their  effect  upon 
temperature  are  oalled  antipyretics;  such  are 
quinia  in  full  doses,  digitalis,  veratrum  tiri- 
ae,  &c.  The  moat  potent  measure  for  dimin- 
ishing temperature,  however,  is  the  employ- 
ment of  water  externally,  either  in  the  form  of 
the  shower  or  plunge  bath,  the  douche,  the  wet 
sheet,  or  by  sponging  the  surface  of  the  body. 
Drinking  ft'eely  of  cold  water  also  has  this 
effect.  Antipyretic  treatment  has  recently  en- 
tered more  largely  into  medical  practice  than 
formerly,  from  more  attention  having  been 
given  to  the  stndj  of  animal  heat  in  dl^erent 
diseases  by  means  of  the  thermometer. 

FETEK  BUSH  (bentoia  odt>riferum,  Nees),  a 
shrub  from  4  to  10  ft.  high,  with  long,  slender, 
and  brittle  branches,  common  in  the  northern 


PoTsr  Bub  (Bmioln  odoriferuznj. 

United  States,  and  remarkable  for  its  graceful 
form  and  large  handsome  leaves,  especially 
when  it  grows  upon  tlie  margin  of  some  cold, 


FEVERS 

swampy  place  in  the  deep  shade  of  woods. 

Here  it  produces  on  abundance  of  flowers  and 
fruit.  TTie  flowers  appear  in  April  or  May  in 
clusters  from  three  to  six  in  number,  are  of  a 
greenish  yellow  color,  and  come  out  where  the 
last  year's  leaves  were.  The  fmit  is  a  small, 
oval,  dark  red  or  purple  drupe,  in  bnnches  of 
two  to  five.  The  twigs  or  young  branches  are 
smooth  and  of  a  bright  green,  which  assnmea 
an  olive  tint  the  next  year,  and  afterward  a 
pearly  gray.  A  decoction  of  the  twigs  is  nsed 
to  alleviate  the  itching  from  poisoning  by  en- 
mach.  According  to  Dr.  Darlington,  it  is  also 
used  as  a  medicine  for  cattle  in  tlie  spriD^t. 
The  berries  have  a  pleasant,  spioy  tasto,  and 
have  sometimes  been  used  as  allspice. 

FETmS,  or  TjffUlK,  diseases  characterized 
by  a  morbid  increase  of  animal  heat  not  refer- 
able to  any  local  affection ;  that  is,  diseases  in 
which  the  febrile  Etat«  is  idiopathic  or  essen- 
tial. (See  Fevbb.)  A  fever  lasting  but  a 
single  day  in  some  oases,  or  continuing  for  a 
few  days  in  other  cases,  is  called  ephemeral 
fever  or  a  febrionla.  It  is  without  danger, 
as  a  rule,  and  calls  for  only  palliative  treat- 
ment. Exclusive  of  this  form  of  fever,  the  dif- 
ferent fevers  are  classified  as  follows:  1.  Fe- 
vers characterized  by  periodical  intcrmisaionB  or 
marked  remisaions.  This  class  is  distinguished 
as  periodical,  or,  from  their  causation,  malarial 
fevers.  Intermittent  fever  and  remittent  fever 
are  embraced  under  these  names,  and  yellow 
fever  is  generally  included  in  this  olaae.  2. 
Fevers  which,  in  contrast  with  the  foregoing, 
are  characterized  by  a  continnous  febrile  state, 
are  called  continued  fevers.  The  fevers  so 
classified  are  typhus  and  typhoid  fever,  relaps- 
ing fever,  and  erysipelatous  fever.  8.  Fevers 
in  which  an  eruption  on  Uie  skin  is  a  promi- 
nent and  a  pretty  constant  feature  are  div 
tingnished  as  eruptive  fevers,  namely,  small- 
pox, chicken  pox,  scarlet  fever,  and  measles. 
To  this  list  may  be  added  the  disease  known  as 
the  plague.  Other  diseases  which  are  essential- 
ly fevers  are  not  always  nosologically  so  clsasi- 
fled.  Examples  of  this  kind  are  insolation  or 
sunstroke,  cerebro-^inot  meningitis,  inflnenu, 
and  diphtheria.  I.  FebiodioalFkvkrs. — 1.  /n- 
Urmittent  and  Kemittent  Fevsr*.  The  period- 
ical fevers  of  malarial  origin  manifest  this  re- 
markable peculiarity:  Intermissions  or  remis- 
sions recur  at  regular  intervals,  following  a  liiw 
of  periodicity.  This  is  especially  marked  in  in- 
termittent fever,  called  also  fever  and  ague, 
chills  and  fever,  and  various  other  names.  This 
iawof  periodicity  varies,  giving  rise  to  what  are 
known  as  the  different  types  of  an  intermittent 
fever.  The  regular  or  simple  types  are  as  fol- 
lows :  a,  the  quotidian  type,  in  which  a  par- 
oxysm of  fever  recurs  on  each  successive  flay; 
b,  the  tertian  type,  in  which  the  paroxysms 
recur  on  every  other  or  every  third  day;  e, 
the  quartan  type,  in  which  two  days  elapse  be- 
tween the  paroxysms,  that  is,  in  which  they 
recur  on  the  fourth  day,  datmg  firom  the  com- 
mencement of  one  to  the  commencement  of 


FEVERS 


165 


the  next  paroxysm.  Compound  tjpes,  as  they 
are  termed,  are  the  doable  quotidiaD,  two  par- 
oxjsmB  occurring  daily ;  the  double  tertian,  a 
paroxysm  oecarring  daily,  the  paroxysms  dif- 
fering in  certain  respects  on  two  successive 
(lays,  but  corresponding  on  alternate  days ;  a 
doable  quartan,  in  which  a  paroxysm  occurs 
on  two  successive  days,  and  on  the  third  day 
there  is  no  paroxysm.  Extremely  rare  vari- 
eties of  type  are  a  quintan,  sextan,  heptan,  and 
octan;  these  names  expressing  the  length  of 
the  intervals.  The  £act8  thus  exemplifying  a 
law  of  periodicity  are,  with  our  existing  knowl- 
edge, inexplicable.  A  paroxysm  of  an  inter- 
mittent fever,  when  complete,  consists  of  three 
periods  or  stages,  called  generally  the  cold,  the 
Lot,  and  the  sweating  stage.  These  different 
stages  are  of  variable  duration,  the  length  of 
the  paroxysm  in  different  cases  varying  from 
three  to  eight  hours.  The  cold  stage  is  some- 
times characterized  by  shaking,  that  is,  mus- 
cular tremor  or  rigor,  and  sometimes  only  by  a 
sense  of  chilliness.  This  stage  is  sometimes 
wanting.  The  intensity  of  the  fever  varies 
much  in  different  cases  in  the  hot  stage,  and 
80  the  amount  and  continuance  of  the  sweating 
which  follows.  If  not  arrested  by  remedies, 
intermittent  fever  tends  to  continue  indefinite- 
ly, and  is  apt  to  induce  notable  ansdmia  or 
impoverishment  of  the  blood  (see  Ohlobosib), 
and  sometimes  general  dropsy.  Enlargement 
of  the  spleen  is  an  occasional  result  of  the 
disease.  There  are  certain  remedies  which 
possess  the  power  of  arresting  the  parox- 
ysms, and  these  remedies  are  therefore  called 
antiperiodics.  The  drugs  which  especially 
have  this  power  are  the  salts  of  quinia  or 
qainine.  (See  Oinohona.)  In  the  vast  ma- 
jority of  the  cases  of  intermittent  fever,  the 
disease  is  promptly  cured  by  quinine,  which, 
given  judiciously,  does  no  harm.  This  drug 
alw  has  a  prophylactic  power ;  that  is,  it  pre- 
vents the  occurrence  of  intermittent  fever,  and 
protects  against  relapses.  Other  remedies 
which  are  efficacious,  but  in  a  less  degree,  are 
salacine,  bebeerine,  ferrocyanide  of  iron  or 
Prossian  blue,  strychnia,  and  arsenic.  Remit- 
tent fever  is  also  often  controlled  by  quinia 
and  other  periodics. — ^In  general,  intermittent 
and  remittent  fevers  are  not  immediately 
dangerous  to  life,  even  if  they  be  allowed  to 
continue;  but  they  are  sometimes  attended 
Mith  great  danger,  and  they  may  cause  death 
within  a  few  hours.  In  these  cases  the 
disease  is  distinguished  as  pernicious  intermit- 
tent or  remittent  fever.  In  some  portions  of 
this  country  it  is  called  congestive  chill.  Pa- 
tients affected  with  this  fatal  fomt  may  fall 
quickly  into  unconsciousness  (coma),  from 
which  they  do  not  emerge;  some  cases  are 
characterized  by  delirium,  and  sometimes 
vomiting  and  purging  occur,  followed  by  a 
state  of  collapse  resembling  that  in  epidemic 
cholera.  Pernicious  intermittent  or  remittent 
fever  is  more  apt  to  occur  in  tropical  than 
in  cold  and  temperate  climates.    Cases  are 


more  likely  to  occur  at  certain  seasons  than  at 
others ;  and  whenever  their  occurrence  is  ob- 
served, it  is  immensely  important  to  arrest  the 
disease  in  every  instance  as  speedily  as  pos- 
sible, lest  succeeding  paroxysms  may  prove  to 
be  pernicious.  If  a  patient  pass  through  one 
paroxysm  in  which  the  symptoms  threatened 
danger,  the  treatment  which  succeeded  in  pre- 
venting another  paroxysm  may  be  the  means 
of  saving  life.  Quinine  should  be  given 
promptly  and  boldly  under  such  circumstances. 
— ^The  nature  of  the  special  cause  of  intermit- 
tent and  remittent  fever  is  unknown.  Wheth- 
er it  be  a  chemical  product  or  a  living  en- 
tity (animal  or  vegetable)  is  as  yet  a  question 
which  can  only  be  met  with  reasoning  and 
speculations.  The  cause  is  endemic  in  certain 
situations,  and  therefore  it  is  of  telluric  origin. 
It  is  more  likely  to  emanate  from  marshy  situ- 
ations than  from  those  in  which  the  soil  is 
dry,  and  hence  it  has  been  called  marsh  mhism. 
It  is  contained  in  the  lower  strata  of  the  at- 
mosphere, and  is  present  especially  between 
sunset  and  sunrise.  It  is  a  very  remarkable 
fact  that  the  special  cause  may  remain  for  a 
long  time  latent  in  the  system ;  patients  some- 
times do  not  experience  the  disease  until  many 
months  or  even  years  after  the  morbific  agent 
has  entered  the  body.  Persons  who  have 
had  periodical  fever  are  liable  during  many 
years  to  relapses,  without  any  fresh  exposure 
to  the  cause.  Remittent  fever  has  been  called 
bilious  remittent,  or  simply  bilious  fever ;  but 
there  is  no  ground  for  referring  the  pathology 
of  tliis  fever  especially  to  the  liver,  as  these 
names  would  imply. — Periodical  fever  may 
be  combined  with  continued  fever,  giving  rise 
to  a  hybrid  disease  which  of  late  years,  in  this 
country,  has  been  called  typho-nialarial  fever. 
The  view  generally  held  is  that  the  speciaf 
cause  of  periodical  fever,  as  well  as  the  special 
causes  of  all  the  essential  fevers,  produces  its 
morbid  manifestations  by  its  presence  and  the 
changes  which  it  occasions  in  the  blood.  The 
blood  changes  have  been  supposed  to  be  analo- 
gous to  those  in  fermentation,  or  those  which 
are  chemically  called  catalytic.  The  name 
zymotic  (Gr.  CV^,  leaven)  is  based  on  this 
hypothesis.  The  diseases  which  are  supposed 
to  involve  fermentation  or  catalytic  changes  in 
the  blood  have  been  nosologically  distinguished 
as  zymotic  diseases.  Many  cogent  considera- 
tions render  it  probable  that  the  special  causes 
of  different  fevers  are  living  germs  or  entities, 
but  their  existence  has  not  as  yet  been  satis- 
factorily demonstrated. — 2.  Yellow  Fever,  This, 
although  included  in  the  class  of  fevers  cabled 
periodical,  differs  essentially  from  intermittent 
and  remittent  fever,  and  is  a  distinct  species. 
It  has  doubtless  its  own  special  cause,  that  is, 
a  cause  peculiar  to  this  fever.  The  disease 
prevails  only  in  certain  portions  of  the  globe, 
and  is  rare  in  any  but  tropical  or  sub-tropical 
regions.  As  a  rule,  in  these  regions  it  is  rarely 
prevalent  in  the  colder  montids  of  the  year. 
The  yellow  fever  zone,  as  it  is  termed,  is  be- 


166 


FEVERS 


tween  lat.  20°  S.  and  40°  K  The  disease  pre- 
vails more  in  the  eastern  than  in  the  western 
hemisphere,  and  in  certain  parts  of  Europe  and 
America  more  than  in  Africa.  In  the  western 
world  it  occurs  especially  in  the  commercial 
towns  on  the  Atlantic  coast  south  of  Charles- 
ton, on  the  gulf  of  Mexico,  and  in  the  West 
India  islands.  In  some  seasons  it  prevails 
either  as  an  endemic  or  an  epidemic,  and  is 
largely  destructive  of  human  life.  The  mor- 
tality varies  much  in  different  seasons,  the 
variation  ranging  from  10  to  75  per  cent.  The 
question  as  to  its  contagiousness  has  been  here- 
tofore much  mooted,  but  at  the  present  time 
comparatively  few  physicians  regard  it  as  com- 
municable. The  special  cause,  however,  may 
be  transported  by  means  of  infected  vessels  and 
merchandise,  and  in  this  way  the  disease  is 
liable  to  be  imported.  Hence  the  disinfection 
of  vessels  coming  from  ports  where  the  disease 
prev&ils,  together  with  certain  quarantine  re- 
strictions, are  important  The  nature  of  the 
special  cause  of  this,  as  of  others  of  the  essential 
fevers,  is  unknown,  but  the  germ  theory  is 
perhaps  the  most  consistent  with  known  facts 
relating  to  the  history  of  epidemics.  Facts 
show  that  the  prevalence  of  the  disease  in  situ- 
ations where  it  is  indigenous,  and  also  where 
it  has  been  imported,  is  much  promoted  by 
auxiliary  causes,  such  as  overcrowding,  defec- 
tive drainage  or  sewerage,  filtb,  and  other  cir- 
cumstances affecting  unfavorably  public  health. 
The  special  cause  is  destroyed  by  a  temperature 
of  32^  F.  Irrespective  of  the  killing  effect  of 
frost,  epidemics  appear  to  have  a  self-limited 
duration,  averaging  a  little  under  60  days. 
Acclimation  protects  against  the  disease,  the 
natives  of  yellow  fever  localities,  and  those 
who  have  been  long  resident  therein,  being 
rarely  attacked,  although  they  have  never  ex- 
perienced it;  and  this  is  one  of  the  diseases 
which,  as  a  rule,  are  experienced  but  once  in  a 
lifetime,  being  in  this  respect  in  striking  con- 
trast to  intermittent  and  remittent  fever.  In 
places  whore  the  disease  is  indigenous,  it  is 
common  for  it  to  occur  sporadically  during  the 
hot  seasons ;  that  is,  cases  occur,  but  not  in  a 
sufficient  number  to  constitute  an  endemic ;  and 
when  persons  receive  into  the  system  the  spe- 
cial cause  in  a  place  where  the  disease  prevails, 
and  going  to  another  place  experience  in  the 
latter  the  disease,  as  a  rule  it  is  not  dissemi- 
nated. These  facts  show  that  the  special  cause 
is  not  generated  within  the  bodies  of  those  af- 
fected.— Yellow  fever  generally  is  abrupt  in  its 
attack;  that  is,  it  is  preceded  by  few  or  no 
premonitions  as  a  rule.  It  commences  with  a 
chill,  which  is  often  not  of  marked  intensity. 
The  fever  varies  in  its  intensity  in  different 
cases,  as  denoted  by  the  temperature,  the  pulse, 
and  other  symptoms.  Pain  in  the  loins  and 
limbs  is  usually  a  prominent  symptom.  The 
fever  continues  for  a  period  ranging  in  different 
cases  from  a  few  hours  to  three  days,  when  it 
either  subsides  notably  or  entirely  ceases.  In 
mild  cases  convalescence  now  ensues;  and  in 


a  certain  proportion  of  cases  the  disease  is 
mild,  and  not  always  easily  discriminated  from 
an  ephemeral  fever  or  a  febricula.  In  grave 
cases  the  symptoms  which  especially  denote 
gravity  occur  after  this  paroxysm  of  fever. 
Among  these  symptoms  is  yellowness  of  the 
skin,  or  Jaundice,  whence  the  name  yellow 
fever.  This,  however,  does  not  occur  in  all 
cases,  being  absent  in  very  mild  attacks.  It 
denotes  a  certain  measure  of  gravity,  but  is  by 
no  means  a  fatal  omen.  A  much  graver  symp- 
tom is  the  vomiting  of  blood,  or,  as  it  is  called, 
the  black  vomit.  Cases  very  rarely  end  favor- 
ably when  this  symptom  occurs.  Haemorrhage 
in  other  situations,  namely,  the  bowels,  blad- 
der, nose,  eyes,  and  wounds  which  may  exist 
on  the  skin,  is  an  event  denoting  danger  in 
proportion  to  the  loss  of  blood.  Suppression 
of  urine  occurs  in  some  cases ;  and  convulsions 
with  coma,  which  sometimes  occur,  are  prob- 
ably caused  by  the  retention  in  the  blood  of 
the  excrementitious  principles  of  the  urine. 
The  mode  of  death  is  generally  by  exhaustion. 
The  muscular  strength  in  some  instances  is 
preserved  in  a  remarkable  degree,  patients  not 
taking  to  the  bed  and  sometimes  continuing  their 
avocations  until  shortly  before  death.  These 
have  been  called  *^  walking  cases.^^  The  dura- 
tion of  the  disease  in  fatal  cases  ranges  from  three 
to  nine  days,  the  average  being  less  than  a  week. 
— The  treatment  does  not  embrace  any  specially 
curative  remedies.  Quinia  and  mercury  have 
been  considered  as  exerting  a  controlling  in- 
fluence over  the  disease,  but  at  the  present 
time  no  one  attributes  such  a  power  to  these 
remedies.  Complete  rest  is  highly  important. 
Opiates  and  other  anodyne  remedies  are  in- 
dicated if  there  be  great  restlessness.  All  per- 
tnrbatory  and  debilitating  medication  is  inju- 
rious. Diaphoretic  remedies  are  considered 
usefhl.  Alcoholic  stimulants  are  to  be  given,  if 
tolerated,  in  proportion  as  the  symptoms  denote 
exhaustion.  There  is  reason  to  believe  that 
lives  are  sometimes  saved  by  the  free  use  of 
wine  or  spirits.  Remedies  to  palliate  vomiting, 
and  to  avert  hcemorrhage  if  this  occurs,  enter 
into  the  treatment  II.  Continued  Fevkks. 
— 8.  Typhtu  Fever,  Of  the  fevers  distinguished 
as  continued,  typhus  and  typhoid  were  former- 
ly considered  identical ;  but  the  researches  of 
Louis  and  later  observers  have  established  their 
non-identity.  They  are  distinct  species  of  fe- 
ver, and  not  merely  different  varieties  of  one 
disease.  The  name  typhus  (Gr.  rt)^oc,  stupor) 
has  reference  to  the  stupor  which  is  a  marked 
feature  in  the  minority  of  the  cases  of  the  fe- 
ver so  called.  It  was  applied  to  the  disease  in 
1759  by  Sauvages.  In  this  country  the  disease 
has  been  known  as  ship  fever  from  the  fact 
that  it  Is  imported  in  emigrant  vessels.  It 
prevails  especially  in  Ireland.  It  has  ^so  been 
called  jail  fever,  camp  fever,  petechial  fever, 
&c.  It  is  a  contagious  disease,  being  com- 
municated by  an  impalpable  emanation  IVom 
the  bodies  of  those  affected  with  it ;  that  is, 
by  an  infectious  miasm,  the  nature  of  which  is 


FEVERS 


167 


not  known.    The  extent  of  its  difilbsion,  or 
what  is  termed  the  infecting  distance,  is  not 
great,  and  it  is  rarely  that  the  contagion  is 
transported  by  means  of  clothing  or  other  sub- 
stances to  which  it  adheres;  that  is,  by  fo> 
mites.    In  general,  it  is  necessary  that  the 
miasm  be  concentrated,  as  when  the  emana- 
tions from  a  number  of  patients  accumulate 
in  hospital   wards,    or    when    the  room  in 
which  a  single  patient  is  treated  is  small  and 
ill  yentilated,  for  the  disease  to  be  communi- 
cated, excepting  to  those  who  may  be  brought 
into  close  and .  continued  contact  with  cases. 
Among  nurses  and   physicians  in  the  fever 
wards  of  a  hospital,  a  considerable  proportion 
contract  the  disease.    A  single  case  in  a  hos- 
pital ward  may  communicate  the  disease  to 
patients  lying  in  close  proximity.    It  is  prob- 
able that  the  special  cause  is  sometimes  gene- 
rated in  the  concentrated  emanations  from  the 
bodies  of  healthy  persons  congregated  in  over- 
crowded and   imperfectly    ventilated   apart- 
ments, as  in  jails,  camps,  almshouses,   and 
crowded  ships. — In  typhus,  as  in  other  fevers, 
the  intensity  of  the  febrile  condition  is  denoted 
especially  by  the  temperature  of  the  body,  the 
range  in  different  oases  varying  from  lOi®  to 
107  F.    The  temperature  in  the  evening,  as  a 
rale,  is  somewhat  higher  than  that  of  the  morn- 
ing; and  approaching  convalescence  is  often 
fix^  denoted  by  a  fall  of  temperature.    The 
frequency  of  the  pulse  is  also  a  good  criterion 
of  die  severity  of  the  disease.    In  most  cases 
there  is  marked  stupor  throughout  its  course. 
The  patient  often  lies  in  apparent  sonmolen- 
cj,  and  when  aroused  the  countenance  has  a 
stopid,  besotted  expression.    The  face  has  a 
dusky  hue,  from  the  retardation  of  the  circu- 
lation through  the  capillary  vessels.    A  low 
muttering  delirium  is  frequent,  patients  often 
attempting  to  get  out  of  bed  from  some  tran- 
sient delusion,  but  being  easily  induced  for  the 
moment  to  refrain  from  the  attempt.    Active 
delirium  requiring  forcible   restraint  is  rare. 
The  tongue  is  often  covered  with  a  thick  brown 
or  black  coating,  and,  if  not  prevented  by  the 
removal  of  the  accumulations  on  the  teeth  and 
lips,  these  become  covered  with   a  dark  or 
black  material  called  9orde9.    Tremor  of  the 
muscles  of  the  extremities,  called  subsultuB 
Undinunij  occurs  in  severe  cases.    The  bowels 
are  usually  constipated.    8 welling  and  suppu- 
ration of  tlie  parotid  glands  occasionally  occur. 
In  the  great  majority  of  oases  there  is  an 
eruption  on  the  skin,  the  character  of  which 
serves  to  distinguish  this  fever.    It  appears 
generally  on  the  third  day  after  the  patient 
takes  to  the  bed.    The  distinctive  characters 
are  as  follows :  It  is  maculated,  that  is,  consists 
of  spots,  not  elevated  above  the  surface  of  the 
skin,  of  a  dark  or  dusky  color,  and  not  readily 
obliterated  by  pressure  with  the  finger.    They 
coDtinne  throughout  the  disease,  and  are  per- 
ceptible after  death.    Frequentiy  the  body  and 
limbs  are  thickly  studded  with  them,  but  in 
some  cases  they  are  few  in  number  and  limited 


to  the  trunk.  This  fever  differs  from  the  ma- 
larial fevers  (intermittent  and  remittent)  in 
being  a  self-limited  disease.  The  length  of  its 
course  varies  between  8  and  20  days^  the  mean 
duration  being  about  14  days.  The  mortality 
varies  considerably  at  different  times  and 
places,  the  range  of  variation  being  from  9  to 
25  per  cent ;  tiie  average  mortality  is  as  1  to 
6  or  6.  The  death  rate  differs  according  to 
the  age  of  patients;  it  is  least  between  10  and 
20  years,  increases  progressively  after  the  age 
of  80,  and  the  proportion  of  fatsJ  cases  is  about 
one  half  after  50  years  of  age.  A  fatal  termi- 
nation is  sometimes  attributable  to  an  impor- 
tant complication,  as  for  example  pneumonia ; 
and  it  may  be  due  to  an  antecedent  disease, 
such  as  some  affection  of  the  kidneys.  In  gen- 
eral, the  mode  of  dying  is  by  exhaustion  or  as- 
thenia.— 4.  Typhoid  Fever.  Although  this  has 
many  symptoms  in  common  with  typhys,  it 
differs  in  essential  points.  The  name  signifies 
resemblance  to  typhus.  Owing  to  the  existence 
of  a  characteristic  affection  of  the  intestines,  it 
is  called  by  German  writers  abdominal  typhus, 
and  by  English  and  American  writers,  for  the 
same  reason,  enteric  fever.  This  characteristic 
intestinal  affection  is  one  of  the  essential  points 
of  distinction  between  typhoid  and  typhus  fe- 
ver. The  affection  is  seated  in  the  Peyerian 
and  solitary  glands  of  the  small  intestine. 
These  glandular  sacs  become  enlarged  by  mor- 
bid growth,  softening  ensues,  and  at  length 
they  exfoliate  or  slough  away,  leaving  ulcera- 
tions in  the  spaces  they  occupied.  Perfora- 
tion of  the  intestines  is  an  accident  which  some- 
times occurs,  the  contents  of  the  intestinal  ca- 
nal escaping  into  the  peritoneal  cavity;  perito- 
nitis follows  as  a  result,  terminating  almost 
always  in  death.  '^Another  occasional  event  is 
hffimorrh age  from  the  ulcers.  This  is  sometimes 
profuse,  and  may  be  the  cause  of  a  fatal  termi- 
nation; but  in  the  migority  of  the  cases  in 
which  this  accident  occurs  recovery  takes 
place.  The  mesenteric  glands  which  are  in  im- 
mediate relation  to  the  Peyerian  and  solitary 
glands  become  considerably  enlarged.  If  re- 
covery from  this  fever  takes  place,  the  enlarge- 
ment of  these  glands  gradually  disappears,  and 
the  intestinal  ulcerations  become  cicatrized. 
The  spleen  is  also  constantlv  more  or  less  en- 
larged and  softened  in  typhoid  fever.  These 
morbid  changes  constitute  what  are  called  the 
anatomical  characteristics  of  this  disease ;  they 
are  wanting  in  typhus  fever.  Typhoid  fever  is 
undoubtedly  communicable;  yet  it  is  rarely 
communicated  to  those  who  are  brought  into 
contact  with  cases  of  it,  namely,  physicians, 
nurses,  and  fellow  patients  in  hospital  wards ; 
and  it  occurs  when  it  is  quite  impossible  to  at- 
tribute it  to  a  contagium.  Hence,  this  is  a  dis- 
ease which,  although  produced  in  a  certain 
proportion  of  cases  irrespective  of  either  a 
virus  or  an  infectious  miasm,  may  yet  generate 
either  one  or  both  of  these  forms  of  conta- 
gious material.  Facts  go  to  show  strongly  that 
the  contagium  is  contained  in  the  intestinal 


168 


FEVERS 


evacuations,  and  that  the  disease  may  be  dif- 
fused by  means  of  drinking  water  into  which 
excrement  in  ever  so  small  quantities  has  found 
access.  Outbreaks  of  this  fever  have  been  re- 
peatedly traced  to  defective  waste  pipes  and 
obstructed  drains  or  sewers.  This  fever  is  not 
restricted  in  its  prevalence  to  any  particular 
sections,  but  it  is  indigenous  in  every  quarter 
of  the  globe.  All  ages  are  not  alike  liable  to 
it.  It  is  rare  in  infancy,  but  not  very  unfre- 
quent  in  childhood,  and  occurs  very  rarely 
after  the  age  of  60  years.  It  is  more  apt  to 
prevail  in  the  autumnal  months  than  at  other 
seasons.  It  was  observed  by  Louis  that  in 
Paris  persons  who  had  resided  there  but  a 
short  time  were  more  likely  to  be  affected  than 
native  or  older  residents,  and  this  has  been 
observed  in  other  cities. — ^In  most  cases  typhoid 
fever  is  developed  gradually.  The  average  pe- 
riod from  the  first  evidence  of  illness  to  the 
time  of  taking  to  the  bed  is  about  five  days. 
The  early  symptoms  are  chilly  sensations,  pain 
in  tlie  head,  loins,  and  limbs,  lassitude,  and 
looseness  of  the  bowels.  Bleeding  from  the 
nose  is  of  frequent  occurrence.  During  the 
course  of  the  fever  stupor,  as  in  cases  of  typhus, 
is  more  or  less  nuirked.  Low  muttering  delir- 
ium is  common,  and  in  severe  cases  ntbtulttu 
tendinum.  The  symptoms  which  are  espe- 
cially distinctive,  as  contrasted  with  typhus  fe- 
ver, are  those  referable  to  the  intestinal  affec- 
tion, namely,  diarrhoea,  flatulent  distention  of 
the  abdomen,  tenderness  in  the  iliac  regions, 
and  a  sound  of  gui*gling  when  pressure  is  made 
in  these  regions.  These  are  known  as  the  ab- 
dominal symptoms  of  typhoid  fever.  In  the 
migority  of  cases  there  is  a  characteristic  erup- 
tion, usually  confined  to  the  trunk,  but  some- 
times extending  to  the  limbs.  The  eruption, 
however,  is  rarely  abundant,  differing  in  this 
respect  from  that  of  typhus.  It  also  differs 
in  character,  that  of  typhoid  fever  being  pap- 
ular (pimples,  not  spots) ;  the  color  is  rose 
red  (hence  called  the  rose  papules) ;  the  red- 
ness disappears  momentarily  on  pressure  with 
the  finger ;  the  papules  are  not  persistent,  but 
come  and  go  throughout  the  disease,  and  all 
appearance  of  the  eruption  disappears  after 
death.  The  eruption  appears  later  than  in  ty- 
phus, not  being  discoverable  until  about  the 
seventh  day  from  the  time  the  patient  takes 
to  the  bed.  The  duration  of  the  fever  is  lon- 
ger than  that  of  typhus,  the  average,  dating 
from  the  time  of  taking  to  the  bed,  being  about 
16  days  in  the  cases  which  end  in  recovery ; 
it  is  somewhat  less  in  fatal  cases.  In  some 
cases  the  divation  is  greatly  protracted,  and 
may  extend  to  60  days.  Relapses  sometimes 
occur,  the  patient  during  convalescence  or 
shortly  after  recovery  being  again  seized  and 
passing  through  a  second  course  of  the  fever. 
These  second  attacks  rarely  prove  fatal.  Con- 
valescence is  preceded  by  a  decline  in  the  tem- 
perature of  the  body  (called  defet-vescence) ; 
and  frequently  before  a  persistent  reduction 
there  are  notable  variations,  as  shown  by  the 


thermometer,  between  the  morning  and  even- 
ing temperature.  The  average  mortality  is 
about  the  same  as  that  from  typhus,  1  to  5  or 
6 ;  the  rate  varies  much,  however,  at  different 
times  and  places.  Generally  death  is  attribu- 
table to  accidents,  such  as  perforation  of  the 
intestine  and  heemorrhage;  to  complications, 
as  for  example  pneumonia;  or  to  the  existence 
of  antecedent  disease. — ^The  general  princioles 
of  treatment  are  the  same  in  cases  of  typnos 
and  typhoid  fever.  It  is  doubtful  if  the  cause 
of  these  diseases  be  ever  arrested,  but  thej 
appear  sometimes  to  end  prenoi^turely ;  abort, 
as  it  were,  spontaneously.  It  may  be  said,  at 
all  events,  that  there  are  no  known  measares 
which  can  be  relied  upon  for  cutting  short 
their  course.  The  great  object,  therefore,  is  to 
aid  in  bringing  them  to  a  termination  in  recov- 
ery. The  mineral  acids  have  been  found  to  di- 
minish the  rate  of  mortality.  The  use  of  cold 
water,  by  means  of  the  bath,  the  wet  pack, 
and  sponging  the  surface,  not  only  affords  re- 
lief by  the  abstraction  of  heat,  but  clinical 
observation  has  shown  that  it  conduces  to  re- 
covery. Supporting  the  powers  of  life  by  a 
proper  alimentation,  and  resorting  to  alcoholic 
stimulants  when  these  powers  begin  to  fail,  con- 
stitute essential  measures  of  treatment.  Milk  is 
preeminently  the  appropriate  article  of  diet,  and 
alcoholic  stimulants  are  sometimes  tolerated 
in  very  large  (quantities  without  any  of  the  ex- 
citant or  intoxicating  effects  which  they  wonld 
produce  in  health.  There  is  reason  to  believe 
that  lives  are  sometimes  saved  by  the  very  free 
use  of  alcoholic  stimulants,  but  it  is  important 
always  to  be  governed  in  their  use  by  the  indi- 
cations afforded  by  the  symptoms.  Favorable 
hygienic  conditions  are  important,  such  as  free 
ventilation,  a  proper  temperature,  and  cleanli- 
ness. The  benefit  of  an  abundsnce  of  pure  air 
is  illustrated  by  the  success  with  which  these 
fevers  have  been  treated  in  tents.  In  addition 
to  the  general  principles  of  treatment,  particu- 
lar symptoms  and  events  claim,  of  course,  ap- 
propriate therapeutic  measures. — As  already 
stated  in  the  account  of  periodical  fevers,  the 
special  cause  of  these  (malaria)  may  act  in 
conjunction  with  the  special  cause  of  typhoid 
fever,  giving  rise  to  a  combination  o(  the  symp- 
toms of  both  kinds  of  fever,  the  disease  be- 
ing then  known  as  typho-malarial  fever.  In 
cases  of  this  compound  fever  tlie  indications 
for  treatment  relate  to  the  twofold  causation. 
— 6.  Spotted  Fever.  This  name  was  given  to  a 
fever  which  prevailed  in  Few  England,  New 
York,  and  Pennsylvania  from  1807  to  1816. 
It  was  considered  at  that  time  to  be  a  form 
of  typhus  fever,  and  was  called  also  typhus 
peteehialU,  typhus  eyneopalUj  and  typhvs  gra- 
fdor.  The  name  has  recently  by  some  writers 
been  applied  to  the  disease  generally  known 
as  cerebro-spinal  meningitis,  or  cerebro-spi- 
nal  fever  (see  Brain,  Dissabbs  of  the),  tne 
opinion  being  held  that  the  latter  disease  is 
the  same  as  that  to  which  the  name  was  for- 
merly given.    The  reason  for  the  name  is  Uio 


FEVERS 


169 


occarrence,  during  the  progress  of  the  disease, 
of  dark  or  purple  spots  which  are  caused  by 
small  extravasations  of  blood  in  the  skin.  As 
these  spots  (peieekuB)  occur  in  onlj  a  certain 
proportion  of  cases,  and  are  present  in  other 
affections,  the  name  spotted  fever  is  not  ap* 
propriate.  Differences  of  opinion  as  to  the 
nature  and  proper  treatment  of  the  disease 
first  mentioned  gave  rise  to  a  violent  con- 
troversy, in  reference  to  which  see  the  fol- 
lowing publications:  Miner  and  Tully^s  ^*  Es- 
says on  Fever  and  other  Subjects'^  (1828); 
Miner,  **  Typhus  Synoopalis"  (1825);  North 
and  Strong  on  "Spotted  Fever;"  report  of 
a  committee  of  the  Massachusetts  medical  so- 
ciety in  its  "  Transactions,"  vol.  ii. ;  Gallup 
on  the  "  Epidemics  of  Vermont ;"  and  Hale 
on  the  "  Spotted  Fever  in  Gardiner." — 6.  R^ 
lapnng  Fevep.  Another  of  the  continued  fe* 
vers,  now  known  by  this  name,  has  prevailed 
At  different  times  in  England,  Ireland,  and 
Scotland,  but  is  rare  on  the  continent  of  Eu- 
rope. It  prevailed  among  the  English  and 
French  troops  in  the  Crimea  during  the  war 
with  Rusna.  In  this  country  it  never  prevailed 
to  any  extent  prior  to  the  winter  of  1869-70, 
dormg  which  and  the  following  summer  it  ex- 
isted as  an  epidemic  in  New  York  and  other 
large  cities.  The  disease  was  evidently  im- 
ported by  foreign  immigrants.  It  is  undoubt- 
edly a  contagious  disease,  but  not  highly  so ; 
considerable  exposure  seems  to  be  required. 
The  infecting  distance  is  restricted  to  a  hmited 
area,  and  it  is  not  certain  that  the  contagimn 
is  transported  by  means  of  fomites.  The 
prevalence  of  the  disease  is  aided  much  by 
cooperating  causes,  namely,  destitution,  depri- 
vation, and  deficient  alimentation.  From  the 
apparent  influence  of  the  latter,  the  disease 
has  been  called  "  famine  fever  "  and  ^^  hun- 
ger pest"  It  is  developed  abruptly,  and  usu- 
allj  commences  with  a  well  pronounced  chiH, 
which  is  at  once  followed  by  more  or  less  in- 
crease of  the  heat  of  the  body,  with  frequency 
of  the  pulse,  and  the  usual  concomitants  of 
the  febrile  state.  Frequently  the  patient  per- 
spires freely  soon  after  the  commencement  of 
the  fever.  In  most  cases  the  fever  is  intense, 
the  thermometer  in  the  armpit  showing  a  tem- 
perature frequently  from  108^  to  106°,  con- 
tinning  with  but  little  fluctuation  until  the 
paroxysm  ends ;  that  is,  for  a  period  varying, 
in  the  great  migority  of  cases,  from  five  to 
seven  days.  Exceptionally  the  duration  of 
this  paroxysm  is  as  .brief  as  two,  or  as  long 
as  twelve,  days.  The  febrile  state  subsides 
abruptly  at  the  end  of  the  paroxysm,  when 
the  temperature,  together  with  the  pulse,  some- 
times falls  below  the  standard  of  health,  re- 
turning to  this  standard  after  a  day  or  two. 
The  patient  remains  free  from  fever  for  a 
period  varying  from  two  to  twelve  days,  the 
Average  duration  being  about  seven  days. 
Then  occurs  another  paroxysm  of  fever,  the 
Uitensity  of  which  is  sometimes  greater  and 
sometimes  less  than  that  of  the  primary  one. 


This  relating  paroxysm  varies  usually  from 
three  to  five  days,  exceptionally  lasting  only  a 
single  day,  or  extending  even  to  ten  days.  The 
relapse  is  occasionally  wanting,  and  in  rare 
cases  a  third,  a  fourth,  or  even  a  fifth  relapse 
has  been  observed.  During  the  paroxysm  nau- 
sea and  vomiting  are  apt  to  be  more  or  less 
prominent  as  symptoms.  Sometimes  blood  is 
vomited,  and  hence,  among  a  variety  of  names, 
the  disease  has  heretofore  been  called  mild 
yellow  fever.  Jaundice  occurs  in  a  small  pro- 
portion of  cases.  Pain  in  the  Joints  and  in 
the  muscles  of  the  loins  and  limbs  is  usuaUy  a 
marked  feature  of  this  fever.  Delirium  rarely 
occurs.  There  is  no  characteristic  eruption. 
Important  complications  are  of  very  nnfrequent 
occurrence.  The  mortality  from  this  disease 
is  slight,  varying  in  different  collections  of 
oases  from  2  to  4  per  cent.  In  the  fatal  cases 
the  death  is  sometimes  due  to  complications  or 
antecedent  diseases;  but  instances  of  sudden 
death  from  syncope  have  been  repeatedly  ob- 
served, and  also  from  coma  and  convulsions 
following  suppression  of  the  urine.  Persons 
who  have  experienced  the  disease  are  not  ex- 
empt from  subsequent  attacks.  The  fever  can- 
not be  cut  short  by  any  known  means.  The 
first  consideration  in  the  treatment  is  the  tem- 
perature. Relief  is  obtained  by  the  direct  ab- 
straction of  heat  through  baths,  the  wet  pack 
or  sponging,  and  by  antipyretic  remedies.  The 
palliation  of  the  muscular  and  arthritic  pain  is 
the  next  object  of  treatment,  requiring  the  use 
of  opiates.  Further  indications  relate  to  the 
kidneys,  if  their  action  be  deficient,  and  to  ali- 
mentation. The  dietetic  management,  espe- 
cially when  the  patient  has  been  insufSciently 
nourished,  is  highly  important ;  and,  as  in  the 
treatment  of  other  fevers,  milk  should  consti- 
tute the  basis  of  the  diet — 7.  Bpidemie  Ery- 
HpeUu,  A  fever  called  epidemic  erysipelatous 
fever,  or  epidemic  erysipelas,  and  popularly 
known  in  some  parts  of  the  country  by  the 
name  of  black  tongue,  prevailed  extensively 
in  the  New  England  and  the  middle,  west- 
em,  and  Bouthem  states,  from  1841  to 
1846.  Erysipelas  often  occurred  during  the 
course  of  the  disease,  but  not  in  the  migority 
of  cases;  it  appeared  in  difiTerent  situations, 
was  more  or  less  extensive,  and  was  apt  to  lead 
to  suppuration,  gangrene,  and  sloughing.  In- 
fiammation  of  the  tnroat  (pharyngitis)  was  a 
very  constant  local  affection.  The  disease  was 
not  unfrequently  complicated  with  inflamma- 
tion of  serous  membranes  (pleuritis,  peritonitis, 
and  meningitis),  and  with  pneumonia.  Sup- 
puration of  the  glands  of  the  neck  was  not 
uncommon.  The  mortality  was  large,  owing 
to  the  complications  just  named.  Laryngitis 
and  oedema  of  the  glottis  were  other  complica- 
tions leading  to  a  fatal  result.  Irrespective  of 
the  danger  connected  with  the  local  affections, 
the  disease  was  mild,  running  its  course  in  ^ye 
or  six  days.  Bleeding  and  other  so-called 
antiphlogistic  measures  of  treatment  appeared 
to  be  hurtfuL    Tonic  and  supporting  measures 


170 


FEVERS 


fulfilled  better  the  therapeiitical  indicatioiiB. 
It  was  observed  that  in  places  where  the  dis- 
ease prevailed  oases  of  puerperal  fever  were 
also  prevalent.  It  was  the  general  opinion 
among  physicians  that  the  fever  was  commu- 
nicable.— A  fever  accompanied  by  pharyngi- 
tis or  inflammation  of  the  throat  prevailed  in 
the  winter  and  spring  of  1857  in  the  western 
part  of  the  state  of  New  York,  in  the  adjacent 
parts  of  Pennsylvania,  and  in  Canada.  Its 
nsual  duration  was  from  three  to  six  days,  and 
it  terminated  uniformly  in  recovery.  A  simi- 
lar fever  prevailed  in  1866  among  the  United 
States  troops  stationed  at  Hart^s  island,  in  Long 
Island  sound.  It  is  probable  that  this  fever 
has  occurred  at  other  times  and  places  with- 
out having  been  described  by  medical  writers. 
The  disease  as  yet  has  no  name.  It  differs 
from  acute  pharyngitis  in  that  it  is  manifestly 
an  essential  fever;  that  is,  the  febrile  state  is 
not  symptomatic  of  the  local  affection,  but  the 
latter  is  secondary  to  or  a  complication  of  the 
fever.  It  is  analogous  to  the  epidemic  erysipel- 
atous fever  in  the  constancy  of  the  pharyngeal 
affection.  III.  Ebuptivb  Fevers. — 8.  Scarlet 
Feter,  or  Scarlatina,  This  is  distinguished 
from  other  eruptive  fevers  by  the  fact  of  the 
eruption  being  an  exanthema,  an  efflorescence, 
or  a  rash,  these  terms  not  being  strictly  ap- 
plicable to  vesicles  and  pustules.  The  disease 
sometimes  commences  with  a  chill,  and  in 
most  cases  vomiting  is  a  primary  symptom,  es- 
pecially in  children.  The  fever  which  at  once 
occurs  is  usually  intense,  the  axillary  tempera- 
ture often  rising  to  105°,  or  even  higher.  The 
pulse  in  general  is  correspondingly  frequent. 
The  surface  of  the  body  often  gives  to. the 
touch  a  burning  sensation.  The  rash  appears 
in  about  24  hours  after  the  date  of  the  invasion, 
and  with  very  few  exceptions  breaks  out  first 
on  the  face  and  neck,  being  diffused  over  the 
body  in  the  course  of  24  hours.  The  color 
of  the  rash  is  scarlet,  whence  the  name.  The 
rash  in  some  cases  is  equally  diffused  over  the 
whole  skin,  giving  rise  to  an  appearance  like 
that  of  a  boiled  lobster.  In  other  cases  it 
is  limited  to  patches  varying  in  number  and 
size,  with  irregular  or  serrated  margins.  The 
skin  is  somewhat  swollen,  and  the  rash  oc- 
casions a  burning  sensation,  with  in  some  cases 
intense  itching.  Very  generally  the  erup- 
tion takes  ]>lace  in  the  diroat,  more  or  less 
redness  being  apparent  here,  simultaneously 
with  or  before  the  appearance  of  the  rash  on 
the  skin.  Generally  with  the  reaness  there  is 
more  or  less  swelling  of  the  tonsils.  Some 
cases  are  characterized  by  severe  inflammation 
of  the  throat,  accompanied  by  either  an  ash- 
colored  product  or  an  exudation  resembling 
that  which  takes  place  in  diphtheria ;  and  with 
this  affection  of  the  throat  the  glands  of  the 
neck  become  inflamed  and  sometimes  suppu- 
rate. When  the  throat  affection  is  severe  the 
disease  has  been  called  scarlatina  anginosa. 
The  inflammation  in  some  rare  cases  extends 
from  the  throat  into  the  middle  ear,  giving  rise 


to  perforation  of  the  tympanum,  with  perhaps 
loss  of  the  ossicles,  and  resulting  in  more  or 
less  impairment  of  the  sense  of  hearing.  The 
cutaneous  eruption  continues  from  four  to  "six 
days.  Then  follows  the  stage  of  desquamation. 
The  cuticle  generally  in  this  stage  exfoliates, 
and  is  separated  either  in  the  form  of  branny 
scales,  or  in  large  flakes  or  patches.  In  some 
instances  the  cuticle  of  the  hands  is  separated 
intact,  and  may  be  stripped  off  like  a  glove. 
The  itching  in  this  stage  is  sometimes  extreme- 
ly annoying.  In  favorable  cases  the  duration 
of  this  stage  may  be  reckoned  to  be  five  or  six 
days,  when  convalescence  is  established.  Fre- 
quently, however,  this  stage  is  much  protract- 
ed. Aside  from  variations  in  respect  of  gravity 
and  danger  incident  to  the  throat  alt'ection, 
scarlet  fever  differs  greatly  in  the  intensity  of 
the  fever  and  constitutional  syntptoms.  The 
disease  in  a  certain  proportion  of  cases  is  ex- 
tremely mild,  the  patient  perhaps  not  being 
confined  to  the  bea.  In  other  cases  it  is  ex- 
tremely severe,  and  it  may  prove  fatal  within 
a  few  days  or  even  hours.  In  no  otlier  disease 
are  the  two  extremes  more  widely  separated. 
Death  sometimes  takes  place  before  the  erup- 
tion appears.  An  affection  of  the  kidneys, 
namely,  inflammation  of  the  membrane  lining 
the  uriniferous  tubes  (desquamative  or  tubid 
nephritis),  is  occasionally  a  concomitant,  bat 
oftener  a  sequel,  of  scarlet  fever.  This  local 
affection  may  interfere  with  the  excretory 
function  of  the  kidneys  so  as  to  occasion  re- 
tention of  urinary  principles  in  the  blood,  con- 
stituting the  morbid  condition  called  urtemia; 
and  this  condition  may  prove  serious,  giving 
rise  to  coma  and  convulsions.  Occurring  as 
a  sequel  of ,  scarlet  fever,  this  affection  of  the 
kidneys  leads  to  general  dropsy.  From  this 
the  patient  recovers,  provided  fatal  effects  of 
ursBmia  do  not  take  place.  Scarlet  fever  is 
highly  contagious,  and  it  may  be  communicated 
by  means  of  fomites.  The  infectious  material 
remains  for  a  long  time  in  garments,  &c.,  pre- 
serving its  power  of  producing  the  disease. 
The  time  which  elapses  from  the  reception  of 
the  infection  before  tlie  manifestation  of  the 
disease,  that  is,  the  period  of  incubation,  is 
short,  sometimes  not  more  than  24  hours,  and 
rarely  exceeding  a  week.  As  a  rule  the  disease 
is  experienced  but  once,  but  exceptions  are  not 
very  rare.  Children  are  much  more  susceptibie 
to  the  special  cause  than  adults.  After  40 
years  of  age  the  susceptibility  generally  ceases. 
Children  under  two  years  rarely  contract  the 
disease. — The  treatment  in  mild  cases  of  scarlet 
fever  is  very  simple.  Active  medication  is  not 
indicated.  It  suflSces  to  diminish  the  animal 
heat  by  sponging  the  body  and  giving  cooling 
drinks,  with  such  palliative  remedies  as  par- 
ticular symptoms  may  denote,  observing  proper 
hygienic  precautions.  In  severe  cases  the  use 
of  tJie  cold  bath  or  the  wet  pack  is  highly 
beneficial,  not  merely  as  affording  relief  but 
diminishing  danger.  The  value  in  this  disease 
of  the  direct  abstraction  of  heat  by  these  means 


FEYDEAU 


FEZ 


171 


hsB  been  very  folly  establiahed  by  clinioal  ex- 
perience. Inunction  of  the  sarface  of  the  trunk 
and  limbs  with  fat  bacon  or  some  oleaginous 
preparation  allays  the  itching,  which  is  often 
very  distressing,  and  in  the  opinion  of  some  the 
severity  of  the  disease  is  thereby  much  lessened. 
As  in  other  diseases,  whenever  the  symptoms 
show  failure  of  the  vital  powers,  supporting 
measures  of  treatment  (alcoholic  stimulants 
and  alimentation)  are  indicated.  There  are 
DO  known  remedies  which  exert  a  specific  con- 
trol over  this  disease,  more  than  over  the  con- 
tinued and  the  other  eruptive  fevers.  Care 
daring  convalescence  in  scarlet  fever  is  consid- 
ered as  especially  important  with  reference  to 
the  liability  to  the  affection  of  the  kidneys  al- 
ready referred  to.  This  care  relates  particu- 
larly to  exposure  to  cold ;  and  a  fact  important 
to  be  borne  in  mind  is,  that  this  affection  of 
the  kidneys  as  often  follows  mild  as  severe 
cases  of  scarlet  fever.  Belladonna  has  been 
supposed  to  afford  protection  against  this  dis- 
ease after  exposure  to  the  infection.  This  is 
not  certain.  Complete  protection  can  be  se- 
cared  only  by  avoiding  the  infection  through 
contact  or  proximity  to  patients,  and  disinfect- 
ing everything  which  may  convey  it. — For  the 
other  eruptive  fevers,  see  Chicken  Pox,  Small- 
pox, Measles,  and  Plague. 

FETDEir,  EnoC  AIb^,  a  French  author,  bom 
in  Paris,  March  16,  1821,  died  there,  Oct.  28, 
1873.  He  published  a  volume  of  poetry  in 
1844,  and  acquired  notoriety  in  1858  by  his 
questionable  novel  Fanny,  His  subsequent 
vorks  of  a  similar  kind  were  not  as  popular; 
nor  was  he  successful  as  a  playwright  He 
waa  connected  with  various  journals,  and  his 
miscellaneoas  writings  include  Histoire  gene- 
rale  de$  uactges  fun^re$  et  des  »epulture$  des 
veuples  aneiens  (3  vols.,  1858);  Le  secret  du 
mj^tfr,  sketches  of  Algerian  life  (2  vols.,  1864; 
English  translation,  2  vols.,  1867) ;  and  VAIU- 
magns  en  1871  (Paris,  1872). 

FEYJ06  Y  MONTENEGBO,  FmdBCt  Benito  Jer^ 
liat^  a  Spanish  reformer,  bom  probably  at  Gar- 
damiro,  Oct.  8,  1676,  died  in  Oviedo,  May  16, 
1764.  He  was  a  Benedictine  monk,  and  be- 
came professor  of  divinity  at  Oviedo,  abbot, 
and  eventually  general  of  the  Benedictine  or- 
der. He  resided  the  greater  part  of  his  life  in 
tlie  monastery  at  Oviedo,  devoted  to  literary, 
philosophical,  and  scientific  labors.  1  le  opposed 
tbe  philosophical  system  then  taught  in  Spain, 
maintaining  Bacon^s  principle  of  induction  in 
the  physical  sciences,  and  ridiculing  the  pre- 
vailing fallacies  in  regard  to  astronomy  and 
astrology.  He  published  his  dissertations  un- 
der the  title  of  Teatro  eritico  unireraal,  6  die- 
cur$08  tarioe  en  todo  genero  de  materias,  para 
ifungaHo  de  erroree  eomunes  (1736-'42),  and 
continued  them  under  the  title  of  Cartas  erudi- 
te (1742-'60).  His  works  have  gone  through 
ouuy  editions,  and  selections  from  them  were 
translated  into  French  by  D'Hermilly  (Paris, 
1745),  and  into  English  by  John  Brett  (Lon- 
don, l770-'80). 


FEZ  (Ar.  Fas),  h  A  province  of  Morocco, 
occupying  the  N.  portion  of  the  empire,  bound- 
ed N.  by  the  Mediterranean,  £.  by  Algeria, 
and  W.  by  the  Atlantic.  It  is  traversed  in  the 
east  and  south  by  branches  of  the  Atlas  moun- 
tains, but  the  western  portions  form  a  rich 
champaign  country,  productive  in  grain,  chiefly 
wheat  and  barley,  honey,  tobacco,  olives,  and 
wine.  *The  chief  river  is  the  Seboo,  which, 
rising  in  the  £.  part  of  the  province  near  the 
Atlas  mountain,  passes  within  6  m.  of  the  city 
of  Fez,  and  enters  the  Atlantic  at  Mamora, 
where  it  is  navigable.  The  chief  cities  are  Fez 
and  Tangier,  the  principal  commercial  seats  of 
the  empire,  Mequinez,  Tetuan,  El-Araish,  Salee, 
Rabat,  and  Kasr  el-Kebir.  The  Spanish  pre- 
sidios of  Oeuta,  Alhucemas,  Sefior  de  Yelez, 
and  Melilla  are  in  this  province,  on  the  Medi- 
terranean. Fez  formed  a  part  of  Mauritania 
Tingitana  under  the  Romans.  Early  in  the 
5th  century  the  Vandals  settled  here,  and  re- 
mained until  the  conquest  of  N.  W.  Africa  by 
the  Arabs.  It  was  subject  successively  to  the 
eastern  caliphs  and  the  Ommiyades  of  Spain, 
and  waa  afterward  an  independent  kingdom 
till  conquered  and  annexed  to  Morocco  about 
1648.  II*  A  city,  capital  of  the  province,  in 
lat.  84°  6'  N.,  Ion.  5°  1'  W.,  about  86  m.  from 
the  Mediterranean,  and  90  m.  from  the  Atlan- 
tic; pop.  estimated  at  88,000,  including  65,000 
Moors  and  Arabs,  10,000  Berbers,  9,000  Jews, 
and  4,000  negroes.  It  is  situated  on  the  slope 
of  a  valley  watered  by  a  small  affluent  of  the 
Seboo,  which  divides  within  the  city  into 
two  branches,  supplying  the  baths  and  foun- 
tains. The  city,  surrounded  by  dilapidated 
walls,  is  4  m.  in  circuit,  and  is  divided  into 
the  old  and  new  towns,  both,  however,  an- 
cient, and  both  composed  of  narrow,  dirty 
streets.  The  houses  are  of  brick,  with  galle- 
ries and  flat  roofs.  It  is  one  of  the  three 
residences  of  the  emperor,  but  the  palace,  al- 
though large,  is  not  remarkable.  In  the  16th 
century  this  place  was  a  famous  seat  of  Arabic 
learning.  It  has  yet  a  university  called  the 
house  of  science,  colleges,  and  elementary 
schools.  Formerly  the  city  contained  some 
hundreds  of  mosques,  and  is  said  still  to  have 
100,  of  which  the  principal  are  El-Karubin 
and  the  mosque  of  Sultan  Muley  Edris,  founded 
of  the  city  (in  the  9th  century).  The  former 
has  a  covered  court  for  women  to  pray  in,  and 
the  latter,  which  contains  the  remains  of  the 
founder,  is  a  sanctuary  for  criminals.  From 
its  abundance  of  mosques  and  relics  Fez  is  a 
holy  city  to  the  western  Arabs.  It  possesses 
200  caravansaries,  some  hospitals,  and  manu- 
factories of  woollens,  sashes,  silk  stuffs  and 
girdles,  the  red  woollen  caps  called  fez  (dyed 
of  a  bright  red  color  by  means  of  a  berry  found 
in  the  vicinity),  slippers,  coarse  linens,  fine  car- 
pets, saddlery,  arms,  &c.  Of  the  fine  leather 
known  by  the  name  of  morocco,  the  red  comes 
from  Fez.  Its  artisans  are  very  skilful  in  gold- 
smith^s  work  and  jewelry.  It  is  the  depot  of 
the  inland  trade,  and  collects  for  export  gums. 


172 


FEZZAN 


FIBRINE 


spices,  ostrich  feathers,  ivory,  &o.  Oaravans 
set  out  from  the  city  semi-annually,  in  March 
and  October,  across  the  desert  for  Timbuctoo. 
Thej  complete  the  round  journey  in  189  days, 
of  which  only  54  are  employed  in  actual  travel. 
FEZZAIV  (anc.  Phazaniay  and  the  land  of  the 
Garamantes),  an  inland  country  of  K  Africa, 
supposed  to  extend  from  about  lat.  23°  to  81** 
N.,  and  from  Ion.  12°  to  18°  £.,  but  the  boun- 
daries are  ill  defined;  pop.  about  60,000. 
It  lies  south  of  the  pashalic  of  Tripoli,  to 
which  it  is  tributary,  and  is  bounded  on  all 
other  sides  by  the  Sahara.  In  consequence 
of  the  want  of  moisture,  and  the  great  heat, 
it  is  almost  barren  of  vegetation.  The  soil 
consists  of  black  shining  sandstone,  or  the 
fine  sand  of  the  desert,  gypsum,  and  rock 
salt,  with  strata  of  dolomite  and  limestone. 
The  valleys  intersecting  the  low  ranges  of  hills 
contain  the  cultivable  land  of  the  region.  Its 
northern  parts  are  traversed  by  two  ridges  of 
stony  and  sandy  hills,  which  in  some  places 
attain  an  elevation  of  1,200  ft.  from  their  base. 
In  the  eastern  district  they  are  called  El-Ha- 
ruj,  but  in  the  west  take  the  name  of  the  Ghu- 
rian  and  Soodah  jnountains.  8.  of  the  Soo- 
dah  extends  the  salt-incrusted  desert  of  Ben 
Afien.  The  table  land  of  Moorzook  occupies 
the  middle  and  southern  parts  of  the  country. 
The  land  lies  in  a  hollow  lower  than  the  sur- 
rounding desert.  The  heat  in  summer  is  in- 
tense, rising  sometimes  to  188°  F.  In  winter 
the  cold  is  greater  than  might  be  anticipated 
from  its  latitude ;  in  1860  snow  fell  at  8okna, 
and  ice  as  thick  as  a  man^s  finger  was  found  at 
Moorzook.  There  are  no  rivers  or  brooks,  rain 
seldom  falls,  thunder  storms  are  rare,  and  the 
climate  is  very  unhealthy  for  Europeans.  Dates 
are  the  staple  product;  small  quantities  of 
maize  and  barley  are  raised.  Among  the  other 
productions  are  figs,  pomegranates,  watermel- 
ons, legumes,  durra,  and  a  little  wheat  Of 
domestic  animals,  goats  are  the  most  numer- 
ous ;  camels,  horses,  and  asses  are  reared.  Of 
wUd  animals,  there  are  the  lion,  leopard,  hyssna, 
jackal,  buffalo,  fox,  and  porcupine;  among 
birds,  vultures,  falcons,  and  other  birds  of 
prey,  with  ostriches  and  bustards.  Fezzan  is 
exempt  from  flies,  but  ants,  scorpions,  and 
bugs  abound.  Planted  on  the  high  road  of 
commerce  between  the  coast  of  Africa  and  the 
interior,  the  inhabitants  place  their  main  re- 
liance upon  the  caravan  trade.  From  Oairo  to 
Moorzook  the  caravan  takes  about  40  days, 
from  Tripoli  to  the  same  place  about  25  days. 
Of  manufactures,  besides  a  little  leather  and 
articles  in  iron,  the  conntry  is  almost  destitute. 
Fezzan  is  inhabited  by  two  branches  of  the 
Berber  race:  the  Tuariks,  who  occupy  the 
northwest,  and  the  Tibboos,  who  dwell  in  the 
southeast.  Their  complexion  is  dark  brown, 
and  their  persons  are  well  formed.  They 
speak  a  corrupt  dialect  of  Arabic  and  Berber. 
Their  writing  is  in  the  Mograbin  characters, 
but  they  have  little  idea  of  arithmetic,  and 
reckon  everything  by  dots  in  the  sand,  ten  in 


a  line.  Their  media  of  exchange  are  Spanish 
coin  and  grain.  The  country  is  ruled  by  a 
sultan,  who  resides  at  Moorzook.  The  chief 
sources  of  his  revenue  are  taxes  upon  slaves 
and  merchandise.  The  only  places  exhibiting 
prosperity,  according  to  Barth,  are  Moorzook 
and  Sokna ;  the  population  of  each  is  estima- 
ted at  about  8,000. — L.  Oornelius  Balbus  the 
younger,  Roman  proconsul  of  Africa,  penetra* 
ted  into  Phazania  about  20  B.  0.  The  remains 
of  Roman  civilization,  in  the  shape  of  columns 
or  mausoleums,  are  still  found  as  far  S.  as  26° 
25'.  In  the  7th  century  Fezzan  fell  under  the 
dominion  of  the  Arabs,  who  introduced  Mo- 
hammedanism, to  which  religion  the  people 
are  stiU  fanatically  attached.  Since  then  Fez- 
zan has  generally  been  tributary  to  some  Arab 
potentate.  In  1811  the  bey  Mukni  usurped 
the  throne  and  acknowledged  allegiance  to  the 
pasha  of  Tripoli.  Fezzan  has  been  much  visit- 
ed by  modem  travellers,  and  is  regarded  as  the 
starting  point  for  the  interior  of  Negroland. 
Denham  and  Glapperton,  Oudney,  Homemann, 
Lyon,  Ritchie,  Barth,  Richardson,  and  lastly 
Dr.  Vogel,  have  all  visited  and  described  it. 

FIARD,  Jeu  BtptMSy  abb6,  a  French  eccle- 
siastic, bom  in  Dijon,  Nov.  28,  1786,  died 
there,  Sept.  80,  1818.  He  accounted  for  the 
perversities  of  human  conduct  by  ascribing 
them  to  demoniac  agency.  It  was  his  opinion 
that  Voltaire  and  other  philosophers  of  bis 
time  were  merely  demons,  and  he  denounced 
them  as  such  before  an  assembly  of  the  clergy 
of  France  in  1776.  The  French  revolution 
seemed  to  him  a  great  diabolic  triumph,  and 
his  opinion  was  confirmed  by  his  own  impris- 
onment for  two  years  for  persistence  in  the  ex- 
ercise of  the  priesthood.  Among  his  writings 
are  Lettres  philoiophiques  sur  la  magie  (D^on, 
1808),  and  La  France  trompee  par  les  magi- 
dens  et  demonoldtres  du  18'  aikle^  fait  demontre 
par  dee  faiU  (Dijon,  1808). 

FlBRlKEj  a  nitrogenous  organic  substance, 
existing  in  a  fiuid  form  in  the  blood  and  lymph, 
and  capable  of  spontaneous  coagulation  when 
withdrawn  from  the  vessels  of  the  living  body. 
Vegetable  fibrine,  a  substance  analogous  to  it 
in  composition,  is  found  in  the  newly  express- 
ed juices  of  plants,  particularly  of  the  grape, 
when  these  are  allowed  to  stand  for  some  time, 
and  the  gelatinous  substance  that  is  deposited 
is  washed  free  from  the  coloring  matter  asso- 
ciated with  it.  A  similar  substance  exists 
also  in  wheat  fiour,  being  separated  in  the  glu- 
ten. Fibrine  is  obtained  from  freshly  drawn 
blood  by  taking  up  the  ropy  portions  that  ad- 
here to  a  twig  with  which  it  is  stirred,  and 
thoroughly  cleansing  these  of  coloring  and 
soluble  matters  by  washing.  It  is  a  soft  white 
substance,  and  becomes  on  drying  yellowish, 
brittle,  and  semi-transparent.  Numerous  anal- 
yses have  been  made  of  the  fibrine,  albumen, 
and  caseine  derived  from  vegetables  used  for 
food — the  albumen  from  the  clarified  juice  of 
turnips,  asparagus,  &c.,  and  the  caseine  from 
beans  and  peas;  and  the  results  prove  a  close 


FIOHTE 


173 


analogy  of  composition  not  only  among  them- 
selves, bat  with  the  chief  constituents  of  the 
blood,  animal  fibre  and  albamen.  One  of  the 
analyses  of  animal  fi  brine  by  Sherer  might  al- 
most equally  well  be  given  for  either  of  the 
other  substances,  or  indeed  for  the  caseine  of 
milk,  which  is  a  similar  substance.  The  fol- 
lowing is  one  of  many  qnoted  by  Liebig: 
carbon,  54*454;  hydrogen,  7*069;  nitrogen, 
15-7<S2;  oxygen,  sulphur,  phosphorus,  22*715. 
^Fibrlne  is  exceedingly  important  as  an  ingre- 
dient of  the  blood,  since  it  is  due  to  its  pres- 
ence alone  that  the  blood  is  capable  of  coagu- 
lating in  wounds  or  after  the  ligature  of  blood 
vessels,  and  thus  arresting  the  haemorrhage 
which  would  ptherwise  continue  to  take  place. 
Its  proportion  in  the  blood  is  rather  over  two 
parts  per  thonsand,  in  the  lymph  about  one 
part  per  thousand. 

FICHTE.  h  JthaiB  Cltttlle%,  a  German  phi- 
losopher, bom  at  Rammenau  in  Lusatia,  May 
19,  1762,  died  in  Berlin,  Jan.  27,  1814.  He 
was  the  son  of  a  poor  weaver,  and  owed  his 
edacation  to  a  wealthy  nobleman,  the  baron 
of  Miltitz.  He  studied  theology  at  Jena,  Leip- 
sic,  and  Wittenberg,  1780-'88,  and  for  ten  years 
obtained  a  precarious  living  as  a  private  tutor. 
While  at  KSnigsberg  in  1791  he  became  ac- 
qoainted  with  Kant,  otwhom  he  had  been  one 
of  the  earliest  and  most  enthusiastic  admirers, 
and  as  an  application  of  his  philosophy  wrote 
a  pamphlet  entiled  Kritih  alter  Offenbarungen 
("Review  of  all  Revelations"),  which,  pub- 
luhed  anonymously,  was  genersJly  believed  to 
have  been  written  by  Kant  himself.  In  1798, 
while  residing  in  Switzerland,  he  published  a 
work  in  two  volumes  "  to  rectify  public  opinion 
in  regard  to  the  French  revolution."  In  1794 
be  obtained  ^  professorship  of  philosophy  at 
the  university  of  Jena  through  the  influence  of 
Goethe,  then  secretary  of  state  of  Saxe- Weimar. 
Here  he  commenced  a  series  of  lectures  on 
the  science  of  knowledge  (  Wissensohqftslehre), 
and  gave  also  a  course  of  Sunday  lectures  on 
the  literary  calling.  In  the  same  year  he  pub- 
lished a  treatise  containing  the  fundamental 
doctrines  of  his  philosophical  system,  Ueher 
den  Begriffder  Wis$en8ehaft8lehre,  and  during 
the  next  five  years  his  system  was  matured 
and  completed.  By  it  he  immediately  took 
rank  among  the  most  original  of  living  philoso- 
phers, and  as  it  appeared  to  furnish  a  meta- 
physical basis  for  progressive  political  and  teli- 
gions  views,  he  was  considered  one  of  the  lead- 
ers of  the  liberal  party  in  Germany.  In  con- 
junction with  Niethammer  he  also  published  a 
philosophical  journal,  in  which  were  inserted 
articles  containing  certain  views  which  were 
considered  by  many  as  tending  directly  to  athe- 
ism. The  grand-ducal  government,  alarmed  at 
the  boldness  of  his  theories,  insisted  on  his  re- 
moval, and  Goethe,  though  secretly  sympa- 
thizing with  him,  felt  bound  to  express  his  offi- 
cial disapprobation.  Fichte  resigned  his  pro- 
fessorship and  appealed  to  the  public  in  a 
pamphlet  entitled  Appellation  gegen  die  An- 


klage  dee  Atheigmns^  which,  though  proving  his 
deep  earnestness,  could  scarcely  be  considered 
a  conclusive  refutation  of  the  objections  raised 
against  his  doctrines.  He  maintained  in  it 
that  science  could  conceive  the  idea  of  exis- 
tence only  in  regard  to  such  beings  or  things  as 
belonged  to  the  province  of  sensual  perception, 
and  that  therefore  it  could  not  be  applied  to 
God.  God  was  not  an  individual  being,  but 
merely  a  manifestation  of  supreme  laws,  the 
logical  order  of  events,  the  ardo  ordinane  of 
the  universe.  He  said  it  was  no  less  ridiculous 
to  ask  a  philosopher  if  his  doctrines  were  athe- 
istic than  to  ask  a  mathematician  whether  a 
triangle  was  green  or  red.  From  Jena  Fichte 
went  to  Berlin,  where  by  his  writings  and  lec- 
tures he  exerted  a  great  influence  on  public 
opinion,  and  after  the  reverses  which  befell  the 
Pruonan  monarchy  (1806)  became  one  of  the 
most  conspicuous  and  powerful  anti-Napoleonic 
agitators.  For  a  few  months  only  (1805)  he  ac- 
cepted a  professorship  at  the  university  of  £r- 
langen,  where  he  delivered  his  celebrated  lec- 
tures Ueber  das  Weeen  dee  Qelehrten,  While 
the  French  conquerors  were  still  in  Berlin  he 
delivered  in  the  academy  his  Eeden  an  die 
deuUehe  Nation^  which  are  admired  as  a  mon- 
ument of  the  most  intense  patriotism  and 
depth  of  thought.  Immediately  after  the  es- 
taolishment  of  the  Berlin  university  in  1810, 
he  accepted  a  professorship  there.  In  1818 
he  resumed  his  political  activity  with  great 
success.  When  at  last  the  deliverance  of  Ger- 
many f^om  French  oppression  had  given  him 
sufficient  tranquillity  of  mind  to  resume  the 
completion  of  his  philosophical  system,  he  fell 
a  victim  to  the  noble  exertions  of  his  wife  in 
the  cause  of  charity.  By  nursing  the  sick  and 
wounded  in  the  military  hospitals  for  five 
months  she  had  become  infected  with  typhus. 
She  recovered,  but  her  husband,  who  had  also 
taken  the  disease,  succumbed  to  it.  Besides 
the  above  mentioned  publications,  the  following 
are  Fichte's  principal  works :  Orundlage  der 
gemmmten  Wieeeneehqftslehre  (1794) ;  Grund- 
lage  dee  Ndturreehts  (l796-'7) ;  System  der 
Sittenlehre  (1798) ;  Ueber  die  Bestimmung  dee 
Menechen  (1801) ;  Anweisung  zum  seligen  Le^ 
hen  (1806).  His  complete  works  were  pub- 
lished at  Berlin  in  1845. — To  give  a  succinct 
and  intelligible  analysis  of  Fichte's  philosophi- 
cal system  is  next  to  impossible.  His  language 
is  abstruse  and  liable  to  misconstruction,  to 
which  indeed  Fichte^s  philosophy  has  been 
subject  in  a  higher  degree  perhaps  than  that 
of  any  other  modem  philosopher.  Thus,  for 
instance,  to  designate  the  self-conscious  intel- 
lect as  contrasted  with  the  non-conscious  ob- 
jects of  its  conception,  he  uses  the  personal 
pronoun  "I"  as  contrasted  to  the  "not  I" 
{Ich  and  Nieht-Ieh,  in  English  versions  gen- 
erally rendered  by  the  Latin  ego  and  non-ego) ; 
and  this  was  misconstrued  by  many  of  his  con- 
temporaries as  a  deification  of  his  own  indivi- 
dual self,  while  in  point  of  fact  he  meant  only 
that  which  by  other  moderns  has  been  called 


174 


FICHTE 


FICHTELGEBIRGE 


the  absolate,  and  by  the  ancient  philosophers 
the  substance.  Fichte*s  philosophy  was  in- 
tended to  amplify  that  of  Kant.  Kant,  in  in- 
vestigating the  theory  of  human  cognition,  had 
arrived  at  the  conclusion  that  the  properties 
of  extemtd  objects,  by  which  they  are  discerned 
and  known,  are  not  realities,  transferred  from 
without  into  the  human  mind,  but  mere  forms 
of  conception  innate  in  the  mind.  Hence  he 
argued  that  objects  per  ««,  or  such  as  they 
really  are,  independent  of  human  cognition, 
are  utterly  unknown  to  man.  So  far  as  man 
is  concerned,  they  are  only  phenomena ;  that 
is  to  say,  for  man  they  exist  only  as  they 
appear  to  the  mind  according  to  its  forms  of 
conception  (categories),  while  as  noumena,  or 
such  as  they  are  per  #«,  they  are  unknown  and 
inconceivable.  W  hat  Fichte  attempts  to  prove 
is  simply  this :  that  between  objects  as  they  ap- 
pear to  human  conception  and  as  they  actually 
are  there  is  no  real  difference,  since  the  forms 
of  human  cognition  are  identical  with  the  ac- 
tion of  the  absolute  intellect ;  that  objects  are 
the  limit  set  by  the  absolute  within  itself  in 
order  to  arrive  at  perfect  self-consciousness; 
that  the  absolute  (the  Jeh)  is  at  the  same  time 
subject  and  object,  the  ideal  and  the  real.  Re- 
duced to  plainer  language,  all  this  would  mean 
that  God  (the  absolute  subject,  the  great  active 
and  creative  "I")  and  nature  (the  **notI," 
the  aggregate  of  objects)  are  united  in  a  similar 
manner  as  soul  and  body ;  that  the  absolute 
intellect  pervades  all  and  everything,  and  that 
the  human  mind  is  an  integral  part  of  the 
absolute  intellect.  But,  clothed  in  the  most 
singular  and  obscure  formulas,  the  theory  of 
Fichte  was  understood  by  many  to  mean  that 
all  reality  existed  only  in  the  imagination  of 
man,  and  was  in  fact  merely  an  outward  reflec- 
tion or  manifestation  of  the  workings  of  the  hu- 
man mind.  Such  was  not  his  idea,  and  the 
term  ^^  idealist,"  when  applied  to  Fichte,  has  a 
different  meaning  from  that  in  which  it  is  ap- 
plied to  Berkeley.  That  the  ultimate  conse- 
quences of  Fichte^s  system  would  have  led  him 
into  a  sort  of  pantheistical  mysticism  is  apparent 
from  his  later  writings,  in  which  the  **  I "  is 
much  more  clearly  than  in  his  earlier  works 
set  forth  as  God,  and  all  individual  minds 
only  as  reflections  of  the  absolute.  Applying 
his  metaphysical  theories  to  ethics,  Fichte 
concludes  that  morality  consists  in  the  har- 
mony of  man's .  thoughts  (conscience)  and  ac- 
tions. Entire  freedom  of  action  and  self-de- 
termination is,  according  to  Fichte,  not  merely 
the  preliminary  condition  of  morality,  but 
morality  itself.  Hence  law  should  be  nothing 
more  than  a  determination  of  the  boundaries 
within  which  the  free  action  of  the  individual 
must  be  confined j  so  as  to  concede  the  same 
freedom  to  others.  Law  has  no  meaning  or 
existence  without  society.  The  object  of  so- 
ciety is  the  realization  of  the  supreme  law  as 
conceived  by  human  reason.  The  most  perfect 
state  of  human  society  would  be  the  true  king- 
dom of  heaven,  since  the  absolute  or  God  is 


revealed  in  the  rational  development  of  man- 
kind. It  is  easily  seen  how  these  ethical  doc- 
trines of  Fichte  appeared  in  practice.  Main- 
taining that  self-reliance  and  self-determina- 
tion were  the  only  guarantees  of  true  morality, 
and  cont.ending  against  the  assumption  of  the 
divine  right  of  political  institutions,  he  fur- 
nished a  philosophical  basis  to  the  liberal  politi- 
cal parties  who  opposed  the  sanctity  of  popu- 
lar rights  to  the  assumed  divine  right  of  .mon- 
arohs.  In  order  to  insure  to  the  people  the 
greatest  possible  amount  of  rational  well  be- 
ing, Fichte  taught  that  the  introduction  of  the 
most  universal  popular  education  was  one  of 
the  principal  duties  of  the  state.  In  regard 
to  this  subject  his  urgent  appeals  to  the  Ger- 
man governments  were  highly  successful.  The 
identity  of  the  subject  and  object,  or  of  the 
ideal  and  real,  as  taught  by  Fichte,  became  the 
basis  as  well  of  Schelling's  nature-philosopliy 
as  of  HegePs  philosophical  system,  the  former 
of  which  attempts  a  logical  construction  of  the 
universe  from  the  standpoint  of  th a  object  (na- 
ture), while  the  other  attempts  the  same  from 
the  point  of  view  of  the  subject  (the  human 
mind). — The  Orundzuge  dee  gegenwdriigen 
Zeitaltere  (^^  Gharaoteristics  of  the  Present 
Age''),  Weeen  dee  Oelehrten  ("Nature  of  the 
Scholar"),  Beetimmung  dee  JHenechen  ("Vo- 
cation of  Man"),  Beetimmung  dee  Gelehrten 
(^*  Vocation  of  the  Scholar"),  and  some  others 
of  Fichte's  works,  have  been  translated  into 
English  by  William  Smith  (with  a  memoir, 
London,  1845-'8).  Other  translations  from 
Fichte,  by  A.  E.  Eroeger,  are,  "New  Exposi- 
tion of  die  Science  of  Knowledge  "  (St.  Louis, 
1869),  and  "  The  Science  of  Knowledge  "  (Phil- 
adelphia, 1870).  IK  InnaBMl  HeniaBi,  son  of 
the  preceding,  bom  at  Jena  iiul797.  From 
1822  to  1842  he  filled  professorships  at  Saar- 
brilck,  Diisseldorf,  and  Bonn,  and  since  1842 
has  been  professor  of  philosophy  at  the  uni- 
versity of  TtLbingen.  He  has  published  many 
philosophical  works,  mostly  following  the  theo- 
ries of  his  father,  though  he  claims  to  have  es- 
tablished a  system  of  his  own,  which,  in  con- 
tradistinction to  the  Hegelian  pantheism,  he 
calls  concrete  theism.  Among  his  works  are : 
Sdtee  »ur  Voreehtile  der  Theologie  (1826) ;  Die 
Ontologie  (1836);  Die  epeoulatite  Theologie 
(1846-'7);  System  der  Ethik  {\m^%Z)\  An- 
thrapohgie  (1856);  and  Peycholagie  ale  Lehre 
vom  hewueeten  Geiete  dee  Menechen  (1864  et 
seg.).  He  has  also  published  the  literary  cor- 
respondence of  his  father,  with  a  biography 
(1830).  He  founded  at  Bonn  the  ZeiUchrift 
fur  Fhiloeophie  und  epeculative  Theologie^ 
which  he  conducted  from  1837  to  1848,  and 
which  has  been  continued  by  Ulrici  and  Wirth. 
FICHTELGEBIRGE  (Pine  mountains),  a  chain 
of  mountains  in  Bavaria,  province  of  Upper 
Franconia,  between  the  Bohemian  Forest  and 
the  Franconian  Jura,  covered  with  forests  of 
firs  and  pines.  By  reason  of  ita  position  in 
the  centre  of  Germany  this  chain  is  regarded 
as  Uie  nucleus  of  all  the  Germanic  mountains, 


FIOINO 


FICTION 


175 


thoogh  it  does  not  surpass  the  neighboring 
chains  in  elevation.  It  separates  the  affluents 
of  the  North  and  Black  seas,  the  river  Naab 
descending  from  it  on  the  south,  the  Saale  on 
the  north,  the  Eger  on  the  east,  and  the  Main 
OQ  the  west.  It  extends  in  length  80  m.  N.  £. 
from  Baireuth  to  the  Bohemian  frontier,  and  its 
tn^o  loftiest  summits  are  the  Schneeherg  (Snow 
mountain)  and  the  Ochsenkopf  (Ox  Heaa).  re- 
spectivelj  3,484  and  8,866  ft.  high.  The  Fich- 
tdlgebirge  possess  a  robust  and  laborious  pop- 
olation.  The  upper  part  of  the  mountains 
yields  oats  and  wood  in  abundance,  and  the 
lower  parts  produce  rye,  barley,  flax,  pulse, 
and  a  little  wheat ;  but  the  chief  industry  of 
the  inhabitants  is  in  working  the  numerous 
mines  of  iron,  vitriol,  sulphur,  lead,  copper, 
and  marble.  The  mountains  are  densely  pop- 
ulated and  traversed  by  good  roads,  and  in 
the  northwest  by  the  Saxon-Bavarian  railway. 

ncISO)  MarsUto,  a  Platonic  philosopher  of 
the  16th  century,  bom  in  Florence,  Oct.  19, 
1488,  died  at  Careggi,  Oct  1,  1499.  He  was 
the  son  of  the  first  physician  of  Oosmo  de'  Me- 
dici, and  was  intended  for  his  father^s  profes- 
sion. The  Greek  Gemistus  Pletho,  an  enthu- 
siastic student  of  the  philosophy  of  Plato,  in- 
spired Coomo  with  the  design  of  naturalizing 
tikis  philosophy  in  Italy.  He  selected  Ficino, 
as  a  youth  of  great  promise,  to  be  instructed 
in  the  mysteries  of  Platonism,  and  to  become 
the  chief  and  preceptor  of  a  new  Platonic 
academy.  He  educated  him  in  his  palace,  sur- 
roanded  him  with  Greek  masters,  encouraged 
him  to  read  the  philosophers  of  antiquity, 
placed  him  when  80  years  old  at  the  head  of  the 
academy  of  Florence,  and  charged  him  to  be 
the  interpreter  undpropagator  of  the  Platonic 
phDosoph  J  m  the  w  est.  Ficino  made  numer- 
ous tranalalions  from  Plato,  lamblichus,  Her- 
mes Trismegistus,  whom  he  especially  admired, 
and  from  most  of  the  Alexandrian  philoso- 
phers. He  was  appointed  by  Cosmo  president 
of  a  literary  society  which  assembled  at  his 
house,  and  had  for  its  object  to  explain  the 
doctrines  of  Plato.  At  the  age  of  40  he  en- 
tered the  church,  and  was  appointed  a  canon 
in  the  cathedral  of  Florence.  He  became  the 
disciple  of  all  schools,  and  borrowed  i^om  all 
systems.  He  treated  of  the  nature  and  im- 
mortality of  the  soul,  the  functions  and  dis- 
tinguishing characters  of  angels,  and  the  being 
and  attributes  of  God.  His  chief  merit,  how- 
ever, is  as  the  translator  and  first  western  ad- 
mirer of  Plato;  and  in  his  partiality  for  this 
philosopher  he  is  said  to  have  endeavored  to 
introduce  fragments  from  his  writings  into  the 
offices  of  the  church.  His  works  were  collected 
and  published  at  Basel  (2  vols,  folio,  1491). 

nCKy  AMf,  a  German  physiologist,  bom  in 
Cassel  in  1829.  He  receiv^  his  diploma  of 
M.  D.  at  Ztkrich  in  1852,  and  was  professor  of 
physiology  there  from  1856  till  1868,  and  has 
since  fiUed  the  same  chair  at  Wtirzburg.  He  has 
published  DUmedieinUehe  Phytik  (Brunswick, 
1857),  as  a  supplementary  volume  to  Mtdler^s 

819  VOL.  vn. — 12 


version  of  Pouillet^s  £Ument$  de  phytique. 
His  other  writings  include  CorMtenaium  der 
Phyiiologis  de9  Menschen  mit  EvMehluu  der 
Entwickelunffggesehiehte  (1860),  Anatomie  und 
Physiologie  (1862),  and  Die  Naturhrd^  in 
ihrer  Weclmlhenehung  (1869). 

nCQUELMOliT,  Kari  Lidwig,  count,  an  Aus- 
trian general  and  statesman,  bom  at  Dieuze, 
Lorraine,  March  28,  1777,  died  in  V^ice, 
April  7,  1857.  He  was  a  son  of  Count  Joseph, 
who,  after  emigrating  from  Lorraine  to  Aus- 
tria, died  in  1799  from  a  wound  received  at  the 
battle  of  Magnano.  He  entered  the  Austrian 
army,  and  in  1809  was  colonel  and  chief  of  the 
staff  of  the  grand  duke  Ferdinand  of  £ste.  In 
1811  and  1812  he  commanded  three  regiments 
of  cavalry  in  Spain  under  WeUington.  In 
1818  he  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  mi^or 
general,  and  in  1814  he  brought  about  the  ca- 
pitulation of  Lyons.  He  was  afterward  sent 
on  several  important  diplomatic  missions.  He 
was  minister  of  foreign  affairs  during  Metter- 
nich^s  temporary  absence  from  Vienna  in  1889, 
and  in  1840  became  a  member  of  the  cabinet. 
During  the  revolution  of  1848  he  was  for  a 
short  time  minister  of  foreign  affairs,  and  then 
provisional  prime  minister,  till  May  4,  when  he 
retired  on  account  of  a  hostile  demonstration 
of  the  people,  who  looked  upon  him  as  a  disci- 
ple of  Metteraich ;  but  he  continued  to  exercise 
maportant  influence  in  the  affairs  of  the  em- 
pire. He  wrote  several  political  pamphlets, 
some  of  which,  as  Lord  Palmerstanj  England 
und  der  Continent  (Vienna,  1852),  and  Zum 
hUnftigen  Frieden  (1856),  attracted  consider- 
able attention.  Zes  peneiee  et  reflexions  mo- 
ralee  et  politiquee  du  eomte  de  Ficquelmcnt  ap- 
peared in  Paris  in  1859,  with  a  biographical 
notice  by  M.  de  Barante. 

FICnOH,  in  law,  a  supposition  which  is  known 
not  to  be  trae,  but  which  is  assumed  to  be  trae 
in  order  that  certain  conclusions  and  inferences 
may  be  supported.  Fictions  have  been  made 
use  of  in  all  legal  systems,  but  in  none  more 
abundantly  than  in  &at  of  England.  The  im- 
portant courts  of  queen's  bench  and  exchequer 
acquired  their  general  jurisdiction  by  means 
of  the  fiction  of  supposing  in  the  one  case  a 
trespass  and  in  the  otner  a  debt  to  the  crown, 
which  the  defendant  was  not  suffered  to  dis- 
pute. The  old  action  of  ejectment  and  the 
existing  action  of  trover  furnish  cases  of  fictions 
which  seem  to  us  at  this  day  utterly  absurd, 
the  supposed  lease,  entry,  and  ouster  in  the 
one  case,  and  the  supposed  finding  of  the  goods 
in  dispute  in  the  other,  having  no  bearing  on 
the  merits  of  the  case ;  but  they  nevertheless 
have  had  their  use  in  enabling  the  courts  to 
give  suitable  remedy  for  a  wrong  which  other- 
wise might  have  gone  unredressed  in  some 
cases.  With  few  exceptions,  no  fictions  are 
now  retained  in  the  law  except  such  as  have 
a  beneficial  purpose ;  and  these  are  mostly  fic- 
tions of  relation,  as  where  the  title  of  an  admin- 
istrator is  supposed  to  have  attached  at  the 
death  of  the  deceased,  in  order  to  enable  him 


176 


FIELD 


to  reoover  for  any  trespass  or  misuse  of  tbe 
property  prior  to  his  appointment ;  and  that  of 
a  purchaser  at  a  jadicial  sale  is  made  to  relate 
back  to  the  time  of  sale,  though  the  title  is  not 
to  pass  until  after  the  expiration  of  a  period 
allowed  for  redemption.  Several  rules  are 
laid  down  in  respect  to  fictions :  1.  The  law 
never  adopts  them  except  from  necessity  and 
to  avoid  a  wrong.  2.  They  must  not  be  of  a 
thing  impossible.  8.  They  are  never  admitted 
where  the  truth  will  work  as  well.  4.  They 
are  not  admissible  in  criminal  trials.  The  fic- 
tion, for  instance,  that  the  title  of  a  purchaser 
at  a  judicial  sale  shall  relate  back  and  cover 
the  period  allowed  for  redemption,  though  ad- 
missible for  the  purpose  of  giving  a  remedy 
against  a  wrong  doer,  would  not  be  admissible 
as  against  the  party  whose  previous  title  was 
divested,  if  by  law  he  was  entitled  to  a  benefi- 
cial use  of  the  property  until  the  time  for  re- 
demption expired.  Fictions  might  undoubtedly 
be  all  rendered  unnecessary  by  statutory  pro- 
visions, but  not  many  are  made  use  of  in  the 
law  at  this  time  which  create  any  confusion, 
or  the  removal  of  which  could  be  of  any  ser- 
vice beyond  giving  a  little  more  directness  to 
legal  proceedings,  or  expressing  the  legal  right 
in  language  more  suited  to  the  comprehension 
of  laymen. 

FIELD.  L  IHiTid  Didley,  an  American  cler- 
gyman, bom  at  East  Guilford,  Conn.,  May  20, 
1781,  died  at  Stockbridge,  Mass.,  April  16, 
1867.  He  graduated  at  Yale  college  in  1802, 
was  minister  at  Haddam,  Conn.,  from  1804  to 
1818,  at  Stockbridge,  Mass.,  from  1819  to  1887, 
and  again  at  Haddam  from  1837  to  1851,  when 
he  returned  to  Stockbridge.  He  published 
"History  of  Berkshire  County"  (1829),  "His- 
tory of  Middlesex  County  "  (1839),  "  History  of 
Pittsfield"  (1844),  "Genealogy  of  the  Brainerd 
Family"  (1857),  and  several  occasional  ser- 
mons. II*  David  Dedley.  an  American  jurist, 
eldest  -son  ^of  the  preceding,  bom  at  Haddam, 
Conn.,  Feb.  18,  1805.  When  he  was  14  his 
father  removed  to  Stockbridge,  Mass.,  and  in 
1821  he  entered  Williams  college.  In  1825  he 
commenced  the  study  of  law,  was  admitted  to 
practice  in  1828,  and  settled  in  New  York, 
where  he  has  been  conspicuous  at  the  bar  for 
more  than  40  years.  He  is  especially  known 
by  his  labors  in  the  cause  of  law  reform.  As 
early  as  1889  he  published  his  first  essay  on  the 
subject,  pointing  out  the  necessity  of  a  recon- 
struction of  the  modes  of  legal  procedure.  This 
he  followed  up  by  other  articles  on  the  same 
subject  in  1842, 1844, 1846,  and  1847.  In  1847 
he  was  appointed  by  the  legislature  of  New 
York  a  commissioner  on  practice  and  plead- 
ings, and  as  such  took  the  leading  part  in  the 
preparation  of  the  code  of  procedure.  Of  this 
work  only  a  part  has  been  enacted  into  law, 
and  many,  if  not  all,  the  defects  imputed  to 
the  code  may  be  fairly  attributed  to  this  fact 
The  radical  design  of  the  new  system  of  civil 
procedure  is  to  obliterate  the  distinction  be- 
tween the  forms  of  action  and  between  legal 


and  equitable  suits,  so  that  all  the  rights  of 
the  parties  in  relation  to  the  subjects  of  litiga- 
tion can  be  determined  in  one  action,  instead 
of  dividing  them  as  heretofore  between  differ- 
ent suits,  often  inconsistent  and  always  per- 
plexing.   This  system  has  been  adopted  not 
only  in  New  York,  but  in  Ohio,  Kentucky, 
Missouri,  Minnesota,  California,  Oregon,  and  in 
several'other  states,  and  has  materially  affected 
the  legislation  of  Great  Britain  and  her  col- 
onies.   In  1857  Mr.  Field  was  appointed  by  the 
legislature  of  New  York  as  the  head  of  a  new 
commission  to  prepare  a  political  code,  a  penal 
code,  and  a  civil  code,  works  designed  to  con- 
tain, with  the  codes  of  procedure,  the  whole 
body  of  the  law.     These  several  codes  have 
been  completed  and  reported,  but  have  not  as 
yet  been  adopted  by  that  state.     Other  states 
have,  however,  drawn  largely  from  them  in 
their  legislation,  and  in  California  they  have 
been  adopted  entire,  with  only  such  changes 
and  modifications  as  its  constitution  and  con- 
ditions required.   In  1 866  he  brought  before  the 
British  association  for  the  promotion  of  social 
science,  at  its  meeting  in  Manchester,  a  proposal 
for  a  g^ieral  revision  and  reform  of  the  law  of 
nations,  similar  to  that  which  he  had  before 
undertaken  in  regard  to  the  civil  and  criminal 
law.    He  procured  the  appointment  of  a  com- 
mittee consisting  of  eminent  jurists  of  difTerent 
countries,  charged  with  preparing  and  report- 
ing to  the  association  the  outlines  of  an  inter- 
national code,  to  be  first  submitted  to  their 
careful  revision  and  amendment,  and,  when 
made  as  complete  as  possible,  to  be  presented 
to  the  attention  of  the  different  governments, 
in  the  hope  of  receiving  at  some  time  their  ap- 
proval and  adoption  as  the  recognized  law  of 
nations.    As  the  distinguished  jurists  compos- 
ing this  committee  resided  indifferent  countries, 
it  was  difficult  for  them  to  act  in  concert,  and 
each  was  left  to  act  independently.    Mr.  Field, 
as  the  sole  American  representative,  took  the 
whole  matter  upon  himself,  and  in  1878,  after 
the  lapse  of  seven  years,  presented  to  the  social 
science  congress  his  completed  work,  in  a  vol- 
ume of  nearly  700  pages,  which  he  styles  ^^  Out- 
lines of  an  International  Code."    This  work 
has  attracted  no  little  attention  from  Euro- 
pean jurists.    In  the  same  year  he  attended  a 
meeting  held  at  Brassels,  composed  of  dele- 
gates from  all  parts  of  Europe  to  consult  upon 
this  subject.     This  resulted  in  the  formation 
of  an  association  for  the  reform  and  codifica- 
tion of  the  laws  of  nations.    The  association 
consists  of  jurists,  economists,  legislators,  and 
politicians,  with  branches  in  different  coun- 
tries.    Its  object  is  to  substitute  arbitration  for 
war  in  the  settlement  of  disputes  between  na- 
tions.   Of  this  association  Mr.  Field  was  elect- 
ed president.     In  August,  1878,  he  left  the 
United  States,  proposing  to  make  a  tour  around 
the  world.    III.  Stepbei  Jshssoa,  an  American 
jurist,  brother  of  the  preceding,  bom  at  Had- 
dam, Conn.,  Nov.  4,  1816.    At  the  age  of  18 
he  went  to  the  East,  and  passed  nearly  three 


FIELD 


177 


}rearB  at  Smyrna  and  at  Athens,  engaged  in  the 
stady  of  modern  languages,  particularly  Greek, 
lie  returned  in  the  winter  of  1882-^3,  and  in 
the  following  aatnmn  entered  Williams  college, 
from  which  he  graduated  in  1837.    He  studied 
lav  in  New  York  with  his  brother,  and  on  ad- 
mission to  the  bar  became  his  partner,  and 
thus  continued  until  the  spring  of  1848,  when 
he  went  abroad,  and  passed  a  year  in  Europe. 
On  his  return  in  the  autumn  of  1849  he  went 
to  California,  where  he  has  ever  since  resided. 
He  was  among  the  first  settlers  of  what  is- now 
tlie  dty  of  Marysrille,  was  elected  its  first  al- 
calde, and  held  that  office  until  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  judiciary  under  the  constitution  of 
the  state.     Altliough  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
alcalde  courts  under  the  Mexican  law  was  lim- 
ited and  inferior,  yet  in  the  then  existing  state 
of  things  in  California  unlimited  jurisdiction, 
civU  and  criminal,  waa  asserted  and  exercised 
by  them.    In  October,  1850,  he  was  elected  to 
the  legislature,  and  during  the  session  of  1851 
was  an  active  member  of  that  body.    He  intro- 
doeed  and  succeeded  in  getting  passed  the  sev- 
eral laws  concerning  the  judiciary,  and  regula- 
ting the  procedure,  civil  and  criminal,  in  all 
the  courts  of  the  state.    He  was  also  the  author 
of  that  provision  of  law  which  gave  controlling 
form  to  the  regulations  and  customs  of  miners 
in  the  determination  of  their  reqiective  claims^ 
aad  m  the  settlement  of  controversies  among 
them;  a  provision  which  solved  a  very  per- 
plexing problem,  and  has  ever  since  remained 
undisturbed.    In  1857  he  was  elected  a  judge 
of  the  supreme  court  of  California  for  six  years, 
from  Jan.  1, 1858.    A  vacancy  occurring  pre- 
vioos  to  the  commencement  of  his  term,  he 
waa  appointed  to  fill  it,  and  took  his  seat  on 
the  bench  Oct  18, 1857.    In  September,  1859, 
he  became  chief  justice  of  the  state.    The  law 
of  r^  property  in  California  was  placed  on  a 
eolid  basis  while  he  was  on  the  bench,  and 
principally  by  decisions  in  which  he  delivered 
the  opinions  of  tiie  court.    In  March,  1868,  he 
was  appointed  by  President  Dncoln  an  asso- 
ciate justice  of  the  supreme  court  of  the  United 
States.    A  s  such  he  delivered  the  opinion  of  the 
court  in  the  weU  known  test  oath  cases.    His 
diflBenting  opinions  in  the  legal-tender  cases,  in 
the  confiscation  case&  and  in  the  New  Orleans 
slaoghter  house  case,  nave  also  attracted  atten- 
tion. In  1878  he  was  appointed  by  the  governor 
of  Galifomia  one  of  a  commission  to  examine 
the  code  of  laws  of  that  state,  and  to  prepare 
amendments  to  the  same  for  legislative  action. 
IT.  Cjm  West,  an  American  merchant,  brother 
of  the  preceding,  bom  at  Stockbridge,  Mass., 
^07,  30, 1819.    He  was  educated  in  his  native 
town,  at  the  age  of  15  became  a  clerk  in  New 
York,  and  in  a  few  years  was  at  the  head  of  a 
Ittige  and  prosperous  mercantile  house.     In 
lSo3  he  partially  retired  from  business,  and 
spent  six  months  in  travelling  in  South  Amer- 
ica.   On  his  return  he  became  deeply  interest- 
^  in  the  project  of  a  telegraph  across  the 
ocean.    He  was  first  applied  to  for  aid  to  com- 


plete a  land  line,  which  had  been  begun  in 
Newfouudland,  to  cross  the  island,  400  miles, 
from  Cape  Ray  to  St.  John's,  from  which  it 
was  intended  to  run  a  line  of  fast  steamers 
to  the  west  coast  of  Ireland,  and  thus  bring 
America  within  a  week  of  Europe.  While 
studying  the  subject,  and  turning  over  the  globe 
in  his  Hbrary,  the  idea  flashed  upon  his  mind, 
*^  Why  not  carry  the  line  acrpss  the  ocean?" 
In  this  idea  was  the  germ  of  one  of  the  great- 
est enterprises  of  modem  times,  that  of  tele- 
graphic communication  between  the  old  world 
and  the  new.  His  first  step  was  to  obtain  le- 
gal authority.  For  this  purpose  he  went  in 
March,  1854,  to  St.  John's,  Newfoundland,  and 
obtained  from  the  legislature  of  that  colony  a 
charter,  granting  an  exclusive  right  for  50 
years  to  establiw  a  telegraph  from  the  conti- 
nent of  America  to  Newfoundland,  and  thence 
to  Europe ;  and  he  thereupon  associated  with 
himself  Peter  Cooper,  Moses  Taylor,  Marshall 
0.  Roberts,  Chuidler  White,  and  Wilson  G. 
Hunt,  of  New  York,  under  the  title  of  the 
*^  New  York,  Newfoundland,  and  London  Tele- 
graph Company,'*  for  the  purpose  of  carrying 
this  design  into  effect  Mr.  Field  thenceforth 
devoted  himself  almost  exclusively  to  the  exe- 
cution of  this  project  To'  build  tlie  land  line 
of  telegranh  across  Newfoundland  and  Cape 
Breton  island  took  more  than  two  years. 
While  this  was  in  progress  he  went  to  England, 
and  ordered  a  submarine  cable,  to  connect 
Cape  Ray  and  Cape  Breton.  This  was  sent  out 
in  1855,  but  was  lost  in  a  gale  in  the  attempt 
to  lay  it  across  the  gulf  of  St  Lawrence.  The 
attempt  was  renewed  the  following  year  with 
success.  In  that  year  (1856)  he  went  to  Lon- 
don, and  there  organized  the  ^*  Atlantic  Tele- 
graph Company,"  to  carry  the  line  across  the 
ocean,  and  himself  subscribed  for  one  fourth  of 
the  whole  capital  of  the  company.  By  his  per- 
sonal application  he  procured  from  the  [Brit- 
ish and  American  governments  aid  in  ships, 
and  accompanied  the  expeditions  which  sailed 
from  England  in  1^57  and  1858  for  the  purpose 
of  laying  the  cable  across  the  Atlantic  ocean. 
Twice  the  attempt  failed — ^ui  1857,  and  the  first 
time  in  1858.  The  third  attempt  proved  suc- 
cessful, and  in  August,  1858,  telegraphic  com- 
munication was  efl^bhshed  across  tiie  ocean. 
The  cable,  however,  worked  only  a  few  weeks, 
and  then  became  silent  To  resuscitate  the 
project  now  became  more  difficult  than  ever, 
as  the  public  had  lost  faith.  From  that  time 
it  was  kept  alive  only  by  the  ardent  faith  and 
indomitable  will  of  its  projector.  He  was  con- 
tinually passing  to  and  fro  between  America 
and  Europe,  inspiring  fresh  courage  and  gath- 
ering new  resources.  But  obstacles  multiplied, 
civil  war  broke  out  in  the  United  States,  and 
the  nation,  absorbed  in  its  own  affiurs,  had  no 
time  for  foreign  enterprises.  Thus  seven  years 
passed  away  before  the  attempt  was  renewed. 
But  at  last,  in  1865,  another  expedition  was 
prepared.  Submarine  telegraphy  had  been 
greatly  improved ;  a  better  cable  was  construct- 


178 


FIELD 


ed;  and  tbe  Great  Eaatem  took  it  on  board, 
and  suled  to  the  west.  Over  1,200  miles  had 
been  laid,  when  b;  a  sadden  lurch  of  the  ship 
the  cable  snapped  and  was  loHt  The  bottom 
of  the  aea  was  dragged  for  dajs  in  vain,  and 
the  expedition  returned  defeated  to  England. 
The  year  I8S6  mw  still  another  expedition, 
whieh  this  time  proved  succaeaful.  Tne  cable, 
2,000  milea  long,  was  eafely  stretched  acroKS 
the  ocean,  and  the  oommunication  proved  per- 
fect. After  landing  this  the  Great  Easteni  re- 
turned to  the  middle  of  the  ocean  in  search 
of  tlie  cable  lost  the  year  before,  and  after  a 
month's  labor  finally  snoceeded  in  grappling 
It  at  a  depth  of  two  miles  and  bringing  it  to 
tbe  surface,  and,  joining  it  to  the  cable  on 
board,  carried  it  safely  to  tbe  weat«ra  shore. 
Thna,  after  13  years  of  incessant  labor,  in 
which  he  bad  crossed  the  ocean  some  GO  times, 
Ut.  Field  saw  the  great  object  of  his  life  ac- 
complished. Congress  voted  nnanimonsly  to 
present  him  agold  medal,  with  the  thanks  of  the 
nation;  while  tbe  prime  minister  of  England 
declared  that  it  was  only  the  fact  that  he  was 
a  citizen  of  another  country  that  prevented 
his  receiving  high  honors  from  tbe  British 
government  John  Bright  pronoiinc«d  him 
"  the  Oolumbns  of  modem  times,  who  by  bis 
cable  had  moored  the  new  world  alongside  the 
old."  The  great  espowtdon  In  Paris  in  1867 
gave  him  the  grand  medal,  the  highest  prize 
it  had  to  bestow.  Since  that  year  two  other 
cables  have  been  saccessfolly  laid,  end  tele- 
graphic communication  across  the  Atlantic 
'  ocean  has  never  been  interrupted  for  a  single 
hour.  T>  Heiry  Martya,  an  American  clergy- 
man, brother  of  the  preceding,  born  at  Stock- 
bridge,  Mass.,  April  S,  1822.  He  graduated  at 
Williams  college  at  the  age  of  IS,  and  after 
four  years'  study  of  theology  became  paator  of 
t,  ohnrch  in  St  Lonis  in  1848.  After  five  years 
he  refflgned  his  charge  to  go  abroad.  In  1847- 
'8  he  was  in  Europe,  and  after  returning  be 

KuUished  a  historical  sketch  of  the  Italian  revo- 
itjons,  and  a  letter  fhnn  Rome  on  "  The 
Good  and  the  Bad  in  the  Soman  Catholic 
Ohnrch."  In  Jannary,  18G1,  he  was  settled  at 
West  Springfield,  Mass.,  whence  he  removed 
in  1864  to  New'  York,  to  become  one  of  the 
editors  of  the  "Evangelist,"  areligious  journal, 
of  which  be  subsequently  became  proprietor. 
In  1668  he  again  mode  a  tour  in  Europe,  which 
he  described  in  a  volume  entitled  "Summer 
Pictures  from  Copenhagen  to  Venice"  (New 
York,  1669).  In  1867  he  went  abroad  a^ain  to 
the  great  exposition  in  Paris,  and  as  a  delegate 
to  tbe  Free  cliurch  of  Scotland  and  the  Pres- 
byterian chnrcb  of  Ireland.  His  last  book  is 
a  "History  of  the  Atlantic  Telegraph."  He 
has  also  published  "The  Irish  Confederates,  a 
History  of  the  Rebellion  of  1798  "  (1851). 

FIELD,  Jiki,  a  British  composer,   bom  in 

Dnblin,  July  2S,  1782,  died  in  Moscow,  Jen. 

11,  1837.     His  father  was  a  violin  player  in 

&e  orchestra  of  the  Dnblin  theatre.    He  re- 

.  oeived.  his  first  instructions  upon  the  piono- 


FIELDFARE 

forte  from  hts  grandfather,  who  was  an  oi^an- 
ist  Subsequently  he  became  a  pupil  of  Mozio 
dementi,  whom  he  accompanied  to  Paris, 
Vienna,  and  finally  to  St  Petersburg,  where 
Field  took  up  his  residence,  remuning  after 
dementi's  departure  in  1804.  In  1822  he  re- 
moved to  Moseow,  where  as  at  tbe  former 
city  his  concorl«  were  attended  with  enoeesa 
and  pupils  flocked  to  him  in  great  nnmbers. 
He  visited  London  and  Paris  in  18S2,  proceeded 
thence  to  the  south  of  France,  passed  a  por- 
tion of  1834  and  1885  at  Naples,  where  he 
was  for  nine  months  in  a  hospital,  and  in  tbe 
latter  year  returned  to  Russia,  broken  down 
by  sickness  and  poverty,  the  result  of  hie  t^o 
besetting  faults,  idleness  and  intemperance. 
His  laziness  was  so  great  that  it  is  reUted  of 
him  that  when  he  dropped  bis  cane  in  tlie 
street  he  stood  till  some  good-natured  passer- 
by picked  it  up  for  him.  As  a  pianist  he  was 
almost  without  a  rival  in  respect  to  delicacy, 
poetic  feeling,  and  grace  of  style.  He  es- 
pecially excelled  in  the  finish  with  which  he 
rendered  the  works  of  Sebastian  Bach,  which 
he  made  popular  even  in  Paris.  Among  his 
chief  compoaitiona,  which  are  not  numerons, 
are  seven  concertos  for  piano  and  orchestra, 
three  sonatas  dedicated  to  Clementi,  and  18 
nocturnes.  Of  the  last  named  form  of  com- 
powtion,  afterward  so  extensively  used  by 
Chopin,  Ealkbrenner,  and  other  composers, 
Field  was  the  inventor ;  and  his  nocturnes  are 
the  most  popular  as  well  as  the  most  meri- 
torious of  nis  works. 

FIELDFIBE,  a  European  bird  of  the  thm^ 
family,  the  tvrdtu  pilarit  (Linn.),  In  form,  size, 
proportions  of  parts,  and  onaracters  of  the  pin- 


Fleld&n  (Turdui  pllnli). 

mage,  resemUbg  the  migratory  thmsb  or  Amer- 
ican robin  ( T.  mtgrattyritit,  Linn.).  The  length 
is  between  10  and  11  in.,  the  extent  of  wings 
17|,  the  tarsus  1^,  and  the  weight  abont  4  oz.; 
it  is  a  stout  bird,  and  from  its  long  tall  and 
wings  rather  elegant  in  form.    The  bill,  which 


FIELDING 


179 


is  that  of  the  thrashes,  is  orange  at  the  base 
and  brownish  black  at  the  end ;  the  inside  of 
the  month  is  orange,  the  edges  of  the  lids  jeh 
low,  the  iris  brown,  the  feet  and  claws  dasky ; 
the  head,  hind  neck,  and  rump  are  gray,  most 
of  the  feathers  on  the  first  with  a  central 
dusky  streak ;  a  space  before  the  eye  brown- 
ish black,  and  a  whitish  line  over  the  eye ;  the 
anterior  half  of  the  back  and  the  wing  coverts 
are  chestnut,  shading  behind  into  ash-gray;  fore 
neck  and  breast  yellowish  red,  with  elongated 
triangular  brownish  black  spots,  the  sides  paler 
with  broadly  rounded  spots ;  the  lower  breast 
and  abdomen  grayish  white  tinged  with  red; 
the  wings  are  grayish  black,  with  the  edges  of 
the  feathers  paler ;  tail  deeper  black,  the  lateral 
feathers  grayish  toward  the  end ;  the  lower 
wing  coverts  and  axillary  feathers  are  pure 
white,  conspicuous  during  flight.  The  specific 
name  is  derived  from  a  few  hairy  filaments 
on  the  occiput,  which  are  also  found  in  other 
species,  and  even  in  other  genera.  The  female 
very  closely  resembles  the  male.  The  above  is 
the  plumage  when  it  enters  Great  Britain  from 
the  continent ;  varieties  in  size  and  coloring  are 
met  with,  and  albinos  are  occasionally  seen. 
They  arrive  in  October  and  November,  and 
some  remain  until  the  following  spring  if  the 
season  is  mild ;  they  roost  in  trees  if  they  can, 
leaving  for  the  fields  at  early  dawn,  in  parties 
of  from  three  or  four  to  many  hundreds ;  their 
flight  is  easy  but  not  rapid,  and  theur  move- 
ments in  the  trees  and  on  the  ground  are  grace- 
ful; they  frequent  open  fields,  associating  often 
with  other  species,  and  are  generally  very  shy. 
The  food  consists  of  hawthorn  and  other  ber- 
ries, worms,  larv89,  insects,  seeds,  and  grains. 
They  generally  disappear  in  April  or  May,  re- 
tiring probably  in  summer  to  the  north  to 
breed;  the  nests  are  built  in  society,  usually  in 
fir  and  spruce  trees,  and  with  the  eggs,  five  or 
six  in  number,  resemble  those  of  the  blackbird. 
The  flesh  is  tender,  fat,  and  of  good  flavor; 
this  is  supposed  to  be  the  species  so  highly  es- 
teemed by  the  Romans. 

FUZ^DDTG,  Copley  Taidykc^  an  English  paint- 
er in  water  colors,  bom  about  1787,  died  in 
Worthing,  Sussex,  March  8,  1855.  He  be- 
longed to  a  family  of  artists,  and  his  first  pic- 
ture was  exhibited  in  1810.  He  early  became 
a  teacher,  and  acquired  many  pupils  and 
friends.  On  the  death  of  Joshua  Cristall,  he 
was  elected  president  of  the  old  society  of 
painters  in  water  colors,  which  ofl&ce  he  held 
till  his  death.  Fielding^s  favorite  subjects  were 
either  rich  wooded  landscapes,  or  ships  at  sea 
off  a  stonny  and  rock-bound  coast.  From  these 
two  types  he  seldom  varied.  His  manipulation 
was  peculiar,  but  it  represents  atmospheric  ef- 
fects with  great  freshjiess.  The  demand  for 
his  works  was  so  great  that  they  were  pro- 
duced too  rapidly,  and  fell  into  mannerism. 

FIELDIHG,  Benry,  an  English  novelist  and 
dramatist,  bom  at  Sharpham  Park,  near  Glas- 
tonbory,  Somersetshire,  April  22,  1707,  died  in 
Lisbon,  Oct.  8,  1754.    His  father  was  a  grand- 


son of  the  earl  of  Desmond,  and  great-grandson 
of  the  first  earl  of  Denbigh,  and  served  under 
Marlborough,  attaining  the  rank  of  lieutenant 
general  at  the  close  of  the  reign  of  George  I. 
The  family  of  the  Fieldings  is  stated  in  the 
English  peerages  (where  the  name  is  spelled 
FeUding)  to  be  descended  from  the  same  an- 
cestry as  the  imperial  house  of  Hapsburg.  The 
early  education  of  Fielding  was  intrusted  to 
the  care  of  the  Rev.  Mr.  Oliver,  a  private 
teacher  in  Gen.  Fielding^s  family,  and  who,  it 
is  said,  appears  in  ^^  Joseph  Andrews^'  as 
Parson  Trulliber.  He  received  but  little  bene- 
fit from  his  tutor,  and  was  sent  at  an  early  age 
to  Eton,  where  he  distinguished  himself  by  his 
brilliant  parts,  and  before  his  16th  year  had 
made  great  progress  in  classical  learning. 
From  Eton  he  was  sent  to  the  university  of 
Leyden,  where  he  applied  with  assiduity  to  his 
studies,  but  led  so  gay  a  life  that  his  father, 
who  had  taken  a  second  wife,  and  had  a  nu- 
merous family,  found  himself  unable  to  defray 
the  cost  of  his  son's  extravagance.  In  his  20th 
year  Fielding  was  compelled  to  return  to  Eng- 
land, and  was  at  once  thrown  upon  his  own 
resources,  with  a  fondness  for  costly  pleasures 
and  but  slender  means  of  paying  for  them. 
His  father  had  promised  him  an  allowance  of 
£200  per  annum ;  but  this,  as  Fielding  said, 
"  any  one  might  pay  who  would."  His  viva- 
^^^Ji  C^ood  humor,  and  talent  gained  him  the 
companionship  of  the  most  eminent  wits  of 
his  time;  and  after  he  arrived  in  London, 
while  yet  a  minor,  he  commenced  writing  for 
the  stage.  His  first  comedy,  ^^  Love  in  Sever- 
al Masques,"  was  produced  in  1727,  when  he 
was  but  20  years  of  age.  He  wrote  his  dra- 
matic pieces  with  great  rapidity,  and  threw  into 
them  a  marvellous  amount  of  wit  and  satire. 
As  the  pay  he  received  was  small,  the  neces- 
sity for  constant  production  left  him  little 
tinoe  to  make  elaborate  plots,  or  to  pay  much 
attention  to  the  characters  of  his  plays.  ^^  The 
Wedding  Day,"  one  of  his  most  successful 
comedies,  gained  him  but  £50,  and  his  voca- 
tion of  a  dramatist  brought  him  in  contact  with 
acquaintances  who  were  not  calculated  to  im- 
prove either  his  finances  or  his  morals.  In  the 
midst  of  his  gay  career,  while  living  from  hand 
to  mouth  by  his  pen,  and  writing  his  plays  on 
the  backs  of  his  tavern  bills,  he  formed  an  ac- 
quaintance with  Miss  Craddock  of  Salisbury, 
whom  he  married  in  his  27th  year.  As  his 
wife  had  a  fortune  of  but  £1,500,  the  financial 
condition  of  the  dramatist  was  not  much  im- 
proved by  his  marriage.  He  retired  to  a  small 
estate  in  the  country  which  he  had  inherited 
from  his  mother,  worth  about  £200  per  an- 
num. Ho  was  devotedly  attached  to  his 
young  bride,  and  made  serious  resolutions  of 
reform.  He  gave  up  writing  for  the  stage, 
having  produced  about  20  comedies,  farces, 
and  burlesques,  only  one  of  which,  the  bur- 
lesque of  '^  Tom  Thumb,"  has  kept  its  place  in 
the  theatre.  He  applied  himseilf  with  great 
vigor  to  literary  studies  in  his  country  retreat ; 


180 


FIELDING 


bnt  he  also  gave  himself  up  to  snch  pleasures 
as  the  country  afforded,  and  was  soon  insol- 
vent, and  compeUed  to  return  to  London  to 
retrieve  his  fortunes.  At  the  age  of  80  he  en- 
tered himself  a  student  at  the  Inner  Temple, 
studied  diligently,  and  in  due  course  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar.  But  repeated  attacks  of 
the  gout  compelling  him  to  abandon  legal 
practice,  he  a^ain  had  recourse  to  his  pen. 
He  renewed  his  connection  with  the  theatre, 
and  wrote  essays,  poems,  satires,  and  whatever 
else  the  taste  of  the  day  demanded,  for  literary 

Eeriodicals.  Though  he  could  no  longer  travel 
is  circuit,  he  turned  his  legal  acquirements  to 
account  by  preparing  a  work  on  crown  law, 
which  evinced  his  remarkable  capacity  for  pa- 
tient drudgery.  Failing  to  obtain  from  these 
sources  the  income  requisite  for  his  daily 
wants,  he  wrote  nearly  the  whole  of  the  liter- 
ary contents  of  the  ^*  Champion,'*  a  periodical 
which  is  now  only  known  from  his  contribu- 
tions. But  now  his  genius  was  first  attracted 
to  that  sphere  for  which  it  was  best  adapted, 
and  in  which  he  was  destined  to  secure  an  en- 
during fame.  His  first  novel,  ^^  Joseph  An- 
drews "  (1742),  professedly  in  the  manner  of 
Cervantes,  was  begun  as  a  burlesque  on  Rich- 
ardson's ^*  Pamela,"  which  was  then  the  most 
popular  novel  of  the  time.  Fielding's  work  is 
infinitely  better  than  the  author  intended  to 
make  it,  and,  if  his  fame  rested  upon  that 
work  alone,  he  would  be  remembered  while 
the  language  in  which  it  is  written  endures. 
In  1743  he  published  three  volumes  of  *^  Mis- 
cellanies," including  the  ^'Journey  from  this 
World  to  the  Next,"  a  work  which,  though 
incomplete,  and  seemingly  without  any  special 
plan,  exhibits  much  imagination  and  satirical 
power.  "The  History  of  Jonathan  Wild," 
which  appeared  about  the  same  time,  is  a  store- 
house of  wit,  profound  thought,  serious  satire, 
and  benevolence  so  genuine,  that  even  under 
the  guise  of  the  greatest  villains  we  are  made 
to  love  our  brother  man.  The  Newgate  or- 
dinary in  this  great  prose  satire  is  the  repre- 
sentative of  the  whole  class  of  worldly-minded 
ecclesiastics,  as  much  so  as  Macbeth  is  the  type 
of  unscrupulous  ambition,  or  Othello  of  noble 
Jealousy.  Shortly  after  the  publication  of 
"Joseph  Andrews,"  amid  an  accumulation  of 
illness,  broken  fortunes,  and  constant  disap- 
pointments, he  lost  his  wife,  whom  he  tender- 
ly loved  and  most  sincerely  mourned ;  though 
in  a  few  months  after  her  death  he  married  her 
maid,  an  act  curiously  apologized  for  by  his 
relative.  Lady  Mary  Wortley  Montagu.  Though 
he  had  faithfully  served  the  whig  party  with 
his  pen,  the  only  reward  he  received  was  his 
appointment,  in  his  42d  year,  when  his  consti- 
tution was  completely  broken,  as  an  acting 
magistrate  for  Westminster.  He  was  not  con- 
tent to  confine  himself  to  his  ofScial  duties,  but 
published  several  tracts  on  the  causes  of  crime 
and  pauperism  in  the  metropolis,  one  of  which 
may  be  regarded  as  the  first  temperance  tract 
ever  published ;  it  was  "  An  Inquiry  into  the 


Increase  of  Thieves  and  Robbers."  Robbery 
was  then  frightfully  prevalent,  and  he  attrib- 
uted it  to  the  great  consumption  of  gin.  Amid 
all  these  avocations  he  found  time  to  write  that 
greatest  of  dl  compositions  of  its  class,  "  Tom 
Jones,  or  the  History  of  a  Foimdling"  (1749). 
His  third  novel,  "The  History  of  Amelia," 
wherein  he  portrays  the  virtues  of  his  first 
wife  and  the  reckless  conduct  of  his  own  earlier 
years,  and  on  which  he  probably  bestowed 
more  careful  labor  than  on  any  of  his  other 
productions,  was  published  in  1752.  To  eke 
out  his  inconsiderable  income  from  his  official 
position  and  from  the  sale  of  his  writings,  he 
started  in  this  year  another  literary  underta- 
king, "The  Covent  Garden  Journal,  by  Sir 
Alexander  Drawcansir,  Knight,  Censor  Gene- 
ral of  Great  Britain."  He  now  undertook  as 
magistrate,  at  the  request  of  the  duke  of  New- 
castle, the  prime  minister,  to  extirpate  several 
gangs  of  ruffians  which  infested  London ;  and 
in  wis,  amid  great  bodily  suffering,  and  with 
very  meagre  pecuniary  aid,  he  completely  suc- 
ceeded. But  at  length  his  bodily  strength 
would  no  longer  sustain  the  burden  imposed 
upon  it ;  the  dropsy  with  which  he  had  long 
been  troubled  had  alarmingly  increased,  and 
he  was  induced  to  try  the  influence  of  a  change 
of  climate,  Lisbon  being  selected  as  the  most 
desirable  place  for  the  purpose.  He  left  Eng- 
land June  26,  1764.  The  journal  which  he 
kept  of  his  voyage  gives  a  most  touching  proof 
of  his  affectionate  and  noble  nature  in  detail- 
ing the  events  of  his  parting  with  his  family. 
Though  suffering  great  pain,  being  hardly  capa- 
ble of  moving  himself,  and  forced  to  be  continu- 
ally tapped,  his  intellect  retained  all  its  activity ; 
he  made  a  record  of  all  the  incidents  of  his  voy- 
age, and  he  furnishes  us  in  his  journal  the  best 
account  we  have  of  the  condition  of  shipping 
in  tibe  last  century,  and  of  the  inconveniences, 
troubles,  and  delays  to  which  those  were  sub- 
jected who  made  passages  by  sea.  The  climate 
of  Lisbon  did  not  agree  with  him,  and  he  died 
two  months  after  his  arrival,  leaving  behind 
him  his  second  wife  and  four  children,  all  of 
whom  were  generously  provided  for  by  his 
brother  Sir  John  Fielding,  aided  by  his  friend 
Allen,  the  original  of  Squire  A 11  worthy,  to 
whom  he  dedicated  "Tom  Jones,"  and  in  allu- 
sion to  whom  he  had  said,  if  a  letter  were  in- 
scribed simply  Detur  Optimo^  there  would  be 
few  persons  who  would  think  it  needed  any 
other  direction.  Great  as  were  the  literary 
labors  of  Fielding,  they  were  hardly  more  im- 
portant than  those  which  he  rendered  as  a 
police  magistrate,  in  reforming  the  laws,  and 
in  introducing  measures  for  the  extirpation  of 
thieves  and  desperadoes. — The  works  of  Field- 
ing have  passed  through  very  many  editions, 
the  principal  of  which  are  those  of  1762  (4  vols. 
4to  and  8  vols.  8vo,  London),  with  a  life  of  the 
author ;  1784  (10  vols.  8vo),  with  an  essay  on 
his  life  and  genius  by  Arthur  Murphy;  1821 
(10  vols.  8vo),  edited  by  Alexander  Chalmers; 
1640  (imp.  8vo),  with  a  life  and  notice  of  his 


FIELDING 


FIESOHI 


181 


works  by  Thomas  Boscoe;  "Select  Works," 
inth  a  memoir  by  Sir  Walter  Scott  (royal  8vo, 
Edinburgh,  1821);  and  that  edited  by  James 
P.  Brown  (10  vols.  8vo,  London,  1871).— See 
Thackeray^s  ^^  English  Humorists  of  the  Eigh- 
teenth Century  "  (London,  1863). 

FlELDOfG,  Sttnkf  an  English  authoress,  sister 
of  the  preceding,  bom  in  1714,  died  in  Bath  in 
1768.  Her  principal  Works  are  "  The  Adven- 
tares  of  David  Simple  in  search  of  a  Faithful 
Friend"  (2  vols.  12mo,  London,  1744;  a  3d 
vol.  added  in  1752);  "  History  of  the  Countess 
of  Delwyn;"  "History  of  Ophelia"  (2  vols. 
12mo,  1785);  and  "Lives  of  Cleopatra  and 
Octavia."  In  1762  she  published  a  translation 
of  ^*  Xenophon's  Memorabilia  of  Socrates,  with 
the  Defence  of  Socrates  before  his  Judges,"  in 
which  she  was  assisted  by  Mr.  Harris. 

FIELD  HASSHAL.    See  Mabshal. 

FlHiD  MOUSE.    See  Mouse. 

Fields^  Jibcs  ThMia%  an  American  author 
Bod  publisher,  bom  at  Portsmouth,  N.  H., 
Dec.  31,  1817.  He  was  educated  at  the  high 
school  of  his  native  city,  and  at  the  age  of  14 
went  to  Boston  to  become  a  clerk  in  a  book 
store;  At  18  he  was  invited  to  deliver  the 
anniversary  poem  before  the  Boston  mercantile 
library  association,  Edward  Everett  being  the 
orator  of  the  occasion.  Twelve  years  later  he 
read  before  the  same  society  a  poem  entitled 
"The  Post  of  Honor,"  the  oration  being  by 
Daniel  Webster.  Soon  after  he  reached  the 
age  of  21  Mr.  Fields  became  a  partner  in  the 
bookselling  firm  of  Ticknor,  Reed,  and  Fields, 
which  about  1844  by  the  withdrawal  of  Mr. 
Reed  became  the  house  of  Ticknor  and  Fields, 
and  was  soon  honorably  distinguished  by  the 
high  character  of  its  publications,  especially  of 
poetry.  Among  the  American  authors  whose 
w<M>ks  it  issued  were  Emerson,  Hawthorne, 
Holmes,  Longfellow,  Lowell,  Thoreau,  and 
Whittier.  Mr.  Ticknor  died  in  1864,  and  the 
firm  became  Fields,  Osgood,  and  co.  In  1870 
Mr.  Fields  withdrew  from  it  to  devote  him- 
self to  authorship  and  to  public  lecturing. 
While  a  publisher  he  collected  and  edited  in 
22  vols,  the  writings  of  Thomas  De  Quincey. 
For  several  years  he  edited  the  "  Atlantic 
Monthly.**  In  1849  he  published  a  volume  of 
his  poems,  in  1854  printed  another  for  private 
distribution,  and  in  1858  a  third  entitled  "A 
Few  Verses  for  a  Few  Friends."  His  latest 
publication  is  a  volume  of  prose  sketches  of 
hia  literary  friends,  entitled  "  Yesterdays  with 
Authors  "  (1873).  In  November,  1878,  he  de- 
livered six  lectures  on  modem  English  lite- 
rature before  the  Lowell  institute  at  Boston. 
He  visited  Europe  in  1848,  1851,  and  1869. 

FIERI  FiCIiS)  the  name  of  a  writ  at  common 
law,  so  ancient  that  its  origin  is  unknown.  By 
it  a  ahenff^  or  other  competent  officer  to  whom 
it  was  directed,  was  ordered  quad  fieri  faciaSy 
de  terrii  et  eatallU  (or  ds  honU  et  catallu), 
^'that  you  cause  to  be  made  out  of  the  lands 
and  chattels,"  or  "the  goods  and  chattels  of," 
&C.,  a  certain  sum  of  money,  being  that  to 


which  the  party  for  whom  the  writ  was  issued 
was  entitled  by  the  judgment  of  court ;  and  it 
noiay  be  remarked  that  the  only  regular  founda- 
tion for  the  writ  of  fieri  facias  is  a  judgment 
of  court.  It  is  in  fact  the  great  writ  of  exe- 
cution in  general,  though  not  exclusive,  use 
throughout  the  United  States,  and  is  often 
spoken,  or  at  least  written  of,  by  way  of  abbre- 
viation, as  a  j^.  fa.  By  virtue  of  it  the  officer 
to  whom  it  is  directed  will  obtain  from  the 
property  of  him  against  whom  it  is  directed 
enough  to  satisfy  the  amount  of  debt  or  dam- 
ages and  costs,  which  are  always  specifically 
stated  in  the  writ.  The  rights  which  this  writ 
confers  upon  the  officer,  and  the  manner  in 
which  he  is  to  exercise  them,  are  to  some  ex- 
tent matters  of  statutory  regulation.  In  gen- 
eral it  may  be  said  that  he  must  not  obtain  an 
entrance  to  a  dwelling  by  breaking  an  outer 
door  or  window ;  and  it  was  mainly  from  this 
rule  that  there  grew  up,  with  the  aid  of  a  little 
rhetoric,  the  famous  apothegm  that  "every 
Englishman's  house  was  his  castle."  But  he 
may  break  the  outer  door  of  a  building  dis- 
connected with  a  dwelling  house,  as  a  bam  or 
store  ;^  and  being  peadeably,  by  voluntary  ad- 
mission or  by  entry  without  opposition,  within 
a  dwelling  house,  the  sheriff  may  break  open 
inner  doors,  or  chests  or  boxes,  in  search  of 
goods ;  and  it  is  said  that  he  may  do  this  with- 
out the  ceremony  of  asking  that  they  be  opened. 

FliSCHI  (singular  Fiesco),  one  of  the  four 
principal  families  of  Genoa  and  its  territory, 
said  to  be  of  Bavarian  origin.  Tlie  Fiesohi 
and  Grimaldis  adhered  to  the  Guelphs,  the 
Dorias  and  Spinolas  to  the  Ghibellmes.  Their 
rivalries  occasioned  frequent  wars  in  the  re- 
public of  Genoa  between  the  11th  and  16th 
centuries,  when  the  failure  of  the  conspiracy 
against  the  Dorias  drove  the  elder  branch  of 
the  Fieschi  into  France,  and  left  the  younger 
poor  and  powerless.  They  defied  the  authority 
of  the  city  in  an  obstinate  struggle  in  the  early 
part  of  the  12th  century,  but  finally  their  castles 
were  captured  and  destroyed,  and  they  sub- 
mitted.. In  1160  the  republic  granted  them 
the  privilege  of  erecting  a  palace  in  Genoa; 
and  in  1191  they  resigned  to  the  republic  their 
castle  of  Lavagna  and  their  other  fiefs,  in  re- 
turn for  which  they  received  the  right  of  citi- 
zenship and  nobility.  The  Fieschi  family  has 
produced  two  popes.  Innocent  lY.  and  Adrian 
V .,  and  a  large  number  of  cardinals,  patriarchs, 
archbishops,  and  bishops,  besides  statesmen 
and  warriors.    (See  Fiesco.) 

FliSCHI,  Jesepli  Marie,  a  French  conspirator, 
hpm  in  Corsica  in  1790,  executed  in  Paris, 
Feb.  19, 1886.  He  served  in  the  Russian  cam- 
paign, and  left  the  army  in  1814  with  the  grade 
of  sergeant.  Subsequently  joining  Murat^s  fa' 
tal  expedition  to  Calabria,  he  was  spared  by  the 
Neapolitans  as  a  Frenchman.  From  1816  to 
1826  he  served  a  term  in  the  penitentiary  at 
Embrun  for  cattle  stealing  and  forgery.  He 
afterward  went  to  Paris,  obtained  employment 
in  a  manufactory  near  the  Gobelins,  and  also 


182 


FIESCO 


FIFESHIRE 


served  as  a  policeman  and  a  spy.  Convicted 
of  having  misappropriated  funds  intrusted  to 
him  as  foreman,  and  of  other  misdemeanors, 
he  led  a  miserable  life  till  1835,  when  he  de- 
vised  an  infernal  machine,  with  25  gun  barrels 
and  many  projectiles,  for  the  assassination  of 
Louis  Philippe.  His  accomplices  were  Morey, 
a  saddler,  and  Pepin,  a  grocer,  the  latter  sup- 

§  lying  him  with  money.  Tkey  hired  the  third 
oor  of  a  house  in  the  boulevard  du  Temple, 
where  Fieschi  took  up  his  quarters  to  await 
the  passing  of  the  king;  a  fourth  accomplice, 
Boireau,  a  lamp  maker,  undertaking  to  act  as 
watcher.  The  king,  while  holding  a  great 
military  review  on  July  28, 1885,  in  celebration 
of  the  fifth  anniversary  of  the  revolution  of 
1880,  passed  the  house,  in  the  midst  of  an  im- 
mense crowd,  accompanied  by  three  of  his 
sons,  when  the  explosion  took  place,  which 
killed  Marslial  Mortier,  duke  of  Treviso,  chief 
of  the  royal  staff.  Gen.  Lachasse  de  Y^rigny, 
and  Lieut.  Col.  Rieussec.  Altogether  11  per- 
sons were  killed  on  the  spot,  7  more  died  soon 
afterward,  and  22  were  wounded.  The  king 
and  the  princes  escaped  with  some  slight  con- 
tusions caused  by  the  rearing  of  the  horses. 
Fieschi,  wounded  and  covered  with  blood, 
escaped  upon  the  roof  of  the  house,  and  thence 
into  a  neighboring  courtyard ;  but  here  he  was 
arrested,  and  was  long  under  medical  treat- 
ment On  his  recovery  he  attempted  to  make 
light  of  the  affair  and  to  deny  his  crime,  but 
finally  confessed  and  named  as  his  accomplices 
Morey,  Pepin,  Boireau,  and  one  Bescher.  The 
last  was  acQuitted.  Boireau  was  condemned 
to  20  years'  transportation ;  Fieschi,  Morey, 
and  Pepin  were  sentenced  to  death.  During 
the  triaJ  Fieschi  bore  himself  like  a  stage  bri- 
gand, continually  waving  kisses  to  his  mistress ; 
and  after  the  execution  of  Pepin  and  Morey, 
he  continued  to  trifle  and  attitudinize  at  the 
foot  of  the  scaffold.— See  Proeh  de  Fieschi  (8 
vols.,  Paris,  1886). 

FIEB€0,  CiaTainl  Lalgl)  count  of  Lavagna,  a 
conspirator  of  Genoa,  bom  there  about  1524, 
drowned  Jan.  2,  1547.  Wealthy,  accomplish- 
ed, and  of  high  rank,  he  evinced  from  his  earli- 
est youth  an  insatiable  lust  of  power,  and  suc- 
ceeded in  making  himself  popular  with  the 
common  people.  Andrea  Doria  was  at  that 
time  the  ruler  of  Genoa,  and  although  Fiesco 
was  not  so  much  opposed  to  Andrea  as  per- 
sonally exasperated  against  his  nephew  Gian- 
nettino  (who  was  allowed  a  precedence  of 
rank  which  was  due  to  himself),  he  instiga- 
ted, in  concert  with  Galcagno,  Yerrina,  Sacco, 
and  other  discontented  politicians,  a  conspir- 
acy with  the  view  of  overthrowing  the  exist- 
ing government  The  rebellion  broke  out 
in  the  night  of  Jan.  1-2,  1547.  Giannettino 
Doria  was  killed,  but  his  uncle  the  doge  es- 
caped. Fiesco  himself  fell  into  the  water 
and  was  drowned  while  going  on  board  a  gal- 
ley in  the  port  of  Genoa,  and  his  death  put  an 
end  to  the  outbreak.  The  life  of  his  widow 
was  spared,  but  two  of  his  brothers,  Geronimo 


and  Ottoboni,  were  put  to  death,  and  the  other 
leaders  of  the  revolt  had  their  property  con- 
fiscated and  were  banished  by  the  doge,  al- 
though an  amnesty  had  been  originally  granted 
to  them  by  the  senate.  An  account  of  the 
conspiracy  of  Fiesco  was  written  in  1629  by 
Augustino  Mascardi,  and  after  him  by  Cardinal 
de  Retz.  It  also  forms  the  subject  of  Schiller's 
tragedy,  Fiesco. 

FIESbLE  (anc.  FiBiula\  a  town  of  Italy,  in 
the  province  and  8i  m.  N.  £.  of  the  city  of 
Florence,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  an  un- 
interrupted chain  of  villas ;  pop.  about  2,500. 
It  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop,  ana  has  a  cathedral 
and  an  episcopal  seminary.  In  antiquity  Fs- 
sulss  was  one  of  the  chief  towns  of  Etruris. 
8ulla'  established  there  a  military  colony,  and 
the  town  was  the  headquarters  of  Catiline  after 
his  escape  from  Rome.  In  A.  D.  405  the  Ro- 
man general  Stilicho  gained  near  it  a  great 
victory  over  the  barbarians  under  Radagaisus. 
In  1010  it  was  dismantled  and  destroyed  by  the 
Florentines. 

FIESOLE,  €tovaul  AigeHco  da.   SeeAsoBuoo. 

nfivfiE,  Jtseph,  a  French  politician  and  au- 
thor, bom  in  Paris,  April  8, 1767,  died  there, 
May  7,  1889.  He  lost  his  father  at  an  early 
age,  and  was  apprenticed  in  a  printing  ofiSce, 
devoting  himself  also  to  literature  and  poli- 
tics. He  embraced  the  principles  of  the  revo> 
lution  in  1789,  and  assisted  Condorcet  and 
Millin  in  editing  the  Chronique  de  Paris,  Dis- 
gusted with  the  excesses  of  the  terrorists,  to 
whose  downfall  he  contributed  in  1794,  he  en- 
tered in  1795  upon  a  course  of  royalist  partisan- 
ship, and  was  proscribed  by  the  revolutionists, 
imprisoned  in  1799,  and  restored  to  liberty  on 
the  18th  Brumaire.  In  1802  he  was  sent  by 
Napoleon  upon  a  delicate  mission  to  England, 
and  on  his  return  published  a  volume  of  letters 
concerning  that  country.  In  1810  he  was  sent 
to  Hamburg  to  examine  the  operations  of  cer- 
tain agents,  and  under  the  first  restoration  was 
prefect  of  the  department  of  Nidvre,  from 
which  post  he  was  dismissed  by  Napoleon  on 
his  return  from  Elba.  He  afterward  took  part 
in  editing  several  royalist  journals,  and  espe- 
cially contributed  by  his  skill  in  polemics  to 
the  power  of  the  Journal  dee  Dihats.  He 
wrote  several  romances,  remarkable  for  grace 
and  simplicity,  publi^ed  a  pamphlet  in  1795, 
Sur  la  necessite  a*une  relipon^  which  first  gave 
him  a  leading  position  in  the  religious  and 
monarchical  party,  and  left  a  great  number  of 
political  treatises. 

FIFESHIUB,  a  peninsular  county  of  Scotland, 
bounded  N.,  E.,  and  S.  by  the  frith  of  Tay,  the 
North  sea,  and  the  frith  of  Forth,  and  W.  by 
the  counties  of  Clackmannan,  Perth,  and  Kin- 
ross; area,  518  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  160,810. 
The  surface  of  the  county  is  much  diversified. 
The  chief  mountains  are  the  Lomond  hills,  Lar- 
go Law,  and  Norman  Law.  The  soil  is  of  vari- 
ous quality,  but  so  productive  in  general  that 
fully  two  thirds  of  the  whole  is  under  cultiva- 
tion.   Agriculture  is  in  a  very  advanced  state. 


The  Fife  breed  of  cattle  liave  long  b«en  cele- 
brated, and  are  in  hi^h  repnte  both  at  home 
and  in  the  English  markets.  Coal,  iron,  lime- 
(tone,  and  freestone  are  abnndant.  Coal  haa 
been  worked  for  several  centuries,  bat  iroo- 
stone,  eepeciallj  that  oalled  blaokbood,  i»  of 
recent  diacoverr.  Tbe  principal  manataotnre 
is  linen,  which  ia  carried  on  vei?  estenairely 
at  Danfermllne  and  Kirkcaldy.  There  are  aal- 
men  Saheriee  in  several  of  the  rivers,  and  her- 
ring, cod,  tnrbot,  and  haddock  fisheriee  on  the 
coasts.  The  principal  towns  are  Dunfermline, 
Kirkcaldy,  Cnpar,  Djaart,  and  St.  Andrews. 

nc,  the  frait  of  the  Jhiu  cariea  (Linn.),  a 
tree  which  is  indigenoos  to  Asia  and  Bar- 
barj,  and  is  much  cultivated  in  the  warmer 
portions  of  the  globe.  The  leaves  of  the  Sg 
tree  are  roogh,  lobed,  and  deciduous.  The 
flowers  an  so  cnrionsl;  oonoealed  from  ob- 
tervatioo,  that  many  pereons  think  it  has 
none,  though  they  are  very  namerona,  being 
bwne  inside  of  a  SDOColent,  hollow  receptacle, 


<rhich  first  appears  on  the  sides  of  the  yonng 
ihoots  like  a  small  round  bad.  This  receptacle 
19  called  a  lyeonu,  and  on  being  cut  open  the 
miTiiite,  chafiy,  apetalons  floret«,  each  fumidied 
*ith  three  stainens  and  two  styles,  will  be  seen 
lining  ita  walla.  If  these  fiorets  have  become 
duly  impregnated,  the  sycorus,  after  having  re- 
nuined  entirely  at  rest  for  some  time  at  half 
ill  {^wtb,  b^ns  to  swell  agun,  augmenta 
omaderably  in  size,  becomea  very  pnlpy  and 
tveet  when  it  ripens,  assumes  some  kind  of 
Folor,  and  is  the  fig.  Tlie  pnlpy,  sweet  mass 
Kill  be  fonnd  to  be  penetrated  with  small  ronnd 
ueda,  each  of  which  is  the  result  of  a  minute 
chaffy  floret  The  fig  tree  attains  a  height  of 
2Q  ft.,  with  a  branching,  spreading  head,  like 
ui  apple  tree,  in  those  oonntiies  where  it  is 
iodigenonB ;  but  in  northern  countries  it  is  sel- 
doDi  seen  except  as  a  sbrub.nnleaB  when  trained 
under  giass.  In  the  middle  statea,  where  cnl- 
tirited  In  the  open  air,  it  is  purposely  kept 
low  and  shrub-like,  so  that  it  may  be  bent  to 


the  ground  and  covered  with  earth  in  the  win- 
ter, to  protect  it  from  ftosts.  In  England  tbe 
tree  is  usually  planted  against  a  low  wall,  in 
order  that  it  may  receive  some  of  the  heat  re- 
flected from  the  surface  of  tbe  soil.  Such  walls 
are  sometimes  flirnished  with  fiues  to  conduct 
artificial  heat  to  the  ripening  crops  of  figs  in 
autumn.  In  some  parts  of  France  it  is  grown 
as  a  dwarf  standard  tree,  the  chief  end  being 
to  keep  the  branches  shorty  low,  and  spreading, 
in  order  that  they  may  benefit  by  tbe  sun's 
rays  reflecting  heat  from  the  earth.  Tlie  soil 
is  manured  occasionally  and  stirred  once  a  year, 
and  some  slight  protection  is  given  to  the  lower 
branches  and  base  of  the  trunk  in  tbe  winter. 
In  the  south  of  England  it  has  been  treated  in 
the  some  way  with  success.  Two  or  more 
crops  of  fruit  are  produced  from  the  fig  tree  by 
JDdicions  pruning  and  trmning,  each  crop  being 
prodnced  on  distinct  seta  of  shoots.  The  second 
crop,  forinstanoe,  grows  from  the  eyes  or  buds 
of  the  shoots  mode  in  early  summer,  and  if  the 
season  be  sufficiently  long  and  warm,  tbe  fruit 
willripen;  but  this  seldiffn  happens  in  the  open 
air.  In  hot  climates  the  second  crop  is  tlie 
moat  prolific  and  Tolnabie,  being  what  are 
called  snmmer  figs,  and  used  for  exportation. 
By  continued  high  temperature  eight  crops  a 
year  have  been  produced  in  England.— The 
fig  tree  ^s  easily  propagated  from  cuttings,  or 
by  rin^ng  some  brancn  and  surroundiug  the 
cut  place  by  a  small  pot  of  earth,  into  which 
the  roots  will  penetrate  and  increase  to  such 
extent  that  the  branch  may  be  separated  be- 
fore the  frnit  upon  it  has  ripened.  Branohes 
also  girdled  by  removing  a  narrow  ring  of  the 
bark  below  the  frnit-bearing  parts,  will  produce 
earlier  ripening  figs,  the  process  being  fonnd 
as  safe  and  efnoaoiotis  as  with  the  pear  tree 
or  tbe  grape  vine.  It  is  cultivated  to  a  con- 
siderable extent  around  Boston,  Mass.,  in  con* 
servatories  and  forcing  houses  snch  as  are  nsed 
in  the  cultivation  of  foreign  grapes.  Trained 
npon  tbe  back  wall  of  snch  structures,  by  using 
espaliers  or  by  nailing  in  the  branches,  a  single 
tree  may  be  made  to  produce  large  crops.  The 
branches  are  spread  out  horieontally,  and  so 
arranged  that  they  can  be  loosened  from  the 
walls,  pruned,  washed,  and  cleaned  when  ne- 
cessary. Judicious  management  is  important 
to  prevent  too  great  growdi  of  young  or  useless 
shoots.  By  this  mode  two  crops  are  seonred. — 
There  are  many  choice  varieties  of  the  fig,  each 
having  some  peculiar  meriL  The  London  hor- 
ticultural society's  catalogue  for  1842  gives  42 
varieties,  and  in  this  number  are  comprised 
fhiitsof  white,  green,  yellow,  and  brown  oolors. 
As  an  abundant  bearer,  and  hardier  than  any 
other,  tbe  brown  Turkey  fig  aeeraa  to  be  pre- 
ferred. Downing  considers  it  tbe  best  for  the 
open  air,  and  says  that  it  has  a  delicious  fiavor. 
The  brown  Iscbio,  white  Maraeillea,  Brunswick, 
and  white  Ischia  ore  highly  commended.  The 
fresh  ripened  fig  ia  delicious  and  iuacious.  Few, 
however,  fancy  it  on  first  acquaintance,  but 
experience  soon  decides  in  its  favor  over  the 


184 


FIGEAO 


FILANGIEEI 


dried  and  pressed  fruit  of  commerce.  Nearly 
all  the  figs  consumed  in  the  United  States  and 
Great  Britain  are  produced  in  Turkey. — ^The 
genus  ^fictta  includes  also  the  banian  and  the 
East  India  rubber  tree. 

FI6EAC,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  department 
of  Lot,  on  the  railway  from  P^rigueux  to  Ro- 
dez,  in  a  deep  valley  of  the  0616  or  Selle,  an 
affluent  of  the  Lot,  80  m.  K.  £.  of  Cahors; 
pop.  in  1866,  7,610.  It  has  a  communal  col- 
lege, a  library,  a  chamber  of  agriculture,  a 
magnificent  bridge,  a  railway  tunnel  4,100  ft. 
long,  manufactures  of  linen  and  cotton  fabrics, 
dyeing  houses,  tanneries,  &c.,  and  some  trade 
in  wine  and  cattle.  It  is  supposed  to  owe  its 
origin  to  a  Benedictine  abbey,  founded  in  765 
by  Pepin  the  Short.  It  is  the  birthplace  of 
the  Champollions,  to  the  younger  of  whom  a 
statue  has  been  erected. 

FIGVEBiS^  a  town  of  Spain,  in  the  province 
of  Gerona,  Catalonia,  situated  on  the  road  from 
Perpignan  to  Barcelona,  21  m.  N.  N.  £.  of 
Gerona  and  14  m.  from  the  French  frontier ; 
pop.  about  10,600.  The  citadel  or  castle  of  San 
Fernando  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  strongest 
fortresses  of  Spain.  It  was  built  about  the 
middle  of  the  18th  century,  and  will  serve  as 
an  intrenched  camp  for  16,000  men.  It  was, 
however,  captured  by  the  French  in  1808,  re- 
taken by  the  Spaniards  in  1811,  again  captured 
by  the  Fi'ench  in  the  same  year,  and  also  in  1828. 

FIGCEIUS,  Estanidao,  a  Spanish  statesman, 
born  in  Barcelona,  Nov.  18, 1810.  After  com- 
pleting his  studies  he  espoused  the  ultra  liberal 
cause,  but  subsequently  separated  himself  from 
it  and  became  one  of  the  editors  of  a  journal 
which  supported  Espartero.  In  1861  he  was 
elected  to  the  cortes ;  in  1854  he  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Tarragona  revolutionary  committee, 
and  in  1862  was  reelected  to  the  cortes.  He 
was  connected  with  the  revolutionary  attempts 
in  1866,  and  was  imprisoned  by  Narvaez  in 
1867.  After  the  downfall  of  Isabella  (1868) 
he  became  a  member  of  the  revolutionary  com- 
mittee and  Judge.  Subsequently  he  was  again 
sent  to  the  cortes,  where  ne  became  a  promi- 
nent leader  of  the  republican  party,  and  after 
the  abdication  of  King  Amadeus  (Feb.  11, 
1878),  and  the  formation  of  the  republic,  he 
was  appointed  president  of  the  executive  coun- 
cil. Subsequently  he  was  minister  of  the  in- 
terior until  the  end  of  April,  when  he  retured 
on  occasion  of  the  death  of  his  wife. 

FIGDEROi.  I.  FnmclMO  de,  a  Spanish  poet, 
bom  at  A  leal  &  de  Henares  about  1540,  died 
about  1620.  He  received  a  univernty  education, 
served  in  the  army,  and  in  1679  accompanied 
Carlos  of  Aragon,  duke  of  Terranova,  to  Flan- 
ders. He  wrote  in  Italian  and  in  Spanish,  and 
was  called  ^^  the  divine  poet."  His  eclogue  of 
TirH  (his  nom  de  plume)  contains  the  first  good 
Spanish  blank  verse.  His  poems,  first  pulHish- 
ed  in  1626-^6,  were  republished  in  Kamon  Fer- 
nandez's collection  (Madrid,  1785-1804).  II. 
Cristdval  Saam  de^  a  Spanish  author,  born  in 
Yalladolid  about  1580,  died  about  1660.    He 


was  a  Jurist  and  a  soldier,  and  resided  for  a 
long  time  in  Italy.  His  principal  works  are : 
La  eonstante  Amarilia^  a  pastoral  romance  in 
prose  and  verse  (Valencia,  1609 ;  French  trans- 
lation, 1614;  8d  and  best  Spanish  edition,  Ma- 
drid, 1781);  £1  pasagero  (Madrid,  1617),  a 
half  narrative,  half  didactic  work,  containing 
his  autobiography  and  severe  attacks  on  Cer- 
vantes, Lope  de  Vega,  and  other  dramatists; 
and  Plcusa  universal  de  todas  eiencias  y  arU» 
(Madrid,  1616 ;  new  and  enlarged  ed.,  1737). 

FWVliBB,  GiUlauM  Uiis,  a  French  writer  on 
scientific  subjects,  bom  in  Montpellierf  Feb.  16, 
1819.  He  studied  chemistry  under  his  uncle 
Pierre  Oscar  Figuier,  became  a  physician  in 
Paris  in  1842,  professor  of  pharmacy  in  Mont- 
pellier  in  1846  and  in  Paris  in  1868,  and  wrote 
numerous  scientific  articles  for  the  press. 
Among  his  many  works  are:  Bxpoiitum  et 
hutoire  dea  prineipales  decouvertea  aciefitifiqvea 
modemes  (4  vols.,  1861-'7;  6th  ed.,  1862); 
Hietoire  du  merveUleux  dans  lea  tempa  modemea 
(4  vols.,  1869-^62);  ilnd  Viedeaaavantailluatrea 
depuia  Vantiguite  juaqu*au  XIX*  aiSde  ^1866). 
Among  recent  English  translations  of  his  wri- 
tings are  the  following:  "The  World  before 
the  Deluge"  (new  ed.,  1  vol.,  1866);  "The 
Vegetable  World  "  (1867)  ;  "  The  Ocean 
World  "  (1868) ;  "  The  Insect  World  "  (1868) ; 
"Birds  and  ReptUes"  (1870);  "Mammalia" 
(1870);  "Primitive  Man"  '(1870);  "To-mor- 
row of  Death"  (1871);  and  "The  Human 
Race  "  (1872).  These  works  are  copiously  il- 
lustrated, and  have  been  widely  circulated  in 
the  United  States.  M.  Figuier  edits  L* Annie 
aeientijfi^ue  et  induatrielle,  which  has  led  to  the 
publication  of  many  similar  annuals. — ^His  wife, 
JiTLiBTTE  BoiTSOABET,  has  published  novels^  and 
a  drama,  Gutenberg  (1869). 

FILANGIEKL  I.  MStmo,  an  Italian  publicist, 
bom  in  Naples,  Aug.  18,  1762,  died  July  21, 
1788.  From  1777  he  held  various  ofiSces  at 
court,  and  in  1787  he  was  called  to  the  supreme 
council  of  finance.  His  principal  work  is  the 
Seienaa  della  legialaaione^  the  first  four  books 
of  which  were  published  between  1780  and 
1784,  and  the  fifth  was  left  unfinished  at  his 
death,  caused  prematurely  by  his-excesrave 
labors.  The  Scienaa  hAs  been  translated  into 
German,  French,  English,  and  Spanish.  IL 
€arl«,  duke  of  Taormina,  son  of  the  preceding, 
bom  in  Naples  in  1788,  died  in  1867.  He  was 
indebted  for  his  military  education  at  Paris  to 
the  loudness  of  Napoleon  I.,  fought  in  the  ranks 
of  the  French  at  the  battle  of  Austerlitz,  served 
in  the  Neapolitan  army  under  Murat,  and  brave- 
ly exposed  himself  to  the  fire  of  the  Austrian 
riflemen  in  1816  by  making  a  reconnoissance 
at  the  bridge  of  the  Tanaro  with  only  80  men, 
on  which  occasion  he  was  severely  wounded. 
King  Ferdinand  II.  placed  him  at  the  head  of 
the  artillery  and  of  the  engineers,  employed 
him  in  1848  in  bombarding  Messina  and  in 
quelling  the  rebellion  in  other  parts  of  Sicily, 
and  invested  him  as  governor  general  of  that 
island  with  unlimited  power.    During  the  short 


FILBERT 


FILLMORE 


185 


reign  of  Francis  IT.  (1859-^60)  he  was  premier 
and  minister  of  foreign  affiurs. 

FILBEBT*    See  Hazel. 

FIUBIJ81BL  The  river  Ylj  in  Holland  is 
said  to  have  famished  the  name  fly  boat  in  Eng- 
lish, in  Sp&msh  fliboUy  or  by  a  softening  of  the 
first  syllable  ^Zi^oto,  to  a  sort  of  small  fast-sail- 
ing vessel  of  abont  100  tons  burden,  which  in 
the  17th  century  held  in  point  of  sailing  quali- 
ties the  place  since  occupied  by  the  Baltimore 
clippers.  The  buccaneers  of  the  West  Indies, 
who  began  their  depredations  against  Spanish 
commerce  in  mere  row  boats,  as  they  acquired 
the  means  for  a  more  formidable  outfit,  select- 
ed these  vessels  as  the  sort  of  craft  best  suited 
to  their  purpose.  (See  Buooansbb.)  Hence 
they  became  known  in  French  as  Jlibitstiers, 
and  in  Spanish  as  JilibiisteroSy  an  appellation 
gradually  extended  in  those  languages  to  any 
kind  of  pirates.  The  term  filibuster  has  re- 
cently be«n  introduced  into  the  English  lan- 
guage— ^its  use  commencing  in  New  Orleans, 
bat  thence  rapidly  spreading  wherever  English 
is  spoken — as  a  designation  for  certain  adven- 
tnrers  who,  after  the  termination  of  the  war 
between  Mexico  and  the  United  States,  busied 
themselves  with  setting  on  foot  within  the 
United  States  military  expeditions  designed  to 
operate  in  the  Spanish  American  countries  to 
the  south  of  us.  Of  these  the  expeditions  un- 
der William  Walker  to  Nicaragua  we^e  the 
most  noted. — Filibustering  is  a  cant  term  much 
used  of  late  years  in  the  legislative  assem- 
blies of  the  United  States  to  designate  the 
employment  of  parliamentary  tactics  to  defeat 
s  measure  by  raising  frivolous  questions  of 
order,  calls  of  the  house,  motions  to  adjourn, 
&c.,  in  order  to  weary  out  the  opposite  party, 
or  to  gain  time. 

FILICUA,  ¥lMMxt  4%  an  Italian  lyric  poet, 
bom  in  Florence  in  1642,  died  there,  Sept.  24, 
1707.  His  grand&ther  and  father  were  sena- 
tors, and  he  was  educated  with  a  view  to  that 
position*  He  studied  Greek  and  Roman  an- 
tiquity, philosophy,  theology,  and  Jurispru- 
dence, indulging  in  poetry  only  as  a  relaxation 
from  severer  pursuits.  He  began  with  amatory 
verses,  but  the  object  of  his  a&ections  dying  in 
her  youth,  he  determined  thenceforth  to  write 
only  on  sacred  or  heroic  themes.  After  his 
marriage,  having  only  a  small  fortune,  he  re- 
tired to  the  country  and  gave  his  attention  to 
the  education  of  his  children  and  to  study.  At 
this  time  he  wrote  many  Latin  and  Italian 
poems,  but  without  any  intention  of  publishing 
them.  After  the  raising  of  the  siege  of  Vienna 
by  the  Turks  in  1683,  he  celebrated  the  tri- 
umph of  the  Christian  arms  by  elegant  odes 
Addressed  to  John  Sobieski,  to  the  emperor 
Leopold,  to  the  duke  of  Lorraine,  to  the  God 
of  armies,  &c.  The  ex-queen  Christina  of 
Breden,  whom  he  also  celebrated,  undertook 
to  defray  the  expenses  of  his  sons'  education. 
He  was  appointed  by  the  grand  duke  of  Tus- 
cany senator,  and  governor  of  Volterra,  and 
Afterward  of  Pisa.    He  then  began  the  task  of 


preparing  his  works  for  publication,  but  died 
before  its  completion.  His  son  published  them 
under  the  title  of  PoeHe  taseane  di  Vineemo 
da  Filieaja  (4to,  Florence,  1707 ;  2  vols.  8vo, 
Venice,  1762).  His  sonnet  D Italia  is  es- 
teemed among  the  finest  in  the  Italian  language. 

FILICREE  (It.  flligranay  from  Lat.  nium^ 
thread,  and  granum^  a  grain),  ornamental  work 
in  fine  gold  or  silver  wire,  often  made  with 
little  metallic  beads  or  grains  interspersed 
among  the  wires.  The  work  may  be  complete 
in  itself  or  it  may  be  used,  as  is  the  common 
method,  by  applying  the  wire  in  flattened  and 
twisted  shap^  upon  the  surfaces  of  the  trinkets 
or  whatever  else  it  is  designed  to  adorn,  and 
soldering  it  there  in  the  patterns  of  stems  and 
leaves  of  plants.  It  is  much  practised  by  the 
Italians,  who  derived  the  art  from  the  eastern 
nations.  In  the  production  of  silver  filigree, 
artistically  wrought  into  bracelets,  flowers,  and 
other  ornaments,  ttie  Genoese  workmen  stand 
unrivalled,  and  their  productions  are  sent  to 
all  parts  of  the  world.  In  Sumatra  the  manu- 
facture of  filigree  has  been  carried  to  great 
perfection,  although  the  tools  employed  are 
coarse  and  clumsy.  The  wire-drawing  tool  is 
made  of  a  piece  of  wire  hoop ;  an  old  hammer 
stuck  in  a  block  serves  for  an  anvil.  The  gold 
is  melted  in  a  crucible  over  a  fire,  a  joint  of 
bamboo  blown  through  by  the  workman  being 
often  the  only  bellows.  When  the  filigree  is 
finished  they  cleanse  it  by  boiling  in  water  with 
common  salt,  alum,  and  lime  juice,  and  to  give 
it  the  fine  purple  color  they  call  9aps  they  boil 
it  in  sulphur  water.  The  Chinese  also  make 
filigree,  principally  of  silver,  but  of  inferior 
elegance  to  the  Malay  work. 

FltLMOftE.  I.  A  S.  £.  county  of  Minnesota, 
bounded  S.  by  Iowa;  area  about  900  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1 870,  24,887.  It  is  intersected  by  Root 
river  and  its  branches,  and  has  a  rolling  surface 
and  an  excellent  soil.  The  Southern  Minne- 
sota railroad  passes  through  it.  The  chief  pro- 
ductions in  1870  were  1,688^084  bushels  of 
wheat,  889,956  of  Indian  com,  976,281  of  oats, 
108,885  of  barley,  92,402  of  pototoes,  28,908 
tons  of  hay,  595,114  lbs.  of  butter,  and  27,137 
of  wool.  There  were  6,558  horses,  8,092  milch 
cows,  10,781  other  cattle,  10,842  sheep,  and 
10,809  swine ;  2  manufactories  of  carriages  and 
wagons,  5  of  barrels  and  casks,  1  of  machinery, 
6  of  saddlery  and  harness,  1  of  sashes,  doors, 
and  blinds,  8  of  woollen  goods,  4  flour  mills, 
and  6  saw  mills.  Capital,  Preston.  IL  A  S. 
£.  county  of  Nebraska,  drained  by  the  N.  fork 
of  Turkey  creek  and  the  W.  fork  of  Big  Blue 
river ;  area,  676  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  238.  It 
is  traversed  by  the  Burlington  and  Missouri 
River  railroad. 

FIIUIOftEy  MDari,  thirteenth  president  of  the 
United  States,  born  in  the  township  of  Locke 
(now  Summerhill),  Cayuga  co.,  N.  T.,  Jan.  7, 
1800,  died  in  Bufialo,  March  8,  1874.  Cayuga 
CO.  was  then  a  wilderness,  with  few  settle- 
ments. The  nearest  house  to  that  of  the  Fill- 
mores  was  4  m.  distant.    Young  Fillmore's 


186 


FILLMORE 


edncation  was  limited  to  instruction  in  reading, 
writing,  spelling,  and  the  simplest  branches  of 
arithmetic. .  At  14  he  was  apprenticed  to  learn 
the  fuUer^s  trade.  In  1819  he  conceived  the 
design  of  studying  law.  He  had  yet  two  years 
of  his  apprenticeship  to  serve,  and  agreed  with 
his  employer  to  minquish  his  wages  for  his 
last  yearns  services,  and  promised  to  pay  him 
$30  for  his  time.  He  made  an  arrangement 
with  a  retired  lawyer,  by  which  he  was  to  re- 
ceive his  board  in  payment  for  his  services  in 
the  office.  In  1821  he  went  on  foot  to  Buffalo, 
where  he  arrived  an  entire  stranger,  with  $4 
in  his  pocket.  Here  he  obtained  permission  to 
study  in  a  lawyer's  office,  and  supported  him- 
self by  severe  drudgery  in  teaching  school  and 
assisting  the  postmaster.  By  the  spring  of 
1828  he  had  so  far  gained  the  confidence  of  the 
bar,  that  by  the  intercession  of^several  of  its 
leading  members  he  was  admitted  as  an  attor- 
ney by  the  court  of  conmion  pleas  of  Erie 
county,  although  he  had  not  completed  the 
period  of  study  usually  required,  and  com- 
menced practice  at  Aurora,  where  his  father 
then  resided.  In  the  course  of  a  few  years  he 
*  acquired  not  only  a  large  practice,  but  a 
thorough  knowledge  of  the  principles  of  the 
common  law,  which  placed  him  in  the  first 
rank  among  the  lawyers  of  the  state.  In  1827 
he  was  admitted  as  attorney  and  in  1829  as 
counsellor  of  the  supreme  court  of  the  state. 
In  1880  he  removed  to  Buffalo,  where  he  con- 
tinued in  the  practice  of  the  law  until  the 
autumn  of  1847,  when  he  retired  from  it  on 
being  elected  comptroller  of  the  state. — Mr. 
Fillmore^s  political  life  commenced  in  1828, 
when  he  was  elected  representative  to  the  state 
legislature  by  the  anti-masonic  party.  He 
served  three  successive  terms,  retiring  in  the 
spring  of  1881.  He  particularly  distinguished 
himself  by  his  advocacy  of  the  act  to  abolish 
imprisonment  for  debt,  which  was  passed  in 
1881,  and  which  was  drafted  by  him,  excepting 
the  portions  relative  to  proceedings  in  courts 
of  record,  which  were  drawn  by  John  0.  Spen- 
cer. In  the  autumn  of  1882  he  was  elected  on 
the  anti-Jackson  or  anti-administration  ticket 
to  congress.  After  serving  one  term  he  retired 
till  1886,  when  he  was  reelected  as  a  whig. 
He  was  chosen  again  in  1888,  and  again  in 
1840.  In  1842  he  declined  a  renomination. 
In  congress  he  rose  gradually  to  the  first  rank 
for  integrity,  industry,  and  practical  ability. 
During  the  early  part  of  his  congressional  ca- 
reer a  national  bank  was  the  prominent  subject 
of  discussion.  Mr.  Fillmore  was  never  a  warm 
friend  of  the  bank,  and  took  no  part  in  the  de- 
bates upon  it.  He  was,  however,  a  decided 
whig,  and  labored  earnestly  in  support  of  the 
internal  improvement  and  protective  tariff  pol- 
icy of  that  party.  In  the  struggle  which  took 
place  upon  the  question  of  the  reception  of  pe- 
titions for  the  abolition  of  slavery  in  the  25th 
congress,  he  supported  Mr.  Adams,  and  voted 
for  their  reception.  In  a  letter  written  Oct. 
17,  1838,  he  avowed  that  he  was  opposed  to 


the  annexation  of  Texas  so  long  as  slaves  should 
be  held  therein ;  that  he  was  in  favor  of  con- 
gress exercising  all  its  constitutional  powers  to 
abolish  the  slave  trade  between  the  states,  and 
in  favor  of  immediate  legislation  for  the  aboli- 
tion of  slavery  in  the  District  of  Columbia.  He 
expressly  stated,  however,  that  he  would  not 
pledge  himself  as  to  his  future  course  upon  any 
of  these  subjects;  but  reserved  the  right  to 
modify  or  change  his  views,  as  upon  further 
reflection  or  examination  he  might  deem  prop- 
er. He  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  debates 
in  congress  upon  the  subject  of  the  burning 
of  the  steamer  Caroline  by  British  troops  at 
SohloBser,  on  the  Niagara  frontier,  in  December, 
1887.  At  the  opening  of  tlie  26th  congress, 
Deo.  2,  1889,  the  seats  of  five  out  of  the  six 
members  from  New  Jersey  were  contested. 
The  claimants  who  held  the  certificate  of  the 
governor  were  whigs ;  and  so  evenly  were  the 
parties  in  congress  bdanced,  that  if  these  were 
admitted  to  their  seats  the  whigs  would  have 
the  control  of  the  organization ;  if  not,  it  would 
be  in  the  hands  of  the  democrats.  The  whigs 
contended  that  the  certificate  of  the  governor, 
authenticated  by  the  seal  of  the  state,  should 
be  received  as  presumptive  evidence  of  the 
right  of  the  five  members  to  their  seats ;  that 
they  should  be  permitted  to  participate  in  the 
organization  of  the  house,  and  that  afterward 
the  cl(iims  of  contestants  to  their  seats  should 
be  investigated  in  the  ordinary  course  of  busi- 
ness. The  democrats  insisted  that  the  house 
should  decide  the  question  before  electing  a 
speaker.  A  violent  debate  arose.  Two  weeks 
were  consumed  in  discussing  w^hether  the  five 
New  Jersey  members  should  be  permitted  to 
participate  in  organizing  the  house.  A  reso- 
lution to  admit  them  was  lost  by  a  tie  vote. 
A  speaker  was  chosen  on  Dec.  16,  and  the  dis- 
cussion was  then  resumed.  Mr.  Fillmore  was 
assigned  a  place  on  the  committee  on  elections. 
He  canvassed  the  entire  vote  of  the  state  of 
New  Jersey,  devoting  three  months  to  this 
drudgery.  A  migority  of  the  committee,  being 
democrats,  reported  that  the  democratic  con- 
testants  were  entitled  to  the  seats.  The  mi- 
nority of  the  committee  were  satisfied  that 
three  at  least  of  the  whig  members  were  nn- 

i'ustly  excluded  by  the  mtgority  report.  On 
[arch  6,  by  a  strict  party  vote,  overruling  the 
decision  of  the  speaker,  Mr.  Fillmore  was  de- 
clared to  be  out  of  order  while  supporting  his 
views  on  this  question,  and  all  further  debate 
was  substantially  prohibited.  On  March  10 
the  democratic  contestants  were  admitted  to 
their  seats,  and  their  title  to  them  was  con- 
firmed by  a  party  vote  on  July  16.  Mr.  Fill- 
more was  One  of  the  most  prominent  actors  in 
this  controversy,  and  by  his  labor  in  the  com- 
mittee and  zeal  in  debate  upon  the  questions 
involved,  added  greatly  to  his  reputation 
throughout  the  country.  Hitherto  he  had  al- 
ways been  in  a  minority  in  congress ;  but  the 
whig  party  was  largely  in  the  migority  in  the 
27th  congress,  which  assembled  in  1841.     A 


FILLMORE 


187 


new  financial  STstem,  and  an  entirely  new 
tariff,  were  to  be  devised  and  put  in  operation. 
Under  the  circnmstances  the  position  of  chair- 
man of  the  committee  of  ways  and  means  was 
the  most  prominent  in  the  house.    It  was  as- 
signed to  Mr.  Filfanore.    The  session  continued 
nine  months,  during  which  time  he  was  not 
absent  a  single  hour  from  the  house,  though 
be  did  his  full  share  of  the  labors  of  the  com- 
mittee.   The  preparation  of  the  new  tariff  bill 
involved  a  laborious  examination,  digestion, 
and  arrangement  of  figures  and  statistics.    Al- 
though Mr.  Fillmore  did  not  profess  to  be  the 
discoverer  of  any  original  system  of  revenue, 
still  the  tariff  of  1842  was  a  new  creation,  and 
he  is  justly  entitled  to  the  distinction  of  being 
its  ai|thor.    At  the  same  time,  with  great  labor, 
he  prepared  a  digest  of  the  laws  authorizing 
all  appropriations  reported  by  him  to  the  house 
as  chairman  of  the  committee  of  ways  and 
means,  so  that  on  the  instant  he  could  produce 
the  legal  authority  for  every  expenditure  which 
he  recommended.     Sensible  that  this  was  a 
great  safeguard  against  improper  expenditures, 
he  procured  the  passage  of  a  resolution  re- 
quiring the  departments,  when  they  submitted 
estimates  of  expenses,  to  accompany  them 
with  a  reference  to  the  laws  authorizing  them 
in  each  instance.     This  has  ever  since  been 
the  practice  of  the  government. — ^Mr.  Fillmore 
retired  from  congress  in  March,  1848.    He  was 
the  candidate  for  vice  president,  supported 
by  his  own  state  and  by  some  of  the  western 
states,  in  the  whig  national  convention  which 
met  at  Baltimore,  Mav  1,  1844.    In  the  con- 
vention of  the  whigs  of  the  state  of  New  York, 
which  met  Sept.  11,  he  was  nominated  for  gov- 
ernor, but  was  defeated  by  Silas  Wright,  Mr. 
Clay  being  defeated  at  the  same  time  in  the 
presidential  election  by  Mr.  Polk.    In  1847 
Mr.  Fillmore  was  elected  comptroller  of  the 
state  of  New  York,  an  office  which  at  that 
time  included  in  its  sphere  many  duties  now 
distributed  among  various  departments.     In 
his  report  of  Jan.  1,  1849,  he  suggested  that  a 
national  bank,  with  the  stocks  of  the  United 
States  as  the  sole  basis  upon  which  to  issue  its 
canency,  might  be  established  and  carried  on 
so  as  to  prove  a  great  convenience  to  the  gov- 
ernment, with  entire  safety  to  the  people.    This 
idea  involves  the  essential  principle  of  our  pres- 
ent system  of  national  banks. — ^In  June,  1848, 
he  was  nominated  by  the  whig  national  con- 
vention for  vice  president,  with  Gen.  Zachary 
Taylor  for  president,  and  was  elected  in  the 
ensuing  November.    In  February  he  resigned 
the  office  of  comptroller,  and  on  March  5, 1849, 
was  inaugurated  as  vice  president    In  1826 
Mr.  Calhoun,  then  vice  president,  had  estab- 
lished the  rule  that  that  officer  had  no  power 
to  call  senators  to  order.    During  the  contro- 
versies in  the  session  of  1849-^50  occasioned 
bj  the  application  of  Oalifomia  for  admission 
into  the  Union,  the  question  of  slavery  in  the 
new  territories,  and  that  of  the  rendition  of 
fugitive  slaves,  in  which  the  most  acrimonious 


language  was  used,  Mr.  Fillmore  in  a  speech 
to  the  senate  announced  his  determination  to 
preserve  order,  and  that,  should  occasion  re- 
quire, he  should  reverse  the  usage  of  his  pre- 
decessors upon  that  subject.  This  annonnce- 
ment  met  with  the  unanimous  approval  of  the 
senate,  which  ordered  Mr.  Fillmore^s  remarks 
to  be  entered  at  length  on  its  journal.  He 
presided  during  the  controversy  on  Mr.  Olay^s 
^'omnibus  bill"  with  his  usual  impartiality. 
No  one  knew  which  policy  he  approved  except- 
ing the  pcesident,  to  whom  he  privately  stated 
that  should  he  be  required  to  deposit  his  cast- 
ing vote,  it  would  be  in  favor  of  Mr.  Clay's 
bill.  More  than  seven  months  of  the  session 
had  been  exhausted  in  angry  controversy,  when, 
on  July  9,  1860,  President  Taylor  died.  Mr. 
Fillmore  took  the  oath  of  office  as  president 
on  July  10 ;  President  Taylor's  cabinet  at  once 
resigned,  and  a  new  cabinet  was  nominated  on 
the  20th.  Its  members  were :  Daniel  Webster 
of  Massachusetts,  secretary  of  state ;  Thomas 
Oorwin  of  Ohio,  secretary  of  the  treasury ;  A. 
H.  H.  Stuart  of  Virginia,  secretary  of  the 
interior ;  Charles  M.  Conrad  of  Louisiana,  sec- 
retary of  war ;  William  A.  Graham  of  North 
Carolina,  secretary  of  the  navy;  Nathan  K. 
Hall  of  New  York,  postmaster  general ;  and 
John  J.  Crittenden  of  Kentucky,  attorney  gen- 
eral. Of  these,  Mr.  Webster  died  and  Messrs. 
Graham  and  Hall  retired  in  1862,  and  were  re- 
spectively replaced  by  Edward  Everett  of  Mas- 
sachusetts, John  P.  Kennedy  of  Maryland,  and 
Samuel  D.  Hubbard  of  Connecticut.  Mr.  Fill- 
more immediately  ordered  a  military  force 
to  New  Mexico,  with  instructions  to  protect 
that  territory  from  invasion  by  Texas,  on  ac- 
count of  its  disputed  boundary.  Mr.  Clay's 
bill  having  been  in  the  mean  time  defeated, 
Mr.  Fillmore  on  Aug.  6  sent  a  message  to 
congress  advising  that  body  of  the  danger 
of  a  collision  with  Texas,  and  urging  a  set- 
tlement of  the  controversy  in  respect  to  its 
boimdary.  Various  acts  known  as  the  com- 
promise measures,  and  embracing  substantially 
the  provisions  of  Mr.  Clay's  bill,  were  passed 
before  the  end  of  the  month.  The  president 
referred  to  the  attorney  general  the  question 
whether  the  act  respecting  the  rendition  of 
fugitive  slaves  was  in  conflict  with  the  provi- 
sions of  the  constitution  relating  to  the  writ  of 
habeas  eorpuB.  That  officer  prepared  a  written 
opinion  in  favor  of  its  constitutionality.  The 
president  concurred  in  this  opinion  and  signed 
the  act,  together  with  the  rest  of  the  compro- 
mise measures.  The  fugitive  slave  law  was 
exceedingly  offensive  to  great  numbers  of  the 
whig  party  of  the  north,  as  well  as  to  those 
known  strictly  as  anti-slavery  men.  Its  exe- 
cution was  resisted,  and  slaves  were  rescued 
from  the  custody  of  the  marshals  by  mobs  at 
Boston,  Syracuse,  and  Christiana  in  Pennsyl- 
vania, in  the  last  of  which  places  one  or  two 
persons  were  killed.  The  president  announced 
his  intention  to  enforce  the  law,  and  issued  a 
proclamation  calling  upon  nil  officers  to  per- 


188 


FILLMORE 


form  their  daty  in  its  ezecntioii.  Proseontions 
were  instituted  in  yaiioas  instances  against  the 
rescuers,  hut  without  practical  results,  owing 
to  the  unpopularity  of  the  law.  Although  Mr. 
Fillmore's  administration,  as  a  whole,  was  ac- 
knowledged to  he  patriotic,  ahle,  and  useful; 
although  his  purity  as  a  puhlic  man  was  un> 
questioned,  and  not  a  single  other  measure  of 
his  administration  could  he  called  unpopular, 
still,  hy  signing  the  fugitive  slave  law,  he  lost 
the  support  of  a  very  large  proportion  of  his 
party  in  the  northern  states.  In  his  message 
to  congress  in  December,  1850,  he  recommend- 
ed considerable  reductions  in  postage ;  the  es- 
tablishment of  an  agricultural  bureau ;  liberal 
appropriations  for  rivers  and  harbors ;  the  es- 
tablishment of  an  asylum  for  the  relief  of  dis- 
abled and  destitute  seamen;  a  moderate  but 
pf^rmanent  tariff,  with  specific  duties  where 
practicable,  and  discriminating  in  favor  of 
American  industry ;  the  opening  of  communi- 
cation between  the  Mississippi  and  the  Pacific; 
a  provision  for  settling  disputed  land  titles  in 
California,  and  an  extension  of  the  system  of 
land  laws  over  the  newly  acquired  territory ; 
a  law  to  provide  for  the  retiring  of  superannu- 
ated officers  from  active  service  in  the  army 
and  navy ;  a  board  of  commissioners  for  the 
a^jastment  of  private  claims  against  the  gov- 
ernment; and,  in  conclusion,  **an  adherence 
to  the  a4jti8tment  established  by  the  compro- 
mise measures,  until  time  and  experience  should 
demonstrate  the  necessity  for  future  legislation 
to  guard  against  evasion  and  abuse."  But  his 
administration  being  in  a  political  minority  in 
both  houses  of  congress,  none  of  these  recom- 
mendations were  adopted,  excepting  those  for 
the  settlement  of  land  claims  in  Oalifomia 
and  the  survey  of  its  public  lands,  and  for  an 
asylum  for  disabled  and  destitute  seamen. 
During  this  session  congress  made  an  appro- 
priation for  the  extension  of  the  capitol  ac- 
cording to  such  plan  as  might  be  approved 
by  the  president.  Having  adopted  a  plan,  on 
July  4,  1861,  he  laid  the  corner  stone  of  the 
extension^  amid  an  immense  concourse  of  peo- 
ple, who  were  addressed  by  Daniel  Webster. 
Learning  that  an  attempt  was  to  be  made 
to  invade  Cuba  by  lawless  citizens  of  the 
United  States,  the  president,  on  April  25, 
1851,  issued  a  proclamation  warning  them  of 
the  consequences.  On  Aug.  4,  however,  an 
expedition  under  Lopez,  in  the  steamer  Pam- 
pero, sailed  from  New  Orleans  by  the  conni- 
vance of  the  collector  of  that  port  and  landed 
in  Cuba.  They  were  there  captured ;  a  num- 
ber were  executed,  a  few  pardoned,  and  the  re- 
mainder sent  prisoners  to  Spain.  Those  sent 
to  Spain  were  finally  pardoned,  and  congress 
paid  their  expenses  home.  The  collector  of 
New  Orleans  was  removed  from  office,  and  the 
steamer  Pampero  seized  by  the  government, 
and  condemned  and  sold  for  a  violation  of  the 
neutrality  laws.  In  his  message  of  1851,  be- 
sides reiterating  the  views  expressed  in  that 
of  1850,  the  president  urged  a  revision  of  the 


fee  bill  of  the  United  States  courts,  a  thorongh 
revision  and  codification  of  the  laws  of  con- 
gress then  in  force,  and  a  law  prescribing  the 
relative  rank  of  officers  in  the  army  and  navy. 
Mr.  Fillmore^s  administration  is  disting^shed 
by  the  expedition  of  Commodore  Perry  to  Ja- 
pan, in  a  squadron  which  sailed  in  the  autumn 
of  1852,  and  which  resulted  in  a  favorable 
treaty  with  that  country.  During  the  years 
1851  and  1852  treaties  were  also  formed  with 
Peru,  Costa  Bica,  Brazil,  and  other  Soutii 
American  states.  A  steamer  was  sent  to  ex- 
plore the  Plata  and  its  confluents.  An  ex- 
pedition was  also  ordered  by  the  president  to 
explore  the  valley  of  the  Amazon.  This  ac- 
complished its  object,  and  instructive  reports 
were  made  by  Lieuts.  Herndon  and  Gibbon. 
Mr.  Fillmore  carried  out  strictly  the  doctrine 
of  non-intervention  in  the  affairs  of  foreign 
countries,  and  frankly  stated  his  views  upon 
this  subject  in  an  interview  with  Kossuth.  At 
the  same  time,  however,  it  appeared  clearly 
enough  by  the  celebrated  letter  of  Mr.  Webster, 
secretary  of  state,  to  M.  Htdsemann,  how  little 
the  administration  sympathized  with  Austria 
in  its  struggle  with  Hungary.  Daniel  Webster 
died  Oct.  24, 1852,  and  Edward  Everett  was 
appointed  his  successor  as  secretary  of  state. 
His  brief  term  of  office  was  distinguished  by 
his  letter  declining  the  proposition  for  a  tri- 
partite treaty  with  England  and  France,  by 
which  each  country  was  to  disclaim  then  and 
for  the  future  all  intention  to  obtain  possession 
of  the  island  of  Cuba.  But  in  his  message  to 
congress  in  December,  1862,  the  president  ex- 
pressed his  opinion  that  the  incorporation  of 
Cuba  into  the  Union  would  be  a  hazardous  and 
impolitic  measure. — ^Mr.  Fillmore  retired  from 
the  presidency  March  4^  1853.  He  left  the 
country  at  peace  within  and  without,  and  in 
the  enjoyment  of  a  high  degree  of  prosperity 
in  all  departments  or  its  industry.  In  his 
cabinet  there  had  never  been  a  dissenting  voice 
as  to  any  measure  of  his  administration ;  and 
upon  his  retiring  from  office  a  letter  was  ad- 
dressed to  him  by  all  its  members,  expressing 
their  united  appreciation  of  his  abilities,  his  in- 
tegritj^  and  his  devotion  to  the  public  service. 
At  the  whig  convention  of  1852  he  was  a  can- 
didate for  nomination  as  president;  but  though 
his  policy,  the  fugitive  slave  law  included,  was 
approved  by  a  vote  of  227  against  60,  he  could 
not  command  20  votes  from  the  free  states. 
During  the  spring  and  summer  of  1854  he 
made  an  extensive  tour  through  the  southern 
and  western  states.  In  the  spring  of  1855,  after 
an  excursion  through  New  England,  he  sailed 
for  Europe,  where  he  remained  until  June,  1 856. 
While  at  Rome  he  received  the  news  of  his 
nomination  as  candidate  for  the  presidency  by 
the  American  party.  He  accepted  the  nomi« 
nation,  but  before  the  close  of  the  campaign 
it  became  evident  that  the  real  struggle  was 
between  the  democrats  and  the  republicans. 
Very  many  of  those  with  whom  he  was  the  first 
choice  for  president  cast  their  votes  either  for 


FILTER 


189 


lir,  Buchanan  or  Mr.  Fremont,  believing  that 
there  was  no  hope  of  Mr.  Fillmore^s  election ; 
and  though  he  received  the  support  of  large 
nombers  in  all  the  states,  Maryland  alone  gave 
him  its  electoral  vote.  Mr.  FiUmore  afterward 
resided  in  Boffietlo,  taking  no  prominent  part  in 
pablic  affiiirs. 

FILTHI9  an  apparatus  for  separating  from 
flaids  the  foreign  substances  mechanically  in- 
termixed with  them.  Beds  of  sand  and  gravel 
eonstituie  natural  filters,  through  which  the 
surface  water  from  rain  percolates  and  may 
be  collected  in  wells,  or  through  which  springs 
may  pass  upward  from  substrata.  Artificial 
filters  are  constructed  upon  the  same  principle ; 
a  diaphragm  of  some  substance  is  presented, 
through  the  pores  of  which  the  fluid  can  pene- 
trate, but  which  are  so  fine  that  they  arrest 
the  particles  held  in  suspension.  They  are 
variously  constructed  according  to  the  nature 
of  the  fluid  to  be  purified.  The  chemist  takes 
s  disk  of  thick  unsized  paper  prepared  for  the 
purpose,  doubles  it  twice,  introduces  it  into 
a  fannel  of  proper  size,  which,  for  facilitating 
the  passage  of  the  fluid,  is  commonly  ribbed, 
opens  one  of  the  folds,  and  pours  in  the  liquid. 
The  fluid  portion  passes  through  the  paper, 
leaving  all  the  solid  particles  upon  tho  filter. 
Filters  used  by  chemists  and  apothecaries  are 
Qsoally  made  of  paper,  but  felt,  cloth,  and  cot- 
ton, woven  and  unwoven,  are  often  used,  as  also 
lajers  of  charcoal,  sand,  asbestus,  and  similar 
materials.  The  old  pharmaceutists  used  a 
cone-shaped  bag  of  cotton  or  woollen  called 
Hippocrates's  sleeve,  and  the  same  contrivance 
ia  still  considered  one  of  the  best  for  the  clari- 
fication of  sirups  and  ether  viscid  liquids.  The 
oo&ical  hat  body  made  of  felt  is  well  adapted, 
before  its  shape  is  altered,  to  the  filtration  of 
fixed  oils.  Oorrosive  liquids,  as  strong  acids, 
maj  be  deared  by  passing  them  through  pure 
nlicious  sand  supported  upon  coarse  fragments 
of  glass  placed  in  the  neck  of  a  fbnnel  and 
gradually  diminishing  in  size  upward.  Char- 
coal is  a  favorite  material,  particularly  for  the 
purification  of  water  used  at  sea ;  it  has  the 
property  not  only  of  separating  the  impurities 
passed  through  layers  of  it  alternating  with 
others  of  sand,  but  also  of  removing  disagree- 
able odors.  The  Japanese  use  porous  sand- 
stone hollowed  into  the  form  of  an  egg,  and 
let  m  a  frame  over  a  vessel,  into  which  the 
vater  drops  as  it  percolates  through  the  stone. 
The  Egyptians  adopt  the  same  method  for 
clarifying  the  water  of  the  Nile.  A  stone 
which  answers  this  purpose  well  has  long  been 
blown  at  Teneriflfe,  and  was  formerly  largely 
imported  into  England.  In  Spam  porous  earth- 
enware vessels  are  manufactured,  called  alcar- 
raztu^  which  are  used  for  this  purpose,  and 
also  for  wine-coolers.  An  ingenious  filter  was 
noticed  at  the  London  international  exhibition 
of  1851,  sent  by  the  Wenham  lake  ice  company 
of  Massachusetts,  the  invention  of  Mr.  Alfred 
Bird.  It  consists  of  a  siphon,  the  short  limb 
of  which  terminates  in  a  cylindrical  box,  which 


is  placed  in  a  cask  of  water  under  the  surface. 
This  box  contains  the  filter,  and  on  drawing 
the  air  out  of  the  long  arm,  which  projects 
from  the  cask,  the  water  is  forced  up  through 
the  filter  and  passes  through  the  siphon,  its 
flow  being  regulated  by  a  stopcock  at  the  lower 
end  of  the  long  arm.  It  has  the  advantage,  if 
the  cask  is  kept  properly  supplied,  of  drawing 
the  water  neither  from  the  top  where  the  light- 
er sediment  collects,  nor  ih>m  the  bottom  to 
which  the  heavier  impurities  sink.  Filters 
upon  a  large  scale  are  connected  with  the  res- 
ervoirs from  which  cities  receive  supplies  of 
water.  These  reservoirs  are  divided  into  sev- 
eral basins,  the  first  of  which  are  intended  for 
receiving  the  sediment  that  will  subside  as  the 
water  is  left  standing;  from  these  it  passes 
through  porous  beds  which  separate  them  from 
an  adjoining  basin,  and  which  collect  the  im- 
purities still  remaining  suspended.  By  using 
several  such  basins  the  beds  may  be  kept  al- 
ternately in  use,  afifording  an  opportunity  for 
cleansing  them  whenever  this  is  required.  In 
many  large  reservoirs,  as  the  Oroton,  no  filter- 
ing apparatus  is  used,  the  water  passing  from 
the  first  to  the  second,  and  even  to  the  third 
and  fourth,  and  the  separation  of  clear  water 
and  sediment  being  efifected  by  precipitation. 
The  water  of  such  reservoirs  is  often  filtered 
by  attaching  diaphragms  to  the  delivering  pipes 
in  the  houses. — ^In  connection  with  the  purifi- 
cation of  water  by  filtration,  in^nious  meth- 
ods have  been  devised  of  separatmg  the  soluble 
salts  of  lime,  which  give  &e  property  of  hard- 
ness to  water,  and  which  being  in  the  state 
of  solution  pass  through  the  filter.  Pure  water 
can  hold  only  about  two  grains  to  the  gallon 

of  carbonate  of  lime,  or  TT.fv7f  ^^^  ^  ^^^ 
water  absorbs  carbonic  acid  gas,  its  power  of 
dissolving  carbonate  of  lime  increases  till  its 
capacity  may  be  ten  times  that  of  pure  water. 
Its  hardness  increases  with  the  quantity  of 
lime  taken  up.  Thus  the  water  of  springs, 
especially  in  districts  where  calcareous  rocks 
abound,  differs  in  composition  from  the  soft 
rain  water  which  has  not  fiowed  through  the 
ground.  When  such  water  is  boiled,  the  ex- 
cess of  carbonic  gas  is  expelled,  and  with  it 
the  capacity  of  holding  a  portion  of  the  carbo- 
nate of  lime.  This  falls  as  a  precipitate,  and 
forms  the  crust  which  collects  on  the  inside 
of  kettles  in  which  such  water  is  boiled.  By 
continuing  the  boiling,  all  the  lime  may  be 
thus  separated,  except  about  two  grains  to  the 
gallon ;  and  it  is  then  in  the  best  condition  to 
be  purified  by  filtering.  Other  salts,  the  sol- 
ubility of  which  does  not  depend  upon  the 
carbonic  acid  gas  present,  can  only  be  separated 
by  distillation.  Some  substances  often  present 
in  the  state  of  suspension  in  water  cannot  be 
separated  either  by  subsidence  or  filtration; 
such  are  some  organic  matters,  and  the  fine 
clayey  or  aluminous  particles.  Waters  which 
wash  cliffs  of  clay  become  saturated  with  the 
impalpable  material,  which  they  almost  wholly 
refuse  to  shed  by  any  mechanical  action.    This 


190 


FINBACK 


FINCH 


property  may  be  witnessed  upon  a  large  scale 
in  passing  in  a  steamboat  along  the  nor&  shore 
of  Lake  Erie,  where  the  water,  particularly 
after  a  storm,  carries  the  sediment  from  the 
clayey  banks  miles  out  into  the  lake,  and  re- 
ceives from  it  a  milky  appearance. 

FUrBACK.    See  Robqual. 

FINCH,  a  name  given  to  many  birds  of  the 
order  insessores^  suborder  otcinss,  tribe  eaniros- 
tresy  and  familj  fringillicUBy  including  a  numer- 
ous series  of  small  and  generally  brilliant  birds, 
with  short,  thick,  more  or  less  conical  bill, 
without  emargination  at  the  tip.  This  family, 
according  to  Gray,  comprises  the  subfamilies 
ploceincB^  or  weavers,  African  for  the  most 
•part,  except  the  typical  genus  ploceus  (Cuv.), 
which  is  Asiatic;  eoccothratuttTUB,  or  haw- 
finches, well  scattered  over  the  globe,  of  which 
the  rose-breasted  grosbeak  is  a  familiar  repre- 
sentative in  the  United  States ;  tanagtina,  or 
tanagers,  peculiar  to  this  continent,  especially 
to  South  America;  fnngUliwB^  or  finches, 
found  all  over  the  world ;  emberiziruB,  or  bunt- 
ings, of  which  the  common  snow  bunting  is  a 
good  example;  alaudina^  or  larks,  of  which 
the  shore  lark  of  the  north  and  a  second  spe- 
cies on  the  Pacific  coast  are  the  only  Amer- 
ican specimens :  this  subfamily  is  by  some,  and 
with  good  reason,  removed  from  the  /ringilli- 
^^/  pyrrhuliTUBj  or  bullfinches;  loxina,  or 
crossbills;  and  phytotomina^  or  plant-cutters. 
The  characters  of  the  bullfinch,  bunting,  and 
crossbill  have  been  given  under  those  titles  re- 
spectively ;  those  of  the  grosbeaks,  hawfinches, 
larks,  plant-cutters,  tanagers,  and  weavers, 
will  be  noticed  in  their  alphabetical  order; 
leaving  nothing  for  this  article  but  the  proper 
finches. — ^The  characters  of  thQ/ringilliruB  are, 
in  addition  to  those  already  alluded  to  as  be- 
longing to  the  whole  family,  wings  more  or 
less  lengthened  and  pointed;  tail  varying  in 
length,  sometimes  with  the  feathers  acumi- 
nated; tarsi  rather  shorter  than  the  middle 
toe,  in  a  few  cases  as  long,  slender  and  trans- 
versely scaled ;  toes  long  and  slender,  the  hind 
toe  moderate,  with  the  claws  curved  and  acute. 
The  genus  estrelda  (Swains.)  is  found  in  Africa, 
Asia,  and  Australia,  occurring  in  small  fiocks 
in  meadows  and  bushy  grounds^  and  occasion- 
ally visiting  gardens.  The  wax-billed  finch,  or 
bengaly  (B,  astrild^  Linn.),  is  of  the  size  of  a 
wren,  about  4^  in.  long;  the  bill  is  deep  red, 
and  a  streak  through  the  eye  and  the  middle 
of  the  breast  are  of  the  same  color ;  the  gene- 
ral color  above  is  brown,  and  below  reddi^ 
gray,  everywhere  crossed  with  fine  blackish 
undulations.  This  handsome  bird  inhabits  Af- 
rica from  Senegal  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope ; 
it  often  commits  considerable  havoc  in  gar- 
dens, where  it  devours  both  buds  and  seeds ;  it 
is  frequently  kept  in  cages,  more  for  its  beauty 
than  its  song.  The  wings  in  this  genus  are 
short,  and  the  fiight  is  consequently  for  small 
distances  at  a  time;  the  tail  is  lengthened. 
There  are  more  than  40  other  species.  As  a 
specimen  of  the  genus  amadina  (Swains.),  dif- 


fering from  the  last  chiefly  in  a  more  uniformly 
conical  bill  and  in  a  short  and  rounded  tail, 
may  be  mentioned  the  Java  finch,  commonly 
called  here  Java  sparrow  {A,  aryeivora,  Linn.) ; 
other  names  are  the  padda  and  rice  bird.  This 
is  of  the  size  of  a  sparrow,  in  length  abont  5 
in. ;  the  bill  is  stout  and  red ;  the  eyelids  are 
of  the  same  color ;  the  head  and  throat  black ; 
the  sides  of  the  head,  under  the  eyes,  white ; 
the  upper  parts  pale  ash;  belly. and  thighs 
pale  rose,  white  toward  the  vent;  the  tail 
black.  It  inhabits  Java,  China,  and  India, 
where  it  occasionally  does  much  mischief  in 
the  rice  grounds ;  it  eats  seeds  and  insects ;  it 
is  often  seen  here  as  a  cage  bird,  and  is  a  fa- 
vorite for  its  beauty.  There  are  more  than 
60  other  species  of  the  genus. — The  typical 
finches  are  found  in  the  ^emiB/ringilla  (Linn.), 
which  is  distributed  over  aU  the  world,  living 
in  flocks  in  which  are  often  associated  severid 
species ;  their  food  consists  of  seeds  of  various 
kinds  of  plants  and  trees  in  winter,  and  of  lar- 
vee,  grubs,  and  grain  in  summer;  some,  like 
the  red  poll  and  the  snow  bird,  are  found  in 
very  <cold  regions.  There  are  more  than  80 
species,  which  by  Gray  were  brought  under 
the  Linnsean  genus  fringUla;  some  of  the  old 
subdivisions  have  been  readopted  in  Prince 
Bonaparte's  Conspectus  Avium^  and  in  Baird's 
catalogue  of  North  American  birds,  but  the 
simpler  method  of  Gray  will  be  adhered  to  in 
this  article.  In  the  genus /rtn^7^  the  wings 
are  long  and  pointed,  and  the  tail  is  generfd- 
ly  slightly  forked.  The  chaffinch  {F,  calehs, 
Linn.)  has  been  described  under  that  title,  and 
the  siskin  (F.  spinuA,  Linn.)  under  Abbbde- 
vine;  the  goldfinch  (F,  earduelis^  Linn.),  the 
redpoll  linnet  (F.  linaria^  Linn.),  the  snow 
bird  (F.  [junco]  hyemalis,  Linn.),  and  the  yellow 
bird  or  American  goldfinch  (F,  [ehrysomitris] 
trutis,  Linn.),  will  be  noticed  under  their  respec- 
tive names. — ^The  brambling  or  mountain  finch 
(F,  mont\fringilla,  Linn.)  is  a  little  smaller  than 
the  chaffinch,  being  about  6^  in.  long,  with 
an  extent  of  wings  of  10^  in. ;  it  resembles  this 
bird  in  its  form,  mode  of  fiight,  giut,  and  man- 
ners; the  bill  is  larger  in  proportion.  The 
greater  part  of  the  upper  mandible  and  the  end 
of  1^  lower  are  dusky,  the  base  of  the  former 
pale  gray,  and  the  rest  of  the  latter  yellow; 
the  head  and  back  in  the  male  are  deep  black, 
the  feathers  with  a  tinge  of  rusty  gray;  the 
throat,  breast,  and  upper  wing  coverta  are 
light  reddish  brown;  the  rump  white  tinged 
with  yellow;  the  quills  and  larger  coverts 
black,  the  former  margined  with  yeUow  ex- 
ternally, the  inner  with  a  reddish  margin  and 
a  white  spot  at  the  base;  the  sides  spotted 
with  black;  the  tail  black;  the  exterior 
feather  white  on  the  outer  web,  and  the  mid- 
dle ones  edged  and  tipped  with  ash  color; 
abdomen  and  lower  tail  coverts  yellowish 
white.  The  female  is  much  less  bright;  the 
sides  of  the  head  and  the  back  of  3ie  neck 
are  gray,  the  top  of  the  head  and  back  being 
dusky  margined  with  gray ;  the  rufous  mark- 


inga  of  the  broast  and  wings  ara  very  faint; 
the  nze  is  smaller.  It  ia  seen  in  Great  Britain 
in  large  flocks  in  winter,  with  tlie  cliafflnch 
and  allied  epeciea,  disappearing  toward  the  end 
or  »prin)i,  going  nortli  to  breed ;  it  is  hard; 
and  bold,  feeding  on  seeds  and  what  it  can 


pick  up. in  the  open  fields;  its  flight  is  rapid 
and  nndnlatlDg;  the  note  is  like  the  "tweet" 
of  (he  chaffinch  repeated  several  times;  ac- 
cording to  Montague,  it  bnildg  a  nest  in  flr 
tTHS,  rad  lajs  four  or  five  yellowish  spotted 
eglp.  Albinos  of  this  species  are  occasionally 
WHi.  It  is  said  to  be  very  fond  of  beech  mast. 
—The  green  finch  (F,  chlorii,  Linn.),  also 
a  European  species,  is  aboat  6  in.  long  and  9 
in  extent  of  wingB;  the  bill  is  very  stout, 
the  tail  short,  and  the  body  bulky,  which  char- 
uters  have  led  Mr,  Gould  to  consider  it  rather 
a  grosbeak  (r.oeeothrauite*)  than  a  floch,  and  it 
no  doubt  is  one  of  the  intermediate  forms  be- 
iteen  this  8nd/r»n^7Za.  The  male  is  bright 
oltTe  green  above,  passing  into  yellow ;  tbe 
ijuilli  hlackish  gray,  with  outer  webs  bright 
pmbc^  yellow ;  the  tail,  except  the  two  mid- 
lile  feathers,  which  are  gray  with  light  yellow 
[DvgiDS,  are  yellow  like  the  wings,  with  the 
titemal  edges  grayish  brown;  below  greenish, 
pissing  into  sulphur  yellow ;  the  bill  is  white, 
*ith  a  pink  tinge ;  the  legs  brown ;  the  young 
are  marked  with  oblong  dashes  of  brown  on  the 
lower  surface  and  the  upper  part  of  the  back. 
Thlg  is  an  indigenous,  non-migratory,  hardy 
tird,  iiiing  in  flocks,  familiar  and  docile;  it  is 
nftao  kept  in  confinement  for  its  facility  in  imi- 
taiiagthe  notee  of  other  birds;  its  own  song 
tonairts  of  three  or  four  short  mellow  not«s, 
which  are  very  pleasing  daring  the  breeding 
s^Mon;  it  is  not  particular  in  its  choice  of 
fond,  eating  the  usual  grains  and  seeds  given  to 
'^ei  birds.  The  eggs  are  four  or  five  in  nnm- 
'■ef,  pale  hluish  white,  speckled  at  the  larger 
Md  Kith  reddish  brown,— The  pine  finch  (F. 


B20 


-13 


CH  191 

pinut,  Wils. ;  chrytomttrit,  Boie),  distributed 
over  North  America  from  the  Atlantic  to  the 
Pacific,  is  4'  in.  long,  with  an  oitent  of  wings 
of  8}  in.  The  plumage  is  sott,  but  with  little 
gloss;  the  sliort,  conical,  Bcut«  bill  is  liglit 
yellowish  brown,  witii  a  dusky  tip;  tbe  iris 
brown ;  general  color  nbove  yellowish  gray, 
with  dark  brown  streaks;  the  wings  and  tail 
dusky,  with  grayish  white  edges;  the  base  of 
the  secondaries,  tbe  tij)S  of  their  coverts,  and 
the  margins  of  the  rump  feathers  are  cream- 
colored;  grayish  white  below,  with  streaks  of 
dull  brown,  and  a  brown  tinge  on  the  fore 
neck;  the  female  very  closely  resembles  the 
male.  This  species,  though  seen  in  the  eouth- 
ern  states,  prefers  the  northern  regions  of  tbe 
country  and  the  Canadas,  wherever  pine  trees 
abound ;  it  iamost  common  in  the  north  during 
winter,  where  it  is  seen  in  small  flocks  wit£ 
tbe  redpoll  and  the  crosshi!! ;  the  favorite  food 
is  found  amid  the  branches  of  tlie  highest  flr 
trees,  where  they  hang  head  downward  like 
the  titmouse;  the  seeds  of  tbe  thistle  and  of 
the  sweetgura  are  also  much  eaten  by  them. 
Though  he  could  flnd  no  nests,  Anduhon  met 
with  great  numbers  of  these  birds  accompanied 
by  their  youngon  the  coast  of  Labrador  toward 
the  end  of  July ;  and  they  donbtleaa  breed  there. 
The  mode  of  flight  and  notes  resemble  those  of 
the  goldfinch ;  like  the  latter,  it  sweeps  through 
the  air  in  lung  graceful  curves,  uttering  its 
sweet  and  clear  song  as  it  takes  a  fresh  start. — 
The  gea\ii  paaaer  (Briss.)  includes  the  sparrows 
of  the  old  world,  which  are  rarely  called  finches. 
Tbe  American  sparrows  are  contained  in  the 
geaai  xonotrichia  {SviB,ina.) ;  many  of  these  are 
popularly  called  finches;  the  bill  is  perfectly 
conical,  the  wings  moderate,  the  tail  long, 
broad,  and  nearly  even  at  tlie  end.  The  grass 
flnch  (Z.  graminea,  Gmel. ;  genns  po6e<ttet, 
Bflinl)  is  6}  in.  long,  with  an  extent  of  wing 
of  10  in. ;  the  general  color  above  is  a  light 
brown,  streaked  and  mottled  with  darker;  a 
narrow  circle  of  white  around  the  eye ;  throat 
and  breast  yellowiah  white,  the  latter  streaked 
with  dark  brown ;  the  larger  coverts  and  the 
qnills  deep  brown,  the  former  edged  with 
paler,  and  the  first  of  the  latter  with  white 
external  margin ;  lesser  coverts  bay ;  tail  deep 
brown,  marked  and  margined  with  white; 
sides  and  abdomen  pale  yellowish  brown,  the 
former  streaked  with  darker ;  under  tail  coverts 
white.  It  is  distributed  far  to  the  north  and 
over  (he  United  States  from  the  Atlantic  to 
the  Pacific,  and  there  is  a  variety,  or  perhaps 
a  species,  to  the  west  of  the  AUeghanies;  it 
seems  to  prefer  sandy  and  barren  soils  in  cul- 
tivated districts;  its  song  is  sweet  and  protract- 
ed ;  it  is  shy  and  solitary,  and  runs  nimbly 
through  the  grass,  in  which  the  nest  is  built; 
the  BgRS,  four  to  six  in  number,  are  laid  about 
the  middle  of  April  at  the  sonth,  where  two 
broods  are  generally  raised  each  year ;  they 
are  seven  eighths  of  an  inch  long,  bluish  white, 
with  reddish  brown  blotches ;  the  food  con- 
gists  of  various  kinds  of  seeds  and  insects,  and 


193  FD 

the  flesh  is  tander  and  of  good  flavor.  This  bird 
employs  a  great  variety  of  artificer  to  deceive 
any  one  who  approaches  her  nest,  imitating 
laroeneea,  and  attempting  to  draw  attention  to 
another  loooUty,    Lincoln's  finoh  {Z.  Zineolmi, 


1.  LlDsoln'l  Flodi  (ZoiMtilchta  LIocdIiiII).    1.  Beulde  nsch 

Aad. ;  melotpUa,  Baird)  is  yellowish  hrown 
above,  with  streaks  of  brownish  black ;  head 
cbestaat,  streaked  with  brownish  black,  with  a 
grayish  blue  band  in  the  centre  and  two  at  the 
sides;  quills  and  larger  coverts  deep  brown 
with  lighter  margins,  and  the  latter  tipped  with 
whitish  ;  tail  yellowish  brown ;  throat  white, 
with  dusky  streaks  and  spots;  below  grayish 
white.  It  is  found  as  far  north  as  l^brador, 
from  the  Atlantic  to  tbo  Pacific,  and  south 
tfaroogh  Mexico  to  Guatemala.  The  song  is 
very  sweet  and  lond ;  tbe  flight  is  rapid  and 
low ;  the  food  is  insects  and  berries ;  the  males, 
aa  in  most  flncbes,  are  pugnacious.— The  genua 


Bhup-UU«d  Flndi  (Ammodmniu 


ftudacntoB). 


ammodromui  (Swains.)  has  the  wings  short,  the 
tail  lengthened,  the  lateral  fcalhers  graduated, 
with  the  end  of  each  acuminated ;  tbe  species 
generally  remain  within  the  limits  of  tide  water, 
ftnd  mD  along  the  shores  among  the  weeds,  like 
sandpipers,  climb  along  the  mshes,  or  swiftly 


dart  among  the  tniteof  grass;  they  eat  shrimpa, 

small  moUusks  and  crustaceans,  and  other  mi- 
nute marine  animals.  The  sharp-tailed  finch 
{A.,  eaudaeutiu,  Gmel.)  is  found  along  the  whole 
Atlantic  coast  of  the  United  States,  being  moft 
abundant  among  the  salt  marshes  of  South 
Carolina.  The  crown  of  the  head  is  bluish 
gray  in  the  middle,  and  deep  brown  at  tbe  side^. 
with  a  band  of  yellowish  red  from  the  hill  owt 
the  eye;  hind  neck  dull  gray,  tinged  with 
brown;  foreneckpaleyellowish  red  with  dusky 
streaks,  the  throat  paler  and  unspotted  ;  back 
brown,  tinged  with  gray;  primaries  and  tail 
wood  brown ;  secondaries  and  smaller  coverts 
reddish  brown ;  sides  yellowish  red,  with  dnsky 
streaks ;  breast  and  abdomen  grayish  white. 
They  come  down  lothe  marshes  when  the  tide 
is  out,  returning  to  the  shores  and  rice  fields  at 
high  tide ;  the  note  is  a  single  "  tweet ;"  the 
nest  is  placed  on  tbe  ground,  near  the  water, 
in  a  slight  hollow ;  the  eg^,  four  to  «z,  are  laid 
sometimes  twice  in  a  season ;  the  color  is  doll 
white,  with  light  hrown  dots,  most  nnmerous 
at  the  lai^r  end ;  from  the  qnickneaa  with 
which  tliey  move  on  the  ground,  they  are  most 
earily  shot  on  the  wing.  The  seaside  finch 
{A,  maritimat,  Wils.),  with  similar  habits  to 
the  preceding,  and  found  in  the  same  localities 
as  far  north  as  Long  Island,  has  the  crown  of 
the  bead  deep  brown,  surrounded  by  a  line  of 
grayish  blue;  upper  psrt  of  tbe  bsck,  wings, 
and  tail,  olive  brown  miied  with  pala  blue; 
lesser  wing  coverts  reddish  brown;  a  yellow 
streak  from  the  bill  over  the  eye  ;  throat  and 
fore  neck  grayish  white;  breast  and  sidesgray- 
ish  blue,  the  abdomen  paler.  Tbe  ^rgs  are 
grayish  white,  with  brown  freckles  all  over: 
many  nests  are  found  in  company.  Tbe  food 
oonsista  of  marine  insects,  snails,  crnbs,  sand 
beetles,  and  seeds. — Bachman's  finch,  placed 
in  the  genus  aTamodromui  by  Gray,  belongs  to 
the  genus  pturaa  (Aud.) ;  this  {P.  aatirali*, 
Licht.)  is  reddish  brown  above,  with  the  centre 
of  the  feathers  black  and  their  margins  bluish 
gray ;  the  quills  dark  brown  with  lighter  edges; 
tail  feathers  brown,  lighter  on  the  ouI«r  edges; 
ochre-yellow  streak  over  the  eye ;  throat  pale 
yellowish  gray;  fore  part  of  the  breast  and 
sides  tinged  with  brown,  lower  parts  yellowish 
gray.  The  length  of  the  bird  is  6  in.,  and  the 
extent  of  the  short  wings  only  8.  The  bsbits 
of  this  species  render  it  dilhcult  to  observe ;  it 
rnns  in  the  grass  more  like  a  mouse  than  a 
bird,  and  is  much  ottener  heard  than  seen ;  the 
notes  are  sott  and  sweet,  justifying  the  remark 
that  it  is  perhaps  the  finest  songster  of  the 
sparrow  family.  The  food  consists  of  grass 
seeds,  beetles,  and  berries.  It  is  confined  t« 
tbe  southern  states. — In  the  genus  tpiza  (Bo- 
nap.),  or  eynnotpha  (Baird),  the  wings  and  tail 
are  moderate,  and  the  latter  even.  The  non- 
pareil or  painted  finch  (£.  eiru,  Bonap.)  is  5) 
in.  long  and  T^  in  extent  of  wings ;  in  tne  adult 
male,  the  head  and  neck  are  azure  bine;  tbe 
back  and  lesser  wing  coverts  yellowish  green ; 
circle  round  the  eye,  lower  back,  and  under 


parts  carmine;  qvilla  and  tdlpnrpliah  brown ; 

secondary  cuverts  green.  Tte  female  hu  a 
brown  bill,  the  apper  parts  light  olive  gievo, 
and  the  under  parts  dull  orange,  paler  behind ; 
the  male  of  the  first  jear  resembles  the  female, 
eicept  in  liavinf;  the  bine  lower  mandible  of 
bis  sex ;  the  adalt  male  plnmage  is  not  obtained 
until  the  fourth  year.  It  is  an  inhabitant  of 
tbe  south  Atlantic  and  ^f  states,  eitendins 
into  Texas  and  Mexico ;  its  flight  is  short  and 
qnick,  and  its  movements  on  the  gronnd  like 
UiDse  of  the  sparrows;  its  song  is  very  sono- 
roussnd pleasing,  and  is  continued  through  the 
hottert  |iart  of  the  day ;  the  nest  is  asnally 
built  in  an  orange  tree,  and  the  eggs,  four  or  five, 
ir«  of  a  fine  bluish  pearl  color,  speckled  with 
blockish.  It  appears  in  the  vicinity  of  New 
Orleans  aboat  the  middle  of  April,  wlien  great 
nambers  are  token  in  traps,  set  with  a  stuffed 
q)eeimen  of  a  male  bird ;  all  moles  which  per- 
ceive this  are  led  by  their  pugnacious  disposi- 
tion to  attack  it,  and  the  trap  springs  upon 
them  during  the  operation ;  tney  are  easily 
kept  in  conflnement,  and  will  sing  and  breed 
in  captivity  if  properly  cared  for.  Great  num- 
bers of  this  beautiful  finch  were  formerly  car- 
ried to  Europe,  where  they  bronght  dmost 
fHbnIoQS  prices,  a  bird  which  cost  eight  cents 
in  New  Orleans  telling  In  London  or  Paris 
for  more  than  twice  as  many  dollars.  Their 
flocks  sometimes  occasian  considerable  damage 
to  ripe  figs  and  grapes,  of  which  they  are  ex- 
ceedingly fond.  The  lazuli  finch  (3.  am(ena, 
Bonap.)  is  unoCher  handsome  and  allied  speoies, 
belonging  rather  to  the  Pacific  fauna.  The 
bill  is  brownish  black;  the  head  and  neck, 
tiind  part  of  back  and  rump,  are  beautiful 
greenish  blue;  fore  part  of  the  back,  scapulars, 
wings,  and  tail,  brownish  black,  the  feathers 
with  bine  mar^ns;  a  conspicnons  white  hand 
on  the  wings ;  on  the  fore  part  of  the  breast  a 
broad  band  of  brownish  red ;  the  sides,  lower 
ring  coverts,  and  tibial  feathers,  bluish  gray  ; 
lower  puts  white.  The  female  is  far  less 
brilliant,  a  grayish  tint  prevailing  in  most 
psrts  of  the  plnmage.  It  is  rather  a  shy  bird, 
with  a  lively  and  pleasing  song.  Another 
beinlifnl  species  is  the  8.  cyanea  (Gonap.), 
"bich  will  be  noticed  nnder  Indigo  Bird. — 
The  last  finch  which  will  be  mentioned  belongs 
to  tbe  subfamily  of  pffrrhulina,  and  to  the  ge- 
DM  earpaducju  (Kanp).  The pnrple  finch  {G. 
ptrpartus,  Grael.)  is  8  in.  long,  with  an  ei- 
leot  of  wings  of  9  in. ;  the  bill  is  very  robast, 
•^ical,  bulging,  and  acnte,  deep  brown  above, 
bluish  below ;  the  head,  neck,  breast,  hack, 
tikd  upper  tail  coverts  are  of  a  rich  lake  color, 
nearly  crimson  on  tbe  head  and  neck,  and 
filing  into  rose  color  on  the  abdomen ;  the 
fore  part  of  the  back  is  streaked  with  brown  ; 
'he  qnilis,  larger  coverts,  and  tail  are  deep 
brown  margined  with  red ;  a  narrow  oream- 
Mlored  band  across  the  forehead  close  to  the 
("U.  The  female  and  young  are  brownish 
olive  above,  with  dark  brown  streaks ;  the 
"Oder  parts  grsyiah  white,  the  sides  Streaked 


on  1»3 

with  brown ;  qnills  and  tail  feathers  dark 
brown  with  olive  margins;  a  broad  white  line 
over  the  eye,  and  another  from  the  gapo  back- 
ward. In  the  southern  states  their  flocks  are 
seen  from  November  to  April,  feeding  on  the 
interior  of  bads,  which  they  hnsk  with  great 


PDiple  FtBch  (CarpjuliiFi 


I  poiiiamu). 


skill ;  ther  are  nsually  seen  in  the  morning 
and  at  night,  darting  after  insects.  Their  song 
is  sweet  and  continued.  They  are  found  from 
Labrador  to  Louisiana,  being  replaced  on  tbe 
Paoifio  coast  by  the  G.  CaHfomicua  (Baird) 
and  the  G.  Caitinii  (Baird) ;  they  breed  in 
the  north,  where  they  are  seen  in  midwinter 
in  company  with  crossbills  and  other  hardy 
birds,  feeding  on  the  berries  of  the  evergreens. 
Their  nests  have  been  fonnd  in  Maasachnsetts ; 
the  eggs  are  of  an  emerald-green  color,  with  a 
few  black  dots  and  streaks  near  the  point,  and 
some  pnrplish  blotches.  The  farmers  believe 
them  to  be  ii^nrions  to  fruit  trees  by  destroy- 
ing the  blossoms,  great  nnmbers  of  which  they 
pnll  ofiT,  Andubon  considers  their  flesh  equd 
to  that  of  any  small  bird  except  the  rice  bunt- 
ing. They  are  sometimes  kept  in  cages  and  in 
aviaries,  bat  they  do  not  ung  in  confinement, 
— Other  sparrows  and  buntings  are  called 
finches  in  different  parta  of  the  country,  though 
not  belonging  to  the  subfamily  of  fringillinm, 
and  maybe  found  described  among  the/Wn- 
gillida  in  works  on  ornithology. 

FINCH,  HHMge,  earl  of  Nottingham,  a  Brit- 
ish statesman  and  jnrist,  bom  In  Kent,  Boo. 
2S,  1S21,  died  in  London,  Dec.  If),  1662.  He 
was  educated  at  Westminster  school  and  at 
Christehnrch  college,  Oxford,  subsequently 
studied  law  in  the  Inner  Temple,  and  rose  to 
great  eminence  as  a  lawyer.  During  the  rev- 
olution he  eiyoyed  genera]  respect  and  confi- 
dence. At  t^e  restoration  he  was  made  solici- 
tor general,  took  port  in  the  prosecntjon  of  the 
regicides,  of  which  he  wrote  a  full  account, 
and  in  1661  entered  parliament  as  member  for 
the  nniveruty  of  Oxford.    In  1667  be  defended 


194 


FINDEN 


FIllTDING 


Lord  Clarendon,  when  impeached  for  high 
crimes  and  misdemeanors.  After  being  success 
sively  attorney  general  and  lord  keeper,  he  was 
appointed  in  1675  lord  high  chancellor  of  Eng- 
land. In  1681  he  was  created  earl  of  Notting- 
ham^ having  for  some  years  previous  borne  the 
title  of  Baron  Finch  of  Daventry.  He  pursued 
a  steady  and  consistent  course  in  difficult 
times,  and  was  distinguished  not  only  for  his 
legal  erudition  and  sonndness  of  judgment,  but 
also  for  his  eloquence  and  great  powers  of 
reasoning.  He  published  various  parliamentary 
speeches  and  legal  arguments,  and  left  in  man- 
uscript some  voliunes  of  chancery  reports,  and 
notes  on  Cokeys  Institutes. 

FINDEN,  William,  an  English  engraver,  born 
in  London  in  1787,  died  there,  Sept.  20,  1852. 
He  became  noted  at  an  early  age  as  an  en- 
graver of  book  plates.  Being  remarkable  for 
a  certain  neatness  of  line  and  smoothness  of 
fini«h,  his  works  were  very  popular,  and  he 
was  selected  to  engrave  Lawrence's  celebrated 
portrait  of  George  IV.,  for  which  he  received 
2,000  guineas.  He  also  engraved  the  "  Village 
Festival"  and  the  "Highlander's  Return," 
hoth  from  well  known  pictures  by  Wilkie. 
He  published  some  very  extensive  series  of  en- 
gravings, the  best  of  them  the  "  Gallery  of 
British  Art "  by  which  he  lost  heavily. 

FINDING*  The  law  of  finding  is,  in  some 
particulars,  not  quite  settled.  It  is  certain  that 
nothing  can  be  found  that  was  not  lost ;  hence, 
unless  the  owner  of  property  has  it  no  longer 
in  his  possession  or  within  his  reach,  and  is 
deprived  of  all  power  over  it,  either  by  acci- 
dent or  voluntarily,  as  when  he  casts  it  away, 
another  man  who  happens  upon  it  acquires 
none  of  the  rights  of  a  finder.  Lost  goods 
were  defined  by  the  old  law  as  hona  vacantia; 
and  Savigny,  in  his  **  Treatise  of  Possession," 
says,  §  18:  Vacua  est,  quam  nemo  detinet. 
The  ancient  law  of  treasure  trove  was  said  to 
apply  to  gold  and  silver  only ;  and  indeed  only 
to  that  which  had  been  purposely  hidden  in 
the  earth,  and  of  which  the  owner  waa  un- 
known. Originally  it  belonged  to  the  finder ; 
but  many  centuries  ago  it  was  adjudged  to  be- 
long, to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  to  the  sov- 
ereign, and  Grotius  says  this  rule  had  become  in 
his  time  ju$  commune^  quasi  gentium.  Black- 
stone  ("Commentaries,"  vol.  i.,  p.  296)  makes 
a  distinction  between  goods  hidden  by  the 
owner,  which  the  owner  never  reclaimed, 
being  prevented  by  death,  forgetting,  or  neg- 
lect, and  good3  voluntarily  or  accidentally  cast 
abroad.  In  the  first  case  there  was  no  inten- 
tion to  abandon  them,  and  when  they  were 
not  the  owner's  they  became  the  king's,  to 
whom  the  finder  must  give  them.  In  the  lat- 
ter case  they  became  the  property  of  the  finder. 
The  law  of  treasure  trove  never  had  much 
force  in  this  country ;  and  although  there  were 
formerly  some  colonial  regulations  and  there 
are  now  some  statutory  provisions  in  respect 
to  finding,  they  do  not  appear  to  have  much 
force,  unless  it  be  in  relation  to  what  may  be 


termed  wrecks.    The  law  on  this  subject,  so 
far  as  it  can  be  gathered  from  the  authorities, 
seems  to  be  this :  1.  The  finder  of  lost  property 
is  owner  of  it  against  all  the  world  excepting 
the  original  owner;  but  the  owner  may  re- 
claim it  fromr  the  finder  at  any  time,  although 
leaving  it  unclaimed  in  the  finder's  hands  ibr 
a  sufficient  length  of  time  after  the  owner 
knew  where  it  was  and  could  claim  it  (perhaps 
20  years,  the  ordinary  period  of  prescription, 
might  be  necessary),  would  be  equivalent  to  a 
waiver  or  abandonment  of  his  ownership.    The 
finder  has  therefore  all  the  rights  of  action  of 
an  owner,  either  to  recover  possession  of  it, 
or  damages  for  loss  of  it  or  injury  to  it.     2. 
The  finder  is  always  at  liberty  to  leave  what 
he  finds  nntouched,  and  cannot  be  made  ac- 
countable for  any  ix^jury  thereafter  happening 
to  it.    But  if  he  takes  it  into  his  possession, 
he  acquires  some  rights  and  comes  under  some 
obligations  which  do  not  seem  to  be  perfectly 
well  defined.    On  the  one  hand,  it  is  said  by 
the  old  authorities,  that  if  the  thing  fonnd 
perish  by  his  mere  neglect,  or  without  his  ac- 
tive aid,  he  is  not  responsible.    But  the  ten- 
dency of  modem  law  is,  that  while  he  may 
abstain  if  he  pleases  from  any  interference 
whatever,  if  he  chooses  to  take  what  he  finds 
into  his  custody,  he  makes  himself  responsible 
not  only  for  any  wilful  injury  to  it  (which  is 
quite  certain),  but  for  the  consequences  of  his 
gross  negligence.    8.  As  the  correlative  rule, 
or  as  the  right  which  corresponds  to  this  obli- 
gation, he  may  demand  from  the  owner  all  bis 
expenses  necessarily  incurred  in  keeping  and 
preserving   the    property,  and  probably   his 
reasonable  expense  in  the  way  of  advertising, 
or  for  similar  charges  for  the  benefit  of  the 
owner.     We  should  say  that  where  a  finder 
takes  into  his  possession  the  thing  found,  it  be- 
comes a  kind  of  bailment;  and  the  owner,  by 
reclaiming  and  receiving  it  from  the  finder,  as- 
sents as  it  were  to  this  bailment ;  and  out  of 
this  constructive  bailment  grow  the  obligation 
and  responsibility  of  the  finder  on  the   one 
hand,  and  his  rights  on  the  other.    4.  It  has 
been  intimated  by  one  high  authority,  at  least, 
Judge  Story  ('*  Bailment,"  sections  Hbet  seq.\ 
that  the  finder  may  also  make  a  further  charge 
against  the  owner  for  compensation  for  care 
and  labor,  and  perhaps  for  reward.    Tliere  are 
moral  reasons  for  this,  but  no  legal  authority ; 
and  except  when  property  is  found  at  sea,  and 
comes  under  the  admiralty  law  of  salvage,  we 
know  no  law  which  authorizes  the  finder  to 
claim  more  than  his  expenses.    5.  For  what- 
ever the  finder  may  lawfully  demand  of  the 
owner  in  respect  to  the  property  found,  he 
has,  we  think,  as  one  of  the  consequences  of 
the  constructive  bailment  above  spoken  of,  a 
lien  on  the  property  itself ;  that  is,  a  right  to 
hold  it  even  against  the  owner  until  his  de- 
mand is  satisfied.     6.  It  seems  now  to  be  set- 
tled that  the  place  where  property  is  fonnd 
has  no  effect  upon  the  rights  of  the  finder. 
Thus  if  A  finds  money  on  the  floor  of  B's 


FINDS 


195 


store,  and  hands  it  to  B  for  the  owner,  and  B 
advertises,  and  does  what  else  he  should  to 
discover  the  owner,  and  falls  in  this,  the  finder 
maj  demand  it  of  B,  tendering  B's  expenses  in 
discharge  of  his  lien.  There  was  at  one  time 
some  disposition  to  etaj  that  if  A  foond  goods 
baried  in  B's  lands,  they  were  tlie  property  of 
B;  bat  this  seems  to  have  passed  away,  or 
rather  never  to  have  been  settled  law,  and  the 
rale  above  stated,  that  the  place  where  fonnd 
has  no  effect  whatever  on  the  right  of  the 
finder,  is  withoat  qualification.  7.  If  a  re- 
ward be  offered,  which  is  specific  and  certain, 
or  can  be  made  so  by  reference  to  a  certain 
standard,  the  finder  by  bringing  the  thing 
found  to  the  owner,  or  otherwise  complying 
with  the  terms  of  the  advertisement,  becomes 
a  party  to  a  contract  offered  to  all  by  the  ad- 
vertiser, and  may  sue  for  the  compensation  or 
reward  promised.  But  if  the  advertisement 
is  general  only,  as  that  the  finder  shall  be 
liberally  rewarded,  the  finder  has  no  specific 
claim,  and  can  have  no  action.  8.  The  rule 
that  the  finder  is  owner  against  all  the  world 
except  the  original  owner  has  one  important 
exception.  A  finder  of  what  the  law  calls  a 
choie  in  action^  or  mere  evidence  of  debt  or 
claim,  canuot  demand  payment  of  it ;  and  if 
one  fihould  pay  a  note,  a  check,  or  a  lottery 
ticket,  to  a  holder  known  by  the  payer  to  have 
come  into  possession  of  it  by  finding,  the  payer 
would  be  bound  to  pay  the  amount  to  the 
owner  who  could  prove  his  property.  9.  A 
finder  may  incur  punishment  as  for  crime,  by 
misconduct  about  the  property  he  finds.  Thus, 
if  he  knows  the  owner,  or  there  are  circum- 
stances which,  if  he  chose  to  profit  by  them, 
would  lead  him  to  the  owner,  a  conversion  of 
the  property  to  his  own  use  is  larceny  or  theft. 
Bat  it  is  not  larceny  unless  the  animus  furandi 
existed  at  the  time  of  the  appropriation ;  for 
if  the  finder  only  discovered  the  owner  after 
he  had  made  the  appropriation,  and  then  con- 
cealed his  finding,  it  would  seem  to  be  the  law 
that  he  is  answerable  only  in  damages. 

FIXDS)  a  term  recently  applied  by  English 
archaeologists  to  deposits  of  objects  connected 
with  human  life,  and  sometimes  associated  with 
haman  remains,  but  of  prehistoric  or  unknown 
origin.  The  chief  aim  of  scientific  research  in 
regard  to  them  is  to  ascertain  the  historical 
relation  and  condition  of  the  human  beings 
which  they  represent  As  the  development 
of  civilization  is  not  a  uniform  process,  the 
discovery  of  a  few  objects  made  and  used  by  a 
prehistoric  tribe  is  not  a  sufilcient  index  to  the 
exact  place  of  that  tribe  in  history.  Within 
certain  limits  there  is  a  real  consistency  in 
stages  of  civilization ;  but  in  the  present  state 
of  prehistoric  archceology  it  is  hardly  possible 
to  make  a  classification  which  would  correctly 
represent  the  sequence  of  forms  and  materials. 
The  antiquaries  of  Denmark,  a  country  es- 
pecially rich  in  relics,  classified  their  finds  ac- 
cording to  some  leading  features  that  seemed 
to  indicate  a  regular  sequence.    They  conclu- 


ded that  there  had  been  an  age  when  men 
used  only  implements  of  stone  and  bone,  and 
were  ignorant  of  the  use  of  metals ;  that  an 
age  had  succeeded  when  the  use  of  bronze  was 
known,  and  probably  that  of  gold;  and  that 
there  was  a  third  age,  when  iron  had  superse- 
ded other  metals  for  weapons  and  utensils. 
All  the  finds  were  consequently  classified  ac- 
cording to  these  three  ages.  It  proved,  how- 
ever, that  such  exact  lines  could  not  be  main- 
tained. Men  did  not  immediately  cease  to  use 
stone  implements  when  bronze  was  introduced ; 
and  bronze  continued  to  be  employed  after  the 
use  of  iron  was  well  known.  Another  mode 
of  classification  is  foUowed  in  France,  where 
the  finds  are  generally  arranged  in  the  museums 
after  the  following  order: 

( 1.  Epoch  of  extinct  animals. 
Btooe  Age.  -<  S.  Epoch  of  migrated  exleUngr  anhnals. 

1 8w  Epoch  of  domeeticAted  existing  animala. 

xt«*«i  A»-  i  !•  The  bronze  epoch. 
Metal  Age.  ^  ^  The  iron  epoJhT 

This  classification,  suggested  by  the  archaeolo- 
gist Lartet,  best  serves  our  purpose  of  making 
a  rapid  survey  and  furnishing  a  short  descrip- 
tion of  the  objects  found  in  ancient  habitations 
of  both  hemispheres.  For  the  various  theories 
in  relation  to  these  finds,  as  well  as  for  the 
nature  of  the  places  where  they  have  been 
discovered,  see  Amebic  an  Antiquities,  Ab- 
OH^OLOOY,  Bone  Oaves,  and  Lake  Dweijjngs. 
— Stone  Age,  Finds  of  objects  classified  as  be- 
longing to  the  first  epoch  of  the  stone  age  have 
been  made  principally  in  the  caverns  of  .Auri- 
gnac,  in  the  hills  of  Figoles,  the  Trou  de  la  Fon- 
taine, the  cave  of  Sainte-Reine,  the  grotte  des 
F6es  at  Arcy,  the  caves  of  Vergisson,  V  alli^res, 
La  Chaise,  Gorge  d^Enfer,  Moustier,  Pey  de 
rAz6,  of  P^rigord,  and  of  the  department  of 
Ari^ge,  in  France;  in  Rentes  cave,  Brixham, 
Gower,  Eirkdale,  and  Wells,  in  England ;  in 
the  caves  of  Chiampo  and  Laglio  near  Lake 
Como,  of  Palermo,  San  Giro,  and  Macagnone, 
in  Italy  and  Sicily ;  in  a  few  caves  in  Spain, 
Algeria,  Egypt,  and  Syria;  in  caves  near  the 
lake  of  Sumidouro  in  Brazil ;  and  especially  in 
Belgium,  as  near  Li6ge,  at  Engis,  Engihoul,  and 
Naulette.  In  these  caverns,  and  sometimes  also 
on  the  surface  of  the  ground  or  buried  in  it,  have 
been  found  large  quantities  of  chipped  flints,  ar- 
rowheads, and  various  stone  implements,  to  all 
of  which  archsBologists  usually  give  the  com- 
mon name  of  hatchets.  The  commonest  of  the 
worked  flints  is  the  almond-shaped  type.  These 
instruments  are  oval  hatchets  .carefully  chipped 
all  over  the  surface  so  as  to  form  a  cutting 
edge.  The  Moustier  type  is  a  pointed  flint 
wrought  on  one  side,  the  other  being  entirely 
plain.  The  third  type  is  that  of  knives ;  thov 
are  thin  and  narrow  tongue-shaped  flakes,  with 
one  of  the  ends  chipped  to  a  point,  and  were 
used  as  scrapers.  Others  were  wrought  so  ws 
to  do  service  as  augers.  Near  Amiens  were 
discovered  small  globular  bodies  with  a  hole 
through  the  middle,  which  are  believed  to  bo 


196 


FINDS 


fossil  shells  used  for  adornment.  There  are 
many  articles  in  the  deposits  of  the  quaternary 
epoch  whose  intention  or  siguificance  is  not 
known.  Some  are  believed  to  have  been  reli- 
gions symbols  and  emblems  of  authority.  The 
natural  color  of  all  the  wrought  flints  that  belong 
to  the  earliest  epoch  of  man's  existence  is  gray, 
from  the  brightest  to  the  darkest  tint;  but  ar- 
gillaceous soils  color  them  white,  and  ochreous 
gravels  yellowish  brown.  The  proof  of  their 
age  is  the  patina^  which  is  the  established  term 
for  those  which  are  white  on  one  side  and 
brown  on  the  other,  probably  from  having  lain 
between  two  different  beds.  To  gaard  against 
fraud  and  to  detect  modem  imitations  of  ancient 
stone  implements,  it  is  well  to  notice  whether 
the  flints  are  coated  with  branching  crystalli- 
zations, called  dendrite*^  of  a  dark  brown,  pro- 
duced by  the  combined  action  of  the  oxides 
of  iron  and  manganese  generally  contained  in 
fossiliferoas  beds. — The  finds  which  are  as- 
signed to  the  second  division  of  the  stone  age, 
the  epoch  of  the  reindeer  or  of  migrated  ex- 
isting animals,  consist  of  flints  which  bear 
marks  of  more  skilful  workmanship,  and  im- 
plements in  bone,  ivory,  and  reindeer  horn, 
not  found  in  caves  where  human  bones  were 
mixed  up  with  those  of  animals.  Little  splin- 
ters of  bone,  one  or  two  inches  long,  straight, 
slender,  and  pointed  at  both  ends,  have  been 
found  among  the  deposits  of  Bruniquel  and  the 
Dordogne  valley,  and  are  believed  to  have  serv- 
ed as  fish  hooks  during  this  epoch.  Numerous 
instruments  have  been  found  which  must  have 
been  used  as  needles,  as  they  are  exactly  like 
those  now  employed  by  the  Lapps  for  the  same 
purpose.  Prof.  Owen  thinks  the  men  of  this 
period  were  anthropophagists,  because  human 
skulls  have  been  found  mixed  up  with  sculp- 
tured flints,  remains  of  pottery,  and  children's 
bones  on  which  there  seem  to  be  traces  of 
human  teeth.  To  this  period  are  also  assign- 
ed the  polishers,  formed  of  sandstone  or  some 
other  material  with  a  rough  surface;  they 
were  used  for  polishing  bone  and  horn.  Other 
objects  classified  as  belonging  to  this  age  are 
barbed  dartheads  or  harpoons ;  small  flint  saws, 
fine-toothed  and  double-edged ;  bone  bodkins 
or  stilettoes,  either  with  or  without  a  handle ; 
smoothers,  probably  intended  to  fiatten  down 
the  seams  in  the  skins  used  for  garments ;  fiint 
points  with  a  cutting  edge,  probably  used  as 
drills ;  whistles  made  from  the  first  joint  of  the 
foot  of  a  reindeer;  staves  of  horn,  which  were 
perhaps  symbols  of  authority;  earthen  vases 
and  urns,  which  at  the  bottom  bear  traces  of 
the  action  of  fire ;  and  first  attempts  at  art,  as 
sketches  of  mammoths  graven  on  slabs  of  ivory, 
hilts  of  daggers  carved  in  the  shape  of  a  rein- 
deer, and  representations  of  bisouR,  stags,  and 
unknown  herbivorous  animals.  The  most  im- 
portant places  where  finds  of  such  articles  have 
been  made  are  the  grottoes  and  caves  near 
Finale  on  the  road  from  Genoa  to  Nice ;  a  cave 
on  a  mountain  near  Geneva ;  the  bottom  of  an 
ancient  glacier  moraine  not  far  from  the  lake 


of  Constance;  the  caverns  at  Solutr^  Boar^ 
deilles,  Laugerie-Basse  and  Laugerie- Haute, 
Abbeville,  Les  £yzies,  GhafiTant,  La  Madeleine, 
Lavache,  and  Bruniquel,  in  France;  the  cave 
of  Chaleux,  the  settlements  on  the  banks  of 
tlie  Lesse,  the  cave  near  Turfooz,  in  Belgium ; 
and  the  gravel  beds  of  Colorado  aod  Wyoming, 
the  loess  of  the  lower  Mississippi  valley,  and 
the  Osage  and  Bourbeuse  valleys,  in  North 
America. — The  third  epoch  of  the  stone  age, 
with  domesticated  animals  of  existing  species, 
which  is  also  designated  as  the  polished  stone 
epoch,  is  believed  to  embrace  the  finds  made 
in  the  kjoekhen-moeddinga  (Dan.  kjoekher^ 
kitchen ;  moedding^  heap  of  refbse),  or  kitchen 
middens,  principally  in  Scandinavia,  but  also 
discovered  in  Cornwall  and  Devonshire,  Eng- 
land, in  Scotland,  and  near  Hy^res,  at  St.  Va- 
lery,  department  of  Pas-de-Calais,  at  La  Salle, 
and  at  Cronquelets,  m  France.  Darwin  met 
with  them  in  Tierra  del  Fuego;  Dampier  in 
Australia;  Pereira  da  Costa  on  the  coast  of 
Portugal ;  Lyell  on  the  coasts  of  Massachusetts 
and  Georgia ;  and  Strobel  on  the  coast  of  Bra- 
zil Numerous  finds  assigned  to  this  epoch 
have  also  been  made  in  the  caves  of  Old  Cas- 
tile and  the  provinces  of  Seville  and  Badi^joz  in 
Spain,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Civit4  Nuova  in 
S.  Italy,  and  in  the  island  of  Elba.  Polished 
stone  implements  have  also  been  found  in  War- 
temberg,  Hungary,  Poland,  and  Russia.  Le- 
guay  found  in  1860  near  Yarenne-Saint-Hilaire, 
at  a  spot  called  La  Pierre  au  Pr^tre,  a  complete 
polishing  stone,  having  on  its  surface  three 
depressions  of  different  sizes,  two  well  defined 
grooves,  and  one  merely  sketched  out.  The 
polishing  of  stone  instruments  was  effected  by 
rubbing  the  object  in  one  of  these  cavities, 
in  which  probably  a  little  water  was  poured, 
mixed  with  zircon  or  corundum  powder,  or 
perhaps  merely  with  oxide  of  iron,  which  is 
still  used  by  jewellers  for  the  same  purpose. 
Finds  of  numerous  hatchets  and  other  polished 
instruments,  near  the  fragments  of  several  pol- 
ishing stones,  have  given  rise  to  the  supposi- 
tion that  at  this  epoch  there  were  regular 
workshops  ui  which  weapons  and  implements 
were  manufactured.  In  the  kitchen  middens 
were  found  fiat  hatchets,  cut  squarely  at  the 
edge ;  drilled  hatchets  variously  combined  with 
a  hammer ;  double-edged  axes  and  axe  hammers, 
pierced  with  a  round  hole  in  which  the  handle 
was  fixed ;  beautiful  spear  heads  in  the  shape 
of  a  laurel  leaf,  fiat,  and  chipped  all  over  with 
great  art,  which  were  evidently  fixed  to  staves; 
poniards  with  handles  sometimes  covered  with 
delicate  carving ;  arrowheads  of  various  shapes ; 
chisels  somewhat  in  the  form  of  a  quadrangular 
prism ;  small  stone  saws,  in  the  shape  of  a 
crescent  of  which  the  inner  edge,  which  was 
either  straight  or  concave,  was  skilfully  serra- 
ted ;  and  various  ornaments,  as  necklaces  made 
of  small  pieces  of  amber,  perforated  and  strung. 
The  instruments  of  stages  horn  found  in  the 
valley  of  the  Somme  are  also  considered  as 
belonging  to  this  epoch.    Particularly  interest- 


FIKD8 


197 


ing  relics  are  the  pieces  of  polished  flint  half 
buried  in  a  kind  of  sheath  of  stages  horn.    The 
middle  of  the  sheath  is  generally  perforated 
with  a  round  or  oval  hole,  probably  intended 
to  receive  a  wooden  handle.    Sheaths  have 
also  been  found  which  are  not  only  provided 
with  boars^  tusks,  but  are  hollowed  out  at  each 
end  80  as  to  hold  two  flint  hatchets  at  once. 
In  the  peat  bogs  of  Abbeville  have  been  dis- 
cuvered  long  bones  belonging  to  mammals,  as 
the  tibia,  femur,  radius,  and  ulna,  all  cut  in  a 
nniform  way  either  in  the  middle  or  at  the 
ends,  which  were  probably  used  as  handles  for 
flint  implements.    Near  Pecquigny  were  found 
19  boars^  tusks  split  into  halves,  perfectly  pol- 
ished, and  perforated  at  each  end  with  a  round 
hole.    Through  these  holes  was  passed  a  string 
of  some  tendinous  substance,  the  remains  of 
which,  it  is  said,  were  actually  seen  at  the  time 
of  the  discovery.    In  the  caves  of  Ari^ge  were 
found  more  than  20  stones  which  could  only 
have  been  used  for  grinding  corn.    According 
to  John  Buchanan,  quoted  in  LyelPs  *^  An- 
tiquity of  Man,"  the  canoes  which  were  found 
in  the  low  ground  on  the  margin  of  the  Clyde 
at  Glasgow,  as  well  as  other  boats  found  at 
the  bottom  of  the  Swiss  lakes,  and  in  Belgium 
and  France,  were  formed  of  a  single  trunk  of 
oak,  hollowed  out  with  some  blunt  instruments, 
probably  stone  hatchets,  assisted  by  the  action 
of  fire ;  for  which  reasons  it  is  believed  that 
these  finds  must  also  be  classified  as  belonging 
to  this  epoch  of  the  stone  age.     Finds  of  stone 
implements  similar  to  those  described  have 
beea  made  in  the  vicinity  of  Alton,  Illinois; 
Jackson,  Laporte,  Sullivan,  and  Crawford  coun- 
ties, Indiana ;  in  a  shell  heap  on  the  bank  of 
the  Grand  lake,  Louisiana ;  in  Paris,  Wisconsin ; 
and  a  few  in  Kentucky. — Metallic  Age,    The 
principal  places  of  deposit  of  articles  assigned 
to  the  bronze  epoch  of  the  age  of  metals  are  the 
lacustrine  habitations  of  Switzerland  and  other 
parts  of  Europe,  and  the  palustrine  villages  of 
northern  Italy.    Numerous  finds  of  articles  be- 
longing to  this  epoch  have  also  been  made  in 
other  prehistoric  human  habitations,  and  in 
tombs,  in  Scandinavia,  the  British  isles,  France, 
Switzerland,  and  Italy.    The  Danish  bronze 
swords  had  hilts  firmly  fixed  to  the  blade  by 
means  of  two  or  more  rivets,  and  some  of 
them  were  splendidly  ornamented.    A  bronze 
knife  has  been  found  with  a  handle  in  the  form 
of  a  human  figure  executed  with  much  fidelity. 
Several  razors  have  been  discovered,  of  which 
the  blades  were  overloaded  with  ornaments. 
A  rery  important  find  was  made  in  1861  in  a 
tamnlus  in  Jutland,  of  three  wooden  coffins, 
dosed  with  movable  lids,  each  of  which  con- 
tained a  woollen  cloak,  a  shawl,  and  a  cap, 
and  at  the  feet  of  the  body  two  pieces  of  wool- 
K'n  material  which  seemed  to  be  the  remains 
of  gaiters;  each  also  held  a  sword,  a  knife,  a 
l«dkin,  an  awl,  a  pair  of  tweezers,  a  double 
Wtton,  a  ball  of  amber,  and  a  flint  spear  head. 
The  shape  of  the  sword  and  the  knife  indicates 
that  the  deposit  belongs  to  the  latter  part  of 


the  bronze  epoch.  Various  objects  found  in 
dwellings  belonging  to  this  epoch  appear  to  have 
been  religious  symbols.  Most  of  them  have  a 
shape  bearing  some  relation  to  a  circle,  and 
many  authors  have  attributed  them  to  the 
worship  of  the  sun.  Crosses  belonging  to  this 
and  even  to  the  stone  age  are  also  sometimes 
met  with.  The  figure  of  a  triangle  found  on 
various  objects  in  bronze  is  also  believed  to 
bear  some  relation  to  certain  religious  ideas. — 
For  the  finds  made  in  North  America  another 
epoch,  of  a  special  character,  has  to  be  pre- 
sumed. In  1847  Mr.  Enapp  discovered  in  the 
Ontonagon  region  on  Lake  Michigan,  under  an 
accumulation  of  earth,  a  vein  of  native  copper, 
containing  a  great  number  of  stone  hammers. 
One  of  the  diggings  brought  to  light  some  great 
diorite  hatchets  which  were  worked  by  the  aid 
of  a  handle,  and  also  large  cylindrical  masses 
of  the  same  substance  hollowed  out  to  receive 
a  handle.  Copper  wrought  into  various  uten- 
sils is  found  in  the  mounds  all  the  way  from 
Wisconsin  to  the  gulf  coast.  Squier  and  Davis 
discovered  in  a  mound  near  Chillicothe  several 
round  shells  of  mica  10  or  12  in.  in  diameter, 
overlapping  like  the  scales  of  a  fish.  A  find  of 
250  mica  plates  was  made  in  the  Grave  creek 
mound,  liany  of  the  implements  of  these 
mound  builders  of  the  age  of  copper  seem  to 
have  been  wrought  also  of  a  ribbon-marked 
silicious  stone.  Squier  and  Davis  found  a  de- 
posit of  obsidian  arrowheads  in  Ohio,  and  Mr. 
rerkins  one  in  Wisconsin. — The  Iron  EpoeK 
The  finds  assigned  to  this  epoch  consist  of  in- 
struments of  iron  or  bronze,  or  of  iron  com- 
bined with  bronze  instead  of  stone,  articles  of 
silver  and  lead,  specimens  of  improved  pottery, 
and  coins.  The  most  valuable  finds  have  been 
made  in  the  vast  burial  ground  recently  dis- 
covered at  Hallstadt,  near  Salzburg,  in  Austria. 
The  swords  found  there  have  iron  blades  and 
bronze  hilts.  The  warriors^  sword  belts  are 
generally  formed  of  plates  of  bronze,  and  embel- 
lished with  a  repausM  ornament  executed  with 
a  hammer.  Several  necklaces  with  pendants, 
and  hundreds  of  bracelets,  hair  pins,  and  bronze 
fibulsB,  all  wrought  with  taste,  nave  also  been 
fbund  here.  Nearly  200  bronze  vessels  have 
been  discovered,  some  of  which  are  86  in.  high. 
Some  of  these  vessels  were  carefully  riveted, 
but  not  soldered.  A  find  of  glass  vessels  was 
also  made  in  the  same  place,  and  remains  of 
pottery  were  abundant.  The  ivory  objects 
found  were  heads  of  hair  pins  and  pommels  of 
swords.  The  helmets  resemble  those  worn  by 
Gallic  soldiers.  In  the  tombs  on  the  plateau 
of  La  Somma,  in  Lombardy,  were  found  vases 
of  fine  clay,  evidently  wrought  on  the  potter's 
wheel,  ornamented  with  various  designs,  and 
containing  ashes.  Near  Bern,  at  a  spot  called 
"  the  battle  field  of  Tiefenau,"  because  it  ap- 
pears to  have  been  the  theatre  of  a  great  con- 
flict between  the  Helvetians  and  the  Gaals, 
a  find  was  made  of  about  100  swords  and  spear 
heads,  fragments  of  coats  of  mail,  rings,  fibu- 
lao,  tires  of  chariot  wheels,  horses^  bits,  and 


198 


FINDS 


coins  in  gold,  silver,  and  bronze.  The  only 
agricultural  implements  found  in  places  of  de- 
posit of  an  undoubted  prehistoric  date,  are 
scythes  and  sickles,  and  a  mill  composed  of  two 
stones  resembling  somewhat  the  pistrinum  of 
the  Romans.  No  implement  of  iron  has  been 
found  in  connection  with  the  ancient  civiliza- 
tions of  America.  The  mound  builders  appear 
to  have  wrought  the  rich  specular  ores  of  Mis- 
souri in  the  same  manner  as  stone. — Prehis- 
tofic  Monuments.  Fergusson,  in  *'  Hude  Stone 
Monuments,*'  places  little  confidence  in  the 
classifications  hitherto  followed  as  a  basis  for 
establishing  any  historical  relation  with  the 
human  beings  who  used  the  objects  discovered, 
or  even  for  determining  who  they  were.  He 
proposes  to  classify  finds  according  to  the  char- 
acter of  the  places  where  they  are  made,  and  es- 
pecially the  degree  of  art  exhibited  in  the  struc- 
ture of  the  prehistoric  sepulchres  from  which 
nearly  all  the  antiquarian  objects  have  been 
taken.  He  maintains  that  the  peculiarities  of 
the  mode  of  honoring  the  dead  distinguish  the 
races  of  manlcind  as  definitely  as  Bj>eecb.  He 
classifies  prehistoric  sepulture  as  follows :  I. 
Tumuli,  a.  Barrows  of  earth  only.  5.  With 
small  stone  chambers  or  cists  (microlithic).  e. 
With  chambers  or  dolmens  formed  of  large 
stones  (megalithicV  d.  With  external  access  to 
chambers.  II.  Dolmens,  a.  Free  standing  dol- 
mens without  tumuli,  h.  Dolmens  on  the  outside 
of  tumuli.  III.  Circles,  a.  Circles  surrounding 
tumuli,  h.  Circles  surrounding  dolmens,  c.  Cir- 
cles without  tumuli  or  dolmens.  IV.  Avenues. 
a.  Avenues  attached  to  circles,  h.  Avenues 
with  or  without  circles  or  dolmens.  V.  Men- 
hirs, a.  Single  or  in  groups,  i^.  With  oghams, 
sculptures,  or  runes.  The  earliest  mode  was 
simple  inhumation,  and  if  the  deceased  was  of 
some  importance  a  mound  was  raised  over  the 
grave.  A  sort  of  coffin  was  probably  next  de- 
vised, as  seen  in  the  rude  cists  so  commonly 
found.  In  wooded  countries  the  cofiSn  was  of 
wood,  and,  if  the  mound  is  old,  perished  long 
ago.  Cists  were  expanded  into  chambers,  to 
which  at  a  later  age  passages  for  access  were 
made.  From  the  chambered  tumulus  sprung 
elaborate  domed  structures  of  either  mega- 
lithic  or  microlithic  architecture.  The  history 
of  megalithic  remains  begins  with  the  rude 
stone  cists,  generally  called  kistvaens,  which 
by  degrees  became  magnified  into  chambers, 
the  side  stones  increasing  from  1  ft.  in  height 
to  6  ft.,  and  the  capstone  becoming  a  really 
megalithic  feature,  6  to  10  ft.  long  by  4  or  6 
ft.  wide,  and  of  considerable  thickness.  Many 
antiquaries  insist,  however,  that  all  the  dolmens 
(Celtic,  daul^  a  table,  and  men  or  moen,  a  stone) 
or  cromlechs  (Celtic,  crum  or  erom^  crooked  or 
curved,  and  lech^  a  stone)  which  are  now  stand- 
ing free  were  once  covered  and  buried  in  tu- 
muli. The  stone  circles  appear  to  have  been 
introduced  as  substitutes  for  the  circular 
earthen  mounds  which  surround  the  early 
tumuli.  They  frequently  enclose  also  dolmens, 
either  standing  on  the  level  plain  or  on  tumuli ; 


but  they  are  often  found  enclosing  nothing  that 
can  be  seen  above  ground.  It  is  believed  that 
the  larger  circles,  more  than  100  ft.  in  diameter, 
were  not  sepulchral,  but  cenotaphic,  or  temples 
dedicated  to  the  honor  or  worship  of  the  dead. 
The  avenues  are  rows  of  stones,  sometimes 
leading  to  circles,  and  are  also  deagnated  as 
alignments  or  parallellitha.  Those  of  the  first 
class  represent  externally  the  passages  in  tu- 
muli which  lead  to  the  central  chamber,  but  it 
is  difiicult  to  divine  the  use  of  the  avenues 
which  are  not  attached  to  circles  and  do  not 
lead  to  any  important  monuments.  The  men- 
hirs, or  tall  stones  (Celtic,  men^  stone,  and 
hir^  high),  are  stone  pillars,  with  or  without 
inscriptions,  which  gradually  superseded  the 
earthen  tumuli  as  a  record  of  the  dead. — Of 
the  conclusion  that  may  be  drawn  from  the 
character  of  finds  in  regard  to  the  culture 
of  the  contemporary  races,  E.  B.  Tylor  says : 
^*The  exclusive  use  of  stone,  bone,  &c.,  for 
cutting  and  piercing  implements,  is  in  general 
a  criterion  of  savage  culture,  though  com- 
patible with  the  settled  and  comparatively  ad- 
vanced state  of  the  early  Swiss  lake  dwellers. 
2.  Bronze-making  indicates  a  more  advanced 
and  systematic  civilization,  up  to  the  level  of 
the  Mexicans  and  Peruvians  in  modern,  and  the 
Aryan  races  in  ancient  times.  8.  Iron-making 
is  indispensable  to  high  culture,  but  from  the 
facility  of  its  adoption  is  not  of  itself  a  proof  of 
anything  beyond  a  high  savage  state  afiected 
by  intercourse  with  still  higher  conditions." — 
Human  Remains.  These  have  been  found  in 
surprisingly  small  numbers.  Lyell  explains 
their  scarcity  as  the  effect  of  nature's  plan 
of  disencumbering  habitable  areas  of  skele- 
tons by  means  of  ^'the  heat  and  moisture 
of  the  sun  and  atmosphere,  the  dissolving 
power  of  carbonic  and  other  acids,  the  grind- 
ing teeth  and  gastric  juices  of  quadrupeds, 
birds,  reptiles,  and  fish,  and  the  agency  of 
many  of  the  invertebrata."  The  human  re- 
mains regarded  by  eminent  archa3ologi6ts  and 
osteologists  as  the  oldest  so  far  discovered  are 
the  fragments  of  the  skeleton  found  in  the 
Neanderthal  cavern,  near  Dtlsseldorf,  Ger- 
many; the  fragments  of  a  skull  from  BrQx, 
Bohemia ;  similar  fragments  of  the  Engis  cave 
near  Li^ge,  Belgium ;  and  the  skeletons  from  a 
tumulus  at  Borreby,  Denmark.  The  Neander- 
thal skull  resembles  that  of  Brflx,  but  is  so 
extremely  different  in  appearance  from  that  of 
Engis,  that  according  to  Huxley  it  might  be 
supposed  to  belong  to  a  distant  race  of  man- 
kind. Schaaff hausen  and  Busk  speak  of  it  as 
the  most  brutal  of  all  known  human  skulls, 
and  as  greatly  resembling  those  of  apes.  One 
of  the  Borreby  skulls  has  also  this  resemblance, 
but  the  others  are  said  to  exhibit  a  much  higher 
conformation.  The  Engis  skull  is  deemed  a 
near  approach  to  the  Caucasian  type,  and  ap- 
pears to  possess  at  the  same  time  a  more  de- 
cided claim  to  antiquity  than  that  of  the  Ne- 
anderthal. The  Borreby  skulls  belong  to  the 
stone  period  of  Denmark,  and  the  people  to 


FINDS 

whom  they  sppertainod  were  probably  either 

coDtemporaneous  with  or  laUr  than  the  makers 
of  tlie  kitchen  middens.  The  £n^  skull 
round  in  one  of  the  numerous  bone  caves  which 
border  the  valley  of  the  Heuse,  wliere  the  : 
mains  of  a  number  of  hainaa  ittdividuals  w< 
discovered,  minK'ed  with  the  bones  and  teeth 
of  eitinct  quadrupeds,  and  with  rnde  stone 
implements.  Dupont  in  1864  excavated  48 
other  caves  in  the  valleys  of  the  Lesae  : 
the  Meuse,  and  discovered  in  2G  of  them 
merons  homan  remains,  which  he  has  divided 
iaCo  the  mammoth,  the  reindeer,  and  Che  j 
lithic  or  polished  stone  period.  Schaaffhau 
in  his  exhanstive  treatise  Deter  die  Urform 
ia  mxruchlUhoi  SeMdelt  (Bonn,  ISflS),  argues 
that  the  individOal  to  whom  the  Neanderthal 
■kuH  belonged  must  have  had  a  araall  cere- 
bral development,  and  uncommon  strength  of 
corporeal  frame.  One  of  the  chief  objects  of 
the  investigations  as  to  the  age  of  these  re- 
latiat  is  to  determine  whether  man  is  pre- 
placial  or  post-glacial.  There  is  some  reason 
fur  believing  him  to  be  pre-glacial,  but  not 
older  than  the  later  half  of  the  pliocene  period. 
Id  18G3  Desaoyers  found  near  St.  Preat  fossil 
bones  which  some  consider  as  coexistent  with 
the  tlephaa  meridioTialis,  while  others  regard 
them  as  comparatively  modem.  The  genu' 
neu  of  the  fossil  man  of  Denise,  found  in  i 
tral  France,  and  alleged  to  have  been  i 
lemporary  with  the  same  eitinct  animal,  is 
qoMtioned.  The  human  bone  of  Natchez,  Mis- 
iimppi,  which  was  accompanied  by  bones  of 
tha  mastodon  and  megalonyz,  is  supported  by 
insufficient  acientiSo  testimony;  and  the  hu- 
man remains  in  the  loess  near  Maestricht,  and 
Desi  Strasbnrg,  ore  assigned  but  hesitatjngly  to 
any  very  remote  period  of  antiqnity.  The  hn- 
msn  remains  found  in  the  caves  of  Languedoc 
associated  with  bones  of  extinct  mammalia, 
Md  those  discovered  in  March,  1872,  by  Dr. 
Riviire  in  a  cave  at  Mentone,  near  Nice,  may 
be  safely  considered  as  belonging  to  the  post- 
piioceue  period.  The  antiqnity  of  the  human 
Wes  in  Belgiam,  as  Dupont  has  shown  in 
i.is  work  Lt*  tempi  antihUtorigua  ea  BeU 
jique  (Brussels,  1871),  can  also  be  accepted 
M  dating  from  times  anterior  to  the  neolithic 
ige.  Count  PourtalSs  found  human  remains 
on  the  shores  of  Lake  Monroe,  in  Florida, 
but  as  yet  no  date  can  be  positively  assigned 
lo  ihem.  Many  hypotheses  have  heen  put  for- 
ward on  the  presumptive  migrations  of  the 
prKhistoric  races ;  bat  in  the  present  state  of 
unr  knowledge  no  satisfactory  oonolnsion  can 
be  reached.  Qnatrefages  considers  tlie  pre- 
Aryiin  races  which  are  typified  by  the  hu- 
rnui  remaina  in  the  caverns  of  France  as  be- 
longing to  the  Finnish  family;  Schoaflhansen 
i)  Tery  decided  in  claaufying  them  with  the 
Celts ;  Schmerling  speculates  on  Ethiopian 
■Snities ;  and  Huxley  sees  many  analogies 
between  these  ancient  inhabitants  of  Europe 
snd  the  form,  condition,  and  habits  of  the 
Anatralian  racea. — Bendesthe  works  referred 


FINGAL'S  CAVE 


199 


to  above  and  in  the  articles  on  Aubrioan  Ar- 
T14C1TIBB,  Abohaolooy,  Bone  Cavbs,  and 
Lakb  Dwblunqs,  see  Olfers,  LydUche  EuniM- 
grdber  (Berlin,  18fiO)  ;  Lin  dense  hmitt,  Die 
AlUrthumer  un»erer  heidniechta  Vorzeit  (1868 
et  leg.) ;  Lsrtet,  Caeemei  du  J'erigcrd,  obieU 
grave*  et  teulpUt  dee  tempt  prihutoriq'utt  dartt 
VEurope  oecidentale  (Paris,  18B4J;  Don  Gon- 
gora  y  Martinez,  Antag&edada  prthUtorieai 
(Madrid,  1808);  Fignier,  "Primitive  Man" 
(1670)1  Virchow,  Die  altnorduehen  SchMel 
in  Sopenhagen  (Berlin,  1S71)  ;  Fergusson, 
"  Rude  ^tone  Monuments  of  all  Ages  "  (Lon- 
don, 18T2);  Evans,  "Ancient  Stone  Imple- 
ments" (London,  1873) ;  Foster,  "  Prehistorio 
Races  of  the  United  States"  (Chicago,  1878); 
and  Riviere,  Deeowerte  d'un  igueUtte  humain 
ds  Pipoqua  paliolithigve  (Paris,  1878). 

FUeiL'S  CIVE,  a  grotto  on  the  S.  W.  coast 
of  the  islet  of  BtaSa,  Argyleshire,  Scotland,  7 
m.  off  the  W.  coast  of  Moll,  probably  called 
after  Fingal,  the  legendary  hero  of  Gaelic  poe- 


Tlnciri  Cava. 

try.  It  is  formed  by  lofty  basaltic  pillars,  and 
extends  back  l^om  its  month  227  ft. ;  its 
breadth  at  the  entrance  is  43  ft. ;  at  the  inner 
end,  23  ft.  The  sea  is  the  floor  of  the  cavern, 
and  is  about  20  ft.  deep  at  low  water.  The 
main  arch  has  been  compared  to  the  ainle  of  a 
great  Gothic  church ;  the  columnar  side  walls 
are  of  stupendous  size,  and  there  are  stalac- 
tites of  a  great  variety  of  lints  between  the 
pillars.  It.  is  easily  accessible,  except  at  c 
■■     '         "  '     ■      '"he 


tremo  high  tide,  by  small  boats. 


e  height 


200 


HNISTfiRE 


FINLAND 


from  the  top  of  the  cliff  to  the  summit  of  the 
aroh  is  ahout  80  ft.,  and  from  the  latter  to  the 
water  at  mean  tide  about  60  ft.  Broken  col- 
umns form  the  causeway  on  the  £.  side,  and 
conceal  the  lower  parts  of  the  front  columns, 
so  that  these  seem  to  be  only  18  ft.  high,  while 
the  W.  pillars  are  twice  as  high.  The  length 
is  more  than  200  ft.  The  sides  are  colunmar 
like  the  front,  and  nearly  perpendicular,  but 
the  irregular  grouping  and  the  fragmentary 
condition  of  the  columns  impair  the  symmetry 
of  their  appearance.  There  are  several  other 
remarkable  caves  in  the  island  of  Staffa. 

FINIStIrE,  or  fliistem  (Lat.  finU  Urra, 
land^s  end),  the  extreme  w.  department  of 
France,  in  Brittany,  surrounded  on  three  sides 
by  the  ocean  and  the  English  channel,  and 
bounded  £.  by  the  departments  of  C6tes-du- 
Nord  and  Morbihan ;  area,  2,595  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1872,  642,698.  The  coasts,  generally  steep 
and  deeply  indented,  are  about  400  m.  in 
length,  and  present  many  excellent  bays  and 
harbors.  The  most  important  ports  are  Brest, 
Morlaix,  Landemeau,  Qoimper,  and  Douar- 
nenez.  Of  numerous  rivers  only  the  Aulne, 
the  Elom,  and  the  Odet  are  navigable.  Two 
hill  chains,  that  of  Arte  in  the  north  and  that 
of  the  Black  mountains  in  the  south,  run 
through  this  department  £.  and  W.  The  cli- 
mate is  mild,  but  humid;  fogs  are  common; 
W.  winds  are  most  prevalent,  and  violent 
storms  often  occur.  The  soil  of  some  parts 
is  good,  and  the  pasturage  is  excellent;  but 
heath  or  waste  land  covers  no  less  than  a  third 
of  the  area,  and  agriculture  is  in  a  backward 
state.  The  wealth  of  the  department  consists 
especially  in  its  mines  of  argentiferous  lead ; 
those  of  PouUaouen  and  Hnelgoat  are  perhaps 
the  largest  in  France.  Iron,  zinc,  coaly  and 
bitumen  are  also  mined.  The  fisheries  are 
very  important  There  are  manufactories  of 
linen  and  woollen  fabrics,  paper  mills,  rope 
yards,  and  sailcloth  and  earthenware  factories. 
The  department  is  divided  into  the  arron- 
dissements  of  Quimper,  Brest,  Morlaix,  Ch4- 
teaulin,  and  Quimperl6.    Capital,  Quimper. 

FINK,  or  Flsek,  Fricdridi  Aigsst  T«i,  a  Prus- 
sian soldier,  bom  at  Strelitz  in  1718,  died  in 
Copenhagen,  Feb.  24,  1766.  ^  He  had  gained 
experience  in  the  Austrian  and  Russian  ser- 
vice previous  to  entering  the  Prussian  army  as 
m^jor  in  1748.  lie  was  advanced  by  Frederick 
the  Great  to  the  rank  of  lieutenant  general, 
and  was  employed  in  1769  to  cooperate  with 
the  king's  brother  in  Saxony,  the  chief  com- 
mand being  subsequently  intrusted  to  him. 
After  the  capitulation  of  Dresden  to  the  Ans- 
trians  (6ept.  4),  Fink  was  ordered  by  the  king 
to  Maxen  to  cut  off  the  enemy's  retreat,  but  was 
surrounded  and  overwhelmed  by  vastly  superior 
forces,  and  obliged  to  surrender  (Nov.  20).  On 
his  return  from  Austrian  captivity  he  was  court- 
martialled,  and,  though  he  had  anticipated  the 
Maxen  disaster  by  representing  to  the  king  the 
inadequacy  of  his  resources,  was  sentenced  to  a 
year's  imprisonment  in  the  fortress  of  Spandau. 


After  his  release  he  begged  to  be  dismissed 
from  the  Prussian  service,  and  in  1764  became 
general  of  infantry  in  the  Danish  army.  But  he 
felt  wronged  by  the  Prussian  king's  inexorable 
rigor,  and  died  broken-hearted. 
^ ,  FUTLAUD  (Fin.  Sttomema,  region  of  lakes),  a 
grand  duchy  in  the  northwest  of  the  Russian 
empire,  lying  between  lat.  59**  45'  and  70**  N., 
and  loflf20°  50'  and  82^  50^  E.,  bounded  N.  by 
the  Norwegian  province  of  TromsO,  E.  by  the 
Russian  provinces  of  Archangel  and  Olonetz, 
8.  by  the  gulf  of  Finland,  and  W.  by  the  gulf 
of  Bothnia  and  Sweden;  area,  184,830  sq.  m. 
The  name  of  Finland  was  given  to  it  by  the 
Swedes.  The  liins  or  governments  and  their 
population  in  1867  were  as  follows: 

Kyhnd ITiiWS 

ADo-SyorD6boiiff 819,764 

Tavastehuas 170,264 

Whorg. 879,944 

8t  Michael 161,986 

Kuopio 226,670 

Y*M 818,]W 

UleiOxNV Ib4,708 


Total. 


1,880^ 


The  population  comprises  126,000  Swedish 
Fmns,  8,000  Russians,  1,000  Lapps,  1,000  gyp- 
sies, and  400  Germans,  the  rest  being  Finns 
proper.  In  December,  1870,  the  population 
amounted  to  only  1,782,621,  showing  a  con- 
siderable decrease  since  1867;  as  in  several 
years,  in  consequence  of  famine  and  epidemics, 
the  number  of  deaths  largely  exceeded  that  of 
births.  There  are  84  towns  with  an  aggregate 
population  of  185,000,  constituting  only  7*5  per 
cent,  of  the  total  population,  a  smaller  per- 
centage than  is  found  in  any  other  country  of 
Europe.  The  most  populous  districts  are  along 
the  coast ;  there  are  some  tracts  in  the  interior 
wholly  uninhabited.  The  population  of  the 
whole  country  is  about  18  to  the  square  mile. 
— The  S.  coast  of  Finland  is  bordered  with 
rocky  islets,  between  which  and  the  mainland 
are  narrow  and  intricate  channels  difficult  of 
navigation.  The  W.  coast  is  generally  low, 
but  becomes  very  rocky  near  the  Quarken, 
and  in  some  parts  is  not  less  dangerous  than 
the  southern.  Some  of  the  islands,  as  those 
of  Sveaborg,  which  command  the  entrance  to 
the  harbor  of  Helsingfors,  are  strongly  fortified. 
OThe  rivers  are  few  and  unimportant;  the-prin- 
cipal  is  the  Kymmene,  which  flows  into  the 
gulf  of  Finland,  and  is  broad  and  deep,  bul 
owing  to  cataracts  is  not  navigable.  The  lakes, 
however,  constitute  a  prominent  feature  in  the 
geography  of  the  country,  being  very  numerous 
and  occupying  a  large  proportion  of  the  terri- 
tory. Independently  of  Lake  Ladoga,  which 
lies  partly  in  Finland,  the  largest  of  these  sheets 
of  water  are  Lakes  Saima  and  Enare.  The 
communication  between  the  various  water- 
sheds and  the  Finnish  gulf  has  been  established 
since  1854  by  the  lake  of  Saima.  The  surface 
is  table  land  from  400  to  600  ft.  above  the  level 
of  the  sea,  with  occasional  higher  elevations. 
The  Maan  Selkft  mountains,  which  with  their 


FINLAND 


201 


varioos  branches  traverse  the  north,  rise  to  an 
altitade  of  abont  2,400  fL    The  principal  geo- 
logical formation  is  red  granite  with  hard  lime- 
stone and  slate.    The  granite  is  soft  and  readily 
disintegrates./ The  soil  is  poor  and  stony,  bnt 
long  fomishedconsiderablj  more  grain  than  was 
required  for  home  consumption.     The  climate 
is  more  severe  than  that  of  Sweden,  althoogh 
resembling  it  in  many  other  respects.    Dense 
fogs  are  frequent,  and  the  rains  in  autumn  are 
very  heavy.     In  the  southern  provinces  the 
winter  lasts  seven  months.    In  the  northern 
the  sun  disappears  in  December^  and  is  not 
seen  again  until  the  middle  of  January;  but 
daring  the  short  summer  it  is  almost  continn- 
ally  above  the  horizon^The  mineral  products 
comprise  bog  iron,  tSSct,  sulphur,  arsenic,  and 
a  little  copper  ore.    Salt  is  very  scarce,  and  is 
one  of  the  principal  articles  of  importation. 
The  entire  mineral  produce  of  the  country  was 
in  1870  valued  at  $1,152,245.      Among  the 
fauna  are  the  bear,  wolf,  elk,  deer,  beaver, 
polecat,  and  various  kinds  of  game.     Large 
Lerds  of  reindeer  are  domesticated  in  the  north, 
and  cattle  breeding  is  a  prominent  branch  of 
industry.     Seals  and  herrings  are  caught  off 
the  coasts,  and  the  lakes  and  streams  abound 
in  salmon  and  a  small  species  of  herring  which 
form  an  important  part  of  the  food  of  the  in- 
habitants.    Finland  was  formerly  called  the 
granary  of  Sweden ;  but  since  the  Russian  con- 
quest agricultural  production  is  said  to  have 
declined.      The  chief  crops  are  barley,  rye, 
hops,  hemp,  flax,  oats,  leguminous  plants,  and 
potatoes.     A  little  tobacco,  carrots,  colewort, 
parsnips,  and  onions  are  also  grown.     Wild 
berries  are  almost  the  only  fruit.    The  forests 
are  extensive,  reaching  N.  to  lat.  69°,  consist- 
ing principally  of  pine  and  fir,  but  containing 
also  beech,  elm,  oak,  poplar,  ash,  and  birch. 
These  forests  are  one  of  the  chief  sources  of 
national  wealth,  but  have  been  much  wasted 
bja  system  of  manuring  land  with  their  ashes. 
The  soil  requires  frequent  stimulus,  and  when 
the  cleared  land  ceases  to  produce  sufficiently 
it  is  abandoned  for  other  portions  of  soil,  the 
timber  of  which  is  purposely  burned.    Much 
tar,  pitch,  and  potash,  however,  as  well  as  fire- 
wood, are  still  exported.     The  pasture  lands 
are  good,  but  ill  managed. — Manufactures  are 
chiefly  domestic.      The  peasant  prepares  his 
own  tar,  potash,  and  charcoal,  builds  his  own 
boat,  makes  his  own  chairs  and  tables,  and  in 
his  cottage  are  woven  the  coarse  woollen  and 
<ther  fabrics  of  which  his  dress  is  composed. 
Bnt  there  are  several  cotton  manufactories.    In 
1865  there  were  in  Finland  82  manufactories 
of  tobacco,  19  of  glassware,  7  of  paper,  and 
rarious  others.    The  aggregate  produce  of  the 
rinnish  manufactures  in  1865  was  valued  at 
^-,962,880 ;  the  number  of  workmen  employed 
^as  6,946.     The  exports  of  Finland  amount- 
ed in  1870  to  $8,614,720  ($8,200,000  to  Rus- 
ja),  and  the  imports  to  $7,848,480  ($2,769,- 
SOO  from  Russia).    The  chief  articles  of  export 
w^ere  timber  and  wooden  ware,  butter,  iron, 


com,  tar,  and  fish ;  the  chief  imports  were  coffee, 
iron,  sugar,  raw  cotton,  salt,  tobacco,  wine,  and 
brandy.  Of  foreign  countries,  England  ranks 
first  as  regards  the  exports  of  Finland,  and 
Germany  first  as  regards  its  imports.  Finland 
has  two  banks:  one  national  bank,  Unlands 
Banhj  established  in  1811,  and  administered 
since  1868  by  deputies  of  the  diet;  and  one 
private,  ForeningfSianhen  %  Finland^  founded 
in  1862,  which  in  1870  had  branches  in  17 
towns.  The  commercial  marine  consisted  in 
1870  of  78  steamships  and  604  sailing  vessels, 
of  81,862  tons,  manned  by  6,742  sailors.  The 
largest  number  of  commercial  vessels  is  owned 
by  the  town  of  Brahestad ;  next  in  order  fol- 
low Abo,  Nystad,  Vasa,  Uleaborg,  and  Jakob- 
stad.  Not  included  in  the  above  number  are 
1,109  coasting  vessels,  of  62,064  tons.  There 
is  regular  steamship  connection  all  along  the 
coast  from  St.  Petersburg  to  Tomea,  as  well  as 
on  most  of  the  lakes  in  the  interior  of  the 
country.  There  are  14  lighthouses  and  740 
pilots  distributed  among  97  stations.  The  first 
railway  was  opened  in  1862  between  Helsing- 
fors  and  Tavastehuus ;  in  1870  the  rulway  be- 
tween St  Petersburg  and  Helsingfors  was  com- 
pleted, and  in  1874  that  between  the  former 
city  and  Hango.  The  entire  length  of  the 
Finnish  railways  in  1871  was  298  m.,  of  tele- 
graph lines  1,686  m.,  and  of  telegraph  wires 
2,768  m.  In  1869  a  submarine  telegraph  was 
laid  between  Sweden  and  Finland,  «ia  the  Aland 
islands. — With  the  exception  of  41,000  Greek 
and  800  Roman  Oathotics,  nearly  the  whole 
population  are  Lutherans,  divided  into  three 
dioceses.  The  archbishop  resides  at  Abo,  the 
two  bishops  at  Borga  and  Kuopio.  Educa- 
tion receives  considerable  care,  and  the  study 
of  the  Finnish  language,  which  was  much  neg- 
lected while  the  country  was  subject  to  Swe- 
den, is  encouraged  by  the  Russian  government. 
Besides  the  Alexander  university,  transferred 
from  Abo  to  Helsingfors,  there  are  six  gym- 
nasiums, 18  superior  elementary  schools,  and 
a  military  academy,  and  most  of  the  par- 
ishes have  primary  schools.  In  1864  a  Finnish 
normal  school  was  established  at  Jyvfiskylft; 
and  in  1871  the  establishment  of  two  Swedish 
normal  schools,  one  male  and  one  female,  was 
ordered.  In  1 872  the  study  of  the  Russian  lan- 
guage in  all  state  schools  was  made  compulsory ; 
up  to  that  time  it  had  been  optional,  and,  from 
the  aversion  of  the  Finns  to  all  that  is  Russian, 
generally  neglected. — Since  1809  Finland  has 
been  united  with  the  empire  of  Russia.  Its  fun« 
damental  laws  are  the  Swedish  constitution  of 
1772,  and  the  act  of  union  of  1789.  These  were 
confirmed  by  the  emperor  Alexander  I.,  March 
27, 1809 ;  again  by  the  emperor  Nicholas,  Dec. 
24, 1826 ;  and  by  Alexander  II.,  March  4, 1866. 
The  right  of  representation  was  regulated 
anew  by  a  law  in  1869.  The  government  is 
administered  by  a  governor  general  and  a 
senate  consisting  of  14  members,  half  of  whom 
are  noble,  and  who  are  presided  over  by  the 
governor  general  assisted  by  two  vice  presi- 


202 


FINLAND 


dents  not  included  in  the  number  of  the  mem- 
bers. The  senators  are  named  for  three  years 
by  the  emperor.  The  vice  presidents  are  chiefs 
of  the  departments  of  justice  and  finance.  The 
deliberations  of  the  senate  are  held  at  Helsing- 
fors,  the  modern  capital.  High  courts  of 
justice  sit  at  Abo,  Vasa,  and  Viborg.  There 
is  also  a  regular  military  court.  Provincial 
governors  reside  at  Helsingfors,  Abo,  Tavaste- 
huus,  Viborg,  St.  Michael,  Kuopio,  Yasa,  and 
Uleaborg.  These  dignitaries  are  all,  by  the 
terms  of  the  constitution,  Finns,  and  a  secre- 
tary of  state  for  Finnish  affairs  resides  at  St. 
Petersburg,  and  is  a  member  of  the  imperial 
council.  A  diet,  composed  like  the  former 
diet. of  Sweden  of  the  four  orders,  nobility, 
clergy,  burghers,  and  peasants,  is  a  constitu-. 
tional  privilege  of  Finland,  according  to  the 
imperial  recognition.  The  troops  of  the  army 
as  well  as  of  the  navy  consist  of  men  who 
volunteer  for  a  term  of  six  years.  In  1872 
Finland  had  only  a  battalion  of  sharpshoot- 
ers, consisting  of  679  men ;  the  marine  troops 
numbered  100  men.  The  revenue  in  the  gen- 
eral budget  for  1871  amounted  to  $3,058,370, 
of  which  $363,440  were  from  real  estate, 
$1,322,092  from  customs,  stamps,  &c.,  $500,- 
166  from  casual  dues,  and  $240,000  from  tax 
on  brandies,  &c.  The  expenditures  amounted 
to  $2,736,499,  of  which  $575,076  were  for  the 
civil  administration,  $205,440  for  government, 
$475,937  for  agriculture  and  commerce,  and 
$512,110  for  extraordinary  expenditures.  The 
revenue  and  the  expenditure  of  the  military 
budget  amounted  to  $492,788  each.  The 
clergy,  part  of  the  troops,  and  various  civil 
functionaries  receive  their  emoluments  and  pay 
from  resources  not  included  in  the  foregoing 
list  of  revenue ;  namely,  from  country  parishes, 
or  from  government  lands  reserved  for  this 
purpose.  These  expenditures  therefore  do  not 
appear  in  the  general  budget.  The  debt  of 
the  state  in  1871  amounted  to  $8,309,000.^ 
Less  is  known  of  early  Finnish  history  than  of 
that  of  any  other  European  country.  The  in- 
habitants, pagans,  were  governed  by  their  own 
independent  kings  until  about  the  middle  of 
the  12th  century.  Their  piracies  at  this  period 
so  much  harassed  the  Swedes,  that  St.  Eric, 
king  of  the  latter  people,  undertook  a  crusade 
against  them,  and  introduced  Christianity,  and 
also  probably  planted  Swedish  colonists  upon 
their  coasts.  The  Swedes  thus  acquired  a  hold 
upon  the  country  which  they  retained  for  sev- 
eral centuries.  From  this  period  down  to  1809 
the  history  of  Finland  is  included  in  that  of  the 
kings  of  Sweden,  during  which  the  country 
was  the  frequent  scene  of  Russian  and  Swedish 
wars.  By  the  peace  of  Nystad  (1721),  three 
years  after  the  death  of  Charles  XII.,  the  ter- 
ritory of  Viborg,  the  eastern  division  of  Fin- 
land, became  definitively  Russian.  In  1741 
the  Swedes,  hoping  to  repair  their  losses,  de- 
clared war,  but  in  a  few  months  the  whole  of 
Finland  was  overrun  by  the  RussianR.  In  the 
following  year,  at  Abo,  Sweden  ratified  anew 


all  her  former  cessions,  yielding  additional  ter- 
ritory also,  but  recovered  the  principal  duchy. 
In  1787  Gustavus  III.  began  his  great  attempt 
to  recover  these  losses  and  to  humble  his  an- 
tagonist; but  the  results  of  the  war  added 
little  glory  to  the  Swedish  arms.  In  1808  a 
fresh  invasion  from  Russia  took  place,  and 
Sweden  purchased  peace  by  the  cession  of  all 
Finland  and  the  islands  of  Aland,  Sept.  17, 
1809.  The  Swedish  language  and  customs 
during  750  years  had  taken  such  firm  root  that 
Russian  dominion  has  been  unable  to  modify 
them.  Abo  remains  in  some  degree  a  Swedish 
city,  and  the  removal  of  the  seat  of  govern- 
ment to  its  rival  Helsingfors  (1819),  and  of  the 
university  (1827),  has  not  contributed  to  Rns- 
sianize  the  ancient  capital.  Indeed,  at  tlie 
present  day  Stockholm  is  for  Abo  much  what 
St.  Petersburg  is  for  Helsingfors.  During  the 
whole  period  from  1809  to  1868  the  Finniah 
diet  was  not  convoked  by  the  Russian  govern- 
ment. On  Sept.  18,  1868,  the  emperor  Alex- 
ander opened  the  diet  at  Helsingfors,  composed 
of  48  representatives  of  the  rural  population, 
30  of  the  towns,  82  of  the  clergy,  and  141  no- 
blemen. The  emperor  promised  that  he  would 
cooperate  with  this  diet  in  the  introduction  of 
reasonable  reforms.  Several  resolutions  of  the 
diet  of  1863-^4,  as  well  as  of  those  which  met 
in  1867  and  1872,  have  been  sanctioned  by  the 
emperor.  Besides  the  new  electoral  law,  al- 
ready referred  to,  a  new  church  law  for  the 
Lutheran  church  of  Finland  was  published  in 
1869.  A  new  press  law  which  had  been  adopt- 
ed by  the  diet  in  1864  was  promulgated  in 
1865,  and  was  to  remain  in  force  only  till 
1867 ;  but  as  the  diet  of  1867  failed  to  agree 
on  the  proposed  amendments,  it  remained  in 
force  till  1872,  w^hen  all  the  four  estates  com- 
posing the  diet  declared  in  favor  of  the  liberty 
of  the  press,  which  the  government  refused  to 
concede.  On  April  12, 1872,  the  customs  fron- 
tier between  Finland  and  Russia  was  abolished. 
— Language  and  Litebatuse.  The  Finnish 
language  (Finnish,  Suomen  Kieli)  is  one  of  the 
chief  branches  of  the  Uralo-Finnish  family ; 
being,  with  the  Esthic  and  Lappic  collaterals, 
kindred  to  the  languages  of  the  Ugrians  or  east- 
ern Turks,  Osmanli  Turks,  Samoyeds,  Tartars, 
Magyars,  Mongols,  and  Tunguses,  whose  chief 
branch  is  the  Mantchoos.  All  these,  with  some 
other  tribes,  constitute  the  family  variously 
designated  as  Scythic,  Turanian,  AUopbylic, 
Mongolian,  or  UraJo- Altaic.  (See  Ethnology, 
Finns,  and  Turanian  Race  and  Languages.) 
The  Kieli,  which  is  spoken  by  more  than  2,000,- 
000  people,  consists  of  many  dialects,  of  which 
the  principal  are  the  lower,  used  along  the 
coasts  (except  the  islands  and  towns,  where 
Swedes  have  settled),  its  Abo  variety  being 
the  dialect  used  in  books;  the  upper,  or  that 
of  the  inland  region,  divided  into  the  sub-dia- 
lects of  Ulea  and  Viborg,  and  the  varieties 
of  Karelia,  Ingria,  &c.  The  Suomic  language 
is  written  with  23  Latin  or  German  letters, 
of  which  two  are  repeated  at  the  end  of 


FINLAND 


203 


the  alphabet  with  a  diacritic  sign,  viz.,  a,  d» 
It  contains,  however,  but  19  genuine  sounds, 
viz.,  8  vowels  and  11  consonants.  The  let- 
ters 6,  Cj  dy  /,  g  occur  only  in  a  few  foreign 
wards  and  in  some  dialects.  JT,  p,  h  are  the 
most  frequent  initials,  1;,  p^  t  the  most  fre- 
quent consonants,  and  sound  a  little  softer 
than  in  other  languages.  The  concurrence 
of  consonants  is  avoided,  so  that  the  foreign 
words  Francis^  Stephen^  school^  stable  become 
RanUi^  Tehvan^  koulu^  tallia.  There  are  many 
diphthongs.  Long  vowels  are  written  double. 
The  hiatus  is  not  avoided.  A  few  themes  end 
in  consonants,  but  none  in  m.  The  rhythm  of 
the  language  is  trochaic,  and  the  root  bears 
the  tone.  Rask  considers  the  Suomic  to  be 
the  most  harmonious  of  tongues.  The  radical, 
which  precedes  all  other  syllables,  never  un- 
dergoes any  change  in  its  beginning  and  mid- 
dle. The  theme  is  originally  dissyllabic,  and 
often  corresponds  to  monosyllabic  Magyar 
roots;  thus:  kdH^  Magyar  ib««,  hand;  satOy 
ttdzy  100;  vesiy  vu^  water;  veri,  «er,  blood; 
tajia^  isSj  word ;  tyvi^  tdy  stem,  &c.  The  vari- 
ous relations  of  nouns  to  one  another,  which  in 
other  languages  are  expressed  both  by  cases 
and  prepositions,  are  indicated  by  post-posi- 
tions or  suffixes,  forming  from  the  nominative, 
which  is  sometimes  the  theme  with  a  changed 
final,  14  cases,  of  which  7  are  simple,  the 
others  more  full.  There  are  two  declensions. 
Tiie  object  is  indicated  by  the  genitive,  nomina- 
tive, or  partitive,  according  to  the  shade  of 
meaning.  Plurality  is  denoted  for  the  nomina- 
tive by  suffixing  t,  and  for  the  other  cases  by 
ini^rting  i  before  their  endings.  In  some  in- 
stances a  euphonic  e  is  inserted  before  the  end- 
ings. Vocal  harmony  is  strictly  observed  be- 
tween the  vowels  of  the  theme  (in  nouns  as 
well  as  verbs),  and  for  this  purpose  the  vowels 
are  distinguished  into  three  groups,  viz. :  a,  o, 
u;  e,  %;  and  (2,  d,  y  ;  those  of  the  first  and  last 
never  occurring  in  one  word  together,  but  being 
compatible  with  those  of  the  middle  one.  Hence 
the  vowels  of  the  first  and  last  group  are  con- 
verted reciprocally  in  the  suffixes,  in  order  to 
salt  the  vowels  of  the  theme;  for  instance, 
maa-tOy  land-part,  but  pdd-td^  head-part.  No 
language  of  this  family  has  grammatic  genders, 
bat  all  indicate  sexes  either  by  distinct  words  or 
br  epithets.  The  Magyar  alone  uses  an  article. 
The  adjectives  in  Suomic  are  immutable,  and 
are  rendered  comparative  by  suffixing  mpa, 
fima,  nUuj  and  superlative  by  inserting  i  before 
that  termination.  Nouns  and  adverbs  receive 
an  intenser  meaning  by  inserting  mpa  and 
impa.  The  numerals  are:  1,  yksi;  2,  kaksi; 
Kkolme;  4,  neljd;  6,  tiUi;  6,  kutisi  ;  7,  sett- 
9smin;  8,  hahdehsan ;  9,  yhdehsdn;  10,  kym- 
nifn^n;  11,  yksUto  ista-kymmentd ;  20,  JtahH- 
^mmentd;  80,  kolmirhymmentd ;  100,  sata; 
ItOOO,  tithaTieny  tuhot.  The  personal  pronouns 
are :  mina^  I ;  siiiSL,  thon ;  kdriy  he,  she ;  me^ 
we ;  te^  you ;  hs^  hmity  they.  The  possessive 
is  formed  by  a  suffix,  as  ift2,  a  father ;  isdni,  my 
father;  isds,  thy  father ;  UdMd^  his  father ;  isdm- 


mey  our  father ;  isdnnej  your  father ;  isdndnse, 
their  father.  The  verbs  have  but  two  simple 
tenses,  viz.,  the  present  and  past,  the  others 
being  periphrastic.  Their  coigugation  is  more 
complicated  than  in  any  other  family  of  lan- 
guages, expressing  by  certain  syllables  inserted 
between  the  theme  and  the  personal  suffixes  all 
voices,  modes,  species,  and  other  nice  shades  of 
meaning.  The  infinitive  shares  more  than  in 
any  other  language  in  the  nature  of  a  noun ; 
it  comprehends  the  Latin  gerunds,  supines,  and 
other  shades  of  sense,  and  is  declinable.  The 
Finnish  language  has  no  separable  particles, 
and  even  affirmation  is  expressed  by  means 
of  the  auxiliary  oleUy  I  am,  and  negation  by 
means  of  the  verb  e.  By  connecting  several 
such  significant  syllables  into  one  word,  the 
most  complicated  ideas  may  be  very  precisely, 
expressed,  which  often  require  many  separate 
words  in  other  languages.  Derived  words 
may  be  formed  almost  indefinitely.  The  con- 
struction is  extremely  free,  as  in  Magyar,  with- 
out endangering  the  clearness  of  the  sense ;  as 
for  instance : 

Xat90    hylva^d     m&nt    kylvdnddf^    ja     kylvdisdnsd 
Lol        sower      went        sow^to,        and    aowing-while 

lankuivat      muviamat       tUn      chetn      ja     linnut 
fell  aome  (seeds)    road^s    ed^-on,    and     birds 

tulivatt  ia      tibitdt      fis, 
came    and   picked*ap  them. 

The  best  grammars  of  the  language  are  those 
of  Juden  (Viborg,  1818)  and  Koskinen  (Abo, 
1865),  in  Swedish.  Finnish  dictionaries  have 
been  published  in  Latin  and  Swedish  by  D.  Jus- 
t«nius  in  1745,  Renvall  in  Latin,  Swedish,  and 
German  (Abo,  1826),  0.  Helenius  in  Swedish 
(Abo,  1888),  and  E.  LOnnrot  (Helsingfors,  1868). 
— The  national  songs  or  runes  of  the  Finns  may 
be  divided  into  mythological  and  lyrical  songs. 
They  are  sung  by  Sunolainen  (song  men),  to  the 
sound  of  the  favorite  national  instrument,  the 
hanteUy  a  species  of  harp  with  five  wire  strings. 
They  have  also  magic  songs  {Luvut)y  which 
are  not  sung  but  recited  in  a  solemn  measured 
tone.  The  songs,  scattered  among  the  people 
for  generations  past,  and  some  of  which  had 
been  published  since  the  beginning  of  this  cen- 
tury, were  at  length  collected  by  L5nnrot  and 
published  at  Helsingfors  in  1835  under  the 
title  of  KaletalOy  which  work  is  now  regarded 
as  the  great  national  epic  of  Finland.  So  great 
was  its  success  that  the  Finnish  literary  soci- 
ety took  immediate  measures  for  a  more  com- 
prehensive collection,  and  the  second  edition, 
which  appeared  in  1849,  contains  60  songs, 
with  22,790  verses,  while  the  first  edition  con- 
tained only  about  half  as  many.  A  Swedish 
translation  of  the  poem  by  Oastrl^n  (Helsingfors, 
1844)  was  speedily  followed  by  a  French  trans- 
lation by  L6ouzon  le  Due  (2  vols.  8vo,  Paris, 
1846),  and  by  a  German  translation  by  A. 
Schiefner  (Helsingfors,  1862).  Ldnnrot  has 
further  collected  about  600  ancient  lyrical 
songs  and  60  ballads  {KanUletary  Helsingfors, 


204 


FINLAND 


FINLEY 


1840) ;  7,077  proverbs  (Suomen  iansan  sanal- 
shuja^  1842) ;  and  about  2,200  charades  (Suo- 
men  kan&an  orwoitukna^  2d  ed.,  1851) ;  while 
Badbak  has  edited  a  collection  of  legends  and 
teXoA  {Suomen  kanmnBatuja,,  Helsingfors,  1854), 
and  Salmelainen  has  edited  Suoiken  kansan 
satuja  ja  tarinoita^  a  collection  of  prose  tales 
and  proverbs  (4  vols.,  Helsingfors,  1854-'62). 
There  are  many  poets  in  Finland  of  Swedish 
descent,  and  Swedish  works  are  often  transla- 
ted into  Finnish.  The  most  popular  modem 
Finnish  poet  is  a  peasant  named  Paavo  Eorho- 
nen.  An  edition  of  his  songs  was  published 
at  Helsingfors  in  1848,  under  the  auspices  of 
Ldnnrot.  Next  in  rank  is  probably  the  poet 
Oksaselta,  who  published  in  1860  Sdhenia^ 
hokous  runoutta.  The  prose  literature  of  Fin- 
land was  formerly  devoted  almost  exclusively 
to  religious  and  moral  subjects.  A  Finnish 
translation  of  the  New  Testament  by  Michael 
Agricola  appeared  in  1548,  and  a  portion  of  the 
Old  Testament  in  1552;  but  the  whole  Bible 
was  not  translated  into  Finnish  until  1642. 
The  literature  of  Finland  has,  however,  passed 
through  a  remarkable  development  during  the 
last  few  decades.  There  are  now  publications 
in  the  national  tongue  on  almost  every  branch 
of  scientific  research.  Works  on  linguistics 
have  been  published  by  Geitlin,  Stjemcreutz 
and  Kothman,  Ahlman,  and  others ;  a  transla- 
tion of  Tacitus^s  Qermania  by  Blomstedt  (1865), 
of  the  Poema  del  Cid  by  Estlander  (1863),  and 
of  the  Hindoo  epos  Ramayana^  part  Sitahara- 
namy  by  Donner  (1865).  Prominent  historical 
works  are:  Yij6  Koskinen's  Nuija-sota,  &c. 
(1857  et  seq.)j  Blomstedt^s  Kapina  Kauhajoella 
(1862),  and  Ptttz's  YIeisen  historian  oppikirja 
(1866  et  seq.),  Krohn^s  Sttomenkielinen  runol- 
iieuue  ruotsinvallan  aikana  (1802)  is  a  valuable 
contribution  toward  a  history  of  Finnish  lite- 
rature. Periodical  literature  is  well  repre- 
sented by  Maiden  ya  meren  takaa  (since  1864) 
and  the  Kirjallinen  kuukaua  lehti  (since  1866). 
FINLAND,  Ci«lf  vf,  the  eastern  arm  of  the 
Baltic  sea,  extending  from  the  S.  W.  extremity 
of  Finland  and  DagO  island  eastwardly  to  the 
bay  of  Oronstadt  and  St.  Petersburg,  between 
Ion.  22**  and  80"*  18'  £.,  and  intersected  by  the 
00th  parallel  of  north  latitude.  It  is  250  m, 
long,  with  a  mean  breadth  of  60  or  70  m.  Its 
coasts  are  entirely  Russian  possessions ;  name- 
ly, Finland  on  the  north,  and  the  governments 
of  Esthonia  and  St.  Petersburg  on  the  south. 
Its  E.  extremity  is  the  bay  of  Cronstadt, 
which  is  almost  encircled  by  the  shores  of  the 
last  named  government.  The  waters  of  the 
great  lakes  Onega  and  Ladoga,  N.  E.  of  St. 
Petersburg,  flow  into  the  gulf  of  Finland,  the 
first  by  the  river  Svir  into  Lake  Ladoga,  and 
the  latter  by  the  Neva  into  the  bay  of  Oron- 
stadt. The  bed  of  the  gulf  is  of  calcareous 
rock,  in  some  parts  compact  and  naked,  in 
others  covered  and  filled  with  shells.  Occa- 
sional points  of  granite  are  intermingled  with 
this  general  character.  The  depth  of  water  is 
nowhere  great,  and  is  least  along  the  southern 


coast,  of  which  the  submerged  descent  is  grad- 
ual. The  northern  shore  is  much  hemmed  in 
with  islands  and  granite  rocks.  In  its  eastern 
parts,  particularly  between  Oronstadt  and  8t. 
Petersburg,  are  numerous  sand  bjanks  and  shal- 
lows. In  addition  to  these  the  huge  masses 
of  ice  which  in  spring  and  autumn  block  up 
the  mouths  of  the  rivers  present  a  serious  im- 
pediment to  navigation.  The  water  is  very 
slightly  salt,  and  is  readily  drunk  by  cattle. 
The  harbors  of  the  gulf  of  Finland  are  dosed 
by  ice  every  year  from  early  in  December  to 
the  middle  or  end  of  April.  It  has  several 
times  happened  that  the  waters  of  the  gul£^ 
driven  by  westerly  gales,  have  submerged 
whole  streets  in  St.  Petersburg,  even  up  to  the 
first  floor  of  houses ;  an  event  against  which  no 
provision  for  the  future  has  appeared  possible. 

FINLAT.  Geirie,  a  British  historian,  bom  at 
Glasgow  in  1800,  died  Jan.  26, 1876.  He  en- 
listed in  the  Greek  war  of  independence,  and 
alterward  resided  in  Athens,  acting  for  many 
years  as  the  special  correspondent  of  the  Ix>n- 
don  "Times."  He  was  noted  for  his  tiiorongh 
knowledge  of  Greek  topography,  art,  and  an- 
tiquity, and  wrote  a  series  of  works  on  Greek 
history,  comprising  "History  of  Greece  under 
the  Romans  "  (1848 ;  2d  ed.,  1857) ;  "  History 
of  Mediaeval  Greece  and  Trebizond"  (1851); 
"  History  of  the  Byzantine  and  Greek  Empires 
from  716  to  1057"  (2  vols.,  1858-'4);  "His- 
tory of  Greece  under  Othraan  and  Venetian 
Dominion"  (1854)  ;  and  "  History  of  the  Greek 
Revolution  "  (2  vols.,  1861). 

FINLAY)  JvliB)  a  Scottish  poet  and  biographer, 
bom  in  Glasgow  in  1782,  died  at  Moffat,  Dec. 
8,  1810.  His  principal  poem,  "Wallace,  or 
the  Yale  of  EUerslie,"  was  published  when  he 
was  only  18  years  old.  The  more  important 
of  his  other  works  are :  "  Scottish  Historical 
and  Romantic  Ballads,  chiefly  Ancient,  with 
Explanatory  Notes,"  &c.  (2  vols.,  Edinburgh, 
1808),  and  a  "  Life  of  Oervantes."  He  also 
edited  Blair's  "Grave"  and  Smith's  "Wealth 
of  Nations." 

FlNLAlfSON,  Qtwgt^  a  British  surgeon  and 
traveller,  bom  in  Thurso  about  1790,  died  ob 
the  passage  from  Bengal  to  Scotland  in  August, 
1828.  He  was  a  surgeon  in  the  British  army, 
was  present  at  the  battle  of  Waterloo,  and 
served  in  Oeylon  and  India.  In  1821  he  ac- 
companied Orawfurd  in  his  mission  t-o  the 
sovereigns  of  Siam  and  Hu6  (Oochin  Ohina), 
and  wrote  an  interesting  journal  of  it,  which 
was  edited  and  published  after  his  death  by 
Sir  T.  S.  Raffles  (London,  1825). 

FINLET,  JtBCS  Bradley,  an  American  cleriry- 
man,  bom  in  North  Oarolina,  July  1, 1781,  died 
in  Oincinnati,  O.,  Sept.  6,  1856.  He  joined 
the  Ohio  conference  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
church  in  1809.  From  1816  to  1821  he  was 
presiding  elder  of  the  Steubenville,  Ohio,  and 
Lebanon  districts.  In  1821  he  was  sent  as 
missionary  to  the  Wyandot  Indians,  where  he 
remained  six  years.  Retaining  the  snperin ten- 
dency of  this  mission  for  two  years,  he  subse- 


FINLEY 


FINNS 


205 


qnently  continued  in  the  itinerant  ministiy  as 
pastor  and  presiding  elder  till  1846,  when  he 
was  appointed  chaplain  of  the  Ohio  peniten- 
tiary. He  retained  this  office  till  1849.  Du- 
ring his  later  years  he  acted  as  conference 
missionary  and  pastor  of  churches  in  southern 
Ohio.  His  chief  works  are:  *' Autobiogra- 
phy "  (Cincinnati,  1854) ;  ''  Wyandotte  Mis- 
fiion;''  ''Sketches  of  Western  Methodism'' 
(1857);  ''Life  among  the  Indians"  (1857); 
and  "  Memorials  of  Prison  life  "  (1860). 

FINLEY)  Saaiel,  an  American  Presbyterian 
clergyman,  bom  in  Armagh,  Ireland,  in  1715, 
died  'in  PhUadelphia,  July  17,  1766.  He  ar- 
rived in  America  in  1734,  studied  theology, 
and  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1740.  The 
first  part  of  his  ministry  was  occupied  with 
itinerant  labors  in  promoting  a  revival  of 
religion.  In  1744  he  was  settled  at  Not- 
tingham, Md.,  where  he  remained  seven  years, 
and  carried  on  in  addition  to  his  ministerial 
labors  an  academy  which  acquired  a  high  rep- 
utation. On  the  death  of  President  Davies  of 
the  college  of  New  Jersey,  he  was  chosen  his 
successor,  and  removed  to  Princeton  in  1761. 
The  college  flourished  while  under  his  care. 

FmiAEKy  a  bailiwick  of  Norway,  forming 
the  N.  £.  divifflon  of  the  province  of  TromsO, 
and  the  northernmost  region  of  the  continent 
of  Europe,  formerly  including  also  what  is 
now  the  bailiwick  of  TromsO ;  area,  18,806 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1872,  20,329.  It  lies  wholly 
within  the  arctic  circle.  Its  northernmost 
point  is  the  North  cape,  in  lat  71^  10'.  Its 
coasts  are  thickly  indented  by  long  winding 
inlets,  and  are  bordered  by  a  vast  number  of 
irregular  islands.  It  has  important  cod  fish- 
eries. The  principal  rivers  are  the  Alten  and 
Tana,  the  valleys  of  which  are  fertile  and  well 
cultivated.  The  climate  of  the  coasts  is  so 
mild  that  some  of  the  fiords  never  freeze. 
Hammerfest,  an  active  trading  place,  is  one  of 
the  principal  towns. 

FIHVy  Henry  J**  an  American  actor  and  au- 
thor, bom  at  Sydney,  Cape  Breton,  about  1785, 
perished  in  the  conflagration  of  the  steamboat 
Lexington  in  Long  Island  sound  on  the  night 
of  Jan.  13,  1840.  He  went  to  England  in  his 
youth,  on  the  invitation  of  a  rich  uncle  resi- 
ding there,  who  died  without  making  any  pro- 
vision for  him,  and  he  was  obliged  to  resort  to 
the  stage  for  a  support.  After  a  few  years  he 
returned  to  New  York,  subsequently  revisited 
Enghmd,  and  in  1822  made  his  first  appearance 
at  the  Federal  street  theatre  in  Boston.  He 
was  one  of  the  most  popular  actors  on  the 
stage,  his  forte  bemg  broad  comedy.  He  ac- 
cumalated  a  competency,  and  was  on  his  way 
to  his  residence  in  Newport,  R.  I.,  at  the  time 
of  his  death.  He  ei\joyed  a  considerable  repu- 
tation as  a  humorous  writer,  and  published  a 
^*  Comic  Annual "  and  a  number  of  articles  in 
the  periodicals.  He  published  a  drama  entitled 
^*  Montgomery,  or  the  Falls  of  Montmorenci," 
which  was  acted  with  success,  and  he  left  be- 
ndes  a  manuscript  tragedy.  , 


nniET}  Charies  fit,  an  American  preacher 
and  author,  born  in  Warren,  Litchfield  co., 
Conn.,  Aug.  29, 1792,  died  at  Oberlin,  O.,  Aug. 
16,  1875.  He  studied  law  in  Jefierson  oo., 
N.  Y.,  but  became  a  preacher  in  1824,  and 
labored  as  an  evangelist  with  great  success  un- 
til 1835,  when  he  accepted  a  professorship  in 
Oberlin  college,  Ohio ;  and  in  1887  he  became 
pastor  of  the  first  Congregational  church  at 
OberUn.  He  continued  to  preach  in  New  York 
and  elsewhere  at  intervals,  and  in  1848  went 
to  England,  where  he  remained  three  years. 
In  1852  he  became  president  of  Oberlin  col- 
lege, which  position  he  held  until  1866.  His 
principal  works  are:  ^^ Lectures  on  Revivals" 
(Boston,  1835;  13th  ed.,  1840;  new  and  en- 
larged ed.,  Oberlin,  1868) ;  "  Lectures  to  Pro- 
fessing Christians ''  (Oberlin,  1836) ;  **  Sermons 
on  Important  Subjects"  (New  York,  1839); 
and  '* Lectures  on  Systematic  Theology"  (2 
vols.  8vo,  Oberlin,  1847).  All  of  these  have 
passed  through  several  editions. 

FIlfBrS,  a  race  of  men  inhabiting  portions  of 
N.  and  £.  Europe  and  N.  W.  Asia.  The  most 
important  divisions  of  this  race,  besides  the 
inhabitants  of  Finland  or  Finns  proper,  are 
the  Lapps,  Esths,  Sirians,  Permiaks,  Votiaks, 
Tcheremisses,  Mordvins,  Bashkirs,  Tchuvashes, 
Voguls,  Ostiaks,  and  Magyars.  They  thus 
comprise  the  extensive  group  of  languages 
and  tribes  which  ethnologists  and  phildo- 
gists  designate  as  the  Uralo-Finnic  branch  of 
the  Mongolian,  Turanian,  or  Uralo- Altaic  fam- 
ily. (See  Ethnology.)  The  Finns  are  re- 
lated to  the  Huns,  Avars,  and  Khazars;  but 
it  is  not  positively  known  when  they  took 
possession  of  their  present  habitats,  and  from 
what  direction  they  moved  into  them.  They 
are  in  every  respect  of  the  Mongoloid  type, 
having  not  only  its  general  physical  character, 
but  also  its  mental  and  temperamental  charac- 
teristics. They  are  distinguished  by  the  same 
gravity  of  demeanor  and  concealment  of  emo- 
tions ;  by  deliberation  of  speech  and  the  ab- 
sence of  violent  gesticulation ;  by  the  rarity 
of  laughter,  and  by  plaintive  and  melancholy 
songs.  It  was  until  recently  the  universal  opin- 
ion of  ethnologists  that  they  were  a  younger 
branch  of  the  Asiatic  Mongolians,  and  conse^ 
quently  that  they  emigrated  from  east  to  west. 
There  are,  however,  reasons  for  supposing  that 
the  Finnic  languages  represent  the  oldest  forms 
of  speech  among  the  Uralo- Altaic  group.  They 
possess,  for  example,  the  strongest  marked  fea- 
tures of  tl)e  whole  family,  and  bear  the  closest 
analogy  to  the  Indo-European  tongues.  From 
these  facts  the  conclusion  has  been  drawn  that 
the  primitive  Finns  and  Indo-Europeans  were 
neighbors,  and  that  the  two  families  of  lan- 
guages were  formed  at  the  same  time.  The 
authorities  who  hold  that  the  earliest  home  of 
the  Indo-Europeans  must  be  placed  where  the 
main  body  of  them  is  still  found,  maintain  ac- 
cordingly that  the  Finns  still  inhabit  their 
primitive  soil,  and  that  they  are  the  ancestors 
and  the  stem  of  the  Asiatic  Turanians.    One  of 


the  teut  expeot«d  resnits  of  the  decipherment 
of  the  BabfloQian  and  AM;rian  cuneiform  in- 
Bcriptioaa  is  that  the  moat  ancient  language 
fonnd  in  this  stylo  of  writing  is  etronglj  allied 
to  the  idioicB  of  the  Uralo-Ii'innia  race,  and 
tliat  many  of  its  words  and  the  greater  part 
of  its  grammatical  forms  particularly  resemble 
the  Finlandish.  It  is  therefore  coi^ectnred 
that  the  Finnic  race  was  in  possession  of 
the  Tigris  and  Euphrates  basin  more  than 
4,000  years  ago;  and  in  retracing  the  ideo- 
graphs of  the  cuneiforms  to  t)ie  objects  they 
originally  repreaented,  it  ia  fonnd  that  the  re- 
gion where  thia  system  of  writing  was  invented 
was  a  nortiiern  clirae ;  at  least  one  totally  dif- 
ferent from  that  of  Babylonia  and  Assyria, 
destitate,  among  other  things,  of  large  feline 
carnivora  and  of  palm  trees.  The  French  eth- 
nologist Qiiatrefeges  maintains  in  his  recent 
work  on  La  race  pruanenne  that  the  Pruasians 
proper  are  of  Finnia  descent,  but  apparently 
without  sufficient  evidence.  Beloguet,  on  the 
other  hand,  argues,  in  his  Efhnologie  gauloue, 
that  the  pre- Aryan  race  which  inhabited  France 
most  have  been  Finns ;  but  this  hypothesis  also 
haa  no  sufficient  basis.  Finnic  elementa  are 
also  discovered  in  the  Basque  language  and  in 
the  remnants  of  the  Etruscan.  As  Tacitus, 
however,  speaks  of  Fenni  among  the  German 
tribea,  and  as  the  Finnic  languages  are  strong- 
ly intermixed  with  Celtic  forms,  it  is  proba- 
ble that  the  Finns  occupied  at  a  remote  time 
the  low  lands  of  Germany  to  the  confines  of 
Gaul.  Certain  it  is  that  they  inhabited  for  a 
long  period  the  whole  region  between  the 
Volga  and  the  Ural  rivers,  and  that  the 
Magyar  tribe  dwelt  in  the  district  of  the 
Kunia.  The  Finns  also  overran  the  southern 
portion  of  Sweden,  and  perhaps  Jutland ;  but 
they  were  driven  ont  of  the  country  W.  of 
the  gulf  of  Bothnia  as  early  as  the  9th  cen- 
tury.— The  Finns  of  N.  W.  Russia  belong  either 
to  the  Greek  or  to  the  Lutlieran  church.  Be- 
fore the  12th  century  they  adored  number- 
less fetiches,  besides  a  god  of  heaven  and  earth 
whom  they  called  Yumaia,  Yumula,  or  Yu- 
mara,  according  to  the  dialect  of  the  tribe, 
and  also  Num  on  the  E.  shore  of  the  White 
sea.  The  other  Finnic  deities  were  tribal  gods 
adopted  in  the  course  of  migration  and  devel- 
opment. In  Finland  there  are  about  1,S00,- 
000  Finns  proper,  many  of  whom  have  (riopt- 
ed  the  oivdization  of  the  Swedes,  their  for- 
mer conquerors,  but  are  reluctant  to  become 
Russianized.  The  peasants  of  the  interior 
still  live  in  a  very  rude  and  simple  manner. 
The  dialect  of  this  branch  of  the  Finnic  race 
ia  considered  one  of  the  most  harmonions  and 
softest  languages  spoken.  (See  Finland,  Las- 
QUAGB  AND  LiTERATnBE.)  The  Flntis  proper 
are  subdivided  Into  Tavasts  and  Karelians. 
The  Tavaata,  who  inhabit  the  8.  W.  districts 
of  Finland,  are  groat  agriculturists,  besides  pay- 
ing much  attention  to  breeding  cattle.  They 
are  nevertheless  one  of  the  poorest  and  hum- 
blest branches  of  the  whole  race.    The;  deaig- 


nat«  thenuelTes  sa  Flamalaiaeth,  and  are  m- 

tiraatod  to  number  about  000,000.  More  viva- 
cioQB  and  less  rude  than  the  Tavasts  are  the 
Karelians,  whom  the  other  Finnisli  tribes  call 
Karialaiseth.  They  inhabit  the  eastern  por- 
tions of  Finland  and  the  ai^oining  govem- 
menia  of  Ruasia,  and  number  above  1,000,000. 
The  Lapps  are  distribut«d  over  portions  of 
Sweden,  Norway,  and  Russia,  and  are  only 
about  10,000  in  number.  In  the  government  of 
St.  Petersburg  dwell  nearly  18,000  Ingriana 
and  abont  6,000  Vota  or  Vatialaiseth.  The 
Estha,  in  Esthonia,  Livonia,  and  the  neighbor- 
ing govemmenta,  number  upward  of  500,000 ; 
the  Tchuds  proper,  in  Olonetz  and  Novgorod, 
about  16,000 ;  Uie  Livs  and  Erevinga,  in  Cour- 
land  and  Livonia,  are  becoming  extinct,  nnm- 
bering  little  more  than  2,000  persona  Ail 
these  together  form  the  Tchndic  branch  of 
the  race.  The  Permian  branch  occupies  re- 
gions between  the  Ural  mountains  and  the 
Volga  and  Dwinn.    There  are  about  60,000 


PbimdM  of  FInliDd. 

Penniaks  in  the  government  of  Perm,  who 
without  their  Finnic  language  could  scarcely 
be  distinguished  from  uio  Russians.  They 
raise  cattle,  are  very  poor,  and  their  customs 
are  similar  to  those  of  the  Votiaka,  who  num- 
ber about  180,000,  and  live  in  villages  of  20  to 
40  houses  between  the  Kama  and  the  Viatka. 
With  the  latter  are  mingled  the  Bissermians, 
about  6,000  in  number,  greatly  resembling  the 
Permiaks,  The  Sirians,  between  lat.  68°  and 
66°  N.,  chiefly  on  the  Vjtch^a,  number  abont 
70,000,  speak  exclusively  their  own  dialect,  and 
belong  to  the  Greek  church.  On  the  central 
Volga,  and  between  that  river  and  the  Oka, 
dwells  the  Volgaic  or  Bnlgaric  branch,  num- 
bering more  than  1,000,000,  among  whom  the 
Uordvins,  npward  of  400,000,  seem  to  be  the 


FINSTERAARHORN 


FIR 


207 


dommont  class.  The  writers  of  the  middle 
ages  speak  of  the  Mordvlns  as  being  very 
crael,  and  accuse  them  of  cannibalism.  They 
are  now  considered  intelligent,  industrions,  and 
honest;  they  caltivate  the  soil,  and  raise  cattle 
and  bees;  they  live  in  huts  with  the  door 
opening  to  the  east ;  and  though  they  pro- 
fess to  be  Christians,  they  are  still  given  to 
many  superstitious  practices.  Their  dialect  is 
similar  to  that  of  the  Tcheremisses,  whose 
langui^e  is  strongly  intermixed  with  Tartar 
and  Russian.  The  Tcheremisses  are  scattered 
over  the  governments  of  Yiatka,  Kazan,  Nizh- 
ni-Novgorod, and  Kostroma,  and  are  estimated 
at  150,000.  Those  living  on  tlie  right  shore 
of  the  Volga  are  called  highland  Tcheremisses, 
and  others  Tcheremisses  of  the  plain.  The 
Tchnvashes  number  about  450,000,  and  live 
in  Kazan,  Simbirsk,  Saratov,  and  Orenburg. 
Their  religion  is  neither  Christian,  Mohamme- 
dan, nor  pagan^  but  a  mixture  of  the  three, 
with  paganism  in  the  ascendant.  The  prin- 
cipal tribes  among  them  are  the  Vereyal  and 
tiie  Kereyal,  and  their  chief  occupations  are 
agriculture,  bee  culture,  and  cattle  raising. 
The  abodes  of  the  Ugric  branch  are  widely 
distributed.  The  Ugrian  tribe  proper  and  the 
Ostiaks  live  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Sa- 
moyedS)  in  tlie  Siberian  government  of  To- 
bolsk. They  are  half  savages,  and,  though 
nominally  Christians,  adhere  to  Shamanism. 
Their  language  is  a  primitive  Finnic  dialect 
mingled  with  Tartar,  and  resembles  closely 
that  of  their  neighbors  the  Voguls,  who  in- 
habit the  eastern  slope  of  the  Ural,  number 
.'ibout  2,000,  and  are  similar  to  the  Calmucks. 
They  live  in  villages  of  four  or  five  yurts  (tents 
of  telt),  dress  in  caftans,  and  are  peaceable, 
jovial,  lazy,  and  poor.  Their  principal  occu- 
pations are  bunting  and  fishing.  The  Bash- 
kirs are  also  now  considered  to  belong  to  the 
Fmnicrace.  (See  Bashkirs.)  The  Finnic  tribe 
of  Meshtcheriaks  has  adopted  a  Turkish  dia- 
lect and  the  Mohammedan  faith.  For  the  most 
important  division  of  the  Ugric  branch,  and  of 
the  whole  race,  the  Magyars,  see  Hunqaby. — 
The  following  are  valuable  recent  works  of 
reference  on  the  subject :  Schnitzler,  V Empire 
de$  Uan  au  point  actuel  de  la  science  (Paris, 
1862);  Cuno,  Fonchungen  im  Gebiete  der  alten 
Vollerkunde  (Berlin,  1871  etseq.);  Koskinen, 
Finnische  GeaeAichte  von  denfruhesten  Zeiten 
lit  aufdic  Gegenwart  (Leipsic,  1873) ;  also  the 
periodical  Archiv  far  toisseTischaftliche  Kunde 
ton  Russland,  published  in  Berlin. 

nNSTEElARHOElV,  the  loftiest  peak  of  the 
Bernese  Alps,  14,106  (or  according  to  another 
measurement  14,026)  ft.  high,  situated  W.  of 
the  Grimsel,  and  visible  from  the  new  carriage 
road  completed  since  1867  over  the  Furca  pass. 
The  summit  is  accessible  from  the  Faulberg 
hut,  5  m.  from  Lake  Merjelen.  Although  the 
monntain  is  surrounded  by  stupendous  glaciers, 
^e  highest  point  is  said  to  be  free  from  snow 
&iid  ice,  owing  to  its  needle-like  formation, 
whence  it  is  called  the  N^adel;  it  is  about  20 
821  VOL.  vn. — 14 


ft.  long.  The  S.  part  of  the  mountain  is  called 
also  Schwarzhorn,  on  account  of  the  dark  ap- 
pearance of  the  rocks.  Various  attempts  to  scale 
the  summit  have  been  made  during  the  last  60 
years,  with  varied  success;  those  made  most 
recently  have  been  most  successful. 

FlORELLl,  CSIueppe,  an  Italian  archsBologist, 
bom  in  the  province  of  Naples  about  1828.  He 
early  became  one  of  the  directors  of  the  excava- 
tions at  Pompeii,  but  being  denounced  as  a 
libera),  he  was  removed  and  subjected  to  pri- 
vations and  persecutions,  despite  the  protec- 
tion of  the  count  of  Syracuse,  brother  of  the 
king  of  Naples,  and  nut  restored  until  the  oc- 
cupation of  the  kingdom  by  Victor  Eman- 
uel in  1860.  He  has  since  been  the  chief  su- 
perintendent at  Pompeii,  and  has  made  con- 
siderable progress  in  the  restoration  of  the 
excavated  buildings,  and  in  the  prosecution  of 
new  excavations,  an  annual  allowance  of  60,- 
000  francs  being  granted  by  the  government 
for  that  purpose.  He  has  published  one  of  the 
best  maps  of  the  uncovered  portions  of  the 
city,  and  a  chronological  history  of  the  dis- 
coveries (1860  et  seq,)y  and  edits  the  Oiomale 
dei  seavi,  a  journal  containing  a  daily  record  of 
the  excavations,  from  their  beginning. 

nOEENTINO,  Pler-Angetoi,  an  Italian  author, 
bom  in  Naples  in  1806,  died  in  Paris,  May  81, 
1864.  He  early  published  novels,  poems,  and 
dramas,  including  La  Fornarina  and  ft  medico 
di  Parma,  Alexandre  Dumas  phre^  while  at 
Naples,  induced  him  to  settle  in  Paris,  and  to 
aid  him  in  the  preparation  of  works  relating  to 
Italian  life,  some  of  which,  especially  Jeanne 
de  Naples^  were  regarded  as  the  exclusive  pro- 
duction of  Fiorentino.  He  wrote  French  with 
the  same  facility  and  elegance  as  Italian.  He 
went  to  Paris  with  150 francs,  and  left  600,000 
francs,  acquired  by  literary  labors. 

FIR,  the  popular  name  of  several  species  of 
trees  of  the  genus  dbies.  Some  botanical  au- 
thors class  the  trees  known  as  firs,  spruces,  and 
hemlock  spruces  in  the  one  genus  abieSy  while 
some  others  make  three  genera :  ahies  for  the 
spruces,  picea  for  the  firs,  and  Uuga  for  the  hem- 
lock spruces.  In  a  botanical  view,  however, 
it  seems  better  to  group  them  all  under  aMes, 
and  consider  the  picea  and  tsuga  as  subgen- 
era of  ahies  proper.  The  firs  are  more  closely 
related  to  the  pines  than  are  any  other  of  the 
large  family  of  eonifera.  While  in  the  genus 
pinus  the  leaves  are  in  clusters  of  two  to  five 
enclosed  in  a  sheath,  in  ahies  they  are  scattered 
on  the  branches,  and  sometimes  two-rowed. 
In  ahies  proper,  the  spruces,  the  short,  needle- 
shaped  leaves  are  scattered  around  the  branches 
and  the  cones  nodding  or  pendent,  with  the 
scales  persistent;  in  the  section  tsuga^  the  hem- 
locks or  hemlock  spruces,  the  flattened  and  pe- 
tioled  leaves  are  arranged  as  if  in  two  rows;  and 
in  the  section  picea,  the  firs,  the  leaves  are 
somewhat  in  two  rows,  the  cones  at  maturity 
are  erect,  and  the  scales  fall  away  from  the 
supporting  axis.  In  the  present  article  we 
confine  ourselves  to  the  last  named  division. — 


The  firs  ore  especiallj  iDhnbitonta  of  the  colder  |  of  form,  aod  w&s  formerly  osed  for  ornament; 


parts  of  the  world,  though  some  are  found 
Asia  and  Mexico.  Tlie  N.  W.  coast  of  North 
America  is  especially  rich  in  firs,  some  of  which 
assame  m^estlc  proportions  in  their  Dative  lo- 
calities, and  on  account  of  their  Bjmmetrical 
forms  are  highly  prized  in  cultivation.  The 
timber  of  the  firs  for  the  uiost  part  does  not 
'  rank  among  the  most  valuable  kinds,  though 
that  of  some  species  is  remarkable  for  its  dura- 
bility; hut  the  several  resinous  producta  they 
famish  have  considerable  commercial  and  eco- 
nomical importance.  The  best  known  native 
epecies  ia  the  balsam  or  balm  of  Gilead  fir,  abiet 
baUamea,  which  ia  found  from  Pennsylvania 
northward,  and  is  especially  abnndant  in  the 
British  provinces.  It  grows  40  to  60  ft.  high, 
and  furnishes  a  wood  of  hat  little  value;  its 
striking  characteristic  is  the  liquid  tarpentine 
or  "balsam"  wliich  it  furnishes.  This  is 
found    in  vesicles    or  blisters    in    the   bark. 


bnt  it  so  deteriorates  with  age,  becoming  shab- 
by by  the  death  of  the  lower  limbs,  ibat  it 
should  be  avoided  by  the  planter.    Closely  r^- 


Nabl*  Ellver  Fli  (&W>  noMlli). 

lated  to  this  species,  and  at  one  time  confound- 
ed with  it,  is  Fraser's  balsam  fir  (A.  Fratfri}, 
which  extends  mach  hrther  southward ;  it  has 
smaller  cones  and  dififerently  shaped  bracts, 
but  is  similar  in  other  respects. — On  the  Pa- 
cific coast  is  found  one  of  the  finest  of  the  firs, 
and  indeed  one  of  the  grandest  of  conifer- 
ous trees,  A.  floiiiw,  the  noble  silver  fir ;  upon 
the  mountains  of  the  coast,  at  an  altitude  of 
8,000  ft.,  it  attains  the  height  of  over  200  ft.; 
it  lias  a  cinnamon-colored  bark  and  very  large 
cones,  which  are  noticeable  for  the  tonspicnoiu 
points  of  the  bracts.    This  fine  species  is  highly 


BolHnn  Fir  (Ablu  bilumH]. 

which  remains  smooth  even  on  old  trees.  This 
«xndation  is  known  as  Canada  balsam  or  bal- 
sam of  fir;  hut  as  the  term  balsam  is  now  re- 
stricted to  those  oleo-resinous  products  which 
contain  either  benzoic  or  cinnaniio  acid,  the 
proper  name  for  the  exudation  from  this  fir  is 
Canada  turpentine.  It  is  a  clear,  transparent 
tluid,  of  a  honey-like  consistence  and  a  strongly 
terebinth  in  ate  taste.  It  connists  of  resin  in  so- 
lution in  turpentine,  and  when  exposed  to  the 
air  loses  the  volatile  turpentine  and  Ijecomes 
brittle.  It  is  collected  by  puncturing  the  blis- 
ters and  receiving  the  liquid  in  a  bottle  or  other 
receptacle;  and  as  each  vesicle  yields  hut  a 
teaspoonful  or  two,  the  process  is  a  slow  one. 
Formerly  it  was  considerably  emjiloyed  in  med- 
icine, bnt  as  it  possesses  only  tlic  stimulant  and 
diuretic  properties  of  other  forma  of  turpentine, 
its  present  chief  use  is  in  mounting  microscopic 
objects  and  in  serving  as  a  VamiBh  for  maps,  prized  in  England  as  an  ornamental  tree,  bnt 
for  which  parposo  it  is  diluted  with  spirits  of  it  has  not  been  sufficiently  tested  in  the  Atlan- 
turpentine.  When  young,  the  balsam  fir  is  re-  tic  states  to  prove  whether  it  is  perfectly  hardy 
markable  for  its  beauty  of  color  and  symmetry    or  not,     A.  grandi*,  the  great  silver  fir,  ii 


Gnal  SllT«r  Fir  (AUea  gi 


FIR 

nnottier  gpecies  of  th«  Paoifio  coast,  and  ie 
/band  more  abnndantly  northward;  it  attains 
evea  a  larger  size  tlian  the  last  named,  and  in 
its  Dative  localities  ia  converted  into  lumber  for 
c.iportBtion  to  the  Hawaiian  islands  and  else- 
wbere.  This  has  been  found  hardj  by  the 
eutern  cultivators.  The  lovely  silver  fir,  A. 
amabUU,  is  another  lai^e  tree  of  northern  Cal- 
iTomia  and  Oregon. — Among  species  of  fir  of 
tbe  eastern  bcmispher^  the'  most  common  wA. 
ptttinata,  the  common  silver  flr,  which  has 
Men  planted  in  this  country  to  some  extent; 
bnl  it  has  one  of  the  faults  of  our  balsam  flr, 
being  abort-lived.  It  is  a  native  of  the  moan- 
taing  of  central  Europe  and  of  those  of  Asia, 
mil  Attains  the  height  of  a  first-class  tree ;  its 
Rood  is  of  great  value,  being  used  in  carpen- 
try and  boat  building,  for  masts,  and  even  for 
carved  work;  its  bark  is  used  for  tanning  and 


eilTfr  Flr  (Abl«  pKlliiaU). 

its  leaves  for  litter ;  it  yields  tbe  Strasbnrg  tnr- 
penltDe,aa  esadation  resembling  tbe  Canada 

UUam,  collected  in  a  similar  manner,  and  used 
in  Europe  for  similar  purposes.  The  Cophalo- 
manfir(J.  Cephalonica),  a  aaWve  of  the  moun- 
taina  of  Greece,  is  a  fino  tree  60  ft.  high,  and 
ii  a  striking  oliiject  on  account  of  its  dark  green 
leaves,  which  are  ri(^d  and  stand  out  from  the 
'tern  at  right  angles,  pointing  in  every  direo- 
tina,  aail  giving  the  tree  the  appearance  of  be- 
ing on  tbe  defensive.  The  timber  of  this  tree 
is  bard  and  very  durable,  that  in  houses  300 
yean  old  being  perfectly  sound.  It  has  proved 
fairly  hardy  in  this  coontry,  Nordmann's  fir 
(i4.  KoTimanniana)  is  another  fine  epeciea, 
tbe  beautiful  green  color  of  which  commends 
''  to  the  attention  of  onltivators.  Picea  Web- 
itaiw,ffebb's  nnrple-ooned  silver  fir,  comes 
frwn  the  Himalayas,  where  it  was  discovered 
oj  •  traveUing  nstnralist,  Capt.  W.  8.  Webb. 
<^  iu  native  locality  its  wood  is  highly  prized ; 


FIRDUSI  209 

it  is  eqnal  in  grdn  and  color  to  Bemmda  cedar. 
It  is  valued  in  England  as  an  ornamental  tree. 
Other  species,  the  value  of  which  in  this  coun- 
try has  not  yet  been  sufficiently  detorminSd, 
are  A.  Apolli/iu,  from  Greece;  A.  hracUata, 
from  Oregon;  A.  Cilieiea,  from  Asia  Minor; 
A.  PiTttapo,  a  native  of  the  mountains  of  Spain ; 
A.  VUtdiii,  from  Japan;  and  A.  religio*a,  the 
sacred  silver  fir  of  Mexico. — Very  fiiil  accounts 
of  the  history  and  uses  of  the  species  of  fir  may 
be  found  iu  the  fourth  volume  of  London's 
"Arboretum  et  Fruticetum,"  and  brief  de- 
scriptions, with  the  nomenclature  corrected 
according  to  tbe  views  of  modern  botanists, 
in  Hoopoa'a  "Hook  of  Evergreens"  (12mo, 
New  York,  1868).  (See  Hrmlock  Spbvce, 
Labor,  and  Spruce.) 

FIEDDSI,  Ferdul,  or  FirdHri,  Ikil  Kada  ■•«- 
Nir,  a  Persian  poet,  bom  near  Thns,  in  Eho- 
j  rasan,  about  A.  D.  940,  died  in  Thus  in  1020. 
I  He  was  often  called  Tliiisi  from  that  city,  and 
I  his  ordinary  name  (j^rdui  meaning  both  garden 
and  paradise)  was  given  him  either  because  hia 
father  was  a  gardener  or  fh)m  tbe  excellence 
I  of  his  poems.  He  continued  to  reside  for  many 
i  years  in  his  native  village,  and  occupied  himself 
I  with  the  traditions  concerning  the  ancient  kings 
'  of  Persia.  lie  was  advanced  in  ago  when  be 
I  repaired  to  the  court  of  Mahmond  of  GLuzni, 
where  he  was  presented  to  the  most  distin- 
I  guisbcd  scholars  and  poets  of  the  time,  and  es^ 
i  couraged  by  the  sultan  to  compose  his  gre^t  his- 
!  torical  poem,  Shah  Ifameh.  He  spent  80  years 
r  npon  this  work,  which  contdns  60,000  verses, 
<  and  relates  the  mythical  and  romantic  exploits 
of  the  Persian  kings  from  the  foundation  of  the 
world,  that  is,  from  the  hero  Kaimnrs,  who  dia- 
j  putcd  the  earth  with  genii,  to  the  invasion  of 
the  Mussulmans  about  A.  D.  686.  Its  most  in- 
teresting portion  is  the  account  of  the  prowess 
of  the  hero  Rustem.  Receiving  60,000  silver, 
instead  of  the  same  number  of  gold  dirbcms 

Eromised  to  him  by  tbe  sultan,  he  is  said  to 
ave  distributed  the  whole  sum,  in  three  equtU 
parts,  to  tbe  slave  who  brought  it  and  two 
att«ndant8  of  the  bath  where  he  received  it. 
He  WAS  sentenced  to  death  for  having  treated 
the  sultan's  gift  with  so  much  indignity,  and 
with  difficulty  procared  a  revocation  of  tbe 
sentence.  He  then  fied  from  the  court,  leav- 
ing behind  him  a  bitter  satire  on  the  sultan, 
and  took  refuge  iirst  at  Mazondcran  and  after- 
ward at  Bagdad.  Being  finally  permitted  to 
return  to  his  native  town,  he  spent  there,  ac- 
cording to  some  narratives,  the  remainder  of 
his  life ;  bnt  according  to  others  be  died  before 
receiving  tbe  pardon  of  the  sultan,  which  was 
accompanied  by  munificent  gifts.  The  Shah 
Namsh  is  one  of  the  oldest  poetic  raonaments 
of  Persian  literature,  and  is  regarded  by  the 
orientals  as  an  nvitbority  in  regard  to  theprim- 
itive  history  of  western  Asia,  and  especially  by 
the  disciples  of  Zoroosl«r,  since  it  contains  his 

E raises,  and  its  mythology  is  that  of  the  reli^on 
e  taught  It  is  really,  however,  of  little  value 
OS  a  historical  aathority.    Its  true  merit  con- 


210 


FIRE 


FIRE  ENGINE 


gists  in  the  purity  of  its  language  and  in  the 
great  poetical  beauty  of  its  episodes.  An  edi- 
tion of  the  whole  in  the  original  Persian  was 
published  by  Turner  Macan  (4  vols.,  Calcutta, 
1629).  An  abridged  English  translation  of  it 
in  prose  and  verse  by  J.  Atkinson,  with  a 
biographical  notice  prefixed,  was  published  in 
London  in  1832.  The  best  German  (abridged) 
edition  is  by  Gdrres  (Berlin,  1820),  and  trans- 
lations of  extracts  appeared  in  Berlin  in  1851 
and  1853.  There  is  an  edition  in  Persian  and 
French,  by  J.  von  Mohl  (4  vols.,  Paris,  1838-'54). 

FIRE*    See  Flame,  Heat,  and  Light. 

FIEE  BEETLE.    See  Firefly. 

FIRE  ENdDTE,  a  machine  for  throwing  a 
stream  of  water  for  the  purpose  of  extinguish- 
ing fires.  The  earliest  notices  of  machines  used 
for  this  purpose  are  in  some  allusions  of  ancient 
Roman  writers  to  an  apparatus,  nowhere  de- 
scribed, which  they  called  a  aipho^  and  which 
some  now  regard  rather  as  the  name  of  the 
aqueduct  pipes  for  supplying  water  to  houses 
than  as  an  especial  fire-extinguishing  machine. 
That  they  were  very  inefiScient  may  be  inferred 
from  the  remark  of  Seneca,  that  owing  to  the 
height  of  the  houses  in  Rome  it  was  impossible 
to  save  them  when  they  took  fire.  ApoUodo- 
rus  the  architect,  perhaps,  was  the  first  to  sug- 
gest the  use  of  a  kind  of  hose,  in  recommend- 
ing for  the  conveyance  of  water  to  high  places 
exposed  to  fiery  darts  the  use  of  the  gut  of  an 
ox  having  a  bag  filled  with  water  afiixed  to  it ; 
by  compressing  the  bag  the  water  was  made 
to  rise  in  the  tube.  In  early  periods  of  En<^lish 
and  French  history  the  chief  protection  against 
destructive  fires  appears  to  have  consisted  in 
the  care  with  which  those  used  for  domestic 
purposes  were  managed.  The  curfew  bell,  or 
eouvre/eu^  was  sounded  at  8  o'clock  as  a  signal 
for  the  fires  to  be  extinguished.  In  Germany 
fires  were  of  frequent  occurrence  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  15th  century  and  in  the  1 6th  ;  and 
ordinances  were  established  regulating  the  man- 
ner of  building  houses  and  the  methods  to  be 
adopted  in  preventing  fires.  At  Augsburg  fire 
engines,  called  ^Mnstruments  for  fires''  and 
^*  water  syringes  useful  at  fires,"  were  in  use 
in  1518.  The  Jesuit  Kaspar  Schott  describes 
one  he  saw  at  Nuremberg  in  1657,  which  much 
resembled  those  in  use  at  the  present  time ; 
and  he  mentions  that  40  years  before  he  had 
seen  a  similar  engine  of  smaller  size  in  his 
native  city,  Kdnigshofen.  The  one  at  Nurem- 
berg was  placed  upon  a  sledge  10  ft.  long  and 
4  ft.  broad,  which  was  drawn  by  two  horses. 
It  had  a  w^ter  cistern  8  ft.  long,  4  ft.  high,  and 
2  ft.  wide.  It  was  moved  by  28  men,  and 
forced  a  stream  of  water  an  inch  in  diameter 
to  the  height  of  80  ft.  The  cylinders  are  de- 
scribed as  lying  in  a  horizontal  position  in  a 
box.  No  mention  is  made  of  an  air  chamber, 
nor  of  anything  more  than  a  short  fiexible  dis- 
charge pipe,  which  could  be  directed  to  one  or 
the  other  side.  The  oldest  record  of  fire  en- 
gines in  Paris  is  in  the  work  of  Perrault,  pub- 
lished in  1G84.    From  this  it  appears  that  there 


was  one  in  the  king's  library,  which,  though 
having  but  one  cylinder,  threw  out  the  water 
in  a  continuous  jet  to  a  great  height ;  a  result 
attained  by  the  use  of  an  air  chamber,  of  which, 
as  introduced  into  the  fire  engine,  this  is  the 
earliest  notice.  Destructive  fires  were  of  fre- 
quent occurrence  in  Paris  and  in  the  provinces 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  17th  century,  the  work 
of  incendiaries,  who  were  known  as  houttfevx. 
In  1699  a  special  officer  was  charged  with  the 
duty  of  constructing,  keeping  in  repair,  and 
using  at  fires  the  17  pompes  portatite»  belong- 
ing to  the  royal  service,  and  in  1722  the  nom- 
ber  of  these  had  increased  to  30.  There  were 
besides  many  others  not  included  in  this  par- 
ticular service.  It  is  believed  that  none  were 
provided  with  air  chambers;  for  in  1725  a 
paper  was  published  in  the  Memaires  of  the 
academy  of  sciences  at  Paris  describing  this 
improvement  as  adopted  in  tlie  engines  at 
Strasburg,  and  in  it  no  intimation  is  expressed 
of  the  same  contrivance  ever  having  been  in- 
troduced in  Paris.  Leathern  hose  was  invent- 
ed about  the  year  1670  in  Amsterdam  by  two 
Dutchmen  named  Van  der  Heyde,  and  the  ap- 
paratus was  speedily  introduced  into  all  the 
engines  of  the  city.  They  also  invented  the 
suction  pipe.  In  1690  the  inventors  published 
a  folio  volume  containing  engravings,  the  first 
seven  representing  dangerous  confiagrations 
at  which  the  old  engines  had  been  used  to  lit- 
tle purpose;  the  twelve  following  represent 
fires  which  had  been  extinguished  by  the  new 
engines,  and  the  method  of  working  the  ma- 
chines. The  details  of  their  construction  are 
not  given.  The  title  of  the  work,  which  is  re- 
garded as  exceedingly  valuable  on  account  of 
its  excellent  engravings,  is  Beschrijvin^  der 
nieuwUjki  uitgevonden  slang-hrand-^puUen. — 
It  was  long  before  the  inventions  of  the  Dutch 
were  introduced  into  England.  At  the  close 
of  the  16th  century  the  only  engines  there 
known  were  "  hand  squirts,'*  or  syringes,  made 
of  brass,  and  holding  two  or  three  quarts  of 
water.  Some  of  them  are  still  preserved  in 
the  vestry  room  of  St.  Dionis  Backchnrch  in 
Fenchuroh  street,  London.  Each  one  required 
the  labor  of  three  men,  one  on  each  side  to 
hold  the  instrument  steady  with  one  hand,  and 
with  the  other  to  direct  the  nozzle,  while  the 
third  man  worked  the  plunger.  "When  dis- 
charged, the  piston*  was  taken  out  and  the 
nozzle  was  dipped  into  water,  which  flowed 
in  and  filled  the  body.  They  were  afterward 
fitted  into  a  portable  cistern,  and  furnished 
with  levers  for  working  the  pistons.  About  the 
close  of  the  17th  century  Newsham's  improved 
engine  was  patented  in  England.  This  was  a 
strong  cistern  of  oak,  placed  upon  wheels,  fur- 
nished with  pumps,  air  chambers,  and  a  suction 
pipe  of  strong  leather,  to  prevent  its  collapsing 
when  the  air  began  to  be  exhausted  from  it  by 
the  action  of  the  pumps,  through  which  was 
run  a  spiral  piece  of  metal.  The  end  for  re- 
ceiving the  water  was  provided  with  a  strainer. 
I  In  case  tlie  suction  pipe  could  not  be  oonve-. 


FIRE  ENGINE 


211 


nientlf  nseil,  tbe  water  was  supplied  to  the 
cistern  bj  buckets  passed  by  hand. — Uodem 
e  Dgiaes  consist  essentiall;  oftwoTerticoldouble- 
acting  toTix  pumpa  (see  Pump),  one  under  each 
end  of  a  lever  beam  (or  aometinies  four  single- 
scting  pninps),  to  which  are  attached  looi:; 
brakes  for  many  men  to  take  bold  of  and  uork 
bj  band.  The  pumps  discharge  into  one  res- 
ervoir, the  upper  part  of  wbicb  contains  air, 
that  acts  as  a  spring  to  cause  tbe  water  alter- 
nately introduced  by  each  pump  to  flow  in  a 
UDitbrm  current  tlirougli  tlie  discharge  pipe. 
Tliis  pipe  opens  in  tbe  reservoir  below  the  sur- 
face of  the  watur,  and  leads  without  to  any 
required  distance,  according  to  tiie  number  of 
IcDgtba  of  leathern  hose  that  may  be  attached 
toother  by  the  brass  couplings  with  which  they 
are  famished.  The  water  is  discharged  through 
a  taj>ering  metallic  pipe,  upon  the  end  of  which 


is  screwed  a  tip  of  any  required  bore,  which  a 
held  in  tlie  hand  to  direct  the  stream  upon  the 
lire.  A  auction  pipe  from  the  lower  end  of  the 
force  pump  is  always  ready  to  be  nsed  when 
necessary;  but  where  a  stream  of  water  with 
sufficient  head,  aa  from  the  aqueduct  hydrants, 
can  be  introduced,  the  suction  pipe  is  not  re- 
quired. The  machine  is  attached  to  a  carriage 
conatrucled  expressly  for  the  purpose,  and  fur- 
nisiied  with  various  implements  such  as  arc 
likely  to  be  wanted  in  conflagrations.  Tlie 
brakes  are  long  wooden  arms  extending  over 
the  wheels  each  way  beyond  the  extremitiee  of 
the  engine,  or  sometimes  transversely  to  the  car- 
riage, and  attached  at  right  angles  to  the  lever 
beams,  which  are  arranged  along  the  horizontal 
axis  placed  over  the  centre  of  the  carriage.  Tliey 
are  moved  up  and  down  by  men  standing  on  the 
ground  each  side  of  the  ea^ne,  working  with 


itop«U1nf  fiEeun  Fire  Englna. 


Others  who  take  their  position  on  the  top. — 
The  great  modern  unprovement  in  Are  engines 
i>  the  application  of  ateam  power  to  work 
tliem.  This  was  first  attempted  by  Mr.  Brath- 
vaite,  in  London,  in  1830.  His  first  engine 
■as  of  barely  six-horse  power,  weighing  a  lit- 
tle over  6,000  lbs.,  was  fnrniahed  with  an  up- 
right boiler,  in  which  steam  was  generated  to  a 
nioderate  working  pressure  in  20  minutes,  and 
>^'aa  capable  of  forcing  about  ISO  gallons  of 
"ater  per  minute  from  80  to  90  ft.  in  height. 
It  had  a  steam  pump  of  the  same  form  aa  those 
now  in  common  use,  the  steam  and  water  pis- 
tons being  on  opposite  ends  of  the  same  piston 
">^  the  former  being  7  in.  in  diameter  and 
th«  latter  6}  in.,  and  the  stroke  of  each  16  in. 
^  larger  engine  of  the  same  general  constroc- 


tion  was  built  by  Brathwaite  in  1883  for  tbe 
king  of  Pmssia;  but  though  its  performaneea 
were  highly  spoken  of,  this  attempt  to  apply 
the  power  of  steam  for  fire-engine  purposes 
cannot  be  said  to  have  been  successful.  The 
time  required  for  raising  steam,  and  the  great 
weight  of  the  apparatus  when  adequate  boiler 
power  was  obtained,  were  undoubtedly  the 
prinripsl  difficulties.  In  New  York,  after  tbe 
groat  (ire  of  1835,  premiums  were  offered  for 
plans  of  steam  fire  engines,  and  in  tbe  year 
1841  an  engine  was  built,  from  plans  by  Mr. 
Hodges,  under  a  contract  with  the  associated 
insurance  companies,  and  was  on  several  occa- 
sions brought  into  service  at  fires  with  good 
effect;  but  though  very  powerful,  its  great 
weight  proved  to  he  a  fatal  objection,  and  it 


FIEE  EXTINGUISHER 


woB  at  last  eold  and  converted  to  other  uses.  ' 
To  the  ciCj  of  Cinciunati  bi^longs  the  credit  of 
giving  the  first  practical  demonstration  of  tlie 
feasibility  of  this  application  of  Kteara,  and  of 
making  stean)  fire  engines  the  baeia  of  a  fire 
department  of  nneqnalled  effioienoj.  They  are 
usnally  drawn  by  horees,  one  or  two  pair  being 
used;  but  in  a  few  instanoeB  Bt«am  has  been 
succeBsiiilly  employed  to  propel  them.  Buch  a 
one,  made  by  the  Amoskeag  ninnufactui'ing 
company,  was  bronght  into  use  at  the  engine 
honse  No.  20  in  New  York  city  in  1873,  A 
view  of  it  is  given  in  the  preceding  engraving, 
in  which  b  represents  the  boiler;  a,  the  lur 
chamber  for  compresBed  air;  ee,  steam  cylin- 
ders for  working  the  pumps,  p  p,  through  ec- 
centrics not  shown,  moving  at  the  same  time  the 
small  balance  wheel,  over  the  pulley  of  which 
is  seen  a  stont  chun  which  passes  over  a  drum 
on  the  axle  of  the  drive  wheel,  h.  The  suction 
bose  is  attached  at  d,  and  the  discharge  hose 
at/,  which  is  connected  with  the  air  chamber. 
Tlie  apparatus  for  steering  is  controlled  by  the 
capstan,  g,  placed  in  front  of  the  driver's  seat. 
This  engine  weighs  about  four  tons,  and  is  ca- 
pable of  propelling  itself  at  the  speed  of  a  rapid 
trot.  It  has  a  capacity  for  throwing  water 
throagh  a  l}-in.  nozzle  to  a  height  of  140  ft. 
and  to  a  horizontal  distance  of  about  260  ft. 
Throngb  a  IJ-in.  nozzle  it  will  throw  a  stream 
about  220  ft.  vertically  and  800  ft.  horizontally. 
The  usual  working  pressure  of  steam  is  from 
60  to  80  lbs.  per  square  inch,  the  steam  es- 
caping by  a  safety  valve  when  above  the  latter 
pressure.  When  standing  at  the  engine  house 
the  boiler  is  kept  supplied  with  water  and 
steam  from  a  heater  in  the  basement,  at  a 
pressure  of  about  Tu  lbs.  per  square  inch.  The 
fireplace  is  kept  charged  with  kindling  wood 
and  other  combustibles,  which  are  capable  of 
supplying  suflident  heat  in  one  minute  after 
ignition,  dnrlng  wliich  time  the  water  and 
steam  supplied  from  the  lieuter  ure  capable  of 
giving  propelling  force. 

FIRE  EXTUeDISHm.  Uany  attempts  have 
been  made  to  produce  apparatus  to  extinguish 
fires  by  excluding  atmospheric  oxygen  from 
the  flame.  Among  the  earliest  machines  of 
this  kind  was  that  known  as  Phillips's  Are  an- 
nihilator,  which  was  made  of  several  sheet- 
iron  cylinders  placed  one  within  another. 
Water  tras  contained  between  the  two  outer 
ones,  which  when  heated  generated  steam  and 
discharged  it  into  on  inner  cylinder.  Within 
the  latter  was  the  gas-generating  mixture,  a 
compound  of  charcoal,  nitre,  and  gypsum.  An 
apparatus  for  igniting  it  consisted  of  a  bottle 
of  chlorate  of  potash  and  sugar,  upon  which 
could  be  emptied  another  of  sulphuric  acid.  A 
mixture  of  gases  and  steam  was  expelled  from 
the  top  of  Oie  machine. — An  apparatus  for  ex- 
tinguishing fires  was  invented  by  MM.  Carlier 
and  Vignon  of  Paris,  and  patented  by  them 
in  1862,  for  which  a  patent  was  issued  in  the 
United  States  in  1869  and  reissued  in  1872. 
The  principal  advantage  possessed  by  this  ma- 


chine coD«sts  in  cli&rging  water  with  cftrbonio 
acid  gas  and  projecting  it  into  the  fire  by  the 
force  of  its  own  pressure.  Such  a  maohine, 
made  by  the  Babcock  mannfaoturing  company 
of  New  York  and  Chicago,  who  own  the  Amer- 
ican patent,  is  represented  in  figs.  1  and  2.     A 


metallic  cylinder,  of  sufficient  strength  to  bear 
an  internal  pressure  of  oyer  350  Iba.  per  square 
inch,  contains  in  its  upper  part  a  glass  or  leaden 
vessel  capable  of  holding  8  or  10  oz.  of  sul- 
phuric acid.  It  is  suspended  by  two  pivots 
placed  upon  opposite  sides  and  below  the  cen- 
tre of  gravity,  but  ret^ned  in  an  apright  po- 
sition by  means  of  the  stopper,  which  is  held 
in  the  mouth  of  the  vessel  by  a  rod  which 
passes  through  the  hermetically  ad,iusted  cover. 
About  7  gallons  of  water  holding  in  Bolntion 
2i  lbs.  of  bicarbonate  of  soda  is  placed  in  the 
large  cylinder,  and  about  8  oz,  of  commercial 
acid  is  put  in  the  glass  or  leaden  vessel,  and  held 
in  position  by  the  stopper  and  the  rod  which 
passes  through  the  cover.  The  latter  is  then 
clamped  to  its  place,  and  if  the  stopper  1>e  re- 
moved the  vessel  will  become  inverted  by  its 
own  weight  and  the  acid  precipitated  into  the 
solution  of  carbonate  of  soda.  This  causes  the 
liberation  of  a  quantity  of  carbonic  acid  gas, 
which  at  the  ordinary  pressure  would  occupy 
nearly  eight  cubic  feet,  but  which  nnder  tne 
pressure  produced  by  its  own  elasticity,  in  this 
case  about  100  lbs.  per  square  inch,  r       '"' 


dissolved  by  the  water.  If  a  hose  be  attached 
to  the  stopcock  placed  in  the  lower  part  of  the 
cylinder,  a  stream  of  water  holding  carbonic 
acid  gns  in  solution  is  forced  out  with  great 
rapidity,  carrying  with  it  bubbles  of  gas  which 


FIREFLY 


213 


are  suddenly  liberated  hj  the  diminntion  of 
pressure.  It  has  been  foand  that  when  this 
stream  is  projected  upon  a  fire  it  possessed  ex- 
traordinary extinguishing  powers.  A  pair  of 
large  extiDgoishers  may  be  mounted  upon  a 
carriage  drawn  by  horses.  This,  known  as  the 
Babcock  self-acting  fire  engine,  is  shown  in 
ti?.  3.  These  cylinders  are  capable  of  holding 
about  75  gallons  each,  and  of  sustaining  an 
internal  pressure  of  400  lbs.  per  square  inch. 
Many  are  in  use  in  the  United  States,  and  are 
found  to  render  efficient  service  in  extinguish- 
ing fires  before  they  have  spread  to  much  ex- 
tent, and  even  then  they  may  be  used  with  ad- 
Tantage  as  aids  to  the  steam  engine,  or  alone. 
FlkEFLT,  the  popular  name  of  many  serri* 
com  beetles,  belonging  to  the  families  elat&- 
ridm  and  lampyrid(By  and  to  the  old  genera 
ekter  and  lampyrU  of  Linnasus ;  the  luminous 
Bpecies  of  the  former  belong  to  the  new  world, 
those  of  the  latter  to  both  hemispheres ;  these 
insects  are  also  called  fire  beetles.  The  elaters 
have  a  firm  and  solid  body,  of  an  oval  form ; 
the  middle  portion  of  the  sternum  between  the 
first  pair  of  legs  is  prolonged  into  a  short  spine 
usually  concealed  in  a  cavity  behind  it;  the 
antennffi  in  the  nudes  are  simply  serrated. 
They  are  called  spring  beetles  from  the  faculty 
possessed  by  them  of  throwing  themselves  up- 
ward with  a  spring  by  means  of  the  spine ;  as 
thej  live  on  plants,  when  they  drop  to  the 
ground  they  often  fall  upon  the  back,  whose 
great  convexity  and  the  shortness  of  the  legs 
prevent  them  f^om  turning  over;  the  spine 
having  been  unsheathed  by  bending  the  head 
and  thorax  backward,  it  is  made  to  strike  with 
such  force  against  the  sheath  by  the  sudden 
straightening  of  the  body,  that  it  projects  the 
insect  into  the  air,  and  gives  it  the  chance  of 
coming  down  on  the  feet ;  if  unsuccessful,  other 
attempts  are  made  until  the  object  is  attained. 
Fireflies  of  this  tribe  are  numerous  in  tropical 
America,  including  the  West  Indies.  One  of 
the  largest  and  most  brilliant  is  the  night- 
shining  elater,  or  lightning  spring  beetle,  the 
e\i£ujo  of  the  West  Indies  (pyrophortut  noctilu- 
^  Linn.) ;  this  is  more  than  an  inch  long,  of 
a  dark  color,  and  gives  a  strong  light  from  two 
oval  tubercles  on  the  dorsal  surface  of  the 


Cncujo  (Pyrophonis  noctiluena). 

thorax,  and  from  the  under  surface  of  the  seg- 
ments of  the  body.  Specimens  are  frequently 
brought  aUve  to  the  United  States,  where  they 
may  be  kept  for  some  time  if  fed  on  sugar  cane ; 
the  grub  is  said  to  be  very  iiyurious  to  the  su- 
gar cane  by  devouring  the  roots;  one  of  these 


was  once  transported  to  Paris,  and  escaping 
into  the  streets,  after  assuming  its  perfect  state, 
very  much  astonished  the  inhabitiants  of  that 
city.  This  insect  is  common  in  summer,  both 
in  the  lowlands  and  at  moderate  elevations ; 
according  to  Mr.  Gosse,  the  thoracic  light  is 
visible  even  in  broad  daylight;  when  undis- 
turbed, these  spots  are  dull  white,  but  they 
gradually  become  bright  when  touched,  the 
brilliancy  beginning  at  the  centre  and  extend- 
ing until  the  whole  tubercle  shines  with  a  rich 
yellowish  green.  The  light  is  so  intense  that 
it  will  cast  a  shadow  of  any  object  on  the  op- 
posite wall  in  a  dark  room ;  the  under  side  of 
the  thorax  seems  as  if  it  were  red-hot,  particu- 
larly beneath  the  tubercles ;  when  leA  to  it- 
self, the  insect  becomes  quiet,  and  the  light  fades 
to  a  mere  speck.  The  insect  when  held  in  the 
hand  shows  only  a  green  light,  but  when  fiying 
free  it  diffuses  a  rich  ruddy  glow  from  the  ven- 
tral surface ;  it  may  show  tlie  green  light  at 
any  time,  but  the  red  light  only  when  flying ; 
the  former  is  seldom  shown  during  flight,  but 
in  rare  instances  both  tints  are  seen,  producing 
an  exceedingly  beautiful  eflfect.  The  thoracic 
light  is  subject  to  the  will  of  the  insect,  but  the 
abdominal  is  by  some  considered  involuntary ; 
the  former  is  intermittent,  but  the  latter  seems 
to  be  a  constant  red  glare,  which  will  illumi- 
nate the  ground  for  the  space  of  a  yard  square. 
There  are  more  than  a  dozen  other  luminous 
elaters  mentioned  by  Illiger,  found  in  South 
America,  where  they  fly  during  dusk  and  at 
night,  generally  remaining  quiet  during  the 
day.  These  insects  are  used  by  the  natives, 
confined  under  gauze,  as  ornaments  for  their 
head  dresses  and  garments;  they  have  been 
usefully  employed  by  the  Indians  for  the  pur- 
poses of  illumination  in  their  dwellings  and 
in  their  journeys;  several,  confined  in  a  glass 
vessel,  give  light  enough  to  read  small  print 
by.  This  is  one  of  many  instances  in  which 
an  acquaintance  with  natural  history  has  dissi- 
pated the  fears  of  the  superstitious;  the  deceit- 
ful light  of  supposed  malignant  spirits  has  be- 
come the  beautiful  radiation  of  an  insect  sport- 
ing amid  its  inoflfensive  companions.  These 
insects  may  be  kept  for  weeks,  if  fed  on  sugar 
cane,  and  placed  in  damp  moss ;  their  light  is 
more  powerful  than  that  of  the  glowworm. 
The  larv8B  of  many  elaters  are  also  more  or 
less  luminous.  In  the  adults  both  sexes  arc 
luminous.  (See  "American  Naturalist,"  vol. 
ii.,  1869,  pp.  420-423.>—The  genus  lampyris 
(Fab.)  includes  the  fireflies  of  the  United  States 
and  the  glowworm  of  Europe;  they  are  char- 
acterized by  soft  and  flexible  bodies,  straight 
and  depressed ;  there  is  no  snout,  and  the  head 
in  the  males  is  occupied  almost  entirely  by  the 
eyes,  and  is  much  concealed  by  the  thorax; 
the  antennffi  are  short,  with  cylindrical  and 
compressed  articulations;  the  abdomen  is  ser- 
rated on  the  sides ;  the  elytra  are  coriaceous, 
and  the  legs  simple;  the  females  have  only 
rudiments  of  elytra  at  the  base  of  th^)  ab- 
domen.   The  glowworms  of  Europe,  Z.  noc- 


214 


FIREFLY 


tiluca^  L,  Italiea^  L.  splendidula^  and  Z.  Kemip- 
tera,  will  be  described  under  Glowworm.  In 
the  United  States  there  are  many  species,  of 
which  the  L.  scintillans  (Say)  and  L.  earvsea 
(Linn.)  are  familiar  examples.  The  latter  is  4} 
lines  long ;  the  body  is  oblong  pubescent,  brown- 
ish black ;  a  rose-colored  arched  streak,  dilated 
and  yellower  anteriorly,  joins  the  elevated  tho- 
racic disk ;  the  elytra  are  obsoletely  carinated, 
with  numerous  minute  dots;  it  is  found  as  far 
north  as  54°.  Both  sexes  are  luminous,  but  the 
li^i^ht  is  strongest  in  the  female ;  the  light  streams 
from  the  ventral  surface  of  the  abdomen ;  even 
the  larv8B  of  many  species,  and  also  the  eggs, 
are  luminous.  Like  the  elaters,  they  conceal 
themselves  by  day,  and  fly  about  in  warm  damp 
evenings;  the  males  fly  from  plant  to  plant, 
while  the  female  remains  still,  betraying  her- 
self to  the  other  sex  by  her  brighter  light,  of  a 
bluish  or  greenish  white  tint.  The  luminous 
l/impyridxB  of  tropical  America  are  very  numer- 
ous and  brilliant,  in  the  words  of  Humboldt, 
repeating  on  the  earth  the  spectacle  of  the  starry 
heavens.  According  to  Gosse,  their  sparks,  of 
various  degrees  of  intensity,  in  proportion  to 
the  size  of  the  species,  are  to  be  seen  gleaming 
by  scores  about  the  margins  of  \f oods  and  in 
open  places  in  the  island  of  Jamaica.  This 
writer  describes  many  species,  the  most  remark- 
able of  which  are  pygolampU  xanthophotis  and 
photuru  versicolor,  P.  xanthophotis  is  three 
fourths  of  an  inch  long  and  one  tnird  of  an  inch 
wide ;  the  elytra  are  smoke-black ;  the  thorax 
drab,  dark  brown  in  the  centre ;  the  abdomen 
pale,  with  the  last  three  or  four  segments 
cream-white;  the  light  is  very  intense,  of  a 
rich  orange  color  when  seen  abroad,  but  yel- 
low when  examined  by  the  light  of  a  candle, 
and  intermittent,  lighting  up  a  few  segments 
or  the  whole  hinder  part  of  the  abdomen.  P. 
versicolor  is  a  large  species,  with  drab-colored 
elytra,  less  brilliant  in  its  light  and  less  rapid 
in  its  flight  than  the  former  species ;  the  light 
is  of  a  bright  green  hue ;  it  frequently  rests  on 
a  twig,  gradually  increasing  the  intensity  of  its 
light  to  the  brightest,  and  then  by  degrees  ex- 
tinguishing it,  remaining  dark  a  minute  or  two, 
shining  and  fading  again  like  a  revolving  light. 
Sometimes  one  species  is  attracted  by  the  other, 
when  the  intermingling  of  the  green  and  orange 
rays  presents  a  very  beautiful  appearance.  Oth- 
er smaller  species,  which  fly  in  at  the  windows 
in  summer  in  considerable  numbers,  have  either 
a  yellow  or  a  green  light.  The  little  firefly  seen 
in  warm  summer  nights  is  a  species  of  photu- 
ris  ;  it  is  the  male  only  that  flies ;  the  wingless 
female,  seldom  seen,  a  glowworm,  emits  a  much 
brighter  light;  the  larva,  which  resembles  the 
female,  is  luminous,  and,  it  is  said,  the  eggs  are 
also.  Another  native  species  is  photinu«  pyra- 
lls,  the  larva  of  which  feeds  on  soft-bodied  in- 
sects and  worms. — Two  species  of  hemipterous ' 
insects,  of  the  geuns  fulgora^  are  said  by  some 
autliors  to  be  luminous,  though  the  greatest 
weight  of  negative  evidence  is  against  this 
statement;   the  snout  in  this  genus  is  long. 


straight  or  curved  upward,  and  the  light  is  said 
to  emanate  from  its  extremity,  whence  their 
common  name  of  lantern  flies.  The  South 
American  species  {F,  latemaria^  Linn.)  is  a 
large  and  handsome  insect,  with  wings  varied 
with  black  and  yellow;  Mme.  Merian  asserts 
positively  that  the  light  from  the  head  is  so 
brilliant  that  it  is  easy  to  read  by  it ;  Count 
Hot^annsegg,  M.  Richard,  and  the  prince  of 
Neuwied  have  denied  the  truth  of  this  state- 
ment ;  but^  from  the  positive  assertion  of  the 
above  lady,  the  general  application  of  the  name 
firefly  to  this  species,  and  the  possibility  that 
the  emanation  of  light  may  be  perceptible  only 
at  certain  seasons  of  the  year,  it  may  well  be 
that  the  insect  possesses  luminous  power.  It 
flies  high,  and  hovers  about  the  summits  of 
trees.  Another  species  {F,  candelaria^  Fab.), 
from  China,  of  a  greenish  color  varied  with 
orange  and  black,  with  its  long  snout  curved 
upward,  is  said  to  flit  among  the  branches  of 
the  banian  and  tamarind  trees,  illuminating 
their  dark  recesses. — The  causes  which  pro- 
duce this  light  have  been  the  subject  of  much 
discussion  among  naturalists;  some  lay  the 
principal  stress  upon  the  influence  of  the  ner- 
vous system,  others  upon  the  respiration,  others 
upon  the  circulation;  chemists  have  asserted 
the  presence  of  phosphorus  in  the  fatty  tissue 
whence  the  light  seems  to  issue,  but  there  is 
no  proof  of  this  from  analysis.  The  most  re- 
cent writers  agree  that  the  luminous  tissue  is 
made  up  of  fat  globules  permeated  by  numer- 
ous trachesB  conveying  air,  with  no  traces  of 
nerves  or  blood  vessels,  according  to  Dr.  Bur- 
nett. It  does  not  appear  satisfactorily  deter- 
mined whether  there  may  not  be  in  this  tissue 
phosphorized  fats  which  give  forth  light  on 
contact  with  oxygen,  hydrogen,  or  nitrogen. 
Matteucci  concludes  from  his  experiments  that 
the  light  is  produced  by  the  union  of  carbon 
of  the  fat  with  the  oxygen  in  the  tracheaa,  by 
a  slow  combustion,  and  without  any  increase 
of  temperature.  The  intermittence  of  the  light 
is  believed  to  depend  on  the  movements  of 
respiration,  and  to  be  entirely  independent  of 
those  of  the  circulation,  though  Cams  says 
that. the  light  of  the  glowworm  grows  brighter 
with  each  fresh  wave  of  blood  sent  to  the 
neighborhood  of  the  tissue.  It  is  probable 
also  that  the  nervous  system  has  some  influ- 
ence on  the  light,  though  it  may  not  be  essen- 
tial to  its  production ;  as  in  the  electric  fishes 
we  find  the  physical  and  chemical  elements 
necessary  for  the  production  of  electricity,  to 
a  great  extent  independent  of,  yet  brought 
into  harmonious  action  and  directed  by,  the 
nervous  system,  so  in  the  luminous  insects  we 
may  have  the  chemical  elements  necessary  for 
slow  combustion  and  the  production  of  light 
independent  of  this  system,  yet  influenced  and 
directed  by  it ;  the  light  may  also  be  directly 
influenced  by  the  action  of  the  nerves  on  the 
respiratory  function.  The  luminous  substance 
grows  brighter  in  oxygen,  duller  in  carbonic 
acid,  and  shines  even  in  the  dead  insect  and 


FIRE-PROOFING 


FISO 


216 


under  water.  It  is  said  that  there  is  no  heat 
ac<:ompanying  this  light,  though  it  he  a  true 
comhustion  and  a  comhination  of  carbon  with 
oxygen ;  this  may  be  owing  to  the  rudeness  or 
imperfection  of  our  instruments,  or  to  the  slow- 
ness or  peculiarity  of  the  combustion. 

FUK&PKOOFING,  a  term  applied  to  processes 
by  which  fabrics  or  buildings   are  rendered 
proof  against  taking  fire.  Cloths  saturated  with 
mineral  paint  are  rendered  less  liable  to  inflame 
from  falling  cinders  or  sparks,  but  cannot  be 
made  to  withstand  continued  heat.    Several 
methods  have  been  devised  for  rendering  wood 
fire-proof.     In  the  United  States  wooden  roofs 
are  partially  secured  from  fire  by  covering  them 
with  a  coating  of  gravel,  secured  by  mixture 
with  coal  tar  or  asphaltum ;  but  of  course  this 
affords  protection  only  against  sparks  or  cin- 
ders.    The  English  war  department  several 
years  ago  made  experiments  to  test  the  utility 
of  an  application  of  one  of  the  cheap  soluble 
alkaline  silicates,  as  the  silicate  of  soda.    Paint- 
ing the  wood  with  a  strong  solution  of  the  salt 
was  very  useful.     But  the  best  results  were 
obtained  by  going  over  the  coating  of  the  sili- 
cate of  soda  with  another  of  lime  whitewash, 
and  after  this  had  stood  a  few  hours  coating 
it  with  another  stronger  solution  of  the  soda. 
The  first  solution,  it  is  directed,  should  be  pre- 
pared by  mixing  with  one  measure  of  the  thick 
Birnp  of  silicate  of  soda  three  measures  of  water ; 
the  wood  should  be  brushed  over  with  this,  as 
mach  being  laid  on  as  the  wood  can  be  made 
to  absorb.    "When  nearly  dry,  the  lime  wash  of 
creamy  consistence  is  applied,  and  after  this  has 
become  moderately  dry,  the  solution  prepared 
with  two  parts  of  sirup  to  three  of  water  is  laid 
on  with  the  brush.     The  covering  thus  pre- 
pared adhered  very  well,  even  when  exposed 
to  a  stream  of  water  and  to  rains ;  the  former 
when  striking  the  wood  in  the  shape  of  a  jet 
only  sliphtly  abraded  it,  and  it  was  not  easily 
removed  by  applying  heavy  blows  to  the  wood. 
It  was  found  that  when  the  silicate  was  pre- 
pared so  as  to  mix  readily  with  water,  one 
pound  was  sufficient  to  cover  10  stjuare  feet, 
and  at  the  rate  of  £20  per  ton  of  the  sirup,  the 
cost  of  the  silicate  for  this  amount  of  surface  is 
only  about  twopence.     By  this  application  to 
the  timbers  and  other  woodwork  of  houses, 
they  may  be  rendered  comparatively  safe  from 
fire;  But  for  important   structures,  the  most 
thorough  protection  is  in  the  use  of  w rough t- 
iron  beiams,  built  into  the  walls  of  brick  or 
^one,  and  of  iron  or  other  incombustible  ma- 
terial for  the  partition  walls,  fioors,  roof,  and 
stairs.    The  most  efficient  methods  in  use  in 
the  United  States  are  described  in  the  article 
Beam.    Even  buildings  thus  constructed  in  the 
post  perfect  manner  may  be  completely  ruined 
if  filled  with  combustible  goods  that  become 
once  thoroughly  ignited ;  for  the  beams  when 
heated  must  expand,  and  with  a  force  against 
the  walls  that  cannot  be  resisted.     Oast-iron 
beams  and  columns  have  been  shown  to  be 
more  objectionable  even  than  wood ;  for  on  be- 


coming heated  they  rapidly  lose  their  strength, 
and  are  liable  to  give  way  sudd^y,  and  much 
sooner  than  timbers  even  when  consuming. 

FIEEWOR&S.    See  Pyrotechny. 

FIEKim  (Dan.  fire,  four),  the  fourth  part  of 
a  barrel,  an  old  English  measure  of  ca[)acity, 
variously  given  as  containing  from  7^  imperial 
gallons  to  10*987  standard  gallons.  For  ale  its 
capacity  was  one  gallon  less  than  for  beer;  as 
usuaUy  reckoned,  it  was  8  gallons  for  the  for- 
mer and  9  for  the  latter.  In  the  United  States, 
firkin  designates  a  tub,  usually  of  butter,  the 
weight  oi'  which  should  be  56  lbs.  In  some 
parts  of  Pennsylvania  it  is  110  lbs. 

FlRJHlllENT  (Lat.  Hrmamentum,  support),  in 
ancient  astronomy,  the  eighth  sphere  or  heaven 
which  surrounded  the  seven  spheres  of  the 
planets  and  supported  the  fixed  stars.  Two 
motions  were  attributed  to  it :  the  diurnal  mo- 
tion from  east  to  west,  and  a  motion  from  west 
to  east,  which  was  completed,  according  to 
Ptolemy,  in  36,000  years,  when  the  fixed  stars 
were  again  in  precisely  the  same  position  as 
at  the  beginning.  This  period  was  called  the 
Platonic  or  great  year.  In  common  language, 
firmament  signifies  the  sky  or  heaven. 

FIKIIAlf,  or  Fcrmu,  a  Persian  word  signify- 
ing an  order,  employed  especially  in  Turkey  to 
designate  any  decree  issued  by  the  Porte,  and 
authenticated  by  the  sultanas  own  cipher  or 
monogram,  called  the  tuva.  Each  of  tiie  min- 
isters and  members  of  the  divan  has  the  right 
of  signing  firmans  relative  to  the  business  of  his 
own  department,  but  only  the  grand  vizier  is 
authorized  to  place  at  their  head  the  tuva, 
which  alone  gives  them  force.  A  decree  signed 
by  the  sultan's  own  hand  is  called  hatti-sherif. 
The  name  firman  is  also  applied  to  a  Turkish 
passport,  whether  issued  by  the  Porte  or  by  a 
pasha,  enjoining  the  subordinate  authorities  to 
grant  the  traveller  bearing  it  protection  and 
assistance.  In  India,  a  written  permissicn  to 
trade  is  called  a  finnan. 

FISC  (Lat.^<cw«),  originally,  a  wicker  basket 
in  w^hich  money  was  carried  about  and  kept. 
Under  the  Roman  republic  the  state  treasury 
was  called  (Brarium.  When  the  empire  was 
established  the  name  fi8cus  was  given  to  the 
treasure  which  belonged  to  the  emperor  as 
such.  The  public  treasure,  properly  speaking, 
the  title  to  which  was  vested  in  the  senate  as 
the  representative  of  the  old  republic,  con- 
tinued to  be  called  ferarium,  and  the  private 
property  of  the  emperor  as  an  individual  was 
termed  res  privata  prineipis.  Under  the  later 
emperors  no  such  separate  fund  as  the  cera- 
rium  was  any  longer  in  existence,  and  the  dis- 
tinction between  ajrarium  and  fiscus  was  lost. 
The  imperial  treasury,  having  become  the  only 
treasury  of  the  state,  was  designated  by  both 
terms.  Some  of  the  rights  of  a  natural  person 
were  accorded  to  the  fiscus,  and  hence  by  a  fic- 
tion of  law  it  was  deemed  a  person,  in  the  same 
manner  as  a  corporation  or  the  community  of 
a  city  or  village.  In  the  civil  law  of  modern 
Europe  the  fisc  is  the  property  of  the  state. 


216 


FISOH 


FISH 


Such  property  having  often  been  obtained  to  a 
large  extent  from  fines  and  the  possessions  of 
condemned  persons,  the  word  confiscation,  de- 
rived from  JUcus,  signifies  the  forfeiture  of  any 
species  of  property  to  the  state. 

FISCH,  George,  a  French  Protestant  divine, 
born  in  Switzerland,  July  6,  1814.  He  was 
educated  in  the  academy  at  Lausanne,  and  en- 
tering the  ministry  was  for  nearly  five  years 
pastor  of  a  German-speaking  congregation  at 
Vevay.  He  then  emigrated  to  France  and 
joined  tlie  French  Evangelical  church.  In 
1846  he  was  called  to  Lyons  as  the  successor 
of  Adolphe  Monod.  In  1855  he  removed  to 
Paris  to  become  pastor  of  the  church  "  Tait- 
bout/'  where  he  is  the  colleague  of  Edmond 
de  Pres3ens6,  who  is  his  brother-in-law.  Dr. 
Fisch  advocates  the  independence  of  the  church 
from  the  state.  He  is  a  director  of  the  evan- 
gelical society  of  France,  a  powerful  auxiliary 
to  the  union  of  evangelical  churches,  and  since 
1863  has  held  the  presidency  of  the  "  Union." 

FISCHAET,  Jobaui,  called  Mentzer,  a  German 
writer,  bom  probably  in  Mentz  about  1545, 
died  probably  at  Forbach  in  or  after  1589. 
He  was  educated  as  a  jurist  in  Worms,  visited 
England,  spent  some  time  in  Frankfort  and 
Strasburg,  became  an  advocate  in  the  imperial 
tribunal  of  Spire  in  1582,  and  held  a  public 
ofiSce  at  Forbach  from  1585  to  1589.  He  was 
one  of  the  most  voluminous  German  writers  of 
his  day,  excelling  in  satire,  burlesque,  and  alle- 
gory. Among  his  works,  which  were  published 
under  various  pseudonymes,  are  Dna  gl&clchafft 
Schiff  von  Z&rich  (1676 ;  new  but  defective  edi- 
tion, 1829),  and  Psalmen  und  geistliche  Lieder^ 
(Strasburg,  1576;  new  edition,  Berlin,  1849). 
Wackernagel  has  published  Johann  FUehart 
iDon  Strasburg^  una  BaseVs  Antheil  an  ihm 
(Basel,  1869). 

FISCHER,  Enut  Kmw  Verthold,  popularly 
known  as  £uno  Fischer,  a  German  philos- 
opher, born  at  Sandewalde,  Silesia,  July  23, 
1824.  He  graduated  at  Halle,  and  taught  phi- 
losophy at  Heidelberg  from  1850  to  1858,  when 
he  was  suspended  by  the  government  of  Baden, 
the  reason  not  being  assigned.  He  continued 
to  reside  at  Heidelberg  till  1855,  when  he  went 
to  Berlin,  w^here  permission  to  resume  his  pro- 
fession was  at  first  denied  to  him,  but  eventu- 
ally granted  in  September,  1856,  by  the  king 
at  the  instance  of  the  university  authorities. 
He  had  however  already  accepted  a  professor- 
ship at  Jena,  where  he  has  since  continued  to 
be  one  of  the  most  eloquent  exponents  of  mod- 
ern philosophy.  His  principal  works  are  Die 
Logik  und  Metaphysik,  oder  Wissenscha/tslehre 
(1852),  and  Geschiehte  der  neuern  Fhilosophie 
(1854  et  seq.),  with  masterly  delineations  of 
the  systems  of  Descartes,  Spinoza,  Leibnitz, 
and  Kant.  Fischer  assumes  for  the  period  of 
transition  a  parallelism  in  reverse  order  with 
the  line  of  development  of  ancient  philosophy, 
and  states  in  the  latter  and  most  important  of 
his  works  that  "  the  modem  mind  seeks  to  find 
a  way  out  of  the  theological  conception  of  the 


world,  with  which  it  is  filled,  to  the  problems 
of  cosmology."  He  has  also  written  on  Bacon, 
Schiller,  and  Shakespeare,  Geschiehte  der  ans-^ 
todrtigen  Politik  und  Diplomatie  im  Re/orma- 
timB'ZeiUdter  1486-1556  (Gotha,  1874),  &c. 

FISCHER,  €k»ttbeir,  a  Russian  naturalist,  bom 
at  Waldheim,  Saxony,  in  1771,  died  in  Moscow, 
Oct.  18,  1853.  After  graduating  as  a  physi- 
cian at  Leigsic  and  holding  a  professorship  at 
Mentz,  he  settled  at  Moscow  in  1806,  lectured 
at  the  university  and  medical  academy,  found- 
ed a  museum  of  natural  history,  and  published 
upward  of  180  works,  including  Oryctognotie 
(2  vols.,  Moscow,  1818-'20),  Oryctographie  du 
gouvemsment  de  Moscou  (fol.,  1812,  with  65  en- 
gravings, and  translated  into  Russian),  and 
JSntomographie  de  la  JSusaie  (3  vols.,  1820-'28), 
translated  into  Latin,  Gennan,  &c. 

FISCHER  VON  ERLACH.  I.  Johtu  Bernhwd, 
a  German  architect,  bom  in  Prague  or  Vienna 
in  1650,  died  in  Vienna,  April  5, 1723.  He  ac- 
quii'ed  in  Rome  the  style  of  Bemini,  which 
was  admired  in  Vienna,  where  he  became  the 
architect  of  prominent  public  buildings,  indn- 
ding  the  palace  of  Schdnbrunn  and  the  church 
of  San  Carlo  Borromeo.  II.  J«6eph  EbsbwI) 
son  of  the  preceding,  bom  about  1680,  died 
about  the  middle  of  the  18th  century.  He  was 
ennobled  in  1735,  and  excelled  in  the  same 
style  of  architecture  as  his  father.  In  1727  he 
constructed  the  first  steam  engine  in  Vienna. 

FISH,  HanlltoB,  an  American  statesman,  born 
in  New  York  city,  Aug.  3,  1808.  His  father, 
Col.  Nicholas  Fish,  was  a  distinguished  ofiScer 
of  the  revolutionary  army.  He  graduated  at 
Columbia  college  in  1827,  and  was  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  1830.  In  politics  he  was  a  whig, 
and  was  repeatedly  nominated  by  that  party 
as  a  candidate  for  the  state  assembly,  but 
was  defeated  by  the  democratic  m^ority.  In 
1842  he  was  elected  a  representative  in  con- 
gress from  the  sixth  district  of  New  York. 
In  1846  he  was  a  candidate  for  lieutenant 
governor.  The  whig  candidate  for  povemor, 
John  Young,  was  elected,  but  Mr.  Fish,  who 
had  incurred  the  hostility  of  the  anti-renters 
by  his  warm  denunciation  of  their  principles, 
was  defeated.  But  his  successful  competitor, 
Addison  Gardiner,  a  democrat  who  had  re- 
ceived the  support  of  the  anti-renters,  resigned 
the  office  in  1847  on  becoming  a  judge  of  the 
court  of  appeals,  and  Mr.  Fish  was  elected 
in  his  place.  In  1848  he  was  chosen  gover- 
nor by  about  30,000  majority,  and  in  1851  he 
was  chosen  United  States  senator  in  place  of 
Daniel  S.  Dickinson.  In  the  senate  he  opposed 
the  repeal  of  the  Missouri  compromise,  and 
acted  with  the  republican  party  from  its  for- 
mation to  the  end  of  his  tenu  in  1857.  In 
that  year  he  went  to  Europe  with  his  family, 
and  remained  till  shortly  before  the  com- 
mencement of  the  civil  war.  During  that  con- 
test he  contributed  in  money  to  the  support 
of  the  government.  In  January,  1862,  in  con- 
junction with  Bishop  Ames,  he  was  appointed 
by  Secretary  Stanton  a  commissioner  to  visit 


FISH  CROW 


FISH  CULTURE 


217 


the  United  States  soldiers  imprisoned  at  Rich- 
mond and  elsewhere,  ^'  to  relieve  their  nece^ 
flities  and  provide  for  their  comfort."    The 
confederate  government  declined  to  admit  the 
commissioners  within  their  lines,  bat  intima- 
ted a  readiness  to  negotiate  for  a  general  ex- 
change of  prisoners.    The  result  was  an  agree- 
ment for  an  equal  exchange,  which  was  cur- 
ried ont  sabstantiallj  to  llie  end  of  the  war. 
In  March,  1869,  Mr.  Fish  was  appointed  by 
President  Grant  secretary  of  state,  and  was 
reappointed  by  him  at  the  commencement  of 
his  second  term  in  March,  1873.     On  Feb.  9, 
1871,  the  president  appointed  him  one  of  the 
commissioners  on  the  part  of  the  United  States 
to  negotiate  the  treaty  of  Washington,  which 
was  signed  by  him  on  May  8  of  that  year.    In 
November,  1873,  he  negotiated  with  Admired 
Polo,  Spanish  minister  at  Washington,  the  set- 
tlement of  the  Virginias  question. 
nSH  aU>W.    See  Obow. 
nSH  CULTURE,  or  PMeiKire,  the  breeding 
and  rearing  of  fish.    The  subject  may  be  di- 
vided into  two  branches:  1,  the  rearing  and 
fattening  of  fish  in  artificial  ponds  or  lagoons ; 
2,  the  propagation  of  fish  by  the  artificial  im- 
pregnation of  the  spawn,  which  is  the  signifi- 
cation ordinarily  attached  to  the  term  at  the 
present  time.    The  Chinese  have  been  credited 
with  being  the  first  to  practice  fish  culture,  but 
their  methods  are  such  as  are  included  in  the 
first  class  only,  and  are  confined  to  the  practice 
of  placing  twigs  in  the  water  during  the  spawn- 
ing season  of  the  carp,  and  removing  them 
when  covered  with  spawn.    These  twigs,  with 
their  fertilized  ova,  have  been  sold  in  the  mar- 
kets, the  pnrciiaser  placing  them  in  ponds,  or 
ditclies,  to  liatch.    This  is  as  far  as  the  Chinese 
seem  to  ha^e  advanced  in  this  art,  and  it  is  a 
matter  of  doubt  whether  they  were  at  all  su- 
perior to  the  Romans  in  it.    The  lutter,  accord- 
ing to  Oppian  ("  H  alien  ticks,"  book  i.,  v.  76  to 
95),  caught  very  young  fish  and  placed  them 
in  ponds,  where  they  were  fed  liberally  and 
were  taken  oat  wlien  full  grown  to  grace  the 
patrician  tables,  or  were  preserved  in  ponds  to 
be  angled  for  by  the  Roman  nobles.    The  pic- 
torial relics  of  ancient  Egypt  sliow  that  large 
vivaria  were  built  and  maintained  for  the  pur- 
pose of  growing  fishes  either  for  the  table  or 
for  religious  sacrifice  to  divinities  whom  they 
wished  to  propitiate.    This  custom  of  growing 
fishes  for  religions  purposes  is  mentioned  by 
Martial    ^lian  tells  of  sotne  which  were  kept 
in  a  stew  and  dedicated  to  Jupiter  Militant. 
Diodorus  Sioulus.records  a  reservoir  near  Gir- 
genti,  in  Sicily,  of  several  miles  in  circumfer- 
ence, which   was  fed  with  fresh  water  and 
stocked  with  fish ;  this  was  built  for  the  tyrant 
Gelon.    ThB  ponds  of  the  Romans,  according 
to  Pliny  and  Columella,  were  of  the  most  ex- 
pensive and  complete  construction.    The  for- 
mer tells  how  Hortensius  was  more  anxious 
about  the  welfare  of  his  mullet  than  of  his 
men,  and  that  his  fish-servants  were  so  numer- 
ons  that  they  were  not  to  be  counted.    He  had 


sailors  to  procure  food  for  them,  and,  when  the 
weather  did  not  permit  them  to  go  out,  a  troop 
of  butchers  and  provision  dealers  sent  in  esti- 
mates for  supplying  his  fish  with  provender. 
There  was  an  overseer,  or  "  nomenclator,"  who 
received  a  high  salary  and  whose  duty  it  was 
to  give  the  fish  their  individual  names  and 
teach  them  to  '*  wag  their  tails,  fawn  like  dogs, 
and  permit  themselves  to  be  scratched  and 
clawed  *'  when  he  exhibited  them  to  visitors. 
These  stews  seem  to  have  been  kept  more  for 
ornament  than  profit,  for  Varro  says:  "My 
friend  Hortensius  would  much  sooner  lend  yoa 
the  carriage-horses  from  his  stable  to  go  and 
buy  mullet  where  you  liked  ttian  send  and  pro- 
cure you  one  out  of  his  o.vn  ponds.  It  often 
happens  in  his  house  that,  when  fish  are  want- 
ed, in  plaoe  of  levying  them  from  his  costly 
stews,  he  will  send  to  Puteoli  for  supplies.^' 
Ic  is  recorded  that  when  Caesar  wished  to  en- 
tertain his  friends  on  fish  he  could  only  obtain 
from  C.  Hirtius  600  lampreys,  on  the  express 
condition  that  they  were  a  loan  to  be  repaid 
on  a  certain  day,  not  in  specie,  but  in  weight 
and  kind.  There  is  undoubtedly  much  fable 
concerning  the  affection  of  the  ancient  Romans 
fdr  individual  fishes,  but  the  fact  that  they 
reared  them  is  well  established.  In  Italy  the 
growing  of  the  eel  is  carried  on  extensively  in 
the  lagoons  of  Venice,  at  Comacchio,  and  else- 
where, in  connection  generally  with  other  spe- 
cies, such  as  mullet  and  plaice.  This  industry 
at  Comacchio  is  as  old  as  the  13th  century. 
The  precise  date  when  the  lagoon  was  formed 
into  a  fish-pond  is  not  known,  its  earliest  rec- 
ord being  1229.  The  lagoon  at  this  place  is 
situated  between  the  Reno  and  Volano  branch- 
es of  the  Po,  and  is  divided  into  numerous  sec- 
tions, the  principal  entrances  into  which  are 
from  the  two  mouths.  Its  waters  are  diked 
out  from  the  Adriatic,  which,  however,  com- 
municates with  the  lagoon  through  the  Grand 
Palotta  canal  and  its  branches.  Flood-gates 
control  the  various  entrances  and  regulate  the 
migration  of  the  fish.  The  ascent  of  the  young 
eels  from  the  sea  begins  early  in  February,  and 
continues  until  the  end  of  April,  when  the  flood- 
gates are  closed.  The  harvest  commences  early 
in  August,  and  continues  till  December.  Dur- 
ing the  interval  from  their  ascent  until  the 
close  of  the  season  the  fish  are  carefully  fed. 
At  Bizerta,  in  Tunis,  a  small  stream  running  into 
the  sea  has  been  widened  just  above  the  town 
into  a  shallow  pond  of  60  to  100  acres.  The 
water  is  at  no  time  much  above  the  level  of 
the  sea,  which  occasionally  flows  back  into  the 
pond.  The  greater  portion  of  the  area  is  di- 
vided into  12  compartments  by  a  cane  fence, 
which  separates  the  fish,  but  does  not  prevent 
the  circulation  of  the  water.  Each  compart- 
ment is  said  to  contain  a  diflerent  kind  of  fish. 
The  pond  is  under  municipal  control,  and  offi- 
cers are  appointed  to  manage  it.  The  fish  are 
said  to  be  taken  for  an  entire  month  from  the 
same  compartment,  which  is  left  undisturbed 
for  the  next  1 1  months.    The  profit  to  the  town 


218 


FISH  CULTURE 


amouDts  to  $12,000  or  $15,000  a  year. — Tbese 
are  examples  of  tish  culture  as  practised  in  for- 
mer times,  and  do  not  include  what  the  mod- 
ern fish  culturist  considers  the  finest  portion 
of  his  work,  the  taking  of  the  eggs  from  the 
female  fish,  impregnating  and  hatching  them. 
This  art  was  discovered  in  1741  by  Stephan 
Ludwig  Jacobi,  a  wealtliy  landed  proprietor  of 
Hohenhausen,  in  the  duchy  of  Lippe,  in  north- 
western Germany,  when  a  youth  of  seventeen 
years.  His  discovery  was  not  made  known 
to  the  public  until  1768,  when  a  writer  in  the 
Hanoverian  magazine  published  his  methods. 
French  writers  have  ascribed  the  discovery  to 
Dom  Pinchon,  in  1420,  but  there  is  no  evidence 
that  he  did  more  than  to  transplant  eggs  which 
he  found  already  fertilized.  In  1771  George 
III.,  of  England,  recognized  the  importance  of 
Jacobi 's  work  and  granted  him  a  life  pension. 
— In  1820  operations  in  France  were  began 
by  MM.  Ilivert  and  Pilachon.  in  Haute  Marne, 
and  four  years  later  the  art  was  introduced 
into  Bohemia.  Jn  1837  Mr.  Shaw,  in  Scotland, 
practised  ai'tificial  impregnation  for  the  pur- 
pose of  restocking  the  streams  with  salmon; 
and  in  1841  Boccius,  a  civil  engineer  of  Ham- 
mersmith, practised  the  art  with  trout  on  va- 
rious estates.  The  following  year  Joseph  R6my, 
a  fisherman  of  La  Bresse,  in  the  Vosges,  it  is 
claimed  without  knowledge  of  the  labors  of 
others,  resorted  to  artificial  impregnation  as 
an  adjunct  to  his  business,  restocking  the  Mo- 
selle and  other  streams  from  which  he  gained 
his  livelihood.  His  operations,  brought  to  the 
knowledge  of  Prof.  J.  J.  C.  Coste  of  the  college 
de  France  in  1849,  gave  an  impetus  to  fish 
culture  in  Europe.  The  art  was  tnen  confined 
to  trout  and  salmon,  and  their  method  was  to 
capture  the  fish  and  select  those  which  were 
ripe,  or  about  to  spawn.  This  state  was  ap- 
parent by  certain  signs,  as,  sottness  of  the 
belly  and  protrusion  of  the  vent,  with  its  pur- 
ple color,  in  the  females;  and  by  the  high 
color  of  the  males.  A  female  trout  was  taken 
in  the  left  hand,  and,  by  gently  stroking  the 
abdomen,  the  eggs  were  caused  to  fiow  into  a 
pan  of  water.  The  male  was  handled  in  the 
same  manner  and  a  few  drops  of  milt  expressed, 
which  impregnated  the  eggs.  The  latter  were 
then  placed  in  troughs,  on  fine,  clean  gravel, 
and  a  stream  of  cool  water  allowed  to  flow 
over  them  until  they  hatched.  This  system 
was  improved  by  M.  Coste,  who,  at  HfLningen, 
in  Alsace,  adopted  trays  or  troughs  of  earth- 
enware, 25  in.  long,  5  in.  wide,  and  4  in.  deep, 
for  hatching.  The  eggs  were  placed  on  grilles, 
formed  of  small  parallel  rods  of  gloss  arranged 
in  a  wooden  frame  resting  on  projections  on 
each  side  of  the  tray,  a  little  below  the  surface 
of  the  water,  the  bars  being  near  enough  to- 
gether to  hold  the  eggs,  while  dirt  and  the 
young  fish  when  hatched  fall  between  them 
and  are  removed  through  an  aperture  in  the 
bottom  of  the  tray.  These  trays  were  placed 
in  shallow  vessels,  each  a  little  above  the  other 
like  steps,  the  water  entering  from  a  small  jet 


at  one  end  of  the  upper  trongh  and  passing  out 
at  the  other,  traversing  each  trough  in  succes- 
sion. This  was  further  improved  upon  by  ^r. 
C.  G.  Atkins,  of  Bucksport,  Me.,  in  1871.  He 
abolished  both  the  gravel  and  the  grilles,  and 
used  frames  with  bottoms  of  wire-cloth,  which 
were  coated  with  coal  or  gas  tar,  thinned  with 
spirits  of  turpentine,  to  prevent  rusting.  This 
preparation  is  also  used  on  all  the  wood- work 
which  comes  in  contact  with  the  water,  and 
prevents  exudation  from  the  wood  and  is  un- 
favorable to  fungoid  growths,  while  it  imparts 
no  taste  to  the  water,  if  properly  dried  before 
using.  Atkins  placed  several  frames  on  each 
other,  and  thus  multiplied  the  hatching  capacity 
of  troughs.  In  1866  Mr.  V.  P.  Vrasski,  a  Rus- 
sian, discovered  the  method  of  dry  impregna- 
tion and  published  it  in  the  following  year. 
This  process  consisted  in  taking  the  eggs  in  a 
pan  in  which  the  milt  has  first  been  placed, 
after  dilution  with  a  little  water.  This  was 
published  in  the  Bulletin  de  la  Societe  cTAe- 
cUmatatian^  Paris,  August,  1871,  and  translated 
in  America  by  Mr.  G.  S.  Page.  Mr.  Atkins 
also  improved  this  method  in  1871  by  using  no 
water  until  each  egg  had  been  placed  in  contact 
with  the  milt  and  had  a  chance  to  absorb  it, 
undiluted.  This  gives  a  larger  percentage  of 
impregnation  than  w^hen  the  milt  is  diluted. 
The  trout  egg  will  absorb  liquid  for  nearly  half 
an  hour,  after  which,  when  fully  distended,  if 
it  has  not  received  a  spermatozoon  from  the 
male,  no  power  can  impregnate  it.  Mr.  At- 
kins published  his  account  of  this  method  in 
the  Report  of  the  U.  8.  Fish  Commissioner 
for  the  years  1872-^3,  p.  239.— The  first  fish 
hatching  in  America  was  done  by  Dr.  Theoda- 
tus  Garlick,  near  Cleveland,  Ohio.  In  com- 
pany with  Prof.  H.  A.  Ackley,  in  August,  1853, 
parent  trout  were  obtained,  the  eggs  extruded 
on  the  2l6t  of  November,  fertilized  and  hatched 
in  January,  1874. — Trout  ponds  should  be  small 
if  the  object  is  to  obtain  many  egtfs,  or  to  feed 
and  grow  the  fish.  Fish  can  then  readily  be 
seen.  Except  in  a  few  instances,  as  the  South 
Side  Sportsman^s  Club  of  Long  Island,  where 
a  great  supply  of  water  was  found  near  where 
food  can  be  cheaply  obtained,  trout  culture  for 
market  has  not  been  profitable,  the  time  and 
labor  being  too  great  for  small  operations,  or  the 
expense  of  food  too  great  for  larger  ones.  It 
has  paid  in  many  cases  to  stock  waters  where 
the  fish  could  have  a  large  range  and  find  their 
own  food.  Artificial  hatching  produces  many 
fold  more  fish  than  are  hatched  in  a  state  of 
nature;  there  is  a  much  greater  impregnation, 
and  the  eggs  are  protected  from  enemies,  such 
a<*  sunlight,  sediment,  and  the  numerous  things 
which  eat  them,  including  fishes,  birds,  reptiles, 
insects,  and  mammals.  During  the  process  of 
hatching,  the  troughs  should  be  examined 
daily  to  see  that  the  flow  of  water  is  sufficient, 
and  to  remove  defective  egga.  The  addled  eggs 
turn  milk-white,  and  are  easily  seen  among 
the  transparent  ones,  which  somewhat  resemble 
amber.     Under  the  old  system  of  hatching  on 


FISH  CULTURE 


219 


gravel  there  would  be  some  dead  ones  which 
would  escape  observation  in  it,  and  which  woald 
develop   a  fungous  growth ;  hence  the  older 
writers  on  the  subject  regarded  ''*'  byssus  "  as 
the  deadliest  foe  of  the  fish  breeder.     With  the 
present  system  of  wire  trays  it  must  be  a  care- 
less fish  cnitarist  who  allows  it  to  be  present 
in  bis  troughs.    The  period  of  incubation  of 
trout  eggs  varies  with  the  temperature.    At 
37''  it  is  165  days ;  at  89^  121 ;  at  41%  103 ; 
at  44**,  81 ;  at  48%  66°;  at  60%  47;  at  62%  88; 
and  at  54°,  32  Fahr.     When  the  trout  are  first 
batched  they  have  an   umbilical  sac,  about 
three  tiroes  the  8iz3  of  the  body,  which  fur- 
nishes them  sustenance  for  a  period  varying, 
with  the  temperature  of  the  water  in  which 
they  are  hatched,  from  77  davs  at  SSy,  U>  60  at 
40^%  46  at  48i%  and  80  at  50°  Fahr.   When  the 
aic  Is  absorbed  they  require  food,  wliioh  may 
consist  of  curd,  fre^h  shad,  herring  or  other 
fi->h  roe,  raw  or  boiled,  the  yolks  of  eggs  boiled 
hard,  coagulated  blood,  liver  raw  or  boiled, 
dec,  which  should  be  made  fine.     When  they 
outgrow  the  hatching  troughs,  they  are  let  into 
the  nurseries,  and   should  be  furnished  with 
sunlight.    For  the  adult  trout  similar  food  will 
suffice,  maggots  bred  in  decaying  meat  being 
perhaps  the  most  nutritions.    One  great  advan- 
tage of  artificial  breeding  consists  in  the  large 
proportion  of  ega^  and  fry  that  are  saved  from 
destruction,     in  the  natural  state  these  are  the 
prdy  of  fro^i^  a]uatio  birds,  various  species  of 
tish,  and  nuiiioru'is  water  insects.    Fecundated 
ova,  after  the  first  formation  of  the  fish  is  seen, 
may  be  transported  without  injury,  if  packed 
in  moist  moss  in  a  box  which  is  inclosed  in 
another  with  the  space  between  filled  with 
siwdnst    or  other  non-conducting   material. 
They  are  also  pla<*e'i  on  trays  having  canton 
flannel  bottoms.    These  trays  are  placed  above 
eich  other  in  a  tin  box,  which  is  surrounded 
by  ice.     In  this  way  the  U.  S.  Fish  Oommis- 
sion  has  sent  hnndreds  of  thousands  of  the 
eggs  of  the  Californian  salmon,  land-locked  sal- 
mon, trout,  and  white-fish  to  Europe.     At  a 
temperature  from  5°  to  15^  above  freezing 
point  they  may  be  kept  packed  for  two  weeks; 
and  even  after  the  lapse  of  six  weeks  they  have 
been  found  uninjured.    The  fry  and  adult  fish 
may  be  transported  in  barrels  or  smaller  ves- 
sels, care  being  taken  to  change  the  water  and 
have  it  properly  oxygenated. — The  spawn  of 
salmon  requires  a  somewhat  longer  period  of 
incubation  than  that  of  trout  in  water  of  the 
same  temperature. —  The  spawn  of  shad  is 
hatched  in  72  hours  in  water  at  a  temperature 
of  78%  and  in  seven  davs  when  the  tempera- 
ture is  60°.    The  umbilical  sac  sustains  the  fry 
only  from  three  to  six  days.    The  original 
shad-hatching  apparatus  is  a  box  with  a  bot- 
tom of  wire  gauze,  sustained  in  the  water  by 
two  float  bars  fastened  to  the  sides  at  an  angle 
with  the  top.    This  is  anchored  in  the  stream, 
in  a  gentle  current  which  passes  freely  throu<;h 
thd   gauze  and  buoys  up  the    eggs  wittiin. 
When  batched,  the  fry  are  liberated  in  mid- 


stream, the  young  shad  instinctively  seeking 
the  main  current,  where  they  are  comparative- 
ly free  from  the  small  fish  most  likely  to  de- 
vour them.  The  eggs  after  life  is  observed  in 
them  have  been  kept  at  a  low  temperature  for 
six  days  when  packed  in  damp  moss,  and  it  is 
possible  to  transport  them  a  long  distance. 
The  spawn  of  both  shad  and  salmon  is  obtained 
in  much  the  same  manner  as  that  of  trout.  An 
important  improvement  in  shad  hatching  was 
discovered  by  Mr.  Fred  Mather,  in  1875.  It 
consists  of  a  cone  which  admits  the  water  at 
the  bottom  and  allows  it  to  fiow  out  at  the  top, 
with  a  screen  at  both  places. — The  eggs  of 
shad  require  to  be  buoyed  up  by  a  current  of 
water  and  kept  in  motion,  a  requirement  met 
by  the  cones,  which  render  it  possible  to  carry 
on  the  work  of  hatching  on  shore,  or  on  board 
a  vessel.  Mr.  T.  B.  Ferguson,  in  1877,  devised 
a  system  of  plunging  buckets,  to  be  worked  by 
steam,  by  the  side  of  a  vessel,  which  were  ex- 
tensively used  by  the  U.  S.  Fish  Oomniiasion. 
l*hey  kept  the  eggs  in  motion  by  alternately 
lifting  and  dropping  the  cylinders  with  wire- 
cloth  bottoms,  which  contained  the  eggs,  into 
the  water.  The  "Universal"  hatching  jar, 
invented  by  Ool.  M.  McDonald,  is,  with  the 
Mather  cones,  now  used  in  all  the  shad-hatch- 
ing operations  of  the  U.  S.  Fish  Commission, 
the  former  in  the  central  station  at  Washing- 
ton, and  the  latter  on  the  steamer  Fish  Hawk. 
Shad  have  not  only  been  increased  in  the 
rivers  to  which  they  are  native,  but  have  been 
successfully  established  in  the  rivers  of  Oalifor- 
nia,  and  specimens  have  been  taken  in  the 
upper  Mississippi,  Ouachita,  and  other  streams 
where  they  have  been  placed. — The  French 
government  early  gave  its  patronage  to  fish 
culture,  and  the  barren  waters  of  the  country 
have  been  stocked  with  appropriate  fish :  the 
rivers  with  salmon,  the  brooks  with  trout,  and 
the  slugi?ish  streams,  lakes,  and  ponds  with 
carp,  perch,  eels,  and  pike.  The  establishment 
at  Htningen  was  erected  under  the  patronage 
of  the  government  through  the  exertions  of 
Prof.  Ooste  in  1852.  The  buildings  form  a 
square  comprising  at  the  sides  two  hatching 
galleries  A5  yards  long  and  9^  yards  wide,  con- 
taining tanks  and  egg-boxes.  The  buildings 
and  ponds  cover  80  acres.  The  water  is  sup- 
plied from  springs  on  the  ground,  from  the 
Rhine,  and  from  a  small  stream  called  the 
Augraben.  The  establishment  does  not  in 
general  breed  fish  except  by  way  of  experi- 
ment, the  chief  business  being  the  collection 
and  distribution  of  eggs,  which  are  brought 
mostly  from  Switzerland  and  various  parts  of 
Germany,  and  embrace  those  of  several  species 
of  trout,  the  Danube  and  Rhine  salmon,  and 
the  ombre  chetalier.  The  commonest  fish  i!< 
the /<?ra,  similar  to  the  white-fish  of  the  United 
States.  The  spawn  collected  from  various 
sources  is  carefully  tended  until  it  is  sent  to 
some  point  in  need  of  it.  With  the  cession  of 
Alsace  and  Lorraine,  this  establishment  passed 
into  the  hands  of  the  Germans,  and  is  now 


220 


FISH  CULTURE 


conducted  on  a  still  larger  scale  under  the  aus- 
pices of  the  German  fishery  association ;  and 
success  has  attended  the  efforts  to  restock  the 
Khine  and  other  streams.  In  its  stead  the 
French  government  have  established  another 
at  Montb^liard,  in  additioo  to  those  already  in 
operation  at  Clermont- Ferraod  and  elsewhere. 
— The  German  fishery  association  (Deutcher 
Fischerei  Verein)  is  a  body  of  able  and  influen- 
tial men,  comprising  some  of  the  foremost  men 
in  the  German  parliament.  It  has  done  much 
to  advance  the  cause  of  fish  culture,  not  only 
within  the  empire,  but  its  influence  has  been 
felt  in  all  parts  of  Europe. — In  England  but  lit- 
tle has  been  done  except  among  wealthy  gen- 
tlemen, wholly  as  a  pastime  or  for  an  ornament 
to  parks.  In  1882  the  National  Fish  Culture 
Association  was  formed,  with  Hon.  Edward 
Birbeck,  M.  P.,  as  president,  and  W.  Oldham 
Chambers  as  secretary,  with  permanent  head- 
quarters at  the  Exhibition  Grounds  at  South 
Kensington,  and  the  association  is  rapidly  grow- 
ing. It  is  awakening  an  interest  in  the  subject 
which  may  cause  the  government  to  do  some- 
thing for  fish  culture.  The  association  is  about 
to  begin  practical  operations  at  an  experimen- 
tal station,  leased  for  the  purpose,  where  both 
native  and  foreign  fishes  will  be  bred.  An 
aquarium  with  both  salt-  and  fresh- water  tanks 
has  been  erected  in  the  South  Kensington 
Museum,  where  the  habits  of  fishes  will  be 
observed.  The  English  government  has  not 
made  any  appropriation  for  this  purpose,  but 
the  inspectors  of  salmon  fisheries,  whose  prin- 
cipal duty  is  to  preserve  the  streams  from  over 
fishing  or  from  fishing  at  unlawful  times,  have 
interested  themselves  somewhat  in  fish  culture. 
The  late  Mr.  Frank  Buckland  established  what 
he  calleda  **  Museum  of  Economic  Fish  Culture  " 
at  South  Kensington,  which  was  mainly  a  col- 
lection of  plaster  casts  of  fishes.  He  sent  spawn 
of  salmon  and  trout  to  Australia,  as  did  other 
fish  culturists.  —  In  Scotland,  more  attention 
has  been  paid  to  the  subject  than  in  England. 
The  salmon  -  breeding  establishment  at  Stor- 
montfield  on  the  Tay,  about  five  miles  above 
Perth,  has  been  in  operation  since  about  1850. 
The  result  of  the  operations  there  has  been  a 
large  increase  in  the  numbers  of  salmon  taken 
in  the  Tay,  and  in  the  rental  of  its  fisheries. 
There  is  also  an  establishment  at  Tongueland 
on  the  Dee,  where  the  hatching  boxes  are  pro- 
tected from  the  weather,  occupying  a  room  70 
ft.  long  in  a  lumber  storehouse  connected  with 
a  bakery.  Sir  James  G.  Maitland,  Bart.,  has 
since  established  a  hatchery  and  ponds  on  a 
larger  scale  at  Howetoun,  near  Stirling. — Sev- 
ered successful  attempts  at  fish  culture  have 
been  made  in  Ireland,  notably  by  Mr.  Ash- 
worth  on  the  Galway,  and  by  Mr.  Cooper  on 
tributaries  of  the  Bnllisodare,  those  rivers  hav- 
ing been  stocked  with  salmon,  and  stairways 
having  been  built  to  enable  the  fish  to  ascend 
falls  before  impassable.  Salmon  have  also  been 
introduced  into  the  Doohulla  river,  so  called, 
which  consists  of  several  small  lakes,  originally 


connected  with  the  sea  by  a  tortuous  brook, 
impassable  by  fish  unless  swollen  by  heavy 
rains,  when  white  trout  occasionally  ascended. 
The  upper  lakes  have  been  connected  with  the 
lower  one  by  an  artificial  cut,  and  this  by  an- 
other artificial  channel  with  the  sea.  so  that 
the  waters  are  accessible  to  salmon. — The  most 
noteworthy  Norwegian  experiment  is  that  of 
Prof.  Rasch,  of  the  university  of  Chrlstiania. 
The  locality  is  a  deep  fiord,  which  runs  up  into 
the  land  about  a  mile,  narrowing  at  the  end  to 
the  width  of  a  large  trench,  and  opening  out 
beyond  into  a  basin  about  800  acres  in  extent, 
with  an  average  depth  of  40  It.  Across  the 
inlet  Prof.  Hasch  in  1869  erected  a  fence  which 
does  not  prevent  the  ebb  and  flow  of  the  tide, 
but  bars  the  outward  passage  of  the  fish. 
Within  the  enclosure  a  hatching  apparatus  for 
salmon  and  sea-trout  spawn  was  set  up,  con- 
necting with  two  small  fresh-water  ponds,  sop- 
plied  by  a  spring.  The  young  fish  are  fed  for 
a  time  in  the  ponds  on  fine-chopped  mussels, 
which  are  found  in  the  basin. in  abundance, 
and  are  then  turned  into  the  saltrwater  basin. 
This  experiment  has  shown  that  sea  trout  may 
be  reared  without  access  to  the  sea. — In  the 
United  States  fish  culture  stood  still  after  tlio 
experiments  of  Dr.  Garlick,  in  1858,  until  Mr. 
Stephen  H.  Ainsworth,  of  West  Bloomfield, 
N.  Y.,  began  it  on  a  small  scale  about  1865. 
This  attracted  the  attention  of  Mr.  Thaddeus 
Norris,  of  Philadelphia;  Mr.  Seth  Green,  of 
Rochester;  Mr.  Livingston  Stone,  of  Charles- 
town,  N.  H. ;  Mr.  Fred  Mather,  of  Albany; 
and  others  who  embarked  in*  it.  At  first  it 
was  confined  to  brook  trout  entirely,  and,  as 
the  business  obtained  a  notoriety  through  the 
newspapers,  the  pioneers  turned  their  atten- 
tion to  supplying  eggs  and  fry  for  stocking 
ponds,  that  being  more  profitable  than  raising 
the  fish.  Trout  ponds  sprang  up  all  over,  but 
it  was  found  that  only  in  exceptionally  favor- 
able localities  could  it  be  made  profitable. 
The  cost  of  food  and  attendance  was  so  great 
that  no  margin  of  profit  was  left.  The  excep- 
tions were  where  the  fish  could  find  abundance 
of  natural  food,  as  in  streams  emptying  into 
lakes,  and  on  Long  Island,  where  the  trout 
con  run  down  into  salt  or  brackish  water  and 
get  an  abundance  of  food.— Legislative  action 
was  first  taken  by  the  New  England  states, 
which  were  followed  by  others,  until  now 
commissioners  of  fisheries  exist  by  law  in  84 
states  and  territories,  viz. :  Maine,  New  Hamp- 
shire, Vermont,  Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island, 
Connecticut,  New  York,  New  Jersey,  Penn- 
sylvania, Maryland,  Virginia,  Alabama,  Ohio, 
Michigan,  Illinois,  Indiana,  West  Virginia, 
Tennessee,  Georgia,  North  Carolina,  South 
Carolina,  Missouri,  Arkansas,  Nebraska,  Kan- 
sas, Texas,  Minnesota,  Iowa,  Colorado,  Utah, 
California,  Nevada,  Wisconsin,  and  Kentucky. 
Canada  has  a  commission  which  looks  after 
the  fish-cultural  interests  and  has  done  much 
good  work  in  restocking  exhausted  rivers. 
The  efforts  of  these  commissioners  have  been 


FISH  CULTURE 


221 


directed  entirely  to  tbe  restocking  of  rivers 
and  ponds,  to  tbe  erection  of  fish  ways  aroand 
falld  and  dams,  and  to  tbe  procuring  of  pro- 
tective legislation  forbidding  tbe  taking  of  fisb 
daring  tbe  spawning  season,  and  regulating  tbe 
use  of  nets  and  tbe  more  destructive  means  of  < 
capture. — By  the  act  of  congress  of  Feb.  9, 18T1, 
a  United  States  commissioner  of  fish  and  fish- 
eries was  provided  for,  whose  duty  it  was  made 
to  prosecute  investigations,  with  a  view  of  as- 
certaining whether  any  and  what  diminution 
in  tbe  number  of  the  food  fishes  of  tbe  coast 
and  lakes  liad  taken  place,  and  to  what  cause 
such  diminution  was  due,  as  well  as  what 
remedial  measures,  if  any,  should  be  adopted. 
Prof.  Baird,  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  was 
appointed  commissioner.  Under  his  manage- 
ment the  treatment  of  fish  culture  has  extend- 
ed to  marine  fishes  as  well  as  to  those  living  in 
and  entering  fresh  waters.  Experiments  have 
been  made  with  several  kinds  of  marine  fishes, 
such  as  the  cod,  the  pollock,  the  moon-fish 
(Parepkipptts /aher)y  and  the  Spanish  mack- 
erel {OyHum  fnactdatum). — Tbe  steamer  Fish 
Hawk  was  built  for  the  U.  S.  Fish  Commission 
and  fitted  up  with  hatching  cones  and  buckets 
for  work  on  shad  rivers  und  for  hatching  sea- 
fish  in  harbors,  thereby  enabling  one  set  of 
machinerv  to  be  of  use  at  different  times  at 
widely  different  places.  Among  the  other  tri- 
umphs of  tbe  U.  S.  Fish  Commission  is  tbe  in- 
troduction of  the  G-erman  carp,  which  were 
brought  over  in  May,  1877,  by  Dr.  R.  Hessel, 
acting  for  Prof.  Baird.  He  brouebt  227  carp 
of  the  mirror  and  leather  varieties,  and  118 
scale  carp,  which  were  placed  in  the  ponds  of 
the  Maryland  Commission,  at  Druid  Hill  Park, 
Baltimore.     In  the  same  y  toi*  the  national  carp 

{)onds  were  established  near  the  *^  Monument 
ot, ''  Washington,  D.  C,  and  many  acres  of 
swampy,  unwholesome  land  were  turned  into 
large  and  handsome  ponds.  *The  carp  grew 
faster  than  in  their  natfve  land,  and  at  three 
years  old  some  specimens  weighed  12  lbs. 
This  fish,  from  its  quiet  habit,  its  vegetarian 
diet,  and  its  love  of  warm,  sluggish  water, 
combined  with  its  rapid  growth,  has  become  a 
great  favorite  in  regions  like  the  inland  and 
southern  states,  where  the  conditions  are  fa- 
vorable to  its  growth,  and  where  there  are  no 
other  good  table  fish.  Although  many  thou- 
sands of  young,  from  2  to  8  in.  in  length,  have 
been  sent  to  almost  every  state  in  the  Union 
for  the  past  two  years,  the  demand  yet  exceeds 
the  supply.  They  have  thriven  in  all  waters 
where  they  have  been  placed,  where  it  has  not 
been  too  cold,  but  they  grew  faster  in  the 
South,  where  the  winters  are  milder  and  the 
period  of  hibernation  is  shorter.  Their  growth 
only  continues  through  tbe  hottest  weather, 
and  no  waters  have  yet  proved  to  be  too  warm 
for  them.  Their  culture  is  simple ;  their  eggs 
are  glutinons  and  are  attached  to  weeds  where 
tbey  hatch,  no  manipulation  being  necessary. 
They  can  be  turned  into  ponds  and  left  to  in- 
crease in  their  own  manner,  or  they  may  have 


a  breeding  pond  prepared  into  which  tbey  may 
be  driven  at  night  and  turned  out  of  it  in  tbe 
morning,  so  that  they  may  not  eat  the  eggs  de- 
posited. This  breeding  pond  may  be  merely  a 
shallow  portion  of  the  main  pond,  and  should 
not  be  over  2  ft.  deep.  Carp  are  easily  sent 
from  one  part  of  the  country  to  the  other  with- 
out an  attendant.  Mr.  £.  G.  Blackford,  of  Ful- 
ton market.  New  York,  and  a  member  of  the 
N.  Y.  Fish  Commission,  has  sent  them  in  cans 
by  steamer  from  New  York  to  Florida  safely. 
In  May,  1881,  the  same  gentleman  sent  out 
thirty  carp  to  Ecuador  in  a  steamship.  They 
were  destined  fur  the  plantation  of  Signor  Jir 
jon  near  Quito,  from  which  place  they  were 
carried  on  the  backs  of  men  a  ten  dnys^  journey 
over  the  mountains  before  reaching  their  des- 
tination. The  heat  is  intense  there,  and  the 
attendant  was  instructed  to  aerate,  but  not 
change  the  water.  They  arrived  safely  and 
were  deposited  in  ponds,  and  have  bred. — The 
following  works  on  fish  culture  have  been  pub- 
lished in  America :  ^*  A  Treatise  on  the  Artifi- 
cial Propagation  of  Fish/*  by  Theodatus  Gar- 
lick,  M.  D.  (Cleveland,  O.,  1858;  a  second  edi- 
tion, 1880) ;  "  Artificial  Fish- Breeding,"  W.  A. 
Fry  (New  York,  1866) ;  "  American  Fish  Cul- 
ture," Thaddeus  Norris  (Phila.,  1868) ;  '*  Trout 
Culture,"  Seth  Green  (Caledonia,  N.  Y.,  1870) ; 
"  Domosticated  Trout,"  Livingston  Stone  (Bos- 
ton, 1872 ;  a  third  edition,  1877) ;  •*  Practical 
Trout-Culture,"  J.  H.  Slack,  M.  D.  (1877) :  and 
tbe  Reports  of  the  U.  S.  Fish  Commission  for 
187l-'72;  1872-73;  1873-74-75;  1876-76; 
1877;  1878;  1879;  1880;  1881;  1882;  together 
with  the  Bulletin  of  the  U.  S.  Fish  Commission, 
a  yearly  volume  begun  in  1881  and  continued 
each  year;  the  reports  of  the  different  state 
commissions,  mostly  annual,  in  addition  to 
this,  all  news  relating  to  fish-culture  is  published 
weekly  in  a  department  of  a  weekly  journal 
("  Forest  and  Stream,"  New  York).  The  annual 
meetings  of  the  American  Fish  Culturists'  As- 
sociation, organized  1872,  and  of  the  Central 
Fish  Cultural  Society  at  Chicago,  organized 
1879,  attract  much  attention,  and  valuable  pa- 
pers are  read  at  each  which  are  published  in 
their  reports. — On  the  first  day  of  April  of  each 
year,  the  date  when  it  is  lawful  to  catch  or 
sell  brook  trout  in  the  state  of  New  York,  a 
grand  display  of  cultivated  trout  is  made  in 
Fulton  market,  by  Mr.  £.  G.  Blackford,  of  the 
first-named  association.  Trout  are  sent  from 
all  the  Eastern  states  and  from  California  and 
Nevaila,  as  well  as  specimens  obtained  from 
Europe.  This  display  attracts  not  only  fish  cnl- 
turists,  but  people  of  all  conditions,  to  see  tbe 
beautiful  exhibit — A  notable  event  in  the  fish 
cultural  history  of  tbe  world  was  the  Interna- 
tional Fishery  Exhibition  at  Berlin  in  1880. 
This  exhibition,  though  general  in  its  scope  and 
covering  everything  obtained  in  any  manner 
from  the  water,  was  intrinsi<«ally  an  exhibition 
for  fish  culture,  and  was  under  the  management 
of  the  Deutsche  Fischerei  Verein.  Congress  ap- 
pointed Prof.  S.  F.  Baird  as  commissioner  for 


222 


FISH  CULTURE 


the  United  States  to  tbe  exhibition.  It  bein^  im- 
possible for  him  to  attend  it,  he  deputized  Prof. 
G.  Brown  Goode  in  his  stead.  Tlie  latter  se- 
lected as  his  staff  Fred  Mather,  fish  culturist ; 
F.  W.  True,  custodian;  Gapt.  W.  J.  Collins, 
fisherman;  and  J.  Palmer,  taxidermist.  The 
grand  prize  was  awarded  to  Prof.  Baird  for 
the  best  collection  illustrating  the  fisheries, 
and  the  following  countries  took  prizes  in  the 
department  of  fish  culture : 


COUNTRIES. 

United  states.. 

Germany 

BuBsIa 

Norway 

Sweden 

AnstriA 

Switzerland.... 


Gold 

SlWer 

Bronu 

Medals. 

Medmlt. 

MedaU. 

0 

1 

s 

8 

1 

1 

•  • 

•  • 

•  • 

«  • 

•  • 

. . 

I 

■  • 

. . 

1 

Hoaonbla 
MeaiiooL 

2 

11 

1 


Since  this  exhibition,  which  opened  March 
20th,  and  closed  June  20, 1880,  there  have  been 
several  local  fishery  exhibitions  held  in  Ger- 
many, and  a  national  one  at  Norwich,  England, 
in  April,  1881,  an  international  one  in  Scotland, 
ut  Edinburgh,  in  1882,  and  a  grand  internation- 
al one  at  London,  1888.  This  latter  was  the 
largest  of  any  yet  held,  and  the  United  States 
again  carried  off  the  first  prize  for  the  most 
complete  exhibit ;  Prof.  Goode  again  had  charge 
of  the  American  collection,  which  was  largely 
made  from  the  National  Museum  at  Washing- 
ton.— The  fact  that  tlie  eggs  of  different  species 
of  fish  differ  so  much  in  their  character  as  to 
require  entirely  different  treatment  makes  the 
fish  culturist  approach  a  new  species  with 
caution.  The  treatment  that  will  hatch  a 
salmon  egg  will  kill  the  ova  of  it  cod  or  a 
shad.  All  the  salmon  family,  except  the  smelt, 
have  eggs  which  are  free  from  each  other  and 
are  laid  in  the  gravel.  The  eggs  of  the  smelt, 
like  those  of  the  herring,  alewife,  carp,  and 
many  cyprinoids,  are  free  from  each  other,  but 
have  a  mucous  coating,  which  adheres  to  what 
they  first  come  in  contact  with.  The  eggs  of 
tlie  slmd  require  to  be  buoyed  in  water,  while 
those  of  the  cod  float.  Others,  as  the  yellow 
perch,  lay  them  in  long  strings,  over  twigs, 
and  the  eggs  of  the  "  silver-sides,"  or  "friar" 
{Ghirostoma  notata),  and  of  the  "silver  gar" 
(Belone  UngirostrU)^  have  threads  that  attach 
to  objects  in  the  water ;  the  sticklebacks  have 
a  button-shaped  appendage  on  one  end  of  the 
egg  which  is  nttached  to  the  egg  membrane. 
There  are  still  other  modes  of  reproduction 
among  the  bony  fishes,  for  the  viviparous  perch 
(EmbiotoeidcB)  of  California  bring  forth  their 
young  alive,  and  the  little  cyprinodonts  (killy 
fishes)  and  the  eel-pout  {Zoarces  angmllaris) 
are  more  or  less  viviparous.  The  cyprinodonts 
copulate,  but  whether  they  lay  eggs  or  hatch 
them  before  extrusion  is  not  yet  definitely 
known.  See  Reports  of  the  U.  S.  Fish  Com- 
mission ;  Circulars  of  the  Deutsche  Fischerei 
Verein  ;  Die  FUehtucht^  by  Max  von  dem  Borne 
(Berlin,  1881);  "  American  Fish  Culture,"  by 
T.  Nonis  (Phila.,  1868);  "Artificial  Propa- 


gation of  Fish,"  by  T.  Garlick  (Cleveland, 
1881) ;  Inatruetiofu  sur  lapiMicuUure,  by  Prof. 
Coste  (Paris,  1856) ;  Multiplication  artificielU 
des  poimmSy  by  J.  P.  Koltz  (Brussels,  1858) ; 
"  Ancient  and  Modem  Fish  Tattle,"  by  C.  D. 
Badham  (London,  1854)  ;  "  Epochs  in  Fish  Cul- 
ture," by  Pro£  G.  Brown  Goode  (**  Forest  and 
Stream,"  1881);  "  Harvest  of  the  Sea,"  by  J. 
G.  Bertram  (London,  1865  and  1869;  New 
York,  1866);  **The  Sea  and  its  Living  Won- 
ders," by  Dr.  G.  Hartwig  (London,  1866); 
"Artificial  Fish  Breeding,"  by  W.  H.  Fry 
(New  York,  1866);  La  boutique  de  la  mat' 
chande  de  poiMons,  by  Martial  Deherrypon 
(Paris,  1867);  "Practical  Trout  Culture,"  by 
J.  H.  Slack  (New  York,  1877);  "Fish  Hatch- 
ing and  Fish  Catching,"  by  Roosevelt  and 
Green  (Rochester,  N.  Y.,  1879);  "An  Essay 
on  Fish  Culture,"  by  John  H.  Klippart  (Co- 
lumbus, O.,  1878) ;  "  Domesticated  Trout,"  by 
Livingston  Stone  (Boston,  1877) ;  also  the  an- 
nual reports  to  the  Canadian  government^  and 
the  proceedings  of  the  American  fish  cnltur- 
ists'  association,  and  of  tbe  Soeieti  d^Acelimor 
tation.  The  most  important  invention  yet 
made  in  the  apparatus  for  the  propagation  of 
fishes  is  the  fishway  invented  by  Col.  M.  Mo- 
Donald,  of  the  U.  S.  Fish  Commission,  which 
can  be  built  on  a  steeper  incline  than  any  otiier, 
and  is  so  arranged  that  at  the  8i<les  the  water 
actually  runs  up  the  inclined  chute.  These  fish- 
ways  are  now  in  operation  on  the  Oswego 
river,  New  York,  and  on  the  Savannah  river, 
Ga.,  and  one  will  soon  be  built  at  the  Great 
Falls  of  the  Potomac.  Very  little  has  been 
done  in  a  practical  way  with  the  eggs  of  sea 
fishes  beyond  the  experiments  referred  to  above. 
At  Gloucester,  Mass.,  a  few  cod-eggs  were 
hatched  by  Capt.  H.  C.  Chester,  of  the  U.  S. 
Fish  Commission,  in  1879,  in  a  semi-rotating 
cylinder  devised  by  him.  Since  that  time  the 
Commission  has' established  itself  permanently 
at  Wood^s  Holl,  Mass.,  for  summer  investiga- 
tions and  for  experiments  in  fish  culture  at  all 
seasons.  Capt.  Chester  found  great  difificulty 
in  keeping  the  eggs  floating  on  account  of  sedi- 
ment attaching  to  them,  and  his  last  device  is 
a  bottomless  frame,  three  feet  deep,  six  feet 
long  and  two  feet  wide,  set  in  a  water-tight 
tank.  The  comers  of  this  inside  frame  are 
rounded,  and  four  jets  about  a  foot  below  the 
surface  of  the  water  cause  a  continuous  cur- 
rent in  one  direction,  the  water  escaping  be- 
low, and  the  eggs  either  floating  or  are  sub- 
merged a  few  inches.  Large  ponds  have  been 
made  to  store  sea  fishes  in. — At  Cold  Spring 
Harbor,  on  the  north  shore  of  Long  Island, 
the  New  York  Fish  Commission  has  a  station. 
Here,  in  addition  to  the  fresh-water  work  with 
salmon,  trout.,  white-fish,  smelts,  etc.,  there  is 
a  large  pond,  with  a  flood-gate  to  hold  the  tide 
at  low  water,  from  which  an  engine  pumps  one 
thousand  gallons  per  hour  into  a  reservoir  on 
the  hill  above.  From  this  upper  reservoir 
pipes  lead  into  the  hatchery,  and  to  the  Mc- 
Donnld  jars  and  Chester  cod-hatchers.    Owing 


to  storms  in  Dec«ml>6r,  1884,  tile  main  spawn- 
ing seMOQ  of  the  cod,  t  Ister  rua  of  fish  spawn- 
ing in  April,  no  eggs  were  obtained,  bat  manj 
thoDSsnos  of  toincod,  MUrogadut  pruinata, 
were  hatched  and  liberated.  The  eggs  of  the 
tomcod  are  bearier  than  those  of  the  cod, 
and  can  be  hatched  in  an;  form  of  Jar  or 
oone  which  is  used  for  egss  that  do  not  float 
they  hatch  in  twentj-siidajH  at  temperatnrei 
varying  from  86°  to  48°  Fahr.  The  tumcod 
spawns  in  November  and  Derember  along  thi 
docks  and  among  the  stones.  It  aometimei 
grows  to  a  foot  in  length,  bat  averages  abont 
mx  incbeo,  and  is  highly  esteemed.  It  is  the 
intention  to  experiment  with  all  the  edible 
sidt-water  fish  whenever  tbeir  e^*  C*"  ^  O^ 
taiaed.  Two  attempts  have  been  made  to  in- 
trodnce  the  turbot  and  the  sole  from  Enrope 
into  American  waters,  and  a  few  were  plant- 
ed, bnt  the  number  was  too  small  to  expect 
any  snooeaa  from.  Now  that  larm  ponds  of 
salt  water  have  been  made  at  Wood's  IIoU 
and  Cold  Spring  Harbor,  they  can  be  bettei 
cared  for  and  tamed  oat  at  the  proper  time. 
No  attempts  have  ever  been  made  to  breed 
any  of  the  flat  flshes  artificially,  and  bat 
littie  is  known  of  their  spawning  babita,  or 
of  the  character  of  their  eggs.  Nothing 
marbs  the  rapid  progress  in  the  breeding  of 
fishes  more  tlian  the  exchange  of  species  be- 
tween Earope  snd  America,  and  the  very 
great  iacrease  of  the  number  of  publications 
that  relate  to  fish  aaltnre. 

FISHES,  a  carnivoroas  digitigrade  mammal, 
belonging  to  the  family  muitelida,  sabfamilj 
mortitim,  and  genns  mvttela  (Linn.);  this  ani- 
mal (called  also  Pennant's  marten,  black  cat, 
and  pekan)  end  the  pine  marten  are  the  only 
two  species  of  the  genns  foand    in   North 


Flabtr  (Uiuul*  Pdaunl]). 

America.  The  fisher  {M.  PennnntH^  Eral.)  is 
the  largest  known  species,  the  length  of  the 
body  heing  over  3  ft.,  and  the  tail  1\  ft.  The 
dental  formnla  is:  incisors  |if,  canines  \z\, 
premolars  jr},  molars,  )ii=Hi  88  in  all ;  the 

— .. ^  tooth  has  a  roaoded  lobe 

VOL.  vn,— IB 


appearance  is  fox-like;  the  head  is  long 
and  muzzle  rather  pointed ;  the  ears  short, 
ronnded,  and  wide;  the  eyes  large;  body 
stender ;  tail  long  and  boshy  at  the  base ;  feet 
short,  stoat,  and  armed  with  strong  sharp 
claws,  five  on  each  foot;  no  anal  pouch,  but  a 
small  gland  which  secretes  a  musky  flaid.  Tb:> 
fur  is  of  two  kinds,  the  onter  long  and  coarse, 
the  inner  fine  and  soft.  The  general  color  is 
blackish,  with  a  grayish  tinge  on  the  head  and 
shoulders;  some  specimens  are  brownish,  aod 
a  few  with  light  tints;  there  is  sometimes  a 
white  spot  on  the  throat.  Specimens  vary  so 
much  in  size  and  coloration  that  it  has  tieeo 
supposed  that  two  species  are  cnnfounded 
under  the  name.  A  specimen  measuring  28 
in,  in  length  of  body,  with  the  tail  14  in.,  would 
weigh  about  8^  lbs.  Occasionally  seen  in 
Pennsylvania  and  New  York,  and  even  as  far 
south  as  North  Carolina,  it  is  common  in  Can- 
ada and  in  the  Lake  Superior  mineral  region ; 
it  is  fonnd  as  far  north  as  lat.  63°,  aod  across 
the  continent  to  the  Pacific.  It  is  eminently 
an  arboreal  species,  ver;  agile,  thongh  less  so 
than  the  sqnirrel,  which  it  is  fond  of  pursuing ; 
it  is  geaerally  tiocttimal  in  its  habits ;  it  preys 
npon  hares,  raccoons,  sqnirrels,  grouse,  mice, 
and  any  small  bird  or  quadruped  which  it  can 
seize.  Though  called  fisher,  there  is  no  cer- 
tain evidence  that  it  oatclies  fish,  bnt  it  is  fond 
of  the  Ush  with  which  the  hanter  baits  bis 
traps  for  the  pine  marten;  in  this  respect  the 
Ssher  is  a  great  nnisance,  as  it  breaks  into  the 
traps  from  behind,  sometimes  robbing  every 
one  in  a  line  of  miles,  escaping  itself  and  pre- 
venting  the  capture  of  the  more  valuable  pine 
marten.  Fishers  have  lieen  often  kept  in  con- 
finement, where  they  become  docile  if  taken 
when  yonng;  but  the  temper  is  very  change- 
able, and  they  qaickly  become  angry  without 
apparent  cause.  From  their  agility,  strength, 
and  ferocity,  they  are  difficult  to  obtain  unless 
severely  wounded.  Like  the  other  inr-bearing 
animals,  the  fisher's  pelage  is  finest  in  winter 
and  in  high  latitades;  a  skin  is  worth  about 
%\  SO,  while  thatoftbe  smaller  pine  mart«n 
is  worth  $3  CD ;  tbeir  fur  is  not  much  nsed 
in  the  United  States,  but  is  generally  sent  to 
Europe,  where  it  is  used  for  linings  of  more 
costly  furs,  for  trimmings,  and  for  robes.  It 
brings  forth  its  young  once  a  year  toward  the 
end  of  spring,  from  two  to  four  at  a  birth,  de- 
positing them  in  hollows  is  trees  at  a  consid- 
erable height  above  the  ground.  This  animal 
is  called  by  Schreber  It.  CanadtntU. 

Fhuuili,  Allan,  an  Americnn  artist,  bom  in 
Noedham,  Mass.,  Ang.  9,  1T93,  died  In  Ded- 
ham,  Uass.,  Feb.  16,  1863.  He  b^an  tho 
study  of  painting  at  the  age  of  IS,  with  an 
ornamental  painter  of  merit  named  Pennyman. 
In  1614  be  commenced  his  professional  career 
as  a  portrut  painter,  and  soon  after  under- 
took barnyard  scenes,  winter  pieces,  portraits 
of  animals,  and  in  general  scenes  belonging  to 


224 


FISHER 


FISHERIES 


raral  life  in  which  cattle  are  prominently  in- 
trodaced.  He  subseqaently  retnmed  to  por- 
trait painting,  which  he  practised  for  manj 
years  in  Boston. 

FISHEK9  Qt&Tfst  Piirk,  an  American  scholar, 
born  in  Wrentham,  Mass.,  Aug.  10,  1827.  He 
graduated  at  Brown  university  in  1847,  and 
studied  theology  in  the  divinity  school  of  Yale 
college  and  in  that  at  Andover,  Mass.  In  1858 
ho  visited  Germany,  where  he  continued  his 
tJieological  studies.  He  was  appointed  profes- 
sor of  divinity  in  Tale  college  on  his  retuAi 
from  Europe,  and,  in  connection  with  his  pro- 
fessorship, he  was  ordained  as  pastor  of  the 
college  church,  Oct.  24,  1854.  After  a  period 
of  seven  years  he  resigned  his  office,  and  in 
1861  was  elected  professor  of  ecclesiastical  his- 
tory in  Yale  divinity  school.  The  degree  of 
D.  D.  was  conferred  upon  him  by  Brown  xmi- 
versity  in  1860.  He  has  been  a  frequent  con- 
tributor to  the  "New  Englander,''  of  which 
quarterly  he  has  since  1866  been  one  of  the 
editors.  In  1865  he  published  a  volume  enti- 
tled "Essays  on  the  Supernatural  Origin  of 
Christianity,  with  special  reference  to  the  The- 
ories of  Renan,  Strauss,  and  the  TQbingen 
School "  (enlarged  ed.,  1871).  He  delivered  in 
1871  a  course  of  lectures  at  the  Lowell  insti- 
tute, Boston,  on  tlie  reformation,  and  from 
these  resulteid  a  volume  on  the  "  History  of 
the  Reformation"  (1878). 

FI8HEE9  John,  an  English  prelate,  a  zealous 
opponent  of  the  reformation,  born  in  Beverley, 
Yorkshire,  in  1459,  beheaded  June  22,  1685. 
Having  become  the  confessor  of  Margaret, 
countess  of  Richmond,  he  induced  that  lady  to 
found  St.  John^s  and  Christ^s  colleges  at  Cam- 
bridge. In  1501  he  became  chancellor  of  that 
university,  and  in  1504  bishop  of  Rochester. 
He  has  been  supposed  to  have  written  the 
treatise  Aasertio  septem  Saeramentarum,  for 
which  Henry  VIII.  obtained  the  title  of  "De- 
fender of  the  Faith."  Though  long  favored 
by  the  king,  Fisher  fell  under  his  displeasure 
by  his  opposition  to  the  divorce  of  Catharine 
of  Aragon.  On  the  question  of  the  king^s 
spiritual  supremacy  being  broached  in  1531, 
the  bishop  firmly  refused  to  acknowledge  it. 
He  further  fell  into  disfavor,  and  was  arraigned 
for  misprision  of  treason,  for  concealing  cer- 
tain prophecies  of  Elizabeth  Barton,  called 
the  holy  maid  of  Kent,  respecting  the  king^s 
death.  For  this  offence  he  was  condenmed  to 
imprisonment  during  the  king^s  pleasure,  but 
was  released  on  paying  a  fine  of  £800.  Re- 
fusing to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance  in  1584, 
he  was  committed  to  the  tower,  attainted,  and 
his  bishopric  declared  vacant.  Pope  Paul  III. 
took  the  opportunity  to  create  him  a  cardinal ; 
but  Henry  having  sent  Cromwell  to  interrogate 
him  with  regard  to  the  appointment,  and  be- 
ing informed  that  he  would  accept  the  cardi- 
niiPs  hat,  exclaimed :  "  Mother  of  God  I  he 
shall  wear  it  on  his  shoulders  then,  for  I  will 
leave  him  never  a  head  to  set  it  on ! "  The 
aged  bishop  was  at  once  condemned  on  the 


charffe  of  denying  the  king^s  supremacy,  and 
was  beheaded.  He  wrote  a  commentary  on 
the  seven  penitential  psalms,  sermons,  and 
controversial  and  devotional  treatises.  His  life 
has  been  written  by  the  Rev.  J.  Lewis  (2  vols. 
8vo,  London,  1854-'5). 

FISHERIES,  the  business  of  catching  fish,  and 
the  localities  frequented  by  the  kinds  of  fish 
that  are  objects  of  capture,  such  as  the  cod^ 
herring,  mackerel,  and  salmon.  The  whale 
fishery  and  the  seal  fishery  are  terms  employed 
to  designate  the  pursuit  of  the  whale  and  the 
seal,  though  those  animals  are  not  fishes.  (See 
Whale  Fishbbt,  and  Seal  Fishert.) — Among 
the  ancients,  fisheries  were  carried  on  extensive- 
ly from  a  very  early  period,  and  formed  a  vain- 
able  branch  of  industry.  Byzantium  (the  mod- 
em Constantinople),  and  Sinope  on  the  Black 
sea,  were  famous  for  their  lucrative  fisheries. 
From  Suetonius  we  learn  that  the  murcBna  or 
lamprey,  the  favorite  fish  of  the  Romans,  was 
caught  in  the  greatest  abundance  in  the  sea 
around  Sicily,  and  in  the  Carpathian  sea  be- 
tween Crete  and  Rhodes.  In  the  3d  century 
of  our  era  the  fishermen  of  the  Mediterranean 
pursued  their  prey  not  only  on  the  coasts,  bnt 
in  the  open  sea,  making  long  voyages,  and  even 
passing  the  pillars  of  Hercules.  The  fisheries 
of  Egypt  were  especially  celebrated  for  their 
productiveness,  but  they  were  all  inland,  in 
lakes,  canals,  and  the  river  Nile.  The  reve- 
nues arising  from  the  fisheries  of  Lake  Mosris 
were  given  to  the  queen  of  Egypt  for  pin 
money,  and  are  said  to  have  amounted  to  near- 
ly $500,000  annually. — The  earliest  mention  of 
the  herring  fishery  that  has  reached  us  dates 
from  A.  D.  709.  The  cod  fishery  began  to  be 
regulated  by  legislation  in  western  Europe  to- 
ward the  end  of  the  9th  century.  From  an 
ordmance  of  Charles  VI.  in  1415  it  appears  that 
the  mackerel  fishery  of  France  at  that  period 
was  very  extensive,  and  that  the  fish  were  sold 
at  an  extremely  low  rate  in  the  markets  of 
Paris.  The  development  of  the  fisheries  during 
the  middle  ages  was  greatly  promoted  by  the 
demand  for  fish  created  by  the  fasts  of  the 
church.  Bnt  the  discovery,  at  the  end  of  the 
15th  century,  of  Newfoundland  and  its  fisher- 
ies, which  to  this  day  surpass  all  others  in 
magnitude  and  value,  gave  the  greatest  impulse 
to  the  business.  The  cod,  mackerel,  and  her- 
ring are  the  chief  objects  of  pursuit  and  their 
range  is  not  limited  to  the  neighborhood  of 
Newfoundland,  but  they  are  caught  in  vast 
numbers  on  the  coast  of  New  England,  in  fdl 
the  bays  and  inlets  of  the  British  maritime 
possessions,  and  on  the  coast  of  Labrador.  The 
French  were  the  first  Europeans  who  engaged 
in  the  American  cod  fishery.  They  visited  New- 
foundland as  'early  as  1504.  In  1508  Thomas 
Aubert  made  a  fishing  voyage  from  Dieppe  to 
the  gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  and  after  that  the 
Newfoundland  fisheries  increased  so  rapidly 
that  in  1517  they  gave  employment  to  50  ves- 
sels from  different  nations,  chiefly,  however, 
from  France.    In  1577  there  were  160  French 


FISHERIES 


225 


▼essds  engaged  in  the  bnsinesa,  which  they 
pnrsued  with  great  saccesa.  A  few  years  later 
the  government  of  Henry  IV.  took  active  mea- 
sures to  protect  and  encourage  the  cod  fishery. 
Early  in  the  17th  centm*y,  however,  the  busi- 
oesa  began  to  decline,  so  that  in  1645  the  nam- 
ber  of  French  vessels  employed  in  it  was  50 
less  than  in  1677.  At  this  period  began  those 
contests  between  the  French  and  English  about 
the  sovereignty  of  the  fishing  grounds,  which 
continued  more  than  a  century.  After  the 
treaty  of  Ryswick  in  1697,  the  French  claimed 
the  exclusive  ownership  of  the  American  ^sh- 
eries  east  of  the  Kennebec  river  in  Maine, 
except  on  the  W.  coast  of  Newfoundland, 
where,  by  a  specific  stipulation  of  the  treaty, 
the  English  were  permitted  to  fish.  By  the 
treaty  of  peace  of  1718,  however,  the  French 
fishermen  were  prohibited  from  coming  with- 
in 30  leagues  of  the  coast  of  Nova  Scotia, 
bat  they  were  granted  the  privilege  of  fishing 
on  the  £.  coast  of  Newfoundland,  from  Cape 
Bonavista  to  the  northern  point,  thence  along 
the  western  shores  as  far  as  Point  Riche.  Not- 
withstanding the  restrictions  of  this  treaty,  the 
French  continued  to  pursue  the  fisheries  with 
energy  and  success.  They  settled  on  the  island 
of  Gape  Breton,  where  they  built  the  town 
and  fortress  of  Louisburg,  at  an  expense  of 
30,000,000  livres,  which  became  the  great  ren- 
dezvous of  their  fishermen.  In  1721  their  fleet 
of  fishing  vessels  is  s»d  to  have  increased  to 
iOO  sail,  a  greater  number  than  at  any  former 
period.  In  1744  they  had  564  vessels,  manned 
by  27,500  men,  and  producing  1,441,500  quin- 
tals of  fish,  valued  at  $4,500,000.  After  the 
fall  of  Louisburg  in  1745  the  fleet  declined  to 
about  100  sail.  By  the  treaty  of  Paris  in  1763 
it  was  agreed  that  the  French  should  have  the 
liberty  of  fishing  and  drying  fish  on  a  part  of 
the  coasts  of  Newfoundland,  and  of  fishing  in 
the  gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  at  the  distance  of 
three  leagues  and  upward  from  the  shore,  and 
on  the  coasts  of  Cape  Breton  at  the  distance 
of  15  leagues  from  the  shore.  The  little  islands 
of  St.  Pierre  and  Miquelon  near  the  S.  coast 
of  Newfoundland  were  ceded  to  France  to  serve 
as  shelter  for  the  French  fishermen.  A  few 
years  later,  in  1768,  the  number  of  French  ves- 
sels at  Newfoundland  bad  increased  to  259. 
By  the  treaty  of  peace  in  1788  the  right  of  the 
French  to  Miquelon  and  St.  Pierre  was  con- 
firmed, but  their  right  to  fish  on  the  £.  coast 
of  Newfoundland  between  Gape  Bonavista  and 
Gape  St.  John  was  abandoned,  and  extended 
on  the  W.  coast  from  Point  Riche  to  Gape 
Kay.  The  French  revolution  was  disastrous  to 
the  fisheries,  and  in  1792  fewer  than  8,400 
Frenchmen  were  engaged  in  the  North  Ameri- 
can seas.  During  the  reign  of  Napoleon  they  con- 
tioned  to  languish,  and  the  fishermen  met  with 
severe  losses  from  the  British  cruisers.  After 
the  peace  of  1816  the  business  rapidly  increased, 
and  from  1885  to  1839  the  cod  fishery  employed 
AQ  average  of  416  vessels,  with  an  aggregate 
tonnage  of  63,456;  from  1842  to  1847,  389 


vessels  of  49,165  tons,  of  which  21,195  tons 
were  employed  on  the  coast  of  Newfoundland, 
657  at  St.  Pierre  and  Miquelon,  5,816  on  the 
Grand  bank,  13,703  on  the  same  without  dry- 
ing, and  7,794  at  Iceland.  From  1841  to  1850 
the  number  of  men  averaged  11,500;  in  1852 
the  number  of  vessels  was  450,  and  of  men 
14,000 ;  in  1858,  492  vessels  of  77,150  tons  and 
15,280  men ;  value  of  product,  $3,500,000.  In 
1869,  676  vessels,  manned  by  14,149  men,  pro- 
duced about  670,000  quintals  of  cod  and  its 
products.  In  1870,  188  vessels  and  7,000  men 
were  employed  in  the  Newfoundland  fishery, 
and  299  vessels,  with  5,000  men,  in  the  Iceland 
fishery.  The  protection  and  encouragement 
of  this  great  branch  of  national  industry  has 
from  its  commencement  been  sedulously  at- 
tended to  by  the  French  government.  Boun- 
ties to  a  large  amount  are  granted  to  the  fish- 
ermen. At  present  (1874),  under  a  law  passed 
in  1851,  the  bounties  to  the  cod  fisheries  are  as 
follows :  for  each  man  of  the  crew  of  a  vessel 
employed  on  the  coast  of  Newfoundland  or 
Iceland,  50  francs;  for  each  metric  quintal 
(220i  lbs.)  of  dry  codfish,  20,  16,  or  12  francs, 
according  to  the  country  to  which  it  is  shipped, 
the  highest  bounty  being  given  on  codfish 
shipped  to  the  French  colonies  in  America,  In- 
dia, and  the  W.  coast  of  Africa.  The  bounty 
paid  from  1841  to  1850  averaged  $780,000  a 
year ;  in  1858  it  amounted  to  $735,000,  and  in 
1869  to  $430,000.  The  French  herring  fishery 
is  of  great  importance,  and  is  carried  on  chiefiy 
from  Boulogne,  F6camp,  Dieppe,  Saint- Valery- 
en-Gaux,  Gravelines,  Gourseulles,  and  Berck. 
The  following  table  exhibits  the  number  of 
vessels  engaged,  with  the  tonnage  and  men, 
and  the  quantity  of  herring  taken,  during  the 
most  recent  period  of  six  years  for  which  sta- 
tistics are  attainable : 


Vaaab. 

Too*. 

Mm. 

PBODUOT,  CWT. 

TEARS. 

Ball. 

Frub. 

TotaL 

1864 

1866 

1866 

1867 

1868 

1869 

786 
746 
790 
796 
748 
788 

21,816  10,027'  206.022 
21,882  10.2n    247,&04 
28,0S4  10,609    259,776 
22Jfl7  10,692    248.112 
28.207  1 0,420 :  814,560 
26.726,11,160   270,180 

268,928 
848,266 
199,668 
194,216 
214.122 
182,140 

469,950 
596,860 
489,444 
442.828 
628,668 
402,290 

Another  valuable  French  fishery  is  that  of 
sardines,  which  is  carried  on  both  in  the  Medi- 
terranean and  on  the  coasts  of  Brittany.  The 
total  value  of  the  French  fisheries  in  1866 
was  $10,965,707,  viz.:  cod,  $2,725,829;  sar- 
dines, $1,869,787;  herring,  $1,357,437;  mack- 
erel, $490,575 ;  oysters,  $307,535 ;  shrimps  and 
other  Crustacea,  $294,473 ;  mussels,  $268,709 ; 
sea  shells,  $191,002 ;  the  rest  misc^laneous. 
In  1871  the  whole  number  of  vessels  and  boats 
engaged  in  the  fisheries  of  all  kinds  was  18,407, 
having  an  aggregate  tonnage  of  142,774,  and 
employing  110,486  hands,  including  60,635 
men  and  39,361  women  and  children  en- 
gaged in  the  coast  fisheries.  The  value  of  the 
catch  wa0  $13,978,451 ;  in  1870,  $11,975,460. 


226 


FISHERIES 


The  imports  of  products  of  the  sea  in  1868 
were  valued  at  $8,034,900,  of  which  $7,606,000 
were  for  consumption;  in  1869,  $8,817,000, 
of  which  $8,479,000  were  for  consumption. 
Of  these  amounts  about  half  are  cod  and  cod 
oil,  the  product  of  the  national  fisheries.  The 
otiier  principal  items  in  1869  were  fresh- water 
fish  to  the  value  of  $525,000;  herring,  $252,- 
000 ;  stockfish,  $84,000 ;  other  fish,  fresh,  dry, 
salted,  or  smoked,  $478,000;  fish,  pickled  or 
preserved  in  oil,  $180,000;  lobsters,  $169,000; 
oysters,  $497,000;  cod  and  mackerel  roes, 
$948,000 ;  whale  and  other  fish  oil,  $510,000 ; 
whalebone,  $289,000;  crude  coral,  $428,000: 
fine  pearls,  $246,000.  The  exports  m  1868 
amounted  to  $4,675,000,  of  which  $4,512,000 
were  the  product  of  the  domestic  fisheries ;  in 
1869,  to  $4,166,000,  of  which  $3,892,600  were 
domestic.  In  the  latter  year  the  chief  items 
were  54,415  quintals  of  salted  cod,  valued  at 
$321,000;  20,922,946  lbs.  of  sardines,  worth 
$2,853,000;  and  1,108,507  lbs.  of  other  fish, 
pickled  or  preserved  in  oil,  valued  at  $305,000. 
— Spain  participated  in  the  fishery  excitement 
following  the  discovery  of  America,  and  ves- 
sels from  that  nation  visited  Newfoundland  as 
early  as  1517.  Sixty  years  later  100  vessels 
were  employed  in  the  fishery,  but  the  number 
rapidly  declined,  and  about  the  middle  of  the 
17th  century  the  connection  of  Spain  with  the 
American  fisheries  appears  to  have  ceased. 
Portuguese  vessels  also  early  visited  the  fishing 
grounds,  the  number  employed  in  1577  being 
estimated  at  50,  but  the  distant  fishery  was 
soon  abandoned.  Spain  was  noted  from  the 
8th  to  the  16th  century  for  the  boldness  of  her 
fishermen  engaged  in  the  deep-sea  fisheries, 
which  were  pursued  chiefiy  from  the  Basque 
provinces.  The  shore  fisheries  still  continue, 
and  flourish  mainly  on  the  coasts  of  the  bay  of 
Biscay.  In  1866  the  number  of  vessels  and 
boats  registered  for  the  fishery  was  12,127, 
with  an  aggregate  tonnage  of  42,026 ;  number 
engaged,  10,348;  men,  39,440;  fish  caught, 
148,795,295  lbs.;  value,  $3,330,094:  in  1867, 
registered,  12,596  vessels  of  43,072  tons;  en- 
gaged, 10,216 ;  men,  37,558 ;  fish  caught,  106,- 
609,767  lbs.;  value,  $2,573,341.— The  English 
visited  Iceland  for  cod  before  1415,  and  the 
fisheries  at  that  island  were  prosecuted  as  late 
as  1580  or  1590.  Sebastian  Cabot,  returning 
from  his  voyage  of  discovery  in  1498,  first 
called  their  attention  to  the  American  fisheries. 
The  first  voyages  in  quest  of  fisb,  however, 
of  which  we  have  any  account,  were  in  1517. 
In  1522, 40  or  50  houses  for  the  accommodation 
of  fishermen  were  built  in  Newfoundland, 
though  no  permanent  settlement  was  efifected 
till  about^  a  century  later.  In  1548  and  1568 
acts  were  passed  to  encourage  the  fisheries, 
and  at  the  beginning  of  the  17th  century  it 
is  estimated  that  200  English  vessels  annually 
visited  Newfoundland,  employing  in  catching 
and  curing  the  fish  not  fewer  than  10,000  men 
and  boys.  In  1602  Bartholomew  Gosnold  ex- 
plored tlie  coast  of  New  England,  and^  catch- 


ing cod  near  the  southern  cape  of  Massachu- 
setts, gave  it  the  name  it  bears.  Capt  John 
Smith  followed  in  1614,  and  caught  a  consid- 
erable quantity  of  fish  on  the  coast  of  Maine. 
From  this  time  the  fisheries  on  the  coast  of 
New  England  began  to  be  prosecuted  with 
vigor.  In  1616  full  fares  were  taken  by  eight 
English  ships.  In  1620  the  island  of  Monhegan 
off  the  coast  of  Maine  had  become  a  noted 
fishing  station.  In  1622  profitable  fishing 
voyages  to  New  England  were  made  by  35 
English  ships,  and  the  number  employed  at 
Newfoundland  was  400,  which,  however,  in  a 
few  years  decreased  to  150  sail,  partly  from  the 
diminished  consumption  of  fish  iif  Europe  ow- 
ing to  the  growth  of  Protestantism,  and  partly 
from  the  increase  of  the  coast  fishery  by  the 
settlers  on  Newfoundland.  Notwithstanding 
that  measures  were  taken  by  the  government 
to  promote  the  fisheries,  the  number  of  fishing 
vessels  continued  to  decline,  till  in  1670  only 
80  were  sent  out.  Several  measures  were  ac- 
cordingly adopted  by  the  English  government 
to  prevent  permanent  settlement  in  Newfound- 
land, and  consequent  competition  of  boat  fish- 
ermen from  shore.  These  measures  increased 
the  number  of  fishing  vessels,  which  in  1674 
was  270,  employing  10,800  men.  Toward  the 
end  of  the  century  settlers  were  again  al- 
lowed to  dwell  in  Newfoundland,  but  restric- 
tions were  imposed  on  the  right  to  hold  land. 
In  1701  the  number  of  vessels  employed  was 
121,  with  an  aggregate  tonnage  of  7,991 ;  num- 
ber of  boats,  993;  fishermen,  2,727;  curers 
(including  women  and  children),  3,581 ;  pro- 
duct, 216,320  quintals  of  fish  and  8,798  hogs- 
heads of  oil.  The  boat  fishery  of  the  colonists 
again  supplanted  the  fishery  in  vessels  of  large 
size,  and  to  encourage  the  home  merchants 
parliament  in  1775  allowed  a  bounty  of  £40  to 
each  of  the  first  25  ships,  £20  to  the  next  100, 
and  £10  to  the  second  100,  that  should  make 
fares  of  fish  before  the  middle  of  July  and  re- 
turn to  the  fishing  grounds  for  a  second  lading. 
In  1774  the  whole  number  of  British  subjects 
employed  in  the  Newfoundland  fisheries  was 
23,652,  and  the  product  amounted  to  789,877 
quintals.  The  English  fisheries  were  exceed- 
ingly prosperous  between  1795  and  1815.  In 
1814,  1,200,000  quintals  of  fish  were  produced, 
worth  $12,000,000.  After  this  period  the  fish- 
ery soon  fell  entirely  into  the  hands  of  the  colo- 
nists, and  the  distant  fishery  from  England 
ceased. — The  home  fisheries  of  the  British  isl- 
ands are  of  great  extent  and  importance,  the 
herring  fishery  of  Scotland  holding  the  first 
place.  Cod,  hake,  and  ling  are  also  extensively 
taken  in  Scotland.  Along  the  English  coast 
are  found  cod,  herring,  mackerel,  turbot,  lob- 
sters, oysters,  &c.,  which  are  taken  in  large 
quantities  fresh  to  the  London  market.  The 
pilchard  fishery  is  carried  on  along  the  shores 
of  Cornwall  and  Devonshire,  employing  during 
the  season  from  2,500  to  3,000  fishermen,  and 
producing  an  average  of  25,000  hogsheads  of 
pilchards  annually.    In  Ireland  the  fiedieries 


FISHEBIES 


227 


Lave  fallen  off  since  the  famine,  the  people  be- 
ing too  poor  to  procure  the  necessary  boats 
and  outfits.  In  1846  the  namber  of  vessels 
and  boats  engaged  in  fishing  was  19,888,  with 
118,078  men;  in  1856,  11,096,  with  48,774 
men;  in  1866,  9,444,  with  40,668  men;  in 
1868,  9,184,  with  89,339  men;  and  in  1872, 
7,914,  with  31,811  men.  In  the  last  named 
year  1,118  of  the  vessels,  with  6,438  men,  were 
solely  engaged  in  fishing;  685,  with  3,126  men, 
principally;  and  6,116,  with  22,747  men,  only 
partially.  The  number  of  those  only  partially 
engaged  is  probably  too  large  by  some  8,000, 
and  they  are  for  the  most  part  employed  only 
a  few  days  in  the  year.  The  herring  and 
mackerel  fishery  is  perhaps  the  most  important 
on  the  Irish  coast,  and  is  largely  participated 
in  by  Cornish,  Manx,  and  Scotch  boats.  The 
annual  catch  is  valued  at  about  £450,000. 
From  Dublin  to  Waterford  trawling  is  exten- 
sively carried  on  to  supply  the  Dublin  market. 
Herrings  are  caught  here,  and  off  Arklow  and 
Wexford  are  the  principal  oyster  banks.  From 
Cork  to  Cape  Clear  the  mackerel  is  chiefly  ta- 
ken, Einsale  being  the  headquarters  of  that 
fishery,  while  from  Ardglass  to  Dublin  is  the 
principal  herring  fishery.  The  value  of  the 
oysters  annually  taken  is  about  £50,000.  The 
salmon  fisheries  of  the  rivers  of  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland  are  very  productive;  they  are 
regulated  by  law,  and  are  in  general  private 
property.  The  estimated  value  of  the  catch 
of  England  and  Wales  has  increased  within  a 
few  years  from  £20,000  or  £30,000  to  £100,000 ; 
the  Irish  yield  is  about  £400,000  a  year,  and 
that  of  the  Scotch  salmon  fisheries  about 
£300,000.  In  1869  there  were  5,113  persons 
employed  in  the  salmon  fishery  of  England  and 
Wales;  in  1870, 4,593 ;  in  1871,  5,437 ;  in  1872, 
5,217,  of  whom  2,907  were  net  fishermen  and 
2,310  anglers.  The  number  of  vessels  fitted 
out  for  the  fishery  of  cod,  &c.,  in  Scotland  in 
1872  was  156,  of  6,400  tons  and  1,624  men ;  for 
the  herring  fishery,  95  vessels,  of  2,976  tons 
and  434:  men.  The  number  of  decked  and 
undecked  boats  engaged  in  the  shore-curing 
fisheries  was  15,232,  with  an  aggregate  tonnage 
of  106^,464,  employing  46,178  fishermen  and 
boys,  868  curers,  and  41,980  (estimated)  other 
persons.  The  vidue  of  boats  was  £381,338; 
of  nets,  £521,327;  of  lines,  £94,628;  total 
value  of  equipments,  £997,298.  In  1869  there 
were  registered  at  the  several  ports  of  the 
United  Kingdom  42,960  fishing  boats,  with  an 
aggregate  tonnage  of  242,179,  giving  employ- 
ment to  152,779  men  and  13,969  boys.  Of 
these  numbers  16,195  boats,  with  a  tonnage  of 
127,013,  employing  64,757  men  and  boys,  be- 
longed to  England  and  Wales ;  17,969  boats, 
87,001  tons,  and  78,179  men  and  boys,  to  Scot- 
land; and  8,796  boats,  28,165  tons,  and  88,812 
men  and  boys,  to  Ireland.  In  1872  the  number 
registered  was  40,546,  with  an  aggregate  ton- 
nage of  261,761,  viz. :  England  and  Wales, 
15,881  of  140,586  tons;  Scotland,  16,765  of 
92,595   tons;  Ireland,   8,450  of  28,651  tons. 


Of  the  whole  number,  5,284  of  145,887  tons 
were  of  the  first  class  (16  tons  and  over), 
25,452  of  102,892  tons  of  the  second  class  (un- 
der 15  tons,  not  navigated  by  oars  alone),  and 
9,810  of  14,002  tons  of  the  third  class  (navi- 
gated by  oars  only).  Besides  the  above,  there 
were  875  boats  of  5,047  tons  registered  at  the 
Isle  of  Man,  and  802  of  2,988  tons  at  the 
Channel  islands.  The  following  table  exhibits 
the  quantity  of  white  herrings  (salted  in  bar- 
rels) and  of  cod,  ling,  and  hake  cured  in  Great 
Britain  at  various  periods,  the  returns  after 
1851  being  confined  to  Scotland  and  the  Isle 
of  Man,  and  after  1868  to  Scotland: 


YEARS. 


1811. 
18'21. 
1881, 
1S41. 
1851, 
1S6I. 

ism. 

1SC8, 
1670. 
1671, 
1872. 


nil. 


God,  Uaf ,  and  Haka. 


Dtkd»  cwt. 


91,827 
442,196 
489,870 
657.268 
544,009 
66a628 
668,147 
661,484 
888,lti0i 
826,476 
7i8,8&9i 


Fkkled, 
barreli. 


87,674 

91,486 

90,669 

82,846 

11^819 

118,881 

146,289 

119.080 

146,976^ 


2,960 
9,480 
6,082 
4,146 
9,967 
9,669 
9.946 
9,288 
ll,940i 


The  chief  seats  of  the  herring  fishery  are  Stor- 
noway  in  the  Hebrides,  Peterhead  and  Fra- 
serburgh in  Aberdeenshire,  and  Wick.  More 
than  half  of  the  cod,  &c.,  are  caught  at  the 
Shetland  islands,  and  considerable  quantities 
are  taken  at  the  Crkney  islands  and  from 
Stomoway.  The  trade  of  the  United  Kingdom 
in  fish  and  the  products  thereof,  from  1868  to 
1872,  is  shown  in  the  following  tables : 

IMPORTS. 


YEARS. 


1808 
18(59 
1870 
l&Il 
1872 


Fltb,  cwt. 

VaJm. 

Fkhoil, 
gallona. 

481,268 
629,449 
768,676 
606,880 
671,192 

8,626,782 
8,846,628 
4,96^912 
6.219,106 

4,717,188 

Vain*. 


£658.288 
8M,788 
964,710 

1,087,784 
86^fi90 


The  fish  oil  is  brought  chiefly  from  British 
America  and  the  United  States;  fresh  fish 
from  Holland  and  Norway ;  and  cured  or  salt- 
ed fish  from  British  America,  Norway,  France, 
the  United  States,  and  Denmark. 


EXPORTS. 


TVABS. 


DOMSmo. 


FOKXION  AKD  CO- 
LONIAL PBODUOB. 


HarrinRiy 
banvli. 


1868 1  426,656 


1869. 
1870, 

isn. 

1879. 


422,718 
686.198 
659.964 
681,670 


Valna. 


£696,908 
602,806 
728.006 

000)440' 

891,684 


OllMrflak, 
raloa. 


£228,860 
266,959 
192,629 
279,962 
892,167 


F1A,aU 
kiiMU,ewi. 


28.264 
26,868 
48,804 
86,849 
44,998 


Valac. 


£68,609 

66.844 

86/K)2 

111,788 

178,410 


Included  in  the  fourth  column  for  1871  are 
7,752  cwt.  of  salmon,  valued  at  £48,926; 
28,871  of  cod,  &c.,  £88,490;  28,667  bushels 


228 


FISHERIES 


of  oysters,  £86,741 ;  and  80,548  hogsheads  of 
pilchards,  £86,819.  Of  the  herrings,  461,015 
barrels  were  sent  to  Germany,  and  72,162  to 
Italy.  The  other  fish  is  exported  chiefly  to 
France,  Italy  (which  receives  nearly  all  the 
pilchards),  Belgium,  Spain,  and  the  Canaries. 
In  1871,  447,800  gallons  of  oil,  valued  at  £57,- 
614,  the  produce  of  foreign  and  colonial  fish- 
eries, were  exported. — In  Italy,  in  1869,  29,- 
886  men  (including  about  4,000  engaged  in 
the  coral  fishery)  were  returned  as  employ- 
ed in  fishing ;  in  1870,  30,848 ;  bat  these  nam- 
bers  are  bdieved  to  be  below  the  truth.  In 
the  former  year  8,846  men  were  engaged  in 
the  sea  fishery,  and  the  rest  in  the  coast  fishery. 
In  fishing  proper  there  were  11,219  boats  of 
37,788  tons,  of  which  9,817  of  26,414  tons 
were  employed  along  the  coast,  670  of  5',656 
tons  at  sea,  and  732  of  6,768  tons  in  foreign 
waters ;  in  1870  the  number  of  boats  was  1 1, 1 29, 
with  an  aggregate  tonnage  of  38,554.  The 
foreign  waters  visited  are  chiefiy  those  of  the 
Austrian  coast  (Istria  and  Dalmatia) ;  a  smaller 
number  of  vessels  frequent  the  coasts  of  Corsica 
and  Provence  in  France,  and  the  rest  are  em- 
ployed in  the  Grecian  seas  and  along  the  shores 
of  Algeria,  Tunis,  and  Egypt.  The  richest 
Italian  fisheries  are  in  the  Adriatic,  especially 
near  Chioggia  and  Venice,  while  the  sea  near 
Liguria  is  the  least  productive.  The  principal 
kinds  taken  are  sardines  and  anchovies,  par- 
ticularly in  the  Mediterranean,  sword  fish  in 
the  seas  of  Sicily,  especially  near  Catania,  and 
cuttle  fish  near  the  Adriatic  coast  of  S.  Italy. 
The  tunny  fishery,  however,  is  the  most  impor- 
tant. It  is  carried  on,  chiefly  in  Sardinia  and 
Sicily,  by  means  of  large  fixed  nets  or  weirs, 
called  tanna/re^  of  which  there  are  48.  In  Sicily 
the  average  catch  is  15,000  tunnies,  worth  about 
$400,000 ;  the  average  product  of  Sardinia  is 
25,000  tunnies,  of  a  somewhat  smaller  size  than 
those  of  Sicily,  besides  a  considerable  quantity 
sold  in  boxes,  of  which  the  exact  value  is  not 
known.  About  2,500  persons  are  employed  in 
catching  and  preparing  them  for  market.  The 
artificieJ  preserves  of  the  Venetian  territory, 
known  as  valli  da  pesca^  those  at  Comacchio 
and  elsewhere  in  the  province  of  Ferrara,  and 
various  salt  lakes  or  marshes  of  Sardinia  and 
the  Neapolitan  territory,  where  the  fish  are 
carefully  fattened,  yield  an  important  product. 
There  are  173  of  these  preserves  on  the  V  enetian 
coast,  of  which  68  are  in  the  lagoon  of  Venice. 
They  give  employment  to  about  1,000  men, 
nearly  all  of  whom  belong  to  Chioggia,  and 
produce  annually  nearly  6,000,000  lbs.  of  choice 
fish  (eels,  mullets,  gold  fish,  &c.),  worth  about 
(825,000.  Those  of  Comacchio  produce  an 
average  of  2,650,000  lbs.  annually,  of  which 
about  1,800,000,  chiefly  eels,  are  carefully  pre- 
pared in  that  city,  and  exported  to  various 
parts  of  Italy,  and  to  some  extent  to  Germany 
and  Austria,  producing  a  revenue  of  about 
$150,000.  The  other  important  preserves  <^ 
Ferrara  are  those  of  Mesola,  which  produce 
about  650,000  lbs.  yearly,  and  those  at  the 


mouths  of  the  Po.  The  principal  Neapolitan 
lakes  are  Varano,  which  gives  employment 
to  200  fishermen,  and  produces  5,600,000  lb& 
of  fish  a  year,  and  Lesina,  Salso,  and  Salpi, 
which  together  employ  62  fishermen  and  pro- 
duce 681,800  lbs. ;  others,  whose  exact  pro- 
duct is  unknown,  employ  600  fishermen.  The 
productive  lakes  and  marshes  of  Sardinia  are 
mostly  in  the  S.  and  W.  parts.  The  fish  is  con- 
sumed in  the  country,  except  a  preparation  of 
the  roes  of  the  mullet,  which  is  sold  to  a  con- 
siderable extent  on  the  continent.  Shell  fish 
are  cultivated  in  the  gulf  of  Taranto,  and 
oysters,  mussels,  &c.,  are  shipped  by  rail  to 
Naples  and  more  distant  points.  At  least 
10,000  persons,  including  fishermen  and  work- 
men with  their  families,  derive  support  from 
this  source.  The  returns  of  the  fisheries  in  the 
rivers  and  internal  lakes  of  Italy  are  incom- 
plete, but  the  principal  ones  employ  1,344 
boats  and  3,202  men,  yielding  about  2,500,000 
lbs.  of  fish  annually.  The  imports  of  fish  for 
consumption  in  1869  amounted  to  564,000 
cwt.,  valued  at  $3,500,000,  of  which  1,625 
cwt.  was  the  product  of  the  national  fishery, 
being  a  portion  of  the  catch  in  foreign  waters, 
the  rest  being  sold  directly  to  foreigners.  Or 
the  foreign  imports  42,250  cwt.  consisted  of 
sardines,  anchovies,  &c.  The  exports  were 
36,900  cwt,  valued  at  $279,500,  of  which  15,- 
580  cwt.  were  the  product  of  the  national 
fishery  and  21,820  cwt.  of  foreign  fisheries. 
The  foreign  exports  are  chiefly  from  Austria, 
imported  under  a  light  duty  and  reSxportecl 
to  South  America  and  other  countries.  The 
imports  in  1870  were  622,000  cwt,  valued  at 
$4,246,000  :  exports,  31,100  cwt.,  valued  at 
$256,000.  In  Austria  in  1867  there  were  1,032 
boats  engaged  in  fishing,  having  an  aggregate 
tonnage  of  8,001,  and  employing  8,643  men. — 
Tunis  has  an  important  tunny  fishery  at  Sidi 
Daud,  10  m.  W.  of  Cape  Bon.  The  season  com- 
mences in  April  and  ends  about  the  middle  of 
July,  during  which  time  about  200  men  are 
employed.  The  tunny  is  either  boiled  and 
packed  in  olive  oil,  when  it  is  known  as  ^eo- 
oeceio^  or  preserved  in  salt.  The  oil  extracted 
from  the  heads,  bones,  and  other  refuse  is 
much  used  by  tanners  and  curriers.  From 
10,000  to  14,000  tunnies  are  taken  in  a  good 
season.  In  1871  the  yield  of  seabeecio  was  3,200 
barrels  and  about  200,000  lbs.  in  tin  cans,  of 
salted  tunny  8,000  barrels,  and  of  oil  65,460 
gallons,  the  whole  being  worth  about  $150,- 
000.  The  demand  for  this  fish  is  limited  to  the 
countries  bordering  on  the  Mediterranean,  the 
product  of  the  Tunisian  fishery  being  taken 
mostly  to  Italy  and  Malta.  The  tonnare  of 
Ras  Zibib  and  Ghademse  island  are  no  longer 
in  operation.  Tunis  also  produces  5,000  or 
6,000  cwt.  of  dried  polyps  or  octopods,  a  name 
under  which  certain  species  of  cephalopoda  are 
known  in  the  I^evant  and  Greek  markets,  where 
they  are  imported  for  nse  in  Lent,  not  being 
included  by  the  eastern  church  in  the  prohibi- 
tion against  fish  during  seasons  of  religious  ab- 


FISHERIES 


229 


Btanence.  Thej  are  mostly  taken  first  to  Malta. 
The  chief  fishery  is  at  the  Kerkena  islands. 
Portogal  competes  with  Tunis  for  the  posses- 
sion of  the  Greek  market  The  lakes  near  the 
oity  of  Tunis,  especially  Bizerta,  containing 
▼arioas  species,  the  most  important  of  which 
are  the  gray  mnllet  and  the  bream,  snpply  the 
home  noarket  with  fresh  fish.  The  roes  of  the 
mullet,  prepared  as  ftu^tor^o,  and  exported  prin- 
cipaUy  to  Italy,  are  the  chief  source  of  revenue. 
— ^The  Norwegian  fisheries,  extending  along 
the  entire  W.  and  K.  coasts  of  that  country, 
including  the  adjacent  islands,  are  the  most 

Jroductive  in  Europe.  Daring  the  months  of 
anuary,  February,  and  March,  the  cod  and 
herring  visit  in  inunense  numbers  the  fiords 
which  indent  these  shores.  There  is  also  a 
sammer  fishery  for  herring,  when  the  best 
quality  of  fish  is  taken.  The  average  annual 
product  of  herring  is  1,000,000  barrels.  The 
rivers  abound  in  salmon,  and  large  numbers  of 
lobflters  are  sent  to  the  London  nmrket.  The 
exports  of  salmon  and  other  fresh  fish  in  1871 
amounted  to  about  76,000  cwt.,  of  which 
2,000  cwt.  were  salmon,  and  70,000  cwt 
mackerel.  In  that  year  24  vessels,  with  a 
tonnage  of  1,082  and  248  men,  were  fitted  out 
for  the  walrus  or  sea-horse  fishery  at  Nova 
Zembla  and  Spitzbergen,  which  brought  in  a 
catch  valued  at  about  $27,000 ;  the  shark  fish- 
ery employed  28  vessels,  with  a  tonnage  of 
895  and  173  men,  and  the  product  was  of 
about  the  same  value.  In  1860,  276  vessels, 
2,682  boats,  and  18,786  men  were  engaged  in 
the  herring  fishery,  and  5,675  boats  and  24,- 
266  men  in  the  cod  fishery.  In  1868  the  ex- 
ports of  fishery  products  amounted  to  about 
$8,000,000;  in  1869,  $9,600,000;  in  1870, 
$10,900,000,  of  which  over  $6,000,000  were 
the  value  of  cod-fishery  products,  and  over 
$4,500,000  of  the  herring  fishery.  The  actual 
gain  to  the  fishermen  employed  in  1868  was 
$4,760,000 ;  in  1869,  $4,600,000 ;  in  1870,  $4,- 
980,000;  in  1871,  $5,580,000,  of  which  $8,420,- 
000  represent  the  cod  fishery,  $1,840,000  the 
herring  fishery,  and  $270,000  the  other  fish- 
eries. The  chief  markets  are  Spain,  Prussia, 
Sweden,  Russia,  and  Holland,  which  receives 
the  greater  part  of  the  cod-liver  oil. — In  Den- 
mark, fishing  is  pursued  to  a  considerable  ex- 
tent along  the  coasts.  The  cod  is  the  principal 
fish,  though  flounders  and  herrings  are  also 
taken,  and  in  smaller  quantities  salmon,  por- 
poises, and  oysters.  In  1865,  887  vessels,  with 
a  tonnage  of  5,880  and  about  4,000  men,  were 
employed.  The  principal  fisheries,  however, 
are  at  the  dependencies  of  Greenland,  the 
Faroe  islands,  and  Iceland.  Whde  and  seid 
oil  18  the  chief  item  at  Greenland,  and  codfish 
at  the  other  points.  Icelsnd  in  1858  em- 
ployed in  the  fisheries  25  decked  boats  and 
8,481  open  boats,  with  about  7,000  men ;  in 
1870,  6Q  large  decked  boats  and  8,092  open 
boats,  with  from  2  to  12  oars  each.  The  large 
boats  are  employed  generally  in  the  shark  fish- 
ery, which  is  carried  on  mostly  on  the  N.  side 


of  the  island ;  the  smaller  boats  in  the  cod  and 
herring  fishery,  though  the  latter  is  little  pur- 
sued. Salmon  are  found  in  the  rivers  near 
Reykiavik  and  at  the  north  of  the  island,  and 
small  quantities  are  exported.  The  exports  of 
fishery  products  in  1864  were  64,852  quintals 
of  fish  and  8,962  barrels  of  roe  and  oil;  in 

1865,  29,807  quintals  and  9,972  barrels ;   in 

1866,  89,850  quintals  and  9,722  barrels;  in 

1867,  88,619  quintals  and  15,045  barrels;   in 

1868,  41,824  quintals  and  9,885  barrels;    in 

1869,  66,865  quintals  and  8,721  barrels.  The 
exports  of  an  average  year  are  50,789  quintals 
of  salt  fish,  2,136  of  dried  fish,  1,188  barrels  of 
salt  roe,  and  9,105  of  liver  oil  (chiefiy  shark), 
valued  at  $290,108.  The  total  imports  into 
Denmark  in  1870  were :  salt  herrings,  11,829,- 
126  lbs. ;  other  fish,  8,427,128  lbs. ;  in  1871, 
herriugs,  19,104,788  lbs. ;  other  fish,  5,494,110 
lbs.  The  exports  in  1870  were:  fresh  fish, 
2,090,709  lbs. ;  herrings,  &c.,  salted,  5,928,580 
lbs. ;  in  1871,  fresh  fish,  2,188,165  lbs. ;  her- 
rings, &c.,  18,558,286  lbs.— Among  other  Euro- 
pean nations,  the  Dutch  for  several  centuries 
took  the  lead  in  the  fisheries,  and  the  herring 
fishery  was  long  a  chief  source  of  their  wealth. 
It  has,  however,  much  declined.  In  1867 
Holland  employed  in  the  deep-sea  fisheries  89 
vessels,  with  an  aggregate  tonnage  of  27,650 ; 
number  of  men  in  vessels  and  boats,  11,880. 
The  value  of  the  catch  in  1866  was :  herrings, 
$665,668;  cod,  ling,  whiting,  &c.,  $2,828,920; 
anchovies,  $600,500;  total,  $8,595,088.  The 
imports  in  1871  were  14,000  tons  of  salt  her- 
ring and  50,600  quintals  of  cod ;  exports,  67,- 
110  tons  of  salt  herring,  84,241,000  smoked 
herrings,  28,680  quintals  of  salt  cod,  80,600 
of  dried  cod,  and  6,850,800  lbs.  of  fresh  sea 
fish.  The  number  of  fishing  boats  employed 
in  Belgium  in  1871  was  268  of  8,968  tons,  em- 
ploying 1,628  men ;  the  value  of  imports  for 
consumption  was  $1,472,600.  The  annual 
value  of  the  catch  is  about  $500,000,  of  which 
about  $200,000  are  the  product  of  the  cod  fish- 
ery.— The  principal  maritime  fisheries  of  Rus- 
sia in  Europe  are:  the  Caspian  sea,  which 
produces  immense  quantities  of  sturgeon,  seals, 
&c. ;  the  Black  sea  and  sea  of  Azov,  yielding 
the  herring,  tunny,  salmon,  sea  trout,  and  an- 
chovies; and  the  Baltic,  furnishing  cod,  hali- 
but, salmon,  lampreys,  &c.  The  White  sea, 
abounding  in  herring,  cod,  and  halibut,  fur- 
nishes almost  the  sole  support  of  tlie  inhabi- 
tants along  its  coast  The  river  fisheries  are  im- 
portant, the  Volga  being  the  most  productive, 
abounding  in  sturgeon,  and  supplying  largo 
quantities  of  caviare.  Lakes  Ladoga,  Onega, 
and  Ilmen,  and  White  lake,  contain  valuable 
fisheries.  The  product  of  all  these  sources 
has  been  estimated  at  $11,500,000,  of  which 
about  one  half  is  the  value  of  the  sea  fisheries. 
The  coasts  of  Asiatic  Russia  swarm  with  fish, 
but  the  fisheries  are  undeveloped. — The  waters 
of  China  abound  in  fish,  and  it  is  estimated 
that  one  tenth  of  the  people  of  that  empire  de- 
rive their  food  from  the  water.    The  coasts 


230 


FISHERIES 


are  crowded  with  enterprising  and  indastrious 
fishermen,  and  besides  the  net  and  the  hook, 
a  great  variety  of  expedients  are  resorted  to. 
In  the  eastern  provinces  cormorants  are  trained 
to  catch  fish,  which  they  bring  to  their  master, 
who  from  his  boat  oversees  12  or  15  birds  at 
the  same  time. — The  great  sea  fisheries  of  the 
United  States  are  mostly  carried  on  from  New 
England.  They  date  from  the  earliest  settle- 
ment of  the  country,  it  being  probable  that 
among  the  motives  that  led  to  the  colonization 
of  Massachusetts  was  the  hope  of  profit  from 
the  fisheries  on  the  coast,  which  Smith,  Archer, 
Brereton,  and  other  writers  of  the  day  repre- 
sented as  surpassing  even  those  of  Newfound- 
land. Very  soon  after  their  arrival  at  Ply- 
month  the  pilgrims  engaged  in  the  fisheries. 
In  1624  they  sent  to  England  a  ship  laden 
with  fish,  and  in  the  next  year  two  others 
with  fish  and  furs.  In  1628  they  were  selling 
fish  to  the  Dutch  at  New  Amsterdam.  About 
1670  the  profits  of  the  mackerel,  bass,  and  her- 
ring fisheries  at  Cape  Cod,  which  appear  to 
have  been  considered  public  property,  and  to 
have  been  leased  for  the  general  benefit,  were 
granted  to  found  a  free  school,  which  was 
opened  in  1671.  From  Boston  fish  began  to 
be  exported  as  early  as  1633.  In  1639  the 
general  court  of  Massachusetts  passed  an  act  to 
encourage  the  fisheries,  which  exempted  fishing 
vessels  and  all  property  connected  with  them 
from  taxes  and  duties  for  seven  years,  and  re- 
lieved fishermen  during  the  fishing  season  and 
ship  builders  from  military  duty.  At  the  close  of 
the  17th  century  the  merchants  of  Massachu- 
setts exported  annually  about  100,000  quintals 
of  codfish,  worth  $400,000,  to  Portugal,  Spain, 
and  Italy.  In  1731  the  fisheries  of  the  colony 
employed  5,000  or  6,000  men.  Ten  years  lat«r 
the  number  of  fishing  vessels  belon^ng  to 
Massachusetts  was  MO,  besides  as  many  shal- 
lops and  undecked  boats.  The  annual  produce 
of  the  cod  fishery  was  about  230,000  quintals, 
of  which  $700,000  worth  was  exported.  At 
the  outbreak  of  the  revolutionary  contest  the 
fishing  towns  were  rich  and  populous.  Mar- 
blehead  was  second  only  to  Boston  in  popula- 
tion and  property.  In  1775,  in  the  hope  of 
starving  New  England  into  submission,  the 
British  parliament  passed  an  act  io  deprive  the 
colonies  of  the  right  of  fishing  on  the  banks 
of  Newfoundland.  The  breaking  out  of  hostili- 
ties which  soon  followed  nearly  destroyed  the 
fisheries  for  a  time,  and  the  fishermen  of  New 
England  turned  their  attention  principally  to 
privateering,  though  many  enlisted  in  the 
army.  In  the  negotiation  of  the  treaty  of 
peace  in  1783,  the  right  of  the  Americans  to  a 
share  in  the  fisheries  was  seoared  by  the  firm- 
ness of  John  Adams,  it  being  agreed  ^*  that  the 
people  of  the  United  States  shall  continue  to 
e^joy  unmolested  the  right  to  take  fish  of 
every  kind  on  the  Grand  bank,  and  on  all  the 
other  banks  of  Newfoundland  ;  also  in  the 
gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  and  at  all  other  places 
in  the  sea  where  the  inhabitants  of  both  coun- 


tries used  at  any  time  heretofore  to  fish ;  and 
also,  that  the  inhabitants  of  the  United  States 
shall  have  liberty  to  take  fish  of  every  kind  on 
such  part  of  the  coast  of  Newfoundland  as 
British  fishermen  shall  use,  and  also  on  the 
coasts,  bays,  and  creeks  of  all  other  of  his  Bri- 
tannic majesty *s  dominions  in  America."  The 
British  government,  however,  to  check  the 
growth  of  the  fisheries  of  the  United  States,  and 
to  encourage  those  of  the  colonies,  by  an  order  in 
council  of  July,  1783,  prohibited  the  importation 
of  American  fish  into  the  British  West  Indies, 
which  had  been  one  of  the  best  markets  for  the 
New  England  trade.  The  federal  government 
early  recognized  the  importance  of  the  fisher- 
ies, and  fh)m  time  to  time  granted  bounties  for 
their  encouragement,  and  imposed  protective 
duties  upon  the  importation  of  foreign-caught 
fish.  The  first  act  was  passed  in  1789,  which 
granted  a  bounty  of  5  cents  per  quintal  on 
dried  and  5  cents  per  barrel  on  pickled  fish 
exported,  in  lieu  of  a  drawback  of  the  duties 
on  imported  salt  used  in  the  cure,  and  imposed 
a  duty  of  50  cents  per  quintal  on  imported  fish. 
In  1790  the  bounties  were  doubled.  By  the 
act  of  Feb.  16,  1792,  the  bounty  on  dried  fish 
was  discontinued,  and  a  specific  allowance  was 
made  to  vessels  employed  exclusively  in  the 
cod  fishery  at  sea  for  four  months  between  the 
last  day  of  February  and  the  last  day  of  No- 
vember :  to  vessels  of  between  20  and  30  tons, 
$1  50  per  ton  annually ;  and  to  those  of  more 
than  30  tons,  $2  50  per  ton;  but  the  annual 
allowance  to  any  vessel  was  limited  to  $170. 
Three  eighths  of  the  bounty  was  given  to  the 
owners,  and  the  remaining  lave  eighths  was  to 
be  divided  among  the  fishermen.  To  boats  of 
between  5  and  20  tons,  $1  per  ton,  to  be  di- 
vided among  the  fishermen,  was  aUowed  an- 
nually, provided  they  had  brought  in  12  quin- 
tals of  cured  fish  per  ton  during  the  season. 
The  act  of  May  2,  1792,  fixed  the  allowance 
on  pickled  fish  at  8  cents  a  barrel,  and  in- 
creased the  bounties  on  vessels  20  per  cent., 
after  Jan.  1,  1793.  In  1797  an  act  was  passed, 
which  increased  the  bounty  on  pickled  fish  to 
12  cents  a  barrel,  and  further  raised  the  allow- 
ances to  vessels  38)-  per  cent.,  after  Jan.  I, 
1798.  An  act  of  1799  increased  the  bounty 
on  pickled  fish  to  80  cents  a  barrel.  In  1807 
all  bounties  were  abolished.  The  act  of  1813, 
similar  in  its  provisions  to  those  mentioned 
above,  revived  the  bounty,  and  fixed  the  allow- 
ance to  vessels  of  from  5  to  20  tons  at  $1  60 
per  ton;  to  those  of  from  20  to  30  tons,  at 
$2  40 ;  to  those  of  more  than  30  tons,  at  $4 ; 
and  on  pickled  fish,  at  20  cents  a  barrel ;  but 
no  vessel  was  to  receive  over  $272.  The  law 
was  modified  in  1819,  and  allowances  were 
granted  to  vessels  of  from  5  to  30  tons  of  $3  50 
per  ton ;  to  those  of  more  than  30  tons,  $4  per 
ton,  and  if  having  a  crew  of  10  men,  and  em- 
ployed 3i  months  but  less  than  4  months, 
$3  50  per  ton ;  no  vessel  to  receive  more  than 
$360.  In  1846  the  bounty  on  pickled  fish  was 
discontinued,  and  a  drawback  of  the  duties  on 


FISHERIES 


281 


imported  salt  nsed  in  the  oare  was  fubstitnted. 
The  bounties  to  vessels  were  abolished  by  the 
act  of  July  28,  1866,  but  the  duties  on  foreign 
salt  used  in  caring  fish  were  remitted.  An  act 
of  181 T  required  the  master  and  three  fourths 
of  the  crew  to  be  citizens  of  the  United  States, 
to  entitle  the  vessel  to  bounty ;  but  this  act  was 
repealed,  except  as  to  the  master,  in  1864. 
By  an  act  of  1789,  vessels  of  20  tons  and  up- 
ward destined  for  the  fishery  were  required  to 
be  enrolled,  and  they  as  well  as  registered  ves- 
sels might  be  licensed  for  one  year,  which  ex- 
empted them  from  the  necessity  of  entering 
and  clearing  during  that  period.  Vessels  of 
from  6  to  20  tons  were  required  to  be  licensed. 
The  act  of  1793  required  vessels  of  20  tons  and 
upward  to  be  enrolled  and  licensed,  and  those 
of  less  than  20  tons  to  be  licensed.  In  1828 
an  act  was  passed  requiring  a  special  license 
for  vessels  employed  in  the  mackerel  fishery ; 
and  in  1886  such  vessels  were  given  the  privi- 
lege of  engaging  in  the  cod  or  other  fishery, 
bat  they  were  not  entitled  to  the  bounty. 
Daring  the  war  with  England  in  1812-^15  the 
British  cruisers  kept  the  fishermen  from  the 
distant  fishing  grounds.  Many  of  them  en- 
tered the  navy,  and  the  frigate  Constitution 
was  chiefly  manned  by  them,  while  great  num- 
bers engaged  in  privateering.  In  the  negotia- 
tions for  peace  the  British  endeavored  in  vain 
to  procure  from  the  United  States  a  relinquish- 
ment of  their  right  to  the  fishing  grounds,  and 
maintained,  after  peace  was  concluded,  that 
the  state  of  hostilities  had  abrogated  the  con- 
cession of  rights  made  in  1788.  Discussions 
ensued  between  the  two  governments,  which 
resulted  in  1818  in  a  convention,  by  which  it 
was  agreed  that  the  Americans  should  have 
the  liberty  of  taking  fish  on  the  S.  coast  of 
Newfoundland  between  Gape  Ray  and  the  Ra- 
meaa  islands ;  from  Cape  Kay  to  the  Quirpon 
islands;  on  the  shores  of  the  Magdalen  isl- 
ands; and  also  on  the  S.  coast  of  Labrador 
from  Mount  Joly  to  and  through  the  strait  of 
Belle  Isle,  and  thence  northward  indefinitely 
along  the  coast.  The  United  States  on  their 
part  renounced  formally  the  right  of  fishing  on 
or  within  three  marine  miles  of  the  British  do- 
miniona  in  America  not  included  in  the  above 
specified  limits.  In  the  summer  of  1862  serious 
troables  broke  out  between  the  American  fish- 
ermen and  the  British  authorities,  who  claimed 
tiie  right  to  exclude  the  former  fh>m  the  bays 
and  inlets  of  the  British  possessions.  The  dis- 
pute was  temporarily  settled  by  mutual  oon- 
ceanona,  and  in  1864  a  reciprocity  treaty  was 
agreed  upon  by  the  two  countries,  containing 
the  following  stipulations  concerning  the  fish- 
series,  in  addition  to  those  contained  in  the  con- 
venttOQ  of  1818:  ''The  inliabitants  of  the 
United  States  shall  have,  in  common  with  the 
subjects  of  her  Britannic  mi^Jesty,  the  liberty 
to  take  fish  of  every  kind  except  shell  fish  on 
the  sea  coasts  and  shores,  and  in  the  bays,  har- 
bon,  and  creeks  of  Canada,  New  Brunswick, 
Nova  ScotiBy  Prince  Edward  island,  and  of  the 


several  islands  thereunto  adjacent,  without  be- 
ing restricted  to  any  distance  from  the  shore, 
with  permission  to  land  upon  the  coasts  and 
shores  of  those  colonies,  and  the  islands  there- 
of, and  also  upon  the  Magdalen  islands,  for 
the  purpose  of  drying  their  nets  and  curing 
their  fish.'*  It  was  specified  that  the  liberty 
thus  granted  should  ap])ly  solely  to  sea  fisher- 
ies, and  not  to  salmon,  shad,  or  other  river 
fisheries;  and  that  the  fishermen  should  not 
intertere  with  the  rights  of  private  property, 
or  trespass  on  parts  of  the  shore  occupied  by 
British  fishermen.  Similar  rights,  with  similar 
reservations,  were  granted  to  British  fishermen 
on  the  £.  coast  of  the  United  States  N.  of  lat. 
86°.  This  treaty  was  terminated .  March  17, 
1866,  by  virtue  of  notice  given  by  the  United 
States,  March  17,  1866,  pursuant  to  one  of  its 
provisions.  In  1870  difficulties  again  arose  be- 
tween the  United  States  and  Great  Britain  re- 
specting the  fisheries,  in  consequence  of  cer- 
tain unfriendly  acts  of  the  provincial  authori- 
ties, and  in  1871  the  stipulations  of  the  treaty 
of  1864  given  above  were  revived  by  the  treaty 
of  Washington,  which  also  provided  that  '^  fish 
oil  and  fish  of  all  kinds,  except  fish  of  the  in- 
land lakes  and  of  the  rivers  falling  into  them, 
and  except  fish  preserved  in  oil,  being  the  pro- 
duce of  the  fisheries  of  the  United  States,  or  of 
the  Dominion  of  Canada,  or  of  Prince  Edward 
island,  shall  be  admitted  into  each  country,  re- 
spectively, free  of  duty."  The  rights  of  BAt- 
ish  subjects  on  the  coast  of  the  United  States 
were,  however,  restricted  to  that  portion  N.  of 
the  89th  parallel.  The  necessary  laws  having 
been  passed  by  the  several  countries,  these 
provisions  went  into  operation  July  1,  1873, 
to  remain  in  force  for  the  period  of  ten  years 
thereafter,  and  further  until  the  expiration  of 
two  years  after  the  United  States  or  Great 
Britain  shall  have  given  notice  to  terminate 
them.  It  was  provided  that,  with  the  consent 
of  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain,  these 
stipulations  might  extend  to  Newfoundland, 
and  a  colonial  act  was  passed  March  28, 
1874,  to  carry  them  into  effect. — Mackerel 
were  early  caught  by  the  New  England  col- 
onists, and  the  fishery  soon  assumed  consider- 
able importance.  They  were  probably  at  first 
taken  in  seines,  nets,  and  boats  from  the  shore, 
but  before  the  revolution  fleets  of  sloops  were 
engaged  in  the  fishery,  and  in  1770  not  fewer 
than  100  vessels  were  employed  in  Massachu- 
setts. The  use  of  vessels  appears  subsequently 
to  have  declined,  and  to  have  been  revived 
about  the  beginning  of  the  present  century. 
Mackerel  are  caught  on  the  coast  of  New  Eng- 
land and  as  far  S.  as  the  entrance  of  Chesa- 
peake bay,  but  the  most  productive  fisheries 
are  in  the  bay  of  Chaleurs  and  the  gulf  of  St. 
Lawrence.  From  1766  to  1776  Massachusetts 
employed  annually  in  the  cod  fishery  an  average 
of  666  vessels,  having  an  aggregate  tonnage  of 
26,630,  and  manned  by  4,406  men,  and  export- 
ed 178,800  quintals  offish  to  Europe  and  172,- 
600  quintals  to  the  West  Indies.    From  1786 


232 


FISHERIES 


to  1790  the  namber  of  vessels  was  589  of 
19,186  tODH,  employing  8,278  men,  and  the  ex- 
ports were  108,600  quintals  to  £uroi>e  and 
142,050  quintals  to  the  West  Indies.  Herring 
are  taken  to  some  extent  in  the  rivers  and  bays 
from  North  Carolina  northward,  though  the 
erection  of  mills  and  dams  has  driven  them 
from  many  localities  which  they  formerly 
frequented.  American  vessels,  chiefly  from 
Gloucester,  Mass.,  the  great  fishing  port  of  the 
country,  visit  New  Brunswick,  Newfoundland, 
the  Magdalen  islands,  and  Labrador  for  that 
fish,  while  the  halibut  fishery  is  pursued  to 
some  extent  from  that  port  on  George^s  and 
the  western  banks  and  at  Greenland.  Exten- 
sive menhaden  fisheries  have  sprung  up  within 
the  last  15  years  on  Long  Island,  and  at  other 

Soints  along  the  coast  from  New  Jersey  to 
[aine.  The  oil  obtained  from  this  fish  is  much 
used  by  leather  dressers,  and  the  scrap  or  ref- 
use is  a  valuable  ingredient  in  the  manufacture 
of  fertilizers  for  the  exhausted  cotton  lands  of 
the  south.  It  is  estimated  that  in  1873  2,000,- 
000  gallons  of  oil,  valued  at  $900,000,  and  40,000 
tons  of  scrap,  worth  $640,000,  were  produced. 
Oysters  are  found  particularly  in  Chesapeake 
and  Delaware  bays,  from  which  they  are  brought 
in  large  quantities  and  planted  in  the  vicinity  of 
New  York  city,  where  they  acquire  a  peculiar 
flavor.  Turtle  are  abundant  in  the  waters  sur- 
rounding the  Florida  keys,  and  the  catch  is  of 
considerable  value.  Besides  the  sea  fisheries, 
the  river  and  lake  fisheries  of  the  United  States 
are  of  great  importance.  There  are  valuable 
shad  fisheries  in  the  Connecticut,  Hudson, 
Delaware,  Potomac,  and  other  rivers  falling 
into  the  Atlantic.  The  ^eat  lake  fisheries  are 
those  of  Erie,  Huron,  Michigan,  and  Superior. 
The  whitefish  is  the  principal  object  of  pur- 
suit, though  trout,  pickerel,  and  lake  herring 
are  caught  in  large  quantities.  The  waters  of 
the  Pacific,  N.  of  California,  abound  in  valu- 
able fish,  the  fisheries  of  Alaska  being  of  vast 
extent  and  great  productiveness.  Cod  is  the 
chief  object  of  pursuit,  but  halibut  and  herring 
are  also  numerous.  In  1864,  1  vessel  was  fitted 
out  from  San  Francisco  for  the  northern  cod 
fishery;  in  1865,  7;  in  1866,  18;  in  1867,  28; 
in  1868,  19;  in  1869,  27;  in  1870,  83.  They 
frequent  mainly  the  banks  in  the  vicinity  of 
Kadiak  and  the  Shumagin  and  Fox  islands, 
though  the  Okhotsk  sea  is  occasionally  visited. 
From  1864,  when  the  business  commenced,  to 
1870, 276,414  quintals  of  fish,  valued  at  $2,457,- 
414,  were  caught;  the  product  of  1870  was 
94,750  quintals,  worth  $754,840.  The  fishery 
is  pursued  during  the  summer.  Several  species 
of  salmon,  including  the  king  salmon  {oneho- 
rhynehus  orUntalu)^  which  frequently  weighs 
from  60  to  90  lbs.,  swarm  in  the  Yukon  and 
'  other  Alaskan  rivers.  The  salmon  fisheries  of 
the  Columbia  river  are  of  great  value.  In  1872 
the  number  of  fish  preserved  was  832,000, 
weighing  5,800,000  lbs.,  and  worth  $859,000, 
of  which  2,700,000  lbs.  were  canned,  and 
2,600,000  lbs.  pickled.     The  following  table 


exhibits  the  tonnage  employed  in  the  fisheries 
in  the  United  States  at  various  periods  since 
1790,  the  cod  and  mackerel  fisheries  prior  to 
1881  and  since  1867  not  being  separated : 


TONKAGS. 

Codfithoy. 

Mukml 
fiibny. 

ToUL 

82,542 

88,862 

48,284 

•  *■••« 

68.298 

00,978 

46,2ii 

107,189 

64,&53 

11,881 

77.878 

05,617 

60,589 

146,156 

187,666 

54,795 

192L461 

128,601 

80,606 

904,197 

117.290 

51,019 

168,809 

108,742 

55.499 

150,241 

66,185 

41,209 

106,894 

M.642 

46,5ti8 

96,881 

44,507 

81,498 

76,065 
88,887    ' 
02,704 
91,460 
92,866 
97,547 
109,518 

From  1850  to  1862  the  number  of  vessels 
ranged  from  2,414  to  8,815  (in  the  latter  year) ; 
in  1868  the  number  was  2,220;  in  1869, 1,714; 
in  1870,  2,292;  in  1871,  2,426;  in  1872,  2,885. 
In  the  last  mentioned  year  1,486  vessels  of  87,- 
408  tons  were  above  20  tons  each,  and  899 
with  a  tonnage  of  10,144  under  20  tons  each ; 
666  vessels,  with  an  aggregate  tonnage  of  18,- 
790,  belonged  to  Maine ;  45,  of  8,419  tons,  to 
New  Hampshire;  1,301,  of  68,263  tons,  to 
Massachusetts;  76,  of  868  tons,  to  Rhode  Isl- 
and; 169,  of  4,892  tons,  to  Connecticut;  and 
128,  of  1,815  tons,  to  New  York.  In  1878  the 
number  of  vessels  was  2,458,  and  the  tonnage 
was  distributed  as  follows :  Massachusetts,  54,- 
188;  Maine,  46,196;  Connecticut,  4,198;  New 
York,  1,771;  California,  1,177;  Rhode  Island, 
1,071 ;  New  Hampshire,  922.  There  were  187 
vessels  of  44,755  tons  engaged  in  the  whale 
fishery.  Of  the  number  of  fishing  boats  em- 
ployed firom  the  shore  there  are  no  accurate 
statistics.  The  number  of  seamen  employed 
in  the  cod  and  mackerel  fisheries  in  1869  was 
21,758;  in  1862,  28,048;  in  1864,  21,925;  in 
1868,  28,250.  The  tables  of  occupations  in  the 
census  of  1870  include  27,106  fishermen  and 
oystermen,  but  the  returns  are  admitted  to  be 
imperfect,  large  numbers  of  persons  engaged 
wholly  or  partially  in  fishing  being  returned  as 
sailors,  agriculturists,  &;c.  The  value  in  round 
numbers  of  the  products  of  the  national  fish- 
eries of  all  kinds,  as  returned  in  the  censuses, 
was  $12,000,000  in  1840,  and  $10,000,000  in 
1850.  The  tables  of  fisheries  in  1860  include^ 
422  establishments  in  the  whale  fishery,  having 
a  capital  of  $18,292,060;  value  of  materials 
used,  $2,789,060;  number  of  hands  employed, 
12,301 ;  wages  paid,  $3,509,080;  value  of  pro- 
duct, $7,749,305 :  oyster  fishery,  427  establish- 
ments, $498,252  capital,  $452,250  materials, 
2,271  hands,  $446,656  wages,  and  $1,410,497 


prodaot;  other  flaheriei,  1,121  oitabliBhrnents, 
H13&,447  capita],  |1,060,S10  materials,  1C,81 1 
hands,  $3,131,841  wages,  and  $5,124,608  pnv- 
dnct;  total,  1,670  establishmeDts,  $17,919,709 
capita],  $4,S03,85fi  materialB,  3D,S88  hands, 
{6,077,677  wages,  and  $14,284,405  product. 
Thevnlne  of  prodncU  in  1886  was  $12,600,000. 
The  Ssherj  table  in  1870,  which  does  uot  in- 
clade  the  whale  fishery,  returns  2,140  eetab- 
TuhDieDts,  emplojing  20,604  hands;  capital, 
$7,409,075;  waffes  paid,  $8,44a,SSl;  value  of 
matdriala  used,  $1,642,276;  of  prodnets,  $11,- 
096,622.  The  chief  producing  sUtes  were 
Hassacbnsetta,  $6,216,326;  Uaioe,  $S79,610 
Connecticut,  $769,7SB ;  Michigan,  $567,676; 
Ohio,  $383,121 ;  New  Jersey,  $374,912 ;  Wash- 
ington  territory,  $289,746;  North  Oarolioa, 
$S66,889;    New  York,  $286,760;  Wisconsin, 


:BIES  238 

$214,190;  Oalifomia,  $160,260;  Bhode  Island, 
$124,606;  Florida,  $101,628.  The  priocipal 
items  were  669,962  quintals  of  ood,  2,451  tons 
of  halibut,  81,910  barrels  of  herring,  221,008 
ofmackerel,  69.661  barrels  and  26,700  thousand 
whitefish,  647,312  boshels  of  ojsters,  2,617,000 
shad,  24,118  barrels  of  sabuon,  and  1,810,000 
lbs.  of  canned  salmon.  The  following  table 
sbows  the  value  of  the  products  of  the  nation^ 
fisheries  since  1668,  brought  in  by  vessels 
toaking  entry  at  the  eastern  house,  but  does 
not  include  the  product  of  the  sbore  fisheries, 
nor  fish  brought  in  by  coasters  and  fishing 
smacks,  except  so  far  as  unofficial  information 
has  been  obtained,  which  in  recent  years  has 
been  muoh  ftiller  than  formerly,  through  the 
efforts  of  the  bureau  of  statistics  to  obtain  a 
complete  statement: 


MlriK 

x~. 

VIABS. 

2^" 

rUKB. 

'S 

•lS7.eH 
1S8,S1I 
112,040 

SB4.0BI 

(HI.USS 

isM.eii 

7S1,718 
764,117 

S»),8W 

The  principal  items  in  1872,  not  including  the 
whale  fishery,  were  783,487  quintals  of  cod- 
fish, valned  at  $8,194,286;  430,408  of  mack- 
erel, $2,4^6,009 ;  169,923  of  herring,  $340,968 ; 
178,639  of  otlier  cured  fish,  $667,616 ;  698,700 
bushels  of  oysters,  $238,080;  45,077,973  lbs. 
01  fresh  fish  (other than  shell  fisb),  $1,106,600; 
1,487,843  gallons  of  oil,  $508,402;  10,757  skins, 
8117,411  ;  value  of  shell  fish  (otber  than  oys- 
ters), $591,824;  of  other  fishery  products, 
$316,057.  The  quantity  of  salt  withdrawn 
from  wareboase  for  curing  fish  in  1671,  under 
the  act  of  1866,  was  64,671,139  lbs.,  valued  at 
186,007;  in  1872,  67,830,929  lbs.,  worth  $60,- 
1S6.  The  table  below  includes  the  quantities 
of  dried  or  smoked  and  of  pickled  fish  exported, 
with  the  quantities  of  mackerel  inspected,  at 
Taiioos  periods  since  1790: 


n«B. 

ricELurmB. 

■Htod 

Q<i«u.|   y^ 

B»H. 

i^ 

M-. 

u™k 

im....   S88.M7|    

int!!::   ieT.sofi|  7oe.'77a 
IMl....   WLOTjIwiwe 

iHi!!:!  mjM  aiMi 
im....:  11R.S1S  Ns.'wa 

1811...    1M,«18    M9,m 

B7,4M 

as 

s&eos 

8,849 

s,aiB 

i4<0i8 

"ao7»i 

1«,S8S 
111,008 
4Otl,0O» 

WlflST 
S«,787 

Si 

t  other  ptodoettarUi 
t  In  1<WL  t  In 


In  1871  the  total  value  of  exports  of  the  pro- 
ducts of  the  national  fisheries  was  $2,812,890; 
of  foreign  fisheries,  $376,016;  in  1673,  domea- 
tio  exports,  $2,918,897,  moluding  oysters  to  the 
value  of  $243,723,  and  whale  and  other  fish  oil 
to  the  value  of  $1,260,074;  foreign  exports, 
$644,690.  The  principal  points  of  shipment 
are  Great  Britain,  Hayti  and  Santo  Domingo, 
Frauoe,  Cuba,  Porto  Rico,  the  French  and 
Dutch  possessions  in  America,  and  the  British 
West  Indies.  The  imports  of  foreign  fish  and 
products  thereof  in  1671  amounted  to  $3,031,- 
618;  in  I8T3  to  $8,191,606,  inclnding  8,636,279 
lbs.  of  fresh  fish  for  daily  consumption,  im- 
ported  free  of  duty,  valued  at  $278,821 ;  228,- 
612  gallons  of  whale  and  other  fish  oil,  $106,- 
249;  68,692  barrels  of  herring,  $369,262;  90,689 
of  mackerel,  $610,467;  and  sardines  and  ancho- 
vies to  the  value  of  $1,172,704.  With  the  ex- 
ception of  the  sardines,  which  were  brought 
from  France  and  Great  Britain,  and  some  her- 
rings imported  from  Germany,  the  imports 
were  almost  exclusively  from  British  America. 
— The  British  American  colonies  are  the  seat 
of  fisheries  among  the  richest  in  tlie  world, 
which  have  been  pursued  since  the  first  settle- 
ment of  those  countries.  Their  early  history 
is  referred  to  above.  In  1632  Nova  Scotia 
employed  570  vessels  and  shallops  and  640 
boats,  and  exported  160,640  quintals  of  dried, 
37,164  barrels  of  pickled,  and  6,641  boxes  of 
smoked  fish,  valued  at  $609,820 ;  in  184S,  240 
vessels,  8,400  boats,  and  10.000  men.  In  1861 
the  number  of  vessels  was  813 ;  of  boats,  6,161 ; 
nets  and  seines,  80,164;  men,  10,894;  exports, 
196,484  quintals  of  dried,  268,842  barrels  of 


234 


FISHERIES 


pickled,  and  15,409  boxes  of  smoked  fish, 
vdaed  at  $941,896.  These  figures  are  ezcla- 
sive  of  Cape  Breton,  the  product  of  which  in 
1847  was  valued  at  $802,616.  In  1869  the 
number  of  vessels  was  685,  with  an  aggregate 
tonnage  of  21,656,  besides  819  sidl  boats,  8,798 
skiffs,  &c.,  and  8,668  whale  boats.  The  ex- 
ports of  New  Brunswick  in  1829  were  valued 
at  $187,980 ;  in  1888,  $200,406 ;  in  1848,  $126,* 
180.  The  value  of  the  fisheries  of  Nova  Scotia 
in  1860  was  $2,562,000 ;  New  Brunswick, 
$388,885 ;  Canada,  $700,000 ;  total,  $8,650,885. 
The  products  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada  in 
1869  amounted  to  $4,584,151  66;  in  1870,  to 
$7,677,891  72.  For  the  ye*r  ending  June  80, 
1871,  the  products  were  valued  at  $7,678,200, 
viz.:  Ontario,  $198,524;  Quebec,  $1,198,612; 
New  Brunswick,  $1,185,088;  Nova  Scotia, 
$5,101,031;  (Cape  Breton,  $1,288,050).  The 
number  of  fishennen  was  88,029,  viz. :  Ontario, 
1,959;  Quebec,  5,596;  New  Brunswick,  5,161 ; 
Nova  Scotia,  20,818;  (Cape  Breton,  5,780). 
Quebec  also  returned  88  vessels,  2,651  fishing 
boats,  1,664  flatboats,  859  sailors,  and  2,568 
shoremen,  as  employed  in  the  fisheries.  The 
principal  items  of  the  catch  were  670,487  cwt. 
of  cod,  144,572  of  scale  fish  (haddock,  hake,  and 
pollock),  18,600  of  halibut,  240,805  barrels  of 
mackerel,  885,700  of  herring,  85,225  of  ale- 
wives,  15,863  of  shad,  60,050  of  mixed  fish, 
18,317  of  whitefish,  7,477  of  trout,  7,613  of 
salmon,  2,017,484  lbs.  of  fresh  salmon,  101,581 
salmon  in  cans,  614,232  gallons  of  oil  (mostly 
cod),  1,130,000  cans  of  lobsters,  and  39,450 
bushels  of  oysters.  The  value  of  the  fisheries 
for  the  year  ending  June  30, 1872,  was  $9,570,- 
116,  viz. :  Ontario,  $267,638;  Quebec,  $1,320,- 
189 ;  New  Brunswick,  $1,965,459 ;  Nova  Sco- 
tia, $6,016,835.  The  principal  items  for  On- 
tario were  17,940  barrels  of  whitefish,  7,586 
of  trout^  and  6,974  of  herrings;  Quebec,  217,- 
741  cwt.  of  cod,  29,047  barrels  of  herrings,  and 
186,529  gallons  of  cod  oil;  New  Brunswick, 
626  barrels  and  1,474,777  lbs.  of  salmon,  2,049 
barrels  and  33,680  cans  of  mackerel,  89^898 
barrels  and  572,148  boxes  (smoked)  of  herrings, 
22,996  barrels  of  ale  wives,  6,949  of  cod  tongues 
and  sounds,  3,071  of  shad,  7,944  of  eels,  24,620 
of  oysters,  81,421  quintals  of  cod,  19,931  of 
pollock,  87,442  of  hake,  1,190  of  haddock, 
1,055,485  cans  of  lobsters,  and  81,715  gallons 
of  oil;  Nova  Scotia,  8,529  barrels  and  629,525 
lbs.  of  salmon,  115,681  barrels  and  50,500  cans 
of  mackerel,  168,518  barrels  and  84,802  boxes 
(smoked)  of  herrings,  11,712  barrels  of  ale- 
wives,  4,648  of  halibut,  8,867  of  shad,  525,249 
quintals  of  cod,  24,099  of  pollock,  89,214  of 
hake,  2,422,058  cans  of  lobsters,  and  414,419 
gallons  of  oil.  The  rivers  of  British  Columbia 
swarm  with  salmon,  and  the  waters  of  the 
coast  abound  in  cod,  herring,  halibut,  &c. ;  but 
the  fishery  is  undeveloped*  Whitefish,  trout, 
&c.,  are  found  extensively  in  Manitoba  and  the 
N.  W.  territory,  particularly  in  the  waters  that 
empty  into  Hudson  bay.  The  iinports  of  fish 
And  the  products  thereof  into  the  Dominion  for 


the  year  ending  June  80,  1872,  amounted  to 
$1,088,686,  of  which  $41,618  were  brought 
mto  Ontario,  $381,982  into  Quebec,  $80,60L 
into  New  Brunswick,  $619,248  into  Nova 
Scotia,  and  $10,098  into  British  Columbia. 
Of  the  whole  amount,  $919,840  worth  came 
from  Newfoundland  and  Prince  Edward  isl- 
and. The  exports  amounted  to  $4,828,882, 
viz.:  $59,856  from  Ontario,  $758,890  from 
Quebec,  $271,059  from  New  Brunswick,  $3,- 
200,821  from  Nova  Scotia,  and  $87,706  from 
British  Columbia.  The  principal  points  to 
which  the  exports  were  token  are  the  West 
Indies,  the  United  States,  South  America, 
Great  Britain,  Italy,  and  Portugal.  The  value 
of  fish  caught  in  Prince  Edward  island  in  1860 
was  $272,532;  in  1869,  $169,580,  of  which 
$110,670  were  mackereL  $19,017  herring,  and 
$39,898  cod  and  scale  nsh.  The  product  of 
the  Newfoundland  fisheries  in  1860  has  been 
stated  at  $4,440,000.  The  principal  items  of 
export  since  1868  have  been  as  follows : 


YEARS. 

Ctod,  qaln- 
tak. 

lUittag, 
banvb. 

CodoQp 
gulloos. 

SmIoH, 

SMlAhl, 

loOO  •  • • • 
1809.... 
1870.... 
1871.... 
1872.... 

1,169,948 
1,206,441 
l,21^644 
1,829,866 
1,222,248 

186,168 
179,440 
146,709 
187,429 
147,771 

880,002 
1,224,468 
1,071,766 
1,898,602 
1,097,208 

1,268,460 
1,406,160 
1,604,983 
2,148,008 
1,066,456 

888,806 
868,021 
85fi,428 

687,094 
278^n 

In  1872  there  were  also  exported  5,049  tierces 
of  salmon,  2,189  barrels  of  trout,  1,519  of  other 
fish,  441  cwt.  of  halibut  and  haddock,  124 
packages  of  tongues  and  sounds,  9,567  gallonfl 
of  whale  oil,  14,616  of  other  oil,  and  26,208  of 
blubber.  Of  the  cod  in  the  above  table,  308,404 
quintals  were  exported  from  Labrador,  and  of 
the  herring  58,760  barrels.  The  total  value  of 
the  exports  from  Newfoundland  in  1869  was  a 
littie  less  than  £1,800,000;  the  chief  markets 
are  Spain,  Portugal,  Brazil,  Great  Britain,  and 
the  British  West  Indies.  The  population  of 
the  colony  in  1869  was  146,586,  of  whom  nine 
tenths  are  directiy  or  indirectly  engaged  in  the 
fisheries.  The  number  of  fishennen  in  1878 
was  82,000.  The  total  annual  value  of  the 
fisheries  on  the  banks  and  off  the  coasts  of  the 
British  North  American  provinces  was  esti- 
mated in  1869  by  the  United  States  consul  at 
Halifax  at  nearly  $28,000,000,  viz. :  provincial 
fisheries,  nearly  $12,000,000;  United  States, 
$7,000,000;  French,  $4,000,000.— The  most 
comprehensive  account  of  the  fisheries  of  the 
world  and  of  their  commercial  vdue  is  con- 
tained in  a  report  of  Col.  Richard  D.  Cutts  of 
Washington  to  the  secretary  of  state  on  *^  The 
Commerce  in  the  Products  of  the  Sea,"  made 
in  1869,  and  printed  by  order  of  the  senate 
as  executive  document  No.  84  of  the  2d  session 
of  the  42d  congress.  The  statistics  are  for 
1865.  We  extract  several  important  state- 
ments fVom  this  report.  The  following  table 
exhibits  for  15  countries  the  gold  value  of  the 
principal  products  of  the  sea,  with  the  chief 
producing  countries  in  the  order  of  value : 


Ilorwmj^    France     NawftnuKUuid, 

Unllad  Buttn.  As. 

Komj,  Great  Briulo.  Bntalt,  & 
DilUd  HUUO.  Onut  Urtuln,  Ac. . . . 
tlBlud  Stats,  Movs  Scotia,  Fruce, 

Vtmj.  Fruce,  Dsltsd  Htits 

Fruw*.  ttalr,  &fia.  Ice. 

Onil  BiUi£i,  UoUud,  Hon  SootU, 

Ac , 

United  BIMM,  Onal  BriMlu,  i 
HawtwndluHi,  Hcnnr.  ^-  - ' 
arcatBrttlilL 


Another  table  ehova  the  annnal  Talne  of  the 
sea  fisheries  of  22  coantriea,  with  the  total  an- 
nual conaDinptioD  and  tbatp«r  capita; 


Viltttt 

1..-1 

P« 

r" ""  119 
S 

IDO 

lOO 

lai 

KM 
KM 

i 

900.000 

*»,000 
.  SMKOOO 

•1,000000 

i,sis,soe 
i.in.ioe 

1,0»&IT0 

SB 

1.8U.0M 
»2B,000 

Ss^'i^r^E: 

:; 

PrUn  Ed wd  toUsd . . . . 

$T9,m,iu 

li3.llW.lKB 

If  to  this  total  the  prodact  of  Tnrkej,  Brazil, 
Australia,  China,  &o.,  were  added,  the  Bom 
wonid  be  increased  to  $00,000,000  as  the  an- 
naal  value  of  thoae  products  of  the  »ea  fisheries 
which  are  the  subject  of  statiatiool  record. 
The  products  of  the  seas,  rivera,  and  lakes  of 
the  United  Eingdom,  consumed  without  record 
in  fingland,  have  been  estimated  at  more  than 
f8,0O0,00O  annnallf;  the  ri?er  herring,  shad, 
wbiteSish,  ojstera,  &c.,  sold  in  the  coast  and 
lake  fi^  markets  of  the  United  States  ore  val- 
ued at  over  $7,000,000;  and  the  interior  fish- 
eriM  of  Russia  iu  Europe  at  $6,000,000.  Simi- 
lar estimates  for  other  coantriea  would  produce 
an  aggregate  of  $80,000,000,  making  a  total 
of  $120,000,000  as  the  annual  value  of  the  fish- 
eries, maritime  and  inland,  of  the  world.  The 
retnma  of  10  of  the  countries  included  in  the 
above  table  embrace  80,S83  vesaela  and  boats, 
with  an  aggr^ate  tonnage  of  561,460,  and 
309,6B2  men ;  and  it  is  estimated  that  4fi0,000 
men  are  dlrectlj  engaged  in  the  fisheries  of  the 
whole  32.  The  annual  value  of  the  commerce 
in  products  of  the  sea  fisheries  as  shown  bj  the 
returns  of  48  countries  and  dependencies  is  over 
$41,000,000.  The  following  table  ezhibita  the 
importo,  exports,  and  balance  of  trade  in  fish- 
erf  prodoeta  of  the  prinoipai  Botiona: 


tS«,MO  |It,«St,!SO  |1S^7,(«I 


NenlbiilKikDd... 
NoTBSoOtU 

i 

I 

2. 

KSM.lbl 

t.sn.s6i 

1)2113.87) 
*08.7« 

mm 

■K! 

"eiiaa 

«M,7SS 
S.910JK1 

Bae,sS8 

■■'■« 

SBMO 

H»wiiUui  liluids. 

'S 
sis 

isatiH 

ftm«Kdwd.l.l. 

OTmuZoiltM^iu 

tUOliOM 

S.g7B,97S 
],038,80« 

CfiSSBritiii.... 

It^. 

SS^.v;.;;:: 

ii 

III.OM 

HollMd 

The  exports  from  the  Hawaiian  islands  were 
in  great  part  the  catch  of  American  whalers 
sola  or  exchanged  at  Honolulu.  International 
fishery  exhibitions  have  been  recentlj  held  at 
Amsterdam,  Holland;  at  Bergen,  Norway;  at 
Boulogne-Bor-Mer,  France;  and  at  some  other 
places. — See  Hittoire  dei  picket,  de»  dicouverttt 
et  d«t  itablittementt  del  Hollandau  dan*  let 
ner*  du  nord.hj  B.  de  Reste  (Paris,  1901); 
"  On  the  Public  Fisheries  of  Great  Britain  and 
the  Rise  and  Progress  of  the  Dutch  Fishery," 
by  H.  Scbaltes  (London,  1818);  "A  Review 
of  the  Domestic  Fisheries  of  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland,"  by  Robert  Fraser  (Edinburgh,  1818); 
"Frank  Forester's  Fish  and  Fishing  of  the 
United  States  and  British  Provinces  of  North 
America,"  by  H.  W.  Herbert  (New  York, 
1861);  "Report  on  the  Sea  and  River  Fish- 
eries of  New  Bnmawiek,"  by  M.  H.  Perley 
(Frederieton,  1662);  "Report  on  the  princi- 
pal Fisheries  of  the  American  Seas,"  by  Loren- 
zo Sabine  (Washington,  16G3);  "The  Sea  and 
its  Living  Wonders,"  by  Dr.  G.  Hartwig  (Lon- 
don, 18116);  La  btnitigue  de  la  mardtaiute  dt 
powson»t  by  Uartiol  Deherrypon  (Paris,  1867); 
Lapiche  et  le*poi»tons,  by  U.  de  la  Blanoh^re 
(Paris,  1868);  Lt»  tfl-andee  pieha,  by  Victor 
Meunier  (Paris,  1888) ;  "  The  Ocean  Worid," 
by  Louis  Figuier  (London,  1868) ;  "  The  Har- 
vest of  the  Sea,"  by  J.  G.  Bertram  (London, 
1866);  and  "Report  on  the  Condition  of  the 
Sea  Fisheriea  of  the  South  Coast  of  New  Eng- 
land in  18T1  and  18T2,"  by  Spencer  F.  Bdrd 
(Washington,  I8TS). 

FISHES,  the  lowest  class  of  vertehrated  ani- 
mals, red-blooded,  breathing  tlirough  the  me- 
dium of  water  by  means  of  brartehia  or  gills. 
Like  other  vertebrates,  they  have  an  internal 
skeleton,  the  brain  and  spinal  cord  protected 


236 


FISHES 


bj  a  bony  cavity  and  canal,  mnscles  external  to 
the  bones,  never  more  than  fonr  extremities, 
and  the  organs  of  special  sense  in  the  cavities 
of  the  head.  Living  in  a  mediam  heavier  than 
air,  and  very  nearly  of  the  same  density  as  their 
bodies,  locomotion  is  comparatively  easy,  and 
their  form,  fins,  and  smooth  surface  are  admi- 
rably calculated  for  rapid  progression ;  breath- 
ing by  means  of  air  contained  in  the  water, 
their  blood  is  cold,  and  consequently  their  vital 
energy  is  less  than  that  of  mammals  and  birds. 
The  brain  is  very  small,  and  the  organs  of  sense 
calculated  to  receive  only  the  simplest  impres- 
sions of  sight,  smell,  hearing,  taste,  and  touch ; 
generally  unable  to  make  any  sounds,  with  an 
inflexible  body,  simply  articulated  limbs,  fixed 
and  staring  eyes,  living  in  comparative  dark- 
ness and  silence,  there  is  no  cnange  in  their 
countenance,  no  expression  of  feeling  or  emo- 
tion, no  apparent  motives  in  their  monotonous 
existence  beyond  the  necessity  of  supplying 
themselves  with  food,  escaping  from  their  ene- 
mies, and  providing  for  the  continuance  of  their 
species.  Their  chief  pleasure  is  that  of  eat- 
ing, and  their  only  danger  is  from  the  superior 
strength  and  quickness  of  other  inhabitants  of 
the  waters  or  from  the  artifices  of  man;  to  eat, 
and  to  avoid  being  eaten,  are  the  great  occu- 
pations of  their  lives,  and  the  varieties  of  their 
forms,  their  instincts,  and  their  favorite  haunts 
are  intimately  connected  with  these  objects ;  the 
movable  filaments  of  the  lophius  or  angler,  the 
prolonged  snout  of  the  pipe  fish  and  chfetodon, 
the  winglike  expansions  of  the  flying  fish,  and 
the  electric  armature  of  the  torpedo  and  gym- 
notus,  are  all  instruments  either  for  ofiTence,  de- 
fence, or  escape.  Cold-blooded,  they  are  little 
sensitive  to  changes  of  temperature,  and  their 
migrations  and  seasons  of  propagation  are  less 
influenced  by  thermometric  conditions  than  are 
those  of  the  higher  vertebrates ;  many  fishes 
spawn  in  winter,  and  it  is  in  the  cold  northern 
waters  that  the  innumerable  individuals  of  the 
cod  and  herring  species  are  pursued  by  man. 
Even  the  loves  of  fishes  are  marked  by  the 
same  sangfroid  ;  very  few  species  have  sexual 
union ;  in  most,  the  males  pursue  the  eggs  rath- 
er than  the  females,  and  coldly  fecundate  the 
spawn  of  unknown  adults,  from  which  arise 
young  which  they  will  never  recognize  and 
probably  never  see.  A  few  females,  as  the 
stickleback,  deposit  eggs  in  nests  made  by  the 
males;  some  carry  their  eggs  and  even  their 
young  with  them  for  a  short  period,  and  feed 
and  protect  their  little  ones  like  true  moth- 
ers ;  but,  as  a  general  rule,  the  joys  of  mater- 
nity are  unknown  among  fishes,  and  the  sexes 
care  nothing  for  each  other  even  in  the  breed- 
ing season.  With  all  this  apparent  lack  of  en- 
joyment, and  low  position  in  the  vertebrated 
series,  the  class  of  fishes  displays  as  much  and 
perhaps  more  variety  and  elegance  of  form  and 
beauty  of  coloration  than  the  more  psychically 
favored  birds  and  mammals ;  there  is  not  a  color 
of  the  rainbow,  nor  a  metallic  reflection,  nor 
the  hue  of  a  precious  stone,  which  may  not  be 


seen  in  the  bands,  spots,  and  scales  of  fishes. 
Many  tribes  of  men,  both  savage  and  civilized, 
obtain  their  principal  nourishment  from  the 
sea ;  the  countless  numbers  of  cod,  mackerel, 
herring,  and  other  migrating  fishes,  give  em- 
ployment to  thousands  of  men,  and  prove  im- 
portant items  of  national  wealth.  The  habits 
of  fishes,  even  of  the  most  common  species,  are 
comparatively  little  known  from  the  difficulty 
of  observing  them  in  their  native  haunts ;  we 
know  that  some  are  solitary,  and  others  grega- 
rious ;  some  great  wanderers,  others  restrict 
within  narrow  limits ;  some  surface  swimmers, 
others  remaining  at  the  bottom,  or  at  great 
deptha;  some  living  on  sandy  bottoms,  others 
in  rocky,  others  in  muddy  localities;  some 
found  only  in  salt  water,  others  only  in  fresh, 
others  in  both  or  in  brackish  waters ;  some  seen 
only  near  the  shore,  others  in  very  deep  water 
far  from  land ;  some  sluggish  like  the  skates, 
others  active  like  the  sharks  and  scomberoids; 
some  perish  quickly  out  of  the  water,  as  those 
with  widely  open  gills  like  the  herring,  others 
live  a  long  time  after  being  caught,  like  the  eel, 
or  can  travel  over  land,  or  climb  trees,  like  the 
climbing  perch  (anabcu  xandens). — The  exter- 
nal form  of  fishes  is  very  various,  but  the  head 
is  not  separated  from  the  body  by  a  distinct 
neck,  and  the  trunk  generally  is  continued 
gradually  into  the  tail ;  in  the  skates  the  tail  is 
long  and  distinct  from  the  body.  The  body 
may  be  rounded  as  in  the  diodon,  cylindrical  as 
in  the  eel,  compressed  horizontally  as  in  the 
rays,  or  flattened  vertically  as  in  most  fishes ; 
the  head  may  be  larger  than  the  body  as  in  the 
angler,  compressed,  angular,  and  obtuse  as  in 
the  bullhead,  prolonged  into  a  beak  as  in  tbo 
pipe  fish,  or  the  upper  jaw  may  project  over 
the  mouth  as  in  the  sword  fish  and  sharks ;  the 
mouth  may  open  on  the  under  or  upper  surface, 
or,  as  is  usual,  at  the  end  of  the  snout,  with  a 
greater  or  less  extent  of  gape.  The  nostrils 
may  be  single  as  in  the  sharks  and  rays,  or 
double  as  in  most  fishes.  The  eyes  vary  greatly 
in  size  and  in  direction ;  generally  on  the  sides 
of  the  head,  in  the  uranoscopus  they  look  up- 
ward, and  in  the  fiounder  family  both  are  on 
one  side.  In  the  cartilaginous  fishes  the  exter- 
nal borders  of  the  gills  are  attached  to  the  skin, 
and  the  gill  opening  correspond  in  number  to 
the  intervals  between  the  branchis ;  but  in  the 
osseous  fishes  there  is  a  single  large  gill  open- 
ing on  each  side,  just  behind  the  head,  serving 
for  the  exit  of  the  water,  after  it  has  been  swal- 
lowed and  made  to  pass  over  the  gills,  the  flap- 
ping of  the  gill  covers  assisting  the  respiratory 
process.  Some  of  the  apodal  or  mumnoid 
fishes  have  hardly  the  rudiments  of  fins;  in 
others,  the  fins  are  either  vertical  and  on  the 
median  line,  or  lateral  and  in  pairs.  The  lateral 
fins  are  the  pectorals  and  the  ventrala,  corre- 
sponding to  the  anterior  and  posterior  limbs  of 
higher  animals ;  the  pectorals  are  attached  be- 
hind the  opening  of  the  gills ;  the  ventrals  are 
generally  on  the  lower  surface  of  the  body,  and 
may  be  variously  placed  from  under  the  throat, 


FISHES 


237 


even  in  advance  of  the  pectorals,  to  the  origin 
of  the  tail.  The  vertical  fins  serve  the  purposes 
of  keel  and  radder,  and  are  the  dorsid  on  the 
hack,  the  anal  ander  the  tail,  and  the  caudal 
at  the  end  of  the  hody.  All  these  fins  vary  in 
size  and  in  the  number  of  rays  which  sustain 
them,  being  sometimes  spiny,  sometimes  soft, 
branched,  and  composed  of  many  small  joints. 
In  the  old  system  of  nomenclature,  the  mala- 
copterygians  are  bony  fishes  with  soft  articula- 
ted fin  rays;  the  acanthopterygians,  bony  fish- 
es in  which  some  of  the  rays  are  spiny ;  and  the 
chondropterygians,  the  so-called  cartilaginous 
fishes.  These  classes  have  been  variously  sub- 
divided, and  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  arti- 
cle loHTHTOLOGT  for  the  numerous  classifica- 
tions from  Artedi  to  Agassiz.  The  anus  may 
open  far  behind  the  ventrals,  move  forward 
with  them,  and  in  their  absence  be  situated 
even  under  the  throat,  as  in  stemarehtu ;  the 
jaws  may  be  armed  with  different  kinds  of 
teeth,  which  often  exist  also  on  the  tongue  and 
various  parts  of  the  mouth  and  throat;  the  lips 
may  be  provided  with  sensitive  barbels  as  in 
the  horn  pout,  or  with  fleshy  appendages  as  in 
the  sea  raven  (hemitripterus).  The  skin  may 
be  nearly  naked  or  covered  with  very  small 
scales ;  the  scales  may  be  rough  grains  as  in 
the  sharks,  thick  plates  as  in  the  sturgeon,  a 
smooth  enamelled  coat  of  mail  as  in  the  lepi- 
do$Uu*y  smooth  as  yi  the  herring,  or  serrated 
as  in  the  perch.  Along  the  side  of  the  body  is 
the  lateral  line,  formed  by  a  series  of  pores,  the 
outlets  of  the  muciparous  glands ;  this  line  ex- 
tends from  the  head  to  the  caudal  fin,  general- 
ly at  the  mid  height  of  the  body,  nearer  the 
back  in  some  fishes  than  in  others,  sometimes 
ceasing  long  before  the  region  of  the  tail,  and 
occasionally  multiple ;  the  scales  along  this  line 
are  arched,  notched,  or  perforated  for  the  pro- 
tection of  the  ducts ;  they  are  sometimes  larger 
or  smaller  than  the  rest,  and  may  be  the  only 
ones  present;  they  often  have  strange  forms 
and  armatures.  In  various  parts  of  the  body, 
but  especially  about  the  head,  are  numerous 
pores,  or  water  tubes,  by  which  water  is  intro- 
duced into  the  system,  even  into  the  circula- 
tion ;  some  are  situated  along  the  lateral  line. 
The  tissue  of  the  fish  skeleton  is  either  carti- 
lage, fibro-cartilage,  or  bone ;  the  first  is  found 
in  the  sharks  and  rays,  the  second  in  the  sun- 
fish  {orthagorisetu)  and  angler  (lophius),  and  the 
last  in  common  fishes ;  tlie  chemical  composi- 
tion is  that  of  other  vertebrates,  principally  the 
phosphate  and  carbonate  of  lime.  The  oste- 
ology of  the  head,  branchial  apparatus,  trunk, 
and  limbs  has  been  already  given  as  fully  as 
the  limits  of  this  work  will  allow,  in  the  article 
CoMPABATivB  Anatohy  (vol.  V.,  p.  l78);  for 
further  details  see  Cuvier  and  Valenciennes, 
voL  L,  and  Owen  on  **  Fishes.*' — Most  fishes 
are  quick  in  their  movements ;  the  salmon,  for 
instance,  can  swim  at  the  rate  of  40  ft.  in  a  sec- 
ond, and  can  with  ease  pass  over  20  to  25  m. 
in  an  bonr ;  progression  is  efifected  by  lateral 
strokes  of  the  water  by  the  alternate  flexions 


of  the  tail  and  trunk ;  the  manner  in  which 
the  vertebree  are  connected  allows  easy  motion 
of  the  spine  from  side  to  side,  and  the  muscles 
destined  to  move  it  are  so  largely  developed  as 
to  form  the  principal  bulk  of  the  body ;  while 
the  vertical  tins  increase  the  amount  of  oar-Hke 
surface  for  purposes  of  locomotion,  the  pecto* 
rais  and  ventrals  keep  the  fish  in  an  upright 
position,  and  assist  in  directing  its  course ;  the 
movements  of  the  gill  covers,  by  forcing  back- 
ward the  water  which  is  passing  between  them, 
contribute  to  propel  the  fidi  forward.    In  the 

Eipe  fish  {tyn^nathus)  the  dorsal  fin  in  its  vi- 
ration  resembles  that  of  the  screw  of  a  steam 
propeller,  and,  with  a  similar  action  of  the  tail, 
causes  a  forward  or  backward  motion  without 
any  apparent  movement  of  the  body ;  the  nice 
ac^ustment  of  the  movements  of  the  tins  of  the 
pickerel,  so  that  while  every  ray  seems  in  ac- 
tion the  fish  is  perfectly  stationary,  must  have 
been  noticed  by  every  angler.  The  movements 
of  fishes  in  a  vertical  direction  are  greatly  as- 
sisted by  the  swimming  or  air  bladder,  which, 
though  anatomically  a  rudimentary  lung,  by  the 
air  which  it  secretes  enables  those  that  have  it 
to  rise  or  fall  in  the  water  by  compression  or 
extension  exercised  by  the  ribs;  it  is  placed  in 
the  abdomen  under  the  spine,  and  communi- 
cates often  with  the  oesophagus  or  stomach; 
the  air  is  a  product  of  secretion,  and  its  contain- 
ing reservoir  is  sometimes  a  shut  sac ;  it  is  often 
wanting  in  some  species  of  a  genus  when  others 
possess  it,  and  is  generally  very  small  or  absent 
in  ground  fishes,  such  as  skates  and  turbots ;  in 
some  cases  it  is  considerably  vascular,  resem- 
bling very  much  a  pulmonary  sac.  The  muscles 
of  fishes  are  generally  pale  and  comparatively 
soft,  divided  into  parallel  layers  by  aponeu- 
rotic laminffi ;  the  flavor  and  odor  are  very  dif- 
ferent from  those  of  flesh,  and  the  gases  of  de- 
composition are  much  more  fetid.  Some  flshes 
have  a  singular  apparatus  by  which  they  adhere 
to  other  bodies,  animate  or  inanimate ;  in  the 
remora,  of  the  genus  eeheneis,  there  is  a  flat- 
tened disk  on  the  top  of  the  head,  composed 
of  movable  cartilaginous  plates,  by  which  it 
fixes  itself  to  stones  or  the  bodies  of  other  fish- 
es ;  in  the  lump  fish  and  other  discoboli^  the 
ventrals  are  arranged  to  act  as  suckers  for  at- 
taching them  to  various  substances;  the  lam- 
prey eel  (petramygon)  also  attaches  itself  by 
the  mouth  to  stones  and  fishes.  Referring  the 
reader  to  Comparative  Anatomt  for  detaib 
on  the  nervous  system,  the  organs  of  sense,  the 
scales,  and  the  digestive  apparatus,  only  gen- 
eral points  of  interest  need  be  mentioned  here. 
The  cavity  of  the  skull  is  very  small  compared 
to  the  size  of  the  body,  and  the  brain  is  far 
from  filling  it,  a  considerable  space  being  oc- 
cupied by  a  spongy  fatty  substance ;  the  lobes 
are  placed  one  behind  the  other  in  the  follow- 
ing order  from  before  backward:  olfactory 
or  lobes  of  smell,  the  cerebral  hemispheres,  the 
optic  or  lobes  of  vision,  and  the  cerebellum. 
From  the  scaly  covering  of  their  skin,  the  sense 
of  touch  must  be  obtuse,  and  the  lips  are  their 


238 


FISHES 


only  preheDsile  and  principal  tactile  organs, 
with  ihe  exception  of  the  barbels  and  other 
appendages  above  alluded  to.  The  corneous, 
slightly  movable,  and  often  tooth-armed  tongue 
receives  but  few  nerves,  and  cannot  be  the 
seat  of  any  sense  worthy  of  the  name  of  taste ; 
and  moreover,  the  food  does  not  remain  long 
enough  in  the  mouth  for  any  exercise  of  this 
sense.  The  olfactory  apparatus  is  more  com- 
plicated, but  it  is  traversed  neither  by  air  nor 
the  water  used  in  respiration ;  the  nasal  cavi- 
ties do  not  communicate  with  the  mouth.  The 
ear,  almost  always  entirely  within  the  cranium, 
on  the  sides  of  the  brain,  consists  essentially  of 
a  vestibule  and  three  semicircular  canals,  which 
receive  the  vibrations  of  the  integuments  and 
cranial  walls ;  there  is  rarely  anything  that 
can  be  called  external  ear,  drum,  or  tympanic 
cavity ;  loud,  sudden,  and  strange  sounds  fright- 
en fishes,  as  the  experience  of  every  fisherman 
tells  him;  in  ancient,  and  even  in  modern 
times,  they  have  been  taught  to  come  and  re- 
ceive food  at  the  tinkle  of  a  bell,  or  the  pro- 
nunciation of  pet  names.  The  eyes  have 
neither  true  lids  nor  lachrymal  apparatus ;  the 
pupil  is  large  and  permanently  open,  the  lens 
IS  spherical,  and  the  fiat  cornea  is  covered  by 
the  skin.  Fishes  are  very  voracious,  most  of 
them  living  on  animal  food,  and  swallowing 
indiscriminately  anything  of  this  kind  which 
comes  in  their  way;  some  genera,  like  the 
lamprey  eels,  live  upon  the  juices  of  other  fish, 
and  the  mouth  is  provided  with  circular  car- 
tilages, fieshy  disks,  teeth,  and  a  piston-like 
tongue,  which  enable  them  to  adhere  to  any 
surface.  The  intestinal  canal  is  short  and  sim- 
1)le,  and  digestion  is  rapidly  performed,  and 
their  increase  in  size  is  remarkably  affected  by 
the  nature  and  abundance  of  their  food ;  their 
limits  as  to  size  and  the  natural  duration  of  life 
are  very  little  known  in  the  great  mtgority  of 
species. — The  blood  of  fishes  is  red,  and  the 
globules  are  elliptical  and  of  considerable  size. 
The  heart  is  placed  under  the  throat  in  a  cavity 
separated  from  the  abdomen  by  a  kind  of  dia- 
phragm, protected  by  the  pharyngeal  bones 
above,  the  branchial  arches  on  the  sides,  and 
generally  by  the  scapular  arch  behind;  it  con- 
sists of  a  venous  sinus,  auricle,  ventricle,  and 
bulb ;  all  these  cavities  circulate  venous  blood, 
and  therefore  physiologically  correspond  to  the 
right  side  of  the  mammalian  heart,  though 
Owen  says  that  the  heart  of  fishes  with  the 
muscular  branchial  artery  is  the  true  homologue 
of  the  left  auricle,  ventricle,  and  aorta  of 
higher  vertebrates,  tracing  the  complication  of 
the  organ  synthetically ;  the  auricle  and  ven- 
tricle, however,  are  alone  proper  to  the  heart 
itself,  the  sinus  being  the  termination  of  the 
venous  system,  and  the  bulb  an  addition  to  the 
pulmonary  artery;  these  four  compartments, 
therefore,  are  not  like  the  four  divisions  of  the 
human  heart,  but  succeed  each  other  in  a  linear 
series.  The  circulation  is  double,  that  of  the 
system  at  large  and  that  of  the  branchi®  being 
complete  and  distinct,  and  there  is  also  an  ab- 


dominal circulation  terminating  at  the  liver; 
the  peculiar  character  is  that  the  branchial 
circulation  alone  is  provided  with  a  propelling 
cavity  or  heart,  the  branchial  veins  changing 
into  arteries  without  any  intermediate  left  au- 
ricle and  ventricle.  The  venous  sinus  receives 
the  blood  from  the  general  system,  after  the 
manner  of  venss  cavee ;  it  is  not  usually  situ- 
ated within  the  pericardium.  The  auricle, 
when  distended,  is  larger  in  proportion  to  the 
ventricle  than  in  the  higher  vertebrates;  its 
walls  are  membranous,  with  thin  muscular  fas- 
ciculi, and  its  simple  cavity  communicates  with 
the  ventricle  by  a  single  opening  guarded  by 
free  semilunar  valves,  tw^o  to  four  in  number. 
The  ventricle,  usually  a  four-sided  pyramid,  is 
very  muscular,  and  its  fibres  are  redder  than 
those  of  any  other  part  of  the  system ;  its  cav- 
ity is  simple,  the  auricular  valve  generally  free 
and  without  chordsB  tendinese,  and  its  opening 
into  the  bulb  provided  with  two  or  four  semi- 
lunar valves.  The  contractile  hulbus  (trterio- 
SU9  is  provided  in  the  ganoids  and  plagiostomes 
with  several  rows  of  valves,  and  its  muscular 
walls  are  distinct  from  those  of  the  ventricle. 
The  immediate  force  of  the  hearths  action  is 
applied  through  the  continuation  of  the  bulb 
into  the  branchial  artery,  which  is  generally 
short,  and  is  divided  into  lateral  branches  going 
to  the  gills ;  the  blood,  which  has  become  ar- 
terialized  by  its  subjection  po  the  air  contained 
in  the  respired  water,  is  carried  along  the  re- 
turning vessels  into  the  branchial  veins,  the 
analogues  of  the  pulmonary  veins  of  man ;  the 
four  on  each  side  form  the  aortic  circle  from 
which  the  pure  blood  is  sent  over  the  system 
through  the  carotids  and  the  aorta  and  its 
branches ;  the  blood  of  the  chylopoietic  viscera 
passes  through  the  liver  before  entering  the 
great  sinus.  Though  all  the  blood  passes 
through  the  branchial  apparatus,  it  traverses 
the  heart  but  once. — Respiration  is  effected  by 
means  of  the  innumerable  vascular  lamells  and 
tufts  attached  to  the  external  edge  of  the 
branchial  arches ;  these  are  generally  four  on 
each  side,  each  composed  of  two  rows  of 
fringes ;  in  most  cartilaginous  fishes  there  are 
five,  and  in  the  lamprey  seven ;  in  the  last  fish 
there  is  a  canal  from  the  mouth  to  the  re^ira- 
tory  cavity,  resembling  a  trachea.  Fishes  con- 
sume but  a  small  amount  of  oxygen,  but  some, 
not  content  with  that  contained  in  the  water, 
come  to  the  surface  occasionally  to  swallow 
air ;  they  perish  soon  out  of  water  in  propor- 
tion to  the  quickness  with  which  the  gills  be- 
come dry,  asphyxia  being  produced  not  by  the 
want  of  oxygen  directly,  but  because  the  blood 
cannot  circulate  in  them  properly  unless  sus- 
tained and  kept  soft  by  water.  Though  fishes 
produce  little  heat,  some  possess  the  singulai- 
faculty  of  generating  and  discharging  electri- 
city. (See  Eleotbio  Fishes.)— Fishes  reproduce 
by  means  of  eggs,  the  number  of  which  in  some 
species  amounts  to  hundreds  of  thousands; 
these  have  generally  only  a  mucila^ous  en- 
velope, and  are  fecundated  after  being  Icud; 


FISHES 


239 


a  few  ei^oy  sexual  congress,  and  are  ovorivipa- 
rons  and  viviparous,  but  the  young  are  inmost 
always  left  to  themselves  as  soon  as  born.  It 
is  owing  to  the  simultaneous  development  of 
great  numbers  of  eggs  deposited  in  the  same 
locality,  and  to  the  instinct  possessed  by  some 
species  to  keep  in  company,  that  fish  occur  in 
what  are  called  banks  and  schools;  these 
schools,  composed  of  individuals  kept  together 
only  by  similarity  of  food  and  habits,  and  in 
which  each  one  looks  out  for  himself  without 
regard  to  the  wants  of  the  rest,  make  long  mi- 
grations from  the  sea  to  the  rivers  and  back 
again,  and  from  one  favorite  locality  to  another. 
At  the  time  of  laying  the  eggs,  the  migrating 
species  generally  approach  the  shores,  and  as- 
cend rivers,  often  coming  thousands  of  miles ; 
year  after  year,  at  the  same  season,  the  fish 
appear  in  immense  numbers.  The  migrations 
of  the  herrings,  salmon,  shad,  smelt,  mackerel, 
&c.,  aflford  well  known  instances  of  these  phe- 
nomena. All  fishes  are  of  distinct  sex.  The 
testes  vary  much  in  form  in  the  osseous  fishes, 
and  are  remarkable  for  their  enormous  devel- 
opment in  the  breeding  season,  when  they  are 
called  milt  or  soft  roe.  The  ovaries  in  most 
osseous  fishes  are  two  elongated  sacs,  closed 
anteriorly,  and  produced  posteriorly  into  short, 
straight,  and  wide  oviducts,  which  coalesce 
before  reaching  the  cloaca ;  the  greatly  devel- 
oped ova  are  called  the  roe.  There  are  several 
interesting  points  in  connection  with  the  de- 
velopment of  fishes  which  will  be  better  intro- 
duced here  than  in  special  articles.  In  most 
fishes  it  has  been  already  stated  that  the  ezclu- 
fflon  of  the  ova  or  roe  precedes  fecundation,  and 
that  in  a  few  (the  sharks  and  rays  especially) 
the  ova  are  fecundated  before  exclusion ;  when 
the  embryonic  membranes  contract  no  adhe- 
sion to  the  uterine  walls,  the  fish  is  called  ovo- 
viviparous,  and  in  such  the  embryo  escapes 
from  the  egg  before  it  quits  the  parent,  while 
in  the  ovipara  the  ovum  is  expelled  while  the 
embryo  is  contained  in  it;  when  adhesion 
takes  place  by  vascular  interlacements,  the 
species  is  said  to  be  viviparous ;  the  great  dif- 
ference between  viviparous  fishes  and  mammals 
is,  that  in  the  former  the  rupture  of  the  mem- 
branes takes  place  long  before  birth,  while  in 
the  latter  this  occurs  at  the  moment  of  exclu- 
sion. The  sudden  and  great  increase  of  tlie 
milt  and  roe  is  not  compatible  with  a  firm  bony 
cavity  snch  as  would  be  formed  by  ribs  and 
sternum;  this  explains  the  physiological  rea- 
son for  their  free  or  floating  ribs.  At  the  ap- 
proach of  the  breeding  season  the  colors  be* 
come  brilliant,  as  is  familiarly  seen  in  the  bright 
red  throat  of  the  male  stickleback ;  the  female 
seeks  to  deposit  her  eggs  in  shoal  water,  where 
the  heat  and  light  of  the  sun  may  bring  them 
to  maturity,  and  the  male  follows  close  to  difftise 
the  fecundating  milt  over  them.  It  is  well 
known  that  some  fishes  deposit  their  eggs  in 
species  of  nests,  as  the  stickleback,  bream  (po- 
fnotis)^  and  lamprey ;  Aristotle  mentions  a  fish 
of  the  Mediterranean,  a  species  of  gohiiu^  as 

828  voi*  vii.-^16 


making  a  nest  of  seaweeds  and  depositing  the 
spawn  in  it,  the  male  keeping  guard  over  the 
female  and  her  young;  the  hassars,  siluroid 
fishes  of  Demerara  (callicthya),  make  nests  of 
grass  and  leaves,  and  both  sexes  guard  the  eggs 
and  young;  the  toad  fish  {hairachus)  has  been 
observed  on  the  south  shore  of  Long  Island 
lying  concealed  in  deep  boles  protecting  its 
young,  which  attach  themselves  to  stones  by 
means  of  the  yolk  sac.  Another  kind  of  incu- 
bation is  found  in  the  pipe  fish  (syvffnathve), 
in  which  the  ova  are  transferred  from  the  fe- 
male to  a  kind  of  marsupial  pouch  under  the 
tail  of  the  mule,  being  fecundated  during  this 
process,  and  the  cavity  closing  over  them; 
when  the  young  are  hatched  they  follow  the 
male,  and  return  into  the  pouch  at  the  approach 
of  danger ;  the  male  hippoeampvs  or  sea  horse 
has  a  similar  subabdoroinal  marsupial  pouch. 
In  some  species  of  bagr6,  a  siluroid  fish  from 
the  rivers  of  Surinam,  the  females  carry  their 
eggs  in  the  mouth,  showing  the  young  in  va- 
rious stages  of  development  even  to  the  fish 
recently  hatched;  eggs  of  two  distinct  species 
have  been  found  in  the  mouth  of  a  single  indi- 
vidual. In  the  aspredoB,  or  irompettis^  the  eggs 
are  attached  by  pedicles  surmounted  by  cups 
to  the  under  side  of  the  abdomen  as  far  for- 
ward as  the  mouth,  on  the  sides  of  the  pectoral 
and  ventral  fins,  and  as  far  as  the  middle  of  the 
tail;  after  the  eggs  are  hatched  the  pedicles 
are  absorbed.  Viviparous  fishes  may  be  di- 
vided into  two  groups:  the  first  includes  those 
in  which  the  gestation  is  almost  wholly  ova- 
rian, as  in  embiotocay  anahlepi^  hlenniuSy  he; 
the  second  those  in  which  the  eg^  enters  the 
oviduct  before  the  development  of  the  embryo 
begins,  as  in  the  plagiostomes.  Prof  J.  Wyman 
("  Proceedings  of  the  Boston  Society  of  Nat- 
ural History,"  vols.  v.  and  vi.)  has  described  the 
devolopment  of  andblepa  Granovii  (see  Ana- 
BLEPs),  in  which  he  found  the  ovarian  egg  free  in 
a  distinct  closed  sac,  as  the  mammalian  ovum  is 
in  the  Graafian  vesicle ;  when  the  foetuses  escape 
into  the  oviduct  the  gestation  is  carried  on 
nearly  to  its  completion  in  the  ovisac,  ^'hich 
becomes  vascular,  and  by  its  apposition  with 
the  papillre  of  the  yolk  sac  carries  on  the  func- 
tions of  respiration  and  nutrition.  In  the  em- 
biotocoidcB  of  California  the  mode  of  develop- 
ment is  similar;  in  E,  lineata  Girard  found 
young  three  inches  long  and  one  inch  deep ;  in 
another  genus  of  the  group  (holeonotus)  he  de- 
tected as  many  as  16  young  about  an  inch  long, 
which  had  evidently  recently  escaped  from  the 
egg  shell ;  the  ovarian  gestation  here  is  some- 
what different  from  that  in  anableps^  as  the 
young  ova  are  seen  between  the  dividing  mem- 
branes of  the  ovary  while  the  foetuses  are  in 
course  of  development  in  the  general  cavity  of 
the  organ ;  it  is  not  determined  whether  their 
ova  leave  the  ovisac  before  or  after  impregna- 
tion. Many  species  of  gadidcB,  as  the  cod,  had- 
dock, whiting,  and  American  hake,  have  been 
found  to  have  a  viviparous  reproduction,  the 
embryos  being  developed  within  the  ovary,. 


240 


FISHES 


thus  confirming  the  supposition  of  many  in- 
teUigent  fishermen.  iDtenial  impregnation  is 
very  general  in  the  plagiostomes,  and  as  this  is 
more  certain  than  the  indiscriminate  spawning 
of  common  fishes,  the  eggs  are  much  fewer  in 
number  and  of  larger  size,  as  in  birds ;  the  egg 
in  its  passage  through  the  oviduct  receives  a 
dense  corneous  covering,  so  that  the  cases 
resemble  oblong  flattened  pillows,  often  with 
long  tendrils  at  the  comers,  in  which  the  em- 
bryo is  snugly  coiled  up ;  they  become  attached 
to  objects  floating^  near  the  surface,  and  are 
there  developed  by  the  influence  of  solar  light 
and  heat ;  from  the  researches  of  Prof.  Wyman 
it  appears  that  in  the  skates  the  eggs  are  fecun- 
dated in  the  ovary,  and  that  the  egg  case  is 
formed  in  advance  to  receive  it  as  it  descends. 
From  these  and  other  structural  peculiarities 
Agassiz  has  separated  the  chimsBrss,  sharks, 
and  rays  from  flshes  proper,  and  elevated  them 
into  a  class,  the  selachians.  Many  facts  go  to 
show  that  flshes  undergo  a  kind  of  metamor- 
phosis as  well  as  insects.  August  MnUer  has 
proved  that  the  two  genera  hitherto  considered 
characteristic  of  the  cyclostome  fishes  are  really 
different  stages  of  the  same  animal;  he  has 
raised  ammoeetes  from  the  egg  of  petromyzon^ 
and  watched  the  change  of  the  former  into  the 
latter  genus. — The  usual  mode  of  impregnation 
in  osseous  fishes,  so  analogous  to  the  manner  in 
which  the  fertilizing  pollen  is  brought  in  con- 
tact with  the  stigmata  of  flowers,  naturally 
suggested  the  idea  of  artiflcial  impregnation; 
and  this  has  been  successfully  practised  both  by 
naturalists  for  the  study  of  embryology,  and  by 
fish  breeders  as  a  profltable  branch  of  industry. 
(See  Fish  Cultuee.) — ^In  most  flshes  the  young 
when  hatched  are  left  to  shift  for  themselves, 
and  of  course  the  greater  number  are  devoured 
by  larger  flsli,  aquatic  birds,  and  reptiles ;  many 
species  devour  each  other ;  small  mackerel  are 
often  found  in  the  stomachs  of  larger  individu- 
als, when  they  are  abundant;  so  that  with  all 
their  fecundity  the  class  of  flshes  does  not  mul- 
tiply beyond  the  limits  set  by  nature.  Though 
flshes  are  cold-blooded,  and  the  watery  ele- 
ment is  less  affected  by  sudden  changes  of  tem- 
perature than  the  air,  there  are  external  cir- 
cumstances which  limit  their  distribution  both 
in  depth  and  extent  of  surface.  The  difference 
in  density  and  chemical  constitution  of  salt  and 
fresh  water  draws  the  line  between  the  marine 
and  the  fiuviatile  faunas ;  below  a  certain  depth, 
probably  not  far  from  120  &thoms,  the  absence 
of  light  and  the  increase  of  pressure  would 
prove  an  insurmountable  barrier  to  most  of  the 
class.  Fishes  are  able  to  resist  extreme  cold, 
and  to  regain  vitality  after  having  been  appa- 
rently frozen,  bnt  the  average  of  cold  has  an 
important  influence  on  their  geographical  dis- 
tribution ;  the  average  temperature  of  the  water 
for  the  year  has  been  usually  taken  as  the  reg^ 
ulator  of  this  distribution,  but  Dana  has  shown 
that  the  line  of  temperature  established  by  the 
average  of  the  80  coldest  days  in  the  year  gives 
the  clue  to  the  limits  of  the  marine  faunse.    A 


few  arctic  species  are  the  same  in  America  and 
Europe,  migrating  southward  from  the  same 
northern  centre;  but  below  this  region  the 
marine  fauna  of  America  is  essentially  tropical, 
and  that  of  Europe  essentially  temperate.  In 
the  Atlantic  the  zones  of  temperature  are  re- 
markably modified  by  the  Arctic,  Gulf  stream, 
and  African  currents;  on  the  American  side 
the  temperate  zone  extends  only  from  Cape 
Cod  to  Cape  Hatteras,  about  10  degrees  of  lati- 
tude, while  on  the  eastern  it  extends  from  the 
Swedish  coast  to  the  Cape  Verd  islands,  nearly 
five  times  as  many  degrees;  while  the  tropical 
zone,  which  in  America  extends  from  Cape 
Hatteras  to  25°  S.,  or  60  degrees,  on  the  other 
side  embraces  only  about  20  degrees  on  the 
Guinea  coast  of  Africa.  As  a  few  instances 
of  local  distribution,  in  contradistinction  to  the 
cosmopolitan  scomberoids  and  cyprinoids,  may 
be  mentioned  the  American  cottoids  and  goni- 
odonts,  the  Mediterranean  sparoids,  the  tropi- 
cal 6ci»noids,«^iiammi/>0n7UB,  and  mullets;  the 
pleuronectida  of  the  temperate  regions;  the 
tropical  fresh-water  eharacini  of  America  and 
Africa;  the  true  salmons  of  arctic  and  cold 
regions ;  and  the  marine  labroids,  and  fresh- 
water chromids.  Estimating  the  number  of 
vertebrates  at  20,000,  the  number  of  living  spe- 
cies of  fish  may  be  set  down  at  10,000,  of  which 
more  than  6,000  are  described. — Of  all  the  ver- 
tebrata,  fishes  are  by  far  the  most  numerous 
and  widely  distributed  in  the  earth's  strata ; 
their  remains  are  found  from  the  Silurian  to 
the  tertiary  formations,  and  are  of  great  aid 
in  determining  the  changes  of  the  surface  of 
our  planet  during  successive  and  long  geologi- 
cal periods.  The  first  great  geologicu  division, 
the  primary  age,  comprises  the  lower  and  up- 
per Silurian  and  the  Devonian ;  till  the  close 
of  tliis  age  there  were  no  air-breathing  ani- 
mals, and  in  the  Devonian  period  fishes  were 
the  lords  of  creation ;  the  latter  has,  there- 
fore, been  very  properly  called  the  "age  of 
flshes.'*  Agassiz,  in  his  Recherches  »ur  U^poU- 
8on$  foasiles  (1688-43),  laid  the  foundation  of 
fossil  ichthyology ;  1,000  species  are  described 
in  the  most  complete  and  scientific  manner, 
with  superb  illustrations.  He  divides  fossil 
fishes,  as  he  afterward  did  the  recent  ones,  into 
four  orders,  according  to  the  form  and  structure 
of  their  scales ;  these  orders,  ganoids,  placoids, 
ctenoids,  and  cycloids,  have  been  sufliciently 
described  in  the  article  Compabative  Anato- 
my ^vol.  v.,  p.  1 72).  Three  fourths  of  all  known 
fossil  flshes  belong  to  the  ctenoids  and  cycloids, 
which  occur  in  all  formations  from  the  chalk 
upward;  the  remaining  fourth  belong  chiefly 
to  the  ganoids  (with  enamelled  scales  like  the 
garpike  and  sturgeon)  and  the  placoids  (like 
sharks  and  rays),  and  extend  through  all  the 
fossiliferous  strata,  but  are  most  numerous  in 
the  coal,  Jurassic,  chalk,  and  tertiary  forma- 
tions; no  flsh  with  ctenoid  scales  (like  the 
perch)  or  cycloid  (like  the  cod)  is  found  below 
the  chalk.  The  forms  of  the  earlier  flshes  were 
many  of  them  very  strange;  the  pectorals  were 


FISH  HAWK 

very  Huall  and  &lwftja  in  adv&Doe  of  the  Ten- 
trab ;  above  the  ohilk,  the  ventrsls  begin  to 
dppruech  nearer  the  head ;  they  were  not  w> 
falJy  developed  as  our  tishes,  bot  Keem  to  have 
been,  like  the  Btur)(eoD,  arrested  in  their  de- 
velopment. Uuring  this  epoch  the  sea  cover- 
ed the  greater  part  of  the  earface  of  the  globe, 
and  all  animals  whose  remaiDB  have  been  pre- 
served were  witliont  exception  aqnatic,  breath- 
ing bj  gills;  the  climate  most  have  been  uni- 
form and  warm;  the  dry  land  had  hardly  ap- 
peared alMive  the  waters,  and  all  creation  was 
u  silent  as  in  mid  ocean. — For  the  Bjiitematio 
cisaufication  of  fishes,  and  tlie  history  of  the 
MieDce,  Bee  Iobthtoloot. 

FKH  HAWK,  a  bird  of  prey,  of  the  family /a^ 
emidOf  sabfiunily  agvilina,  and  ganaapandioa 
(Savigny).  This  genaa,  which  twlongs  to  the 
suae  Bnbfunily  with  the  eagles,  is  character- 
ized by  a  abort  bill,  curved  from  the  base  to 
the  acute  hooked  tip,  compressed  laterally  with 
slightly  festooned  mai^na;  wings  extending 


FI8HK1LL 


241 


Amokiii  Flih  Rmk.  or  Oqinj  (PutdiOB  CuoBneiuti). 

to  tip  of  tail,  the  second  and  third  (mills  equal 
and  longest;  tail  moderate  and  rather  even; 
^uera)  form  heavier  and  less  adapted  for  rapid 
and  vigorous  flight  than  that  of  the  eagles; 
tarn  short  and  strong,  covered  with  small  circu- 
lar scales  ;  toes  very  rough  beneath,  long,  and 
united  at  the  base ;  claws  long,  cnrved,  and 
■harp.  Gray  describes  only  three  species :  P. 
Carolineniu  (Gniel.)  in  America,  P.  haliaitvt 
(Liu.)  in  the  old  world,  and  P.  Uveoeephahi* 
(Gould)  in  Anrtralia,  These  species  are  nearly 
allied  to  each  other,  and  inhabit  the  temperate 
rwona,  in  the  vicinity  of  lakes,  rivers,  and 
shallow  arms  of  the  sea ;  they  have  been  seen 
•everal  hundred  miles  from  land,  probably 
driven  off  the  coast  by  severe  storms. — The 
female  American  fish  hawk;  or  osprey,  is  26 
in.  long,  with  an  extent  of  wings  of  abo^t  6  ft. ; 
the  male  is  somewhat  smaller.  In  the  adnlt 
tlie  head  and  under  parts  are  white ;  a  stripe 
tbrongh  the  eye,  the  top  of  the  bead  and  np- 


per  parts  wings,  and  tail,  deep  omber  brown, 
the  latter  having  about  eight  bands  of  black- 
ish brown;  numerous  spots  of  pale  yellowish 
brown  on  the  breast;  bill  and  claws  blnish 
black ;  tarsi  and  toes  greenish  yellow ;  the 
tibial  featiiers  short,  and  the  tarsns  feathered 
one  tliird  the  way  down  in  front;  the  young 
have  the  upper  parts  edged  with  white.  This 
well  known  species  inhabits  the  continent  from 
the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific;  its  powerful  and 
protracted  flight,  and  the  dexterity  which  it 
displays  in  catehing  fish,  render  it  conspicnons 
among  our  birds  of  prey.  It  is  one  of  the  most 
sociable  of  the  hawks,  migrating  in  consider* 
able  numlrars  along  the  coast  in  spring  and 
aatnmn ;  it  is  mild,  even  timorous  in  its  dis- 
position, rarely  quarrelling  with  its  mates,  and 
even  nesting  on  the  same  tree  with  birds  which 
other  members  of  its  family  would  chase  or 
destroy  ;  the  readiness  with  which  it  yields  ita 
prey  to  the  eegle  has  been  alluded  to  nnder 
that  head.  It  never  pursnes  ita  prey  in  the 
air;  flying  at  a  moderate  height  above  the 
water,  wheu  it  sees  a  fish  witbm  its  reach  it 
closes  its  wings,  and  plunges  headlong,  some- 
times entirely  disappearing  tielow  the  surface ; 
if  successful,  it  retires  to  its  nest  or  to  a  tree  to 
eat  it  at  leisure ;  it  is  said  sometimes  to  strike 
a  fish  too  heavy  for  it*  strength  to  raise,  and, 
unable  to  free  itself^  to  be  drawn  under  water 
and  drowned.  Though  a  heavy  flier  compered 
to  the  eagle,  its  flight  is  high  and  its  motions 
graceful ;  in  the  rare  instances  in  which  it 
alights  on  the  ground,  it  walks  in  a  very  awk- 
ward manner.  The  fish  hawk  appears  in  the 
middle  states  from  the  south  ahont  the  begin- 
ning of  April,  and  is  welcomed  by  tbefiBhermon 
as  the  forerunner  of  various  kinds  of  fiah  ;  it 
goes  southward  a^n  as  winter  approaches. 
The  males  arrive  eight  or  ten  days  before  the 
females ;  during  the  love  season  both  sexes  as- 
sist in 'making  new  nests  and  in  repairing  old 
ones,  and  in  incubation ;  the  nest  is  placed  in 
the  fork  of  a  high  tree  near  the  water,  and  is 
composed  of  slickB,  grass,  and  seaweeds,  firmly 
united,  three  or  four  .feet  wide  and  as  many 
deep.  As  evidence  of  its  gentle  dispowtion, 
Audubon  says  that  he  has  seen  the  fish  crow 
and  purple  grakle  raising  their  families  in  nests 
bnilt  among  the  outer  sticks  of  the  fish  hawk'a 
nest  The  eggs  are  three  or  fonr  in  number, 
broadly  oval,  yellowish  wliite,  with  nnmerons 
large  irregular  niots  of  reddish  brown  ;  the 
yonng  are  carefully  fed  and  protected,  and 
often  remain  in  the  nest  until  they  are  as  large 
as  the  parents;  only  one  brood  is  raised  in  a 
season.  When  wounded,  they  defend  them- 
selves with  bill  and  claws ;  they  are  capable 
of  flying  off  with  a  fish  weighing  S  tbs,— The 
fish  hawk  of  Europe  resembles  very  moch  the 
American  bird. 

FISHKILL,  a  town  and  village  of  Dntehess 
CO.,  New  York,  on  the  Hndson  river  and  the 
Hudson  River  railroad,  opposite  Newburgh,  6S 
m.  N.  of  New  York;  pop.  of  the  town  in  1870, 
11,752;   of  the  viUage,  7S7.     The  village  b 


342 


FISK 


FISTULA 


Bitaated  on  Fishkill  creek,  a  small  afflaent  of 
the  Hadson,  about  6  m.  N.  £.  of  its  mouth,  and 
contains  four  churches,  a  weekly  newspaper, 
and  a  national  and  a  savings  bank.  The  town 
also  contains  the  villages  of  Fishkill  Land- 
ing, Glenham,  Matteawan,  Carthage  Landing, 
Hughsonville,  and  a  part  of  Wappinger^s  Falls. 
Fishkill  Landing  is  situated  on  tlie  Hudson, 
near  the  mouth  of  Fishkill  creek,  and  is  con- 
nected by  ferry  with  Newburgh;  pop.  2,992. 
It  contains  an  iron  foundery  and  machine  shop, 
several  factories,  a  national  bank,  two  news- 
papers, and  three  churches.  Glenham,  Mat- 
teawan, and  Wappinger^s  Falls  are  also  impor- 
tant manufacturing  places.  The  Dutchess  and 
Columbia  division  of  the  New  York,  Boston, 
and  Montreal  railroad  extends  through  the 
town  from  £.  to  W.,  and  connects  with  the 
New  York  and  Harlem  and  the  Connecticut 
Western  railroads  at  Millerton. 

FISIL)  WUbw,  an  American  clergyman  and 
educator,  bom  at  Brattleboro,  Yt.,  Aug.  31, 
1792,  died  at  Middletown,  Conn.,  Feb.  22, 1838. 
He  was  educated  at  the  grammar  school  in 
Peacham,  Vt.,  at  the  university  of  Vermont, 
and  at  Brown  university,  where  he  graduated 
in  1815.  He  then  began  the  study  of  law,  but 
in  1818  entered  the  itinerant  ministry  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  church.  In  1823  he  was 
presiding  elder  of  the  Vermont  district.  The 
following  year  he  left  the  itinerant  work  to 
devote  himself  to  the  cause  of  Christian  educa- 
tion. At  the  date  of  his  entering  the  ministry 
there  was  not  a  single  literary  institution  of 
importance  under  the  auspices  of  the  Methodist 
church  in  America.  In  connection  with  others 
he  founded  the  academy  of  Wilbraham,  Mass., 
of  which  he  became  principal  in  1826.  In  1828 
he  was  elected  bishop  of  the  Canada  conference. 
The  following  year  he  was  chosen  at  nearly 
the  same  time  president  of  La  Grange  college, 
Alabama,  and  a  professor  in  the  nniversity  of 
Alabama.  The  Wesleyan  university.  Middle- 
town,  Conn.,  was  founded  in  1830,  and  Dr. 
Fisk,  having  declined  all  other  appointments, 
was  elected  its  first  president.  In  the  general 
conference  of  1832  he  was  foremost  in  advoca- 
ting the  establishment  of  the  Oregon  mission. 
On.  account  of  impaired  health,  he  made  the 
tour  of  Europe  in  1 835-^6.  During  his  absence 
he  was  elected  bishop  of  the  Methodist  Epis- 
copal, church,  but  declined  the  office,  to  con- 
tinue that  work  in  which  he  had  become  the 
representative  man  of  his  church.  His  chief 
works  are :  *^  Sermons  and  Lectures  on  Uni- 
versalism,"  "  Reply  to  Pierpont  on  the  Atone- 
ment," "The  Calvinistic  Controversy,"  and 
"  Travels  in  Europe."  His  life  has  been  writ- 
ten by  the  Rev.  Joseph  Holdich  (1842). 

FIBULA  (Lat.,  a  pipe),  an  ulcer  in  the  form 
of  a  narrow  canal,  more  or  less  deep  and  sinu- 
ous, lined  by  a  pale  false  mucous  membrane, 
indolent  and  indisposed  to  heal,  kept  up  by 
some  local,  pathological  condition  of  the  soft 
parts  or  bones,  or  by  the  presence  of  some 
foreign  irritating  body,  and  leading  or  not  to  a 


Buppnrating  cavity.  There  may  be  a  single 
external  or  internal  opening,  or  there  may  be  a 
conmiunication  between  the  skin  and  the  mu- 
cous, serous,  or  synovial  cavity.  Some  writers 
restrict  the  term  fistula  to  such  of  the  above 
lesions  as  take  their  origin  from  some  natural 
cavity  or  excretory  duct,  while  those  commu- 
nicating with  abscesses  and  caused  by  foreign 
bodies  or  disease  of  the  bones  are  called  fistu- 
lous ulcers  or  sinuses ;  but  the  distinction  is  of 
little  importance,  as  the  pathological  conditions 
and  the  principles  of  treatment  are  the  same. 
Fistulas  arise  when  abscesses  are  not  thor- 
oughly healed  from  the  bottom,  when  any  irri- 
tating substance  (as  a  ligature  or  a  piece  of 
dead  bone)  remains  in  the  tissues,  or  after 
wounds  of  excretory  ducts.  If  superficial  and 
of  recent  origin,  fistulas  may  heal  of  them- 
selves; but  if  deep-seated  or  chronic,  they 
generally  require  surgical  interference.  They 
are  usually  rather  tedious  and  annoying  than 
dangerous ;  but  when  large,  deep,  with  several 
openings  and  profuse  discharge,  they  may  pro- 
duce hectic  fev|p-  and  fatal  exhaustion.  The 
principles  of  treatment  are :  to  remove  any  ir- 
ritating cause,  as  a  piece  of  dead  bone  or  foreign 
body ;  to  prevent  the  accumulation  of  matter, 
by  counter  openings,  if  necessary,  and  by  prop- 
erly directea  compression;  and  to  excit«  ad- 
hesive inflammation  by  pressure,  stimulating 
injections  and  applications,  setons,  caustic,  and, 
as  a  last  resort,  incision  of  the  fistula,  that  the 
soft  parts  may  have  an  opportunity  of  healing 
from  the  very  bottom  of  the  wound ;  the  con- 
stitution should  also  be  strengthened  by  nour- 
ishing diet  and  tonic  medicines.  The  most 
common  varieties  are  the  anal,  lachrymal,  sali- 
vary, and  urinary  fistulas. — Anal  fistula  is  situ- 
ated by  the  side  of  the  sphincter  ani  muscle, 
and  is  difficult  to  heal  both  on  account  of  the 
constant  muscular  contractions  and  the  passage 
of  fecal  matter  into  it.  There  may  be  an  open- 
ing into  the  bowel  internally  and  externally, 
either  or  both ;  according  to  Brodie,  this  afifec- 
tion  always  begins  by  an  ulceration  on  the 
side  of  the  rectum  into  which  the  fsdoal  matter 
escapes,  causing  abscess  and  consequent  fistula ; 
but  in  some  cases  there  is  no  opening  into  the 
bowel,  the  sinus  reaching  only  to  its  outer 
coat ;  this  affection  is  frequently  a  painful  com- 
plication of  consumption.  The  simple  and  ef- 
ficient remedy  for  this  fistula  is  division  of  the 
walls  from  the  internal  opening  to  the  skin,  so 
as  to  prevent  muscular  contractions ;  after  this 
operation  the  introduction  of  lint  allows  tlie 
wound  to  heal  by  granulation  from  the  bottom. 
This  affection  is  considerably  more  common  in 
males  than  in  females. — Lachrymal  fistula  is 
situated  at  the  inner  comer  of  the  eye,  and 
communicates  with  the  lachrymal  sac ;  it  be- 
gins by  an  obstruction  of  the  nasal  duct,  fol- 
lowed by  inflammation,  abscess,  and  fistulous 
opening.  Besides  the  usual  remedies  for  acute 
and  chronic  inflammation,  the  obstructed  dud 
may  be  restored  by  the  introduction  of  a  me- 
tallic or  elastic  style.    In  a  similar  manner  the 


FITCH 


243 


dnct  of  Steno  maj  be  obstmcted,  so  that  the 
Ballva  dribbles  out  on  the  cheek  instead  of 
passing  into  the  month ;  the  remedy  is  to  estab- 
lish the  passage  from  the  fistula  1^  the  mouth 
bj  puncture  and  the  introduction  of  silk  or  flex- 
ible wire,  and  then  paring  and  uniting  the  edges 
of  the  external  opening. — In  urinary  fistula  there 
is  an  opening  from  the  perineum  into  the  ure- 
thra, through  which  the  urine  dribbles  wholly 
or  in  part ;  it  is  generally  caused  by  urinary  ab- 
scess and  extravasation  into  the  soft  parts.  For 
its  relief  all  strictures  should  be  dilated,  the 
urethra  brought  to  a  healthy  condition,  and  the 
fistula  stimulated  to  contract  and  granulate  by 
external  applications.  Sometimes  there  is  a 
commnnication  between  the  urethra  and  the 
rectnm.  But  the  most  disgusting  and  difficult 
to  remedy  are  the  vesico-vaginal  and  recto-va- 
ginal fistulas,  in  the  former  of  which  the  bladder, 
and  in  the  latter  the  rectum  communicates  with 
the  vagina ;  both  of  these  affections  are  the  con- 
sequences of  the  laceration  and  sloughing  after 
tedions  labor ;  the  most  successful  method  of 
treatinent  is  by  paring  the  edges  of  the  fistula 
and  uniting  them  by  sutures. — A  fistula  may 
communicate  with  any  of  the  abdominal  viscera, 
or  with  anv  part  of  the  body,  on  the  surface  or 
deep-seated,  that  is  diseased  from  abscess,  dead 
bone,  or  the  presence  of  a  foreign  substance. 

jfiitH,  Isiu    See  supplement. 

FIItHy  Ekcueier,  an  American  clergyman,  the 
first  president  of  Williams  college,  bom  in  Nor- 
wich, Conn.,  Sept.  26,  1756,  died  in  West 
Bloomfield,  N.  Y.,  March  21, 1888.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Yale  college  in  1777,  where  in  1780  he 
was  appointed  tutor,  and  continued  to  act  as 
finch  for  several  years.    In  1790  he  was  chosen 

5 receptor  of  the  academy  in  Williamstown, 
[ass.,  and  when  in  1798  it  grew  into  and  was 
incorporated  ns  Williams  college,  he  was  elected 
its  first  president,  which  office  he  filled  till 
1815,  when,  resigning,  he  was  chosen  pastor 
of  the  Presbyterian  church  in  West  Bloomfield, 
K.  Y.  This  charge  he  held  till  1827,  and  after 
his  resignation  continued  to  preach  occasional- 
ly almost  till  his  death. 

FITGH9  J«k%  an  American  inventor,  and  the 
pioneer  in  steam  navigation,  bom  in  Windsor, 
Conn.,  Jan.  21,  1748,  died  in  Bardstown,  £y., 
in  June  or  July,  1798.  He  worked  on  his  fa- 
ther's farm  till  the  age  of  17,  when  he  was  em- 
ployed for  some  time  on  coasting  vessels,  and 
then  became  apprentice  to  a  clock  maker.  On 
reaching  manhood  he  commenced  business  as  a 
brass  founder  in  a  small  way,  failed  in  an  at- 
tempt to  manufacture  potash,  married  unhap- 
pily, separated  from  his  wife,  and  settled  in 
Kew  Jersey  as  a  button  maker  and  silversmith. 
When  the  revolutionary  war  broke  out,  he  was 
elected  a  lieutenant  in  the  New  Jersey  line ; 
but  on  meeting  with  some  real  or  supposed  in- 
justice he  left  the  service,  and  was  employed 
by  Ne  w  Jersey  as  armorer  of  the  troops.  Driven 
away  by  the  invading  army,  he  engaged  in  his 
trade  of  silversmith  in  Bucks  co.,  ra.,  till  the 
approach  of  the  enemy  again  made  it  necessary 


for  him  to  shift  his  quarters.  He  next  supplied 
the  American  troops  at  Valley  Forge  with  to- 
bacco, beer,  and  other  articles,  in  which  he 
drove  a  prosperous  business,  resulting  in  a  con- 
siderable accumulation  of  depreciated  conti- 
nental money.  With  this  he  purchased  Vir- 
ginia land  warrants  and  removed  to  Kentucky, 
where  he  was  appointed  deputy  surveyor. 
Being  captured  by  the  Indians,  he  was  marched 
through  the  wilderness  to  the  British  post  at 
Detroit,  where  he  was  detained  some  time  as  a 

grisoner.  He  was  at  length  exchanged,  and 
nding  his  way  again  to  Bucks  co.,  formed  a 
company  for  the  survey  and  purchase  of  lands 
in  Kentucky  and  Ohio.  On  his  return  from 
these  surveys,  by  which  he  acquired  several 
hundred  acres  of  land,  he  petitioned  congress 
for  an  appointment  as  surveyor,  and  while 
awaiting  the  unsuccessful  result  of  his  appli- 
cation prepared  a  map  of  the  N.  W.  country, 
which  he  engraved  on  a  sheet  of  copper  and 
printed  on  a  press  of  his  own  manufacture.  In 
April,  1785,  the  idea  occurred  to  him  of  propel- 
ling a  carriage  along  an  ordinary  road  by  the 
force  of  steam.  After  a  week's  study  he  aban- 
doned it  as  impracticable,  and  devoted  himself 
to  the  application  of  steam  to  the  propulsion 
of  vessels.  He  immediately  sought  to  interest 
leading  men  in  Pennsylvania  in  the  project ;  in 
August  following  he  addressed  a  petition  to 
congress  in  regard  to  it,  and  in  September  pre- 
sented a  drawing  of  the  boat,  models,  and  tube 
boiler  to  the  American  pliilosophical  society. 
He  next  petitioned  the  legislature  of  Virginia 
for  aid.  James  Madison  presented  his  memo- 
rial, and  Patrick  Henry,  then  govemor,  took  an 
interest  in  the  plan.  But  the  legislature  was 
slow,  and  Fitch  conceived  the  plan  of  raising 
the  necessary  funds  by  the  sale  of  his  map.  He 
accordingly  executed  a  bond  to  Gov.  Henry  in 
the  sum  of  £850,  conditioned  that  if  he  should 
sell  1,000  copies  of  his  map  at  6s,  Sd.^  he  would 
in  nine  months  thereafter  exhibit  a  steam- 
boat in  the  waters  of  Virginia.  Nothing  came 
of  it.  The  assembly  of  Pennsylvania  was  next 
applied  to,  and  encourdged  him  to  the  extent 
of  a  favorable  report  of  a  committee.  The  as- 
sembly of  Maryland  did  the  same ;  but  there 
were  no  funds  in  her  exchequer.  The  legisla- 
ture of  New  Jersey  rwected  a  proposition  to 
grant  £1,000,  but  gave  Fitch  an  exclusive  priv- 
ilege for  14  years  for  the  use  of  boats  propelled 
by  fire  or  steam.  Disappointed  in  these  efibrts, 
Fitch  formed  a  private  company,  and  in  April, 
1786,  the  worlang  model  of  a  steam  engine 
with  a  one-inch  cylinder  was  the  humble  com- 
mencement of  his  enterprise.  In  three  months' 
time  he  moved  a  skiff  on  the  Delaware  by  his 
new  contrivance  at  a  speed  satisfactory  to  the 
associates.  In  March,  1787,  a  bill  vesting  in 
John  Fitch  exclusive  rights  in  the  steamboat 
passed  the  legislature  of  Pennsylvania,  and  sim- 
ilar laws  were  enacted  in  Delaware  and  in  New 
York.  In  August  of  that  year  a  new  steam- 
boat was  tried  on  the  Delaware,  with  an  engine 
of  12-inch  cylinder.    Though  the  boat  did  not 


2M 


FITCH 


FITCHBURG 


attain  sufficient  speed  to  answer  the  purpose 
of  a  packet,  the  trial  proved  conclusively  the 
efficiency  of  steam  as  a  motive  power  for  ves- 
sels. To  increase  this  efficiency  it  was  only 
necessary  to  enlarge  the  machinery.  Soon 
after  this  success  the  company  learned  for 
the  first  time  that  James  Rumsey  of  Virginia 
claimed  to  be  the  first  inventor  of  the  steam- 
boat, and  to  have  made  a  prior  successful  trial. 
A  war  of  pamphlets  followed.  An  examina- 
tion of  the  evidence  leaves  no  reason  to  doubt 
that  the  first  practical  success  in  steam  naviga- 
tion was  made  by  Fitch.  1 1  is  probable  enough 
that  Rumsey  had  entertained  the  idea  of  pro- 
pelling a  boat  by  steam  before  it  occurred  to 
Fitch,  as  it  had  previously  occurred  to  others. 
In  1788  Fitch  built  a  second  boat  for  the  old 
machinery,  which  made  several  passages  be- 
tween Philadelphia  and  Burlington  at  the  rate 
of  four  miles  an  hour.  More  power  was  re- 
quisite for  commercial  success.  A  boat  built 
for  an  engine  of  18-inch  cylinder  was  ready 
for  trial  in  August,  1789.  After  several  fail- 
ures, and  changes  in  the  machinery,  this  boat 
was  successfully  tried  in  the  spring  of  1700, 
and  was  run  as  a  passenger  boat  on  the  Dela- 
ware, making  during  the  season  more  than 
2,000  miles  at  an  average  speed  of  7i  miles  an 
hour.  But  more  money  was  wanted  to  intro- 
duce the  invention,  and  the  numerous  stock- 
holders in  the  enterprise  could  not  be  brought 
to  respond  to  further  assessments.  Time  ran 
on,  and  Fitch  was  cramped  for  the  necessaries 
of  life.  He  repeatedly  asserted  that  the  pas- 
senger traffic  of  the  great  western  rivers  would 
one  day  be  carried  on  exclusively  by  steam; 
that  ships  of  war  and  packet  ships  would  navi- 
gate the  Atlantic  by  steam ;  and  that  some  one 
to  come  after  him  would  reap  fame  and  fortune 
from  his  invention.  He  now  sought  some  small 
office  under  the  government  of  Pennsylvania 
and  that  of  the  United  States,  but  was  disap- 
pointed. Failing  to  interest  new  parties  in  his 
project,  and  the  company  absolutely  declining 
to  make  further  advances.  Fitch  abandoned  his 
boat,  and  for  some  months  wandered  about  the 
streets  of  Philadelphia,  a  ruined  man,  with  the 
reputation  of  a  crazy  projector.  On  Oct.  4, 
1792,  he  presented  a  sealed  envelope  contain- 
ing manuscripts  to  the  library  company  of  Phil- 
adelphia, with  a  request  that  it  might  be  kept 
unopened  till  1823.  In  1798  he  went  to  France 
in  pursuance  of  a  contract  with  Aaron  Vail, 
contemplating  the  introduction  of  his  inven- 
tion in  Europe ;  but  the  times  were  not  propi- 
tious, and  the  means  and  patience  of  Fitch  were 
exhausted.  On  his  return  he  remained  a  while 
in  London,  and  in  1794  he  worked  his  passage 
to  the  United  States  as  a  common  sailor,  land- 
ed at  Boston,  and  spent  nearly  two  years  at 
East  Windsor.  In  the  summer  of  1796  he  was 
in  New  York,  and  placed  a  small  boat  on  the 
Collect  pond,  worked  by  a  submerged  wheel 
at  the  stem,  which  has  been  described  as  a 
screw  propeller.  Soon  after  he  visited  Oliver 
Evans  in  Philadelphia,  and  expressed  his  in- 


tention of  forming  a  company  to  introduce 
steamboats  on  the  western  waters.  With  this 
view,  and  to  ascertain  the  condition  of  his 
western  property,  he  went  to  Kentucky,  where 
he  found  his  land  overrun  with  squatters,  and 
no  encouragement  for  bis  steam  projects.  Mor- 
tified by  his  inability  to  carry  out  his  great 
Eroject,  and  wearied  by  the  lawsuits  in  which 
e  had  been  engaged  for  the  recovery  of  his 
lands.  Fitch  became  despondent  and  desperate, 
and  terminated  his  life  by  swallowing  a  dozen 
opium  pills  which  had  been  left  with  him 
from  time  to  time  by  his  physician  to  use  as 
anodynes.  The  sealed  envelope  was  formally 
opened  by  the  directors  of  the  library  com- 
pany in  1823,  and  was  found  to  contain  a  de- 
tailed history  of  his  adventures  in  the  steam- 
boat enterprise,  inscribed  ^^  To  my  children  and 
to  future  generations,^'  with  a  journal  and 
other  papers,  from  which  his  biography  was 
prepared  by  Thompson  Westcott  (Philadelphia, 
1857).  A  memoir  of  Fitch  by  Mr.  0.  Whit- 
tlesey is  in  Sparks's  ^^  American  Biography." 

HTGHBIJRQ,  a  city  and  one  of  the  county 
seats  of  Worcester  co.,  Massachusetts,  on  a 
branch  of  the  Nashua  river,  40  m.  N.  W.  of 
Boston;  pop.  in  1860,  5,120;  in  1860,  7,805; 
in  1870,  11,260,  of  whom  2,517  were  for- 
eigners. It  embraces  the  villages  of  Orocker- 
viUe,  Rockville,  South  Fitchburg,  Traskville, 
and  West  Fitchburg.  It  is  the  terminus  of  four 
railroads :  the  Fitchburg,  to  Boston ;  the  Fitch- 
burg and  Worcester,  to  Worcester;  the  Ver- 
mont and  Massachusetts,  to  Brattleboro ;  and 
the  Cheshire,  to  Eeene  and  Bellows  Falls.  It 
is  also  connected  with  Boston  via  South  Fram- 
ingham  by  the  Boston,  Clinton,  and  Fitchburg 
railroad.  The  river  furnishes  abundant  water 
power,  and  manufacturing  is  extensively  car- 
ried on.  The  principal  establishments  are  14 
machine  shops,  turning  out  steam  engines, 
mowers  and  reapers,  machinists*  tools,  &c., 
and  employing  1,000  men;  several  chair  fac- 
tories, employing  500  men ;  8  paper  mills,  with 
200  hands;  2  iron  founderies,  1  brass  fonnd- 
ery,  8  manufactories  of  edge  tools,  1  of  boots 
and  shoes,  8  of  sash,  doors,  and  blinds,  1  of 
files,  1  of  cotton  duck,  2  of  beaver  cloths,  1  of 
cassimeres,  1  of  shoddy,  and  1  of  carpet  yarn. 
There  are  2  national  banks,  with  an  aggre- 
gate capital  of  $500,000,  2  savings  banks,  with 
deposits  amounting  to  over  $2,500,000,  and  a 
fire  insurance  company.  '  The  city  has  a  small 
police  force,  an  efficient  fire  department,  water 
works,  and  gas  works.  The  public  buildings 
include  a  masonic  and  an  odd  fellows*  hall,  a 
city  hall,  a  jail,  and  a  court  house.  A  monu- 
ment to  the  memory  of  the  soldiers  who  fell  In 
the  civil  war  has  recently  been  erected.  There 
are  87  public  schools,  taught  by  49  teachers, 
viz.:-  1  high,  8  grammar,  and  88  of  inferior 
grades ;  a  public  library  containing  over  9,000 
volumes,  and  two  weekly  newspapers.  There 
are  ten  churches. — Fitchburg,  which  at  first 
formed  part  of  Lunenburg,  was  incorporated  as 
a  separate  town  in  1764,  and  as  a  city  in  1872. 


FITZGERALD 


FITZROY 


245 


fflZiaBBAUI.  I.  Edwnrd,  lord,  an  Irish  sol- 
dier  and  politician,  fifth  son  of  the  first  dnke  of 
Leinster,  bom  near  Dublin,  Oct.  16, 1763,  died 
Jane  4,  1798.  He  was  in  part  educated  in 
France,  entered  the  British  army,  and  distin- 
guished himself  as  aide-de-camp  to  Lord  Raw- 
don  in  the  latter  part  of  the  American  revolu- 
tionary war,  and  was  severely  wounded  in  the 
battle  of  Eutaw  Springs.  After  sitting  for 
some  time  in  the  Irish  house  of  commons,  and 
travelling  on  the  continent,  he  rejoined  his 
regiment  in  Canada.  He  returned  to  Ireland 
in  1790,  and  was  again  elected  to  the  Irish 
parliament.  In  1792  he  visited  Paris,  where 
he  became  associated  with  some  of  the  leading 
revolutionists.  At  a  banquet  gtven  by  Eng- 
lishmen in  Paris,  he  publicly  renounced  his 
nobility,  and  proposed  a  toast  to  the  success 
of  the  republican  arms,  and  was  consequently 
dismissed  from  the  British  army.  He  then  re- 
turned to  Dublin,  joined  the  society  of  United 
Irishmen,  of  which  he  waa  made  president  in 
1796,  encouraged  other  political  and  military 
organizations,  defending  them  in  the  Irish  par- 
liament, and  negotiated  with  the  French  di- 
rectory, till  a  warrant  was  issued  by  govern- 
ment for  his  apprehension.  He  refused  to 
abandon  Lis  associates,  but  secretly  directed 
the  revolutionists  from  a  place  of  concealment 
in  Dublin  after  the  other  principal  leaders  had 
been  arrested,  aAd  was  at  length  discovered 
and  captured  niter  a  desperate  struggle.  He 
was  severely  wounded,  and  died  in  prison.  His 
biography  was  written  by  Thomas  Moore  (2 
vols.  8vo,  London,  1881).  IL  Piaebi,  lady, 
wife  of  the  preceding,  reputed  daughter  of 
Mme.  de  Genlis  and  Philippe  duke  of  Orleans 
r£galit6),  died  in  Paris  in  November,  1831. 
She  was  educated  with  the  children  of  the 
duke,  as  an  English  orphan.  She  was  married 
to  Lord  Fitzgerald  at  Toumay  in  1790,  and 
after  his  death  to  Mr.  Rtcaim,  American  con- 
sul at  Hamburg.  A  separation  ensued,  and  she 
resumed  the  name  of  Fitzgerald,  and  lived  at 
Montauban  till  1880,  when  Louis  Philippe,  the 
associate  of  her  childhood,  being  called  to  the 
throne,  she  went  to  Paris.  The  king  refused 
to  receive  her,  and  she  died  poor. 

gnZGEKALD,  Percy  H.    See  supplement. 

nrZHEKBiBT.  I*  Sir  Inthtay,  an  English 
lawyer  and  jurist,  bom  in  Norbury,  Derby- 
shire, died  in  1588.  After  a  distinguished 
career  at  the  bar,  he  was  appointed  in  1528  a 
justice  of  the  court  of  common  pleas,  and  h^ld 
that  office  until  his  death.  He  was  the  author 
of  a  work  in  old  French,  which  is  of  great 
authority  in  the  law,  entitled  Le  graunde 
abridgement  eollecU  par  lejudge  tr^  reverend^ 
monsieur  Anthony  Fits-Herbert  (printed  by 
Pynson  in  1614,  by  Wjmkin  de  Worde  in  1516, 
and  again  in  1577).  Among  his  other  works 
on  le(^  subjects  was  ^^  The  Office  and  Author- 
ity of  Justices  of  the  Peace  "  (1588,  often  re- 
printed ;  last  ed.,  1617),  and  **  The  New  Natura 
Brewum  **  (1584 ;  last  ed.,  1794,  with  a  com- 
mentary attributed  to  Chief  Justice  Hale,  and 


notes  and  references).  His  "New  Treatyae 
for  all  Husbandemen ''  (4to,  London,  1528) 
passed  through  more  than  20  editions.  IL 
ThMUS,  a  learned  English  Jesuit,  grandson  of 
the  preceding,  bom  at  Swinnerton,  Stafford- 
shire, in  1552,  died  in  Rome  in  1640.  After 
various  fruitless  attempts  to  induce  the  Roman 
Catholic  powers  of  Europe  to  aid  the  Roman 
Catholics  of  England,  he  entered  the  society 
of  the  Jesuits,  and  for  the  last  22  years  of  his 
life  presided  over  the  English  college  at  Rome. 
He  wrote  a  number  of  treatises  of  a  religious 
and  controversial  character. 

FITZHERBEBT,  Maria,  wife  of  George  lY.  of 
England,  bom  in  July,  1766,  died  in  Brighton, 
March  29,  1887.  Her  father,  Waller  Smythe 
of  Brambridge,  Hampshire,  was  of  an  old 
Catholic  family,  and  she  was  married  succes- 
sively to  Edward  Weld  of  Dorset  and  Thomas 
Fitzherbert  of  Stafford,  being  left  a  widow  a 
second  time  in  1781.  In  1785  the  prince  of 
Wales,  afterward  George  IV.,  first  saw  her, 
and  in  December  of  that  year  they  were  pri- 
vately married  by  a  clergyman  of  the  estab- 
lished church,  in  the  presence  of  witnesses. 
The  union,  being  contrary  to  the  English  stat- 
ute, which  prohibits  marriage  between  a  sub- 
ject and  a  prince  of  the  blood  royal,  was  not 
valid  in  law.  Subsequently  the  prince  con- 
tracted a  legal  marriage  with  the  princess 
Caroline  of  Bmnswick;  but  after  his  quarrel 
with  Queen  Caroline  he  retumed  to  Mrs.  Fitz- 
herbert. His  excesses,  however,  compelled 
her  to  leave  him,  and  she  retired  to  Brighton, 
where  she  passed  the  remainder  of  her  life,  re- 
ceiving a  large  pension  from  the  government. 
— See  "  Memoirs  of  Mrs.  Fitzherbert,"  by  the 
Hon.  Charles  Langdale  (London,  1856). 

FITZROT,  Robert,  a  British  admiral,  born 
at  Ampton  Hall,  Suffolk,  July  5,  1805,  died 
April  80,  1865.  He  entered  the  navy  in 
1819,  and  obtained  his  first  commission  Sept. 
7,  1824.  After  serving  on  the  Mediterra- 
nean and  South  American  stations,  he  was 
appointed  in  1828  to  the  command  of  one  of 
the  vessels  which  had  been  sent  by  the  gov- 
emment,  under  Capt.  King,  upon  an  expedition 
to  explore  and  survey  the  coasts  of  Patagonia, 
Chili,  and  Peru.  In  1881  the  Beagle,  under 
his  command,  was  fitted  out  for  another  sur- 
veying expedition.  Charles  Darwin  accompa- 
nied this  expedition  as  naturalist,  and  after 
its  return  in  1886  published  a  journal  of  the 
researches  made  upon  it  into  the  geology  and 
natural  history  of  the  countries  visited.  In 
1841  Capt.  Fitzroy  represented  the  city  of 
Durham  in  parliament,  and  in  the  following 
year  was  appointed  acting  conservator  of  the 
river  Mersey.  In  1843  he  became  governor 
and  commander-in-chief  of  the  colony  of  New 
Zealand,  which  offices  he  held  for  three  years. 
In  1854  he  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  me- 
teorological department  of  the  board  of  trade, 
in  1857  was  appomted  rear  admiral,  and  in 
1868  vice  admiral.  In  1862  he  established  a 
system  of  storm  warnings.      He  committed 


246 


FITZWILLIAM 


FIXTURE 


suicide  in  a  fit  of  mental  aberration,  brought 
on  bj  overtaxing  his  brain  in  the  performance 
.  of  his  duties.  He  was  the  author  of  several 
works,  the  most  important  of  which  was  the 
second  volume  of  the  "  Narrative  of  the  Sur- 
veying Voyages  of  H.  M.  S.  Adventure  and 
Beagle,  between  the  years  1826  and  1836^' 
(London,  1839),  the  first  volume  being  by 
Capt.  King,  and  the  third  by  Darwin. 

FITZWILLIAM,  WUliam  Wentworth  Fitzwilliaai, 
fourth  earl  of  that  name  in  the  peerage  of  Ire- 
land, and  second  in  that  of  England,  an  Eng- 
lish statesman,  born  May  30,  1748,  died  Feb. 
8,  1838.  He  opposed  the  ministry  of  Lord 
Korth  in  the  American  war  of  independence, 
but  did  not  take  ofiUce  w^hen  his  uncle,  the 
marquis  of  Rockingham,  formed  a  new  cabinet 
in  1782.  Although  a  political  friend  of  Fox, 
he  abandoned  him  upon  hearing  his  eulogies 
of  French  revolutionary  principles,  and  took 
office  as  president  of  the  council,  July  11, 1794, 
when  the  duke  of  Portland  became  the  nominal 
head  of  the  cabinet.  In  1795  he  was  lord  lieu- 
tenant of  Ireland,  in  the  height  of  the  disturb- 
ances which  then  agitated  Uiat  country ;  but 
was  recalled  after  a  few  months,  against  the 
decided  wishes,  it  is  said,  of  the  Irish  people, 
for  having  supported  a  bill  presented  by  Grat- 
tan  in  favor  of  Catholic  emancipation.  He  was 
president  of  the  council  for  a  short  time  in 
1806,  on  the  death  of  Mr.  Pitt,  but  his  liberal 
views  kept  him  out  of  office  during  the  greater 
part  of  his  career. 

FIUHE  (lUyrian,  Rjeha;  Lat.  VitopoliSy  after- 
ward Fanum  Sancti  Viti  ad  Flumen;  Germ. 
St,  Veit  am  Flaum),  a  royal  Hungarian  city 
and  free  port,  situated  in  a  valley  on  the  gulf 
of  Quamero,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Fiumara,  86 
m.  S.  E.  of  Trieste;  pop.  in  1869,  18,809,  of 
whom  14,039  belong  to  the  city  proper.  The 
old  part  of  the  town,  on  the  slope  of  the  hill, 
is  poor-looking  and  gloomy;  the  new  part, 
which  stretches  along  the  coast,  is  well  built, 
cheerful,  and  neatly  paved.  It  has  a  provincial 
and  district  court,  a  chamber  of  commerce  and 
industry,  two  gymnasia,  a  naval  academy,  and 
many  remarkable  buildings,  including  churches, 
the  government  house,  the  city  hall,  a  market 
hall  with  colonnades,  a  nunnery,  a  hospital, 
and  the  casino,  which  contains  concert  and 
ball  rooms,  and  a  theatre.  In  the  vicinity  is 
an  ancient  castle.  The  harbor  admits  only 
small  vessels,  larger  ones  anchoring  in  the  gulf 
at  a  distance  of  3  m.  The  products  consist 
chiefly  of  linen,  woollens,  leather,  earthenware, 
sugar,  wax,  beer,  and  rosoglio;  the  exports, 
mostly  the  produce  of  Hungary,  are  wheat, 
wine,  tobacco,  hemp,  timber,  rags,  &c.  There 
are  extensive  sugar  refineries,  mills,  tanneries, 
and  paper  manu5ictories ;  but  the  principal  in- 
dustry is  ship  building,  from  20  to  30  sailing 
vessels  being  annually  built.  It  is  connected 
with  the  interior  by  two  railways.  Fiume  be- 
came a  free  port  in  1722,  and  is  now  one  of  the 
most  important  seaports  of  the  Austro-Hunga- 
rian  empire.     In  1869  the  entrances  were  2,739 


vessels  of  135,484  tons. — ^Yitopolis  is  men- 
tioned as  a  flourishing  town  of  Liburnia  under 
the  Roman  emperors.  Subsequently  the  town 
severaJ  times  changed  its  rulers,  until  in  1471 
it  was  incorporated  with  the  dominions  of  the 
house  of  Hapsburg.  Maria  Theresa  in  1776 
united  it  with  Hungary  as  a  corpus  separatum. 
From  1809  to  1814  it  was  occupied  by  the 
French.  In  1814  it  fell  again  to  Austria,  and 
in  1822  it  was  once  more  united  with  Hungary. 
In  consequence  of  the  revolution  of  1848-'9  it 
was  united  with  the  crownland  of  Croatia,  but 
in  1870  it  was  made  an  independent  district, 
with  a  royal  governor  of  its  own,  directly  under 
the  central  government  of  Hungary. 

FIXTURE,  a  word  of  frequent  use,  and  in 
regard  to  which  some  little  confusion  exists, 
because  the  exact  legal  definition  is  precisely 
opposed  to  the  meaning  conmionly  given  to  the 
word.  A  fixture,  in  law,  is  a  personal  chattel 
in  some  way  annexed  to  the  realty,  but  such, 
or  60  annexed,  that  he  who  put  it  there  may 
take  it  away.  We  apprehend  that  the  common 
meaning  of  the  word  is,  a  thing  so  fixed  to  the 
realty  that  it  cannot  be  taken  away.  That  is, 
an  ornament,  or  utensil,  or  addition  of  any  kind, 
is  commonly  called  a  fixture,  if  so  affixed  to 
the  land  (or  to  the  house)  that  the  owner  of  the 
land  necessarily  owns  the  thing,  and  it  cannot 
be  removed  without  his  permission.  Kent  uses 
the  word  in  both  senses,  but  rather  inclines  to 
the  common  meaning;  and  for  convenience, 
through  this  article,  we  shall  mean  by  fixtures 
things  so  fastened  to  the  land  (or  to  a  honse 
which  is  fastened  to  the  land)  that  they  cannot 
be  removed  against  the  will  of  the  owner  of 
the  land. — ^The  first  remark  to  be  made  is,  that 
the  whole  modem  law,  which  permits  a  great 
number  of  things  to  be  attached  to  the  land 
and  thence  removed  by  the  occupier  without 
reference  to  the  will  of  the  owner  of  the  land, 
is  in  derogation  of  the  common  law.  That 
originally  regarded  land  as  almost  everything, 
and  personals  as  of  little  value ;  and  it  was  a 
nearly  invariable  rule  that  anything  which  was 
once  attached  or  annexed  to  the  land,  or  made 
a  component  part  of  anything  so  annexed, 
became  at  once  the  property  of  the  owner  of 
the  land.  This  is  certainly  not  the  law  now 
in  England  or  the  United  States.  Whether  a 
thing  was  a  fixture  or  not,  was  formerly  made 
to  depend  almost  entirely  upon  the  intention 
with  which  it  was  put  up  or  annexed ;  and  this 
was  gathered  from  slight  indications.  Thus, 
the  same  th^ng  was  a  fixture  if  nailed  on  that 
remained  personal  property  if  screwed  on,  be- 
cause the  use  of  screws,  which  can  be  unscrew- 
ed, indicated  the  intention  of  removing  it.  In- 
tention still  remains  a  very  important  test ;  but 
another  has  come  to  be  of  almost  equal  value, 
viz.,  the  capability  of  removal  without  injury 
to  the  premises,  or  the  possibility  of  taking 
the  thing  away  and  restoring  the  premises  to 
the  same  order  and  condition  in  which  they 
were  before  it  was  annexed. — The  earliest  re- 
laxations from  the  ancient  rule  were  made  in 


FIXTURE 


FLAG 


247 


^vor  of  what  are  sometimes  called  trade  fix- 
tores;  by  which  is  meant  all  those  additions 
which  the  tenant  of  a  hoase  or  land  makes  for 
the  purpose  of  carrying  on  his  trade  or  busi- 
ness. It  cannot  now  be  denied  that  a  very- wide 
power  of  removal  has  been  allowed  to  tenants 
in  cases  of  this  kind.  To  illustrate  this  by  in- 
stances: it  has  been  a(yudged  that  a  tenant 
might  take  away  (having  put  them  on  the  land 
for  purposes  of  trade  or  manufacture)  furnaces, 
iron  backs  to  chimneys,  grates,  pumps,  vats, 
cisterns,  coppers,  tubs,  blinds,  verandas,  fire 
engines,  steam  and  gas  machinery,  or  even 
sheda,  shops,  and  other  buildings,  and  the  like, 
even  when  these  things  are  built  into  brick 
walls  or  rooms,  or  set  on  stone  or  brick  foun- 
dations. Indeed,  we  doubt  whether  the  courts 
of  the  United  States  would  now  stop  short  of 
saying  that  any  implements  or  instruments  of 
trade  may  be  taken  away  by  an  outgoing  ten- 
ant, if  he  can  remove  them  and  restore  the 
premises  substantially  to  their  original  condi- 
tion. Not  long  after  the  relaxation  in  favor  of 
trade,  it  was  admitted  by  the  courts  that  many 
things  might  be  taken  away  by  an  outgoing 
tenant  which  he  had  put  up  and  fastened  to  the 
house,  either  for  mere  ornament  or  for  domestic 
convenience.  Under  this  head  are  now  included 
a  great  variety  of  things,  such  as  mirrors,  marble 
slabs  and  chimneypieces,  window  blinds,  doors, 
windows,  baths,  gas  pipes  and  lights,  stoves, 
fire  grates,  and  ranges.  It  is  difficult  to  draw  an 
exact  line  here,  but  it  must  be  said  that  the  law 
is  not  so  liberal  in  permitting  things  of  orna- 
ment or  convenience  to  be  removed  aa  things  of 
trade ;  and  the  rule  is  more  strictly  applied,  that 
the  premises  are  not  to  be  disfigured  or  ii^ured 
by  toe  removal.  There  are  certain  things  about 
which  the  adjudication  is  as  yet  conflicting, 
such  as  trees  planted  out,  conservatories,  hot- 
houses, and  other  structures  for  gardening. 
Here  we  should  say  that  a  nurseryman*  who 
put  these  things  up  for  trade  might  certainly 
remove  them,  on  the  same  condition  of  putting 
the  premises  in  good  order  as  before.  But  a 
mere  tenant  for  occupation,  who  had  put  them 
on  the  land  for  his  own  enjoyment,  might  be 
obliged  to  leave  them,  although  we  incline 
to  dink  that  he  would  be  permitted  to  take 
them  away,  leaving,  of  course,  the  premises 
wholly  unimpaired  by  the  removal. — The  same 
thing  will  be  a  fixture  as  to  some  persons, 
but  not  as  to  others.  Thus  a  man  who  sells  a 
house  most  certainly  sells  with  it,  and  therefore 
cannot  take  away  from  the  buyer,  very  many 
things  which  an  outgoing  tenant  who  put  them 
there  may  remove  when  he  goes.  Here  the 
law,  instead  of  being  liberal,  professes  to  be 
strict;  and  the  seller  would  be  permitted  to 
claim  and  sever  from  the  land  only  those  things 
which  were  evidently  as  free  from  all  attach- 
ment to  it  as  mere  articles  of  furniture.  And 
if  he  had  fastened  any  things  down,  so  as  to 
give  them  the  appearance  of  being  a  part  of  the 
house,  it  might  be  doubted  whether  he  would 
be  permitted  to  remove  them.  The  same  strict 


rule  would  be  applied  as  between  the  heir  who 
takes  the  land  and  the  executor  or  administra- 
tor who  takes  the  personals;  and  so  it  would 
be  between  lessor  and  lessee  or  mortgageor  and 
mortgagee.  Indeed,  it  may  be  said,  in  general, 
that  in  the  matter  of  fixtures  the  law  is  ex- 
tremely liberal  as  to  the  right  of  outgoing  ten- 
ants to  remove  things  of  trade,  and  nearly  as 
much  so  as  to  the  same  persons  in  respect  to 
things  of  convenience  or  ornament ;  but  very 
strict  as  to  any  disposition  made  of  the  land  by 
the  owner  of  it.  In  these  rules,  it  is  supposed, 
th^  law  gives  effect  to  the  actual  intent  of  the 
party  attaching  the  article  to  the  land ;  the 
owner  being  supposed  to  intend  it  to  remain, 
because  at  the  tune  he  can  generally  have  no 
interest  in  having  it  considered  a  severable 
chattel,  while  the  tenant  in  making  a  similar 
annexation  may  be  supposed  to  have  his  own 
interest  in  view,  which  could  only  be  subserved 
by  retaining  the  ownership  in  himself  instead 
of  making  the  thing  annexed  a  part  of  the 
landlord's  estate.  The  general  rule  is  that  a 
tenant  must  remove  during  the  term  all  he  has 
a  right  to  take  away;  and  whatever  he  does 
not  remove  he  is  considered  as  having  intended 
as  a  permanent  fixture,  though  if  he  removes 
them  before  finally  surrendering  possession  it 
will  probably  be  sufiicient,  and  a  tenant  at 
will  or  other  tenant  whose  lease  is  determined 
by  the  will  of  the  landlord,  or  by  some  other 
event  unexpectedly,  would  be  entitled  to  a  rea- 
sonable time  in  which  to  exercise  this  right. 
It  is  common  and  very  prudent  to  provide  in 
leases  for  the  removal  of  articles  which  the 
tenant  expects  to  put  up  and  take  away. 

FLACIDS  (originally  VLAOicn),  MatUilts,  sur- 
named  Illtrigub,  a  German  Protestant  tlieo- 
logian,  bom  at  Albona,  Istria,  about  1520, 
died  in  Frankfort  in  1576.  He  was  induced 
to  abandon  his  original  intention  of  entering 
a  convent,  and  to  visit  the  German  universi- 
ties. At  Wittenberg  he  heard  I^ither  and 
Melanchthon,  adopted  their  opinions,  and  was 
appointed  professor  of  Hebrew.  After  the 
death  of  Luther  he  resisted  the  formulary 
known  as  the  Interim^  opposed  the  conciliatory 
measures  of  Melanchthon,  and  established  him- 
self at  Magdeburg  at  the  head  of  a  party  of 
rigid  Lutherans.  In  1558  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  theology  in  the  newly  founded 
university  of  Jena,  and  engaged  in  a  violent 
dispute  with  Strigel  concerning  hereditary  sin 
and  the  synergetic  power  of  the  human  will, 
which  resulted  in  his  being  deposed.  He  re- 
tired to  Ratisbon,  and  afterward  preached  in 
several  German  cities.  He  was  one  of  the 
most  prominent  of  the  reformers,  and  besides 
producing  numerous  polemical  writings,  dis- 
tinguished for  their  severity,  was  the  origina- 
tor and  one  of  the  principal  authors  of  the  fa- 
moas  **  Centuries  of  Magdeburg." 

FLACm  h  The  common  name  of  a  large  family 
of  the  lowest  order  of  plants,  known  as  algcB. 
These  alg»  have  all  fiagging  habits,  like  the 
common  seaweeds,  which  are  usually  fixed  to 


rocks  b7  their  roots,  while  tbeir  braooheB  are 
borne  up  bj  the  tides,  falling  again  and  Ijiog 
in  confaeed  maBaea  one  upon  another  at  ita  re- 
oeaa.  The  propriety  of  thia  homely  t«rm  is 
better  seen  in  the  ulna  or  laver,  of  which 
viva  latinima,  Tery  common  on  the  American 


coast,  having  a  broad,  ovate  or  oblong,  nndn- 
latod,  bright  green  frond,  ma;  bo  aeen  lying 
on  the  soft  ooze  at  tow  tide,  and  floating  near 
the  bottom  at  high  water.  Enteromorpha, 
with  tnbolar,  membranaceoas,  green,  netted 
fronds,  is  atill  more  Jlacctd,  and  is  easily  col- 
lected from  rocks  and  beaches,  when  thrown 
Qp  by  tho  winds.    A  rich,  dark  parple  kind 


Entiromorphi  electa. 

{porphyravvlgarii,  Agardh)  may  be  frequently 
noticed  on  the  piles  and  posts  of  wharves, 
hanging  loosely  down,  like  broad  shreds,  grow- 
ing also  on  rocks  between  high  and  low  wo- 
ter  mark.  Bvcn  in  fresh  water,  in  nmning 
streams,  the  flags  are  to  be  met  with,  sacb  as 


iatraeh»-tp»rnnim  moniliforrM  (Roth.),  with 

very  delicate,  branching  filaments,  composed 
of  violet-colored  beads,  and  having  a  plumy, 
flagging  aspect.  So  the  cot^fema,  resembling 
confused  and  tangled  skeins  of  silk,  have  the 
same  appearance  ;  and  even  in  the  more  highly 


developed  bright  crimson  and  red  kinds,  or  la 
the  fuscoas  and  inelegant  fuei,  and  in  the 
larger  forms,  equalling  in  «ze  trees  and  ahraba, 
the  name  of  flags  is  not  an  inapt  one.  IL  Be- 
aidoa  these  lower  plants,  the  name  of  flag  is 
given  to  the  iris  family,  wliich  bear  conspicn- 
ooB  flowers,  some  of  great  splendor,  (See 
lam.)    UI.  The  sword  flags  are  atifi^  erect,  very 


long-leaved  planta,  with  spikes  of  extremely 


heat,  moisture,  and  sunshine  while  growing, 
but  entire  rest  and  dryness  when  dormant. 
Natives  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  few  gai^ 


FLAG 


249 


den  flowers  exceed  them  in  gorgeonsness  or 
beaQty,  and  few  require  so  little  care.  The 
Belgian  florists  have  sacceeded  in  raising  many 
splendid  hybrids  and  varieties,  of  every  hue ; 
and  the  flower  catalogues  afford  the  names 
of  the  choicest  of  these,  which  command  high 
prices.  Gladtolm  communU  is  hardy  enough 
to  survive  our  winters ;  it  is  a  slender-growing 
specieS)  with  pretty  purplish  or  crimson  blos- 
soms, and  this  and  one  or  two  others  found  in 
the  south  of  Europe  are  exceptional ;  the  rest 
are  natives  of  the  hot  regions,  particularly  of 
the  Gape.  The  ixias  are  smaJler,  dwarf  irids 
or  flags,  with  open,  showy  blossoms  upon  spikes, 
and  variously  colored.  They  are  finely  suited 
for  winter  flowering  in  greenhouses;  their 
bulbs  or  eormi  are  planted  early  ui  the  au- 
tumn ;  the  plants,  on  rising  from  the  soil,  are 
exposed  to  the  air  and  light,  and  on  approach 
of  frost  placed  just  beneath  the  sashes  of  the 
roof^  where  they  blossom  toward  spring.  These 
also  require  extremes  of  treatment,  being  kept 
perfectly  dry  and  warm  when  in  repose. 

ILACb  (from  a  root  signifying  to  hang  down 
or  droop,  kindred  with  Lat.  ^aecut,  flabby,  or 
drooping),  a  piece  of  stuff  or  cloth  intended  to 
be  displayed  so  as  to  indicate,  by  shape,  color, 
or  symbols,  nationality,  rank,  party,  or  opinion. 
In  common  speech  the  word  is  synonymous 
with  standard,  banner,  ensign,  or  colors.  The 
most  ancient  standards  were  probably  symbols 
borne  upon  a  pole.  Among  the  Egyptians 
each  battalion  had  a  distinguishing  emblem 
representing  some  sacred  oQect,  such  as  an 
ammal  or  bird,  or  a  tablet  bearing  a  king^s 
nanae  or  other  device.  The  Assyrians,  accord- 
ing to  the  Ninevite  sculptures,  had  two  stand- 
aids,  one  a  figure  of  a  man  standing  upon  a 
running  bull  and  drawing  a  bow,  the  other 
two  bulls  running  in  opposite  directions.  They 
are  supposed  to  have  been  the  symbols  re- 
spectively of  peace  and  of  war.  The  Persians 
in  tiie  time  of  Gyrus  adopted  a  white  flag 
with  a  golden  eagle  displayed  for  their  stand- 
aid.  The  Greeks  bore  divers  symbols :  some- 
times a  piece  of  armor  elevated  upon  a  spear, 
sometimes  the  emblem  of  a  divmity^  some- 
times an  initid  letter.  According  to  Homer, 
Agamemnon  used  a  purple  veil  to  rally  his 
men.  The  Romans  had  many  standards.  In 
the  most  primitive  times  each  company  bore  a 
bundle  of  hay  tied  to  a  pole.  Afterward  the 
figure  of  an  open  hand,  a  wolf,  a  bear,  a  horse, 
or  otlier  animal,  was  substituted.  In  the  time 
of  Marius  a  silver  eagle,  with  expanded  wings 
and  holding  the  thunderbolts  of  Jove  in  its 
talons,  was  adopted  as  the  standard  of  the 
legion.  The  different  eagles,  white,  black,  and 
red,  with  single  or  with  double  heads,  borne 
by  countries  of  modern  Europe,  are  imitations 
of  this.  The  Roman  standards  changed  with 
their  conquests,  and  succeeding  emperors  dis- 
played new  forms  and  new  emblems.  Augustus 
used  a  globe  to  symbolize  his  empire  over  the 
world,  and  Gonstantine  adopted  the  cross  to 
commemorate  his  viuon.      (See  Lababum.) 


Standards  are  mentioned  frequently  in  the  Bible. 
The  Hebrews  who  went  up  out  of  Egypt  were 
marshalled  under  distinctive  banners.  Accord- 
ing to  tradition,  the  four  leading  tribes,  Reuben, 
Ephraim,  Judah,  and  Dan,  bore  as  devices  re- 
spectively a  man,  an  ox,  a  lion,  and  an  eagle. 
From  the  most  ancient  times  the  dragon  has 
been  the  chief  symbol  of  China,  Japan,  and 
other  eastern  nations.  It  was  also  a  prominent 
device  among  the  Geltic,  ^Germanic,  Scandi- 
navian, and  Slavic  tribes.  At  first,  like  many 
other  emblems  used  for  standards,  it  was  of 
metal  or  carved  wood,  but  in  time  was  dis- 
played upon  a  banner.  It  was  the  device  on 
the  banner  of  Harold  at  the  battle  of  Hastings, 
and  was  borne  by  several  other  English  mon- 
archs. — The  earliest  flags  proper  were  prob- 
ably square  cloths  of  a  single  color ;  but  as  na- 
tions multiplied  parti-colors  and  different  com- 
binations were  adopted  to  secure  variety,  and 
finally  the  devices  or  bearings  of  chieftains  or 
of  tribes  were  added.  In  modem  times  flags 
of  a  single  color  have  generally  a  universally 
accepted  meaning:  thus,  a  white  flag  is  a  token 
of  peace,  a  red  of  defiance ;  a  black  flag  denotes 
piracy,  or  is  sometimes  hoisted  to  indicate  that 
no  quarter  will  be  given  or  taken ;  a  yellow 
denotes  quarantine.  Ancient  standards  were 
of  many  shapes,  some  square,  some  long  and 
pointed,  some  swallow-tuled,  and  some  ending 
in  many  points.  The  banner  which  Charle- 
magne received  from  the  pope  was  oblong 
and  split  into  three  points ;  the  oriflamme  of 
France  was  of  the  same  shape  with  five  points. 
The  standards  of  Henry  VlII.  of  England 
were  long  pointed  streamers  rather  than  fiags. 
Nearly  all  the  standards  and  ensigns  of  modem 
nations  are  rectangular,  but  there  are  some  ex- 
ceptions. The  naval  flag  of  Sweden  has  three 
points,  that  of  Denmark  two,  and  the  fiag  of 
China  is  triangular.  Some  of  the  principal 
European  nations  have  each  two  or  more  flags, 
a  royal  or,  imperial  standard,  a  national  en- 
sign, a  naval  ensign,  and  a  flag  for  merchant- 
men. Royal  and  imperial  standards  are  never 
hoisted  except  on  occasions  of  great  ceremony, 
when  the  sovereign  or  some  member  of  the 
royal  family  is  present,  or  on  the  sovereign's 
birthdays. — The  royal  standard  of  Great  Brit- 
ain displays  the  heraldic  insignia  of  England, 
Scotland,  and  Ireland,  quartered,  the  field  of 
the  first  and  fourth  quarters  red,  the  second 
yellow,  and  the  third  blue.  The  national  fiag, 
called  the  **  union  jack,"  is  blue,  charged  with 
the  three  crosses  of  St.  George,  St.  Andrew,  and 
St.  Patrick.  The  cross  of  St.  George  is  red  on 
a  white  field,  of  St.  Andrew  a  white  saltier  (di- 
agonal cross)  on  a  blue  field,  and  of  St.  Patrick 
a  red  saltier  on  a  white  field.  The  union  Jack 
adopted  by  James  I.  in  1606  combined  only 
the  first  two,  but  on  the  union  with  Ireland 
in  1800  the  cross  of  St.  Patrick  was  added. 
This  is  the  union  jack  which  forms  the  canton 
in  the  British  naval  and  commercial  flags.  The 
word  jack  is  derived  by  some  from  the  jacque 
or  surcoat  charged  with  St.  George's  cross, 


250 


FLAG 


worn  in  the  crusades  bj  English  soldiers, 
which  name  became  in  time  transferred  to  the 
cross  itself,  and  finally  to  the  flag  bearing  the 
cross.  Others  derive  it  from  Jac,  the  abbre- 
viation of  Jacobus,  the  Latin  form  of  James. 
— ^In  the  12th  century  the  standard  of  France 
was  white,  sprinkled  with  golden  fleurs  de  lis. 
Henry  IV.,  the  founder  of  the  house  of  Bour- 
bon, adopted  the  white  flag  charged  with  the 
escutcheon  of  his  family,  three  golden  fleurs  de 
lis  on  a  blue  shield.  This  is  the  flag  contended 
for  so  earnestly  by  the  count  de  Chambord.  It 
was  succeeded  early  in  the  revolution  by  the 
tricolor,  which  was  constituted  the  national 
standard  by  law  in  1792.  This  is  generally 
said  to  be  the  union  of  the  blue  banner  of  St. 
Martin,  the  red  oriflamme  of  St.  Denis,  and  the 
eornette  blanche  which  succeeded  the  latter ;  but 
it  is  probable  that  its  adoption  was  accidental. 
The  red  and  blue,  the  colors  of  the  city  of  Pa- 
ris, were  chosen  first,  and  the  white  of  the  royal 
standard  was  added  afterward.  When  this 
flag  was  first  displayed  there  was  no  accord  in 
the  arrangement  of  the  colors,  and  the  stripes 
were  sometimes  placed  horizontally  instead  of 
vertically.  The  present  mode  was  prescribed 
finally  by  law.  Napoleon  adopted  for  the  im- 
perial standard  the  tricolor  sprinkled  with  gold- 
en bees  and  charged  with  the  eagle  of  France. 
At  the  restoration  the  white  flag  returned  with 
royalty.  The  hundred  days  brought  back  the 
tricolor,  but  the  white  flag  again  succeeded 
it  in  1815,  and  on  April  18,  1816,  it  was  de- 
creed to  be  the  national  standard  of  France. 
The  revolution  of  1830  restored  the  tricolor, 
and  it  has  since  remained  the  national  flag. — 
The  imperial  standard  of  Germany  is  white 
charged  with  a  black  cross,  with  the  black  eagle 
of  the  empire  at  its  intersection.  In  the  dexter 
canton  is  the  cross  of  Prussia  on  a  black,  white, 
and  red  field.  The  Russian  imperial  standard 
is  yellow  charged  with  the  double-headed  eagle 
of  Oonstantine  the  Great,  symbolical  of  tne 
Eastern  and  Western  empires.  This  emblem 
was  adopted  by  Ivan  I.  on  his  marriage  with  a 
princess  of  the  Greek  imperial  house.  On  the 
breast  of  the  eagle,  which  is  black,  are  embla- 
eoned  the  ancient  arms  of  Russia,  St.  George 
and  the  dragon,  on  a  red  field,  now  the  arms 
of  the  city  of  Moscow.  The  imperial  standard 
of  Austria  is  yellow  also,  charged  with  the 
double-headed  eagle  of  the  Roman  empire,  but 
it  has  an  indented  border  of  gold,  silver,  bine, 
and  black.  The  Austro-Hungarian  national 
ensign  is  formed  of  three  equal  horizontal  bars, 
the  chief  red,  the  middle  white,  and  the  base 
red  in  the  dexter  half  and  green  on  the  fiy. 
The  green  is  added  for  Hungary,  the  national 
colors  of  which  are  red,  white,  and  green.  The 
middle  bar  displays  a  shield,  charged  with  red, 
white,  and  red,  surmounted  by  the  imperial 
crown.  The  royal  standard  of  Italy  is  green, 
white,  and  red,  in  equal  vertical  bars,  the  red 
to  the  fiy ;  on  the  white  are  the  arms  of  Savoy 
surmounted  by  the  crown.  The  royal  standard 
of  Spain  in  the  time  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella 


displayed  the  arms  of  Castile,  Leon,  Aragon, 
the  Two  Sicilies,  and  Granada.  Under  the 
Bourbons  it  combined  the  arms  of  Castile,  Leon, 
Granada,  and  the  fieurs  de  lis  of  Bourbon.  The 
standard  fell  with  the  monarchy,  and  in  Decem- 
ber, 1873,  the  republic  ordered  the  removal  from 
the  naval  ensign  of  the  royal  insignia.  The  royal 
standard  of  Portugal  is  red,  charged  with  the 
arms  and  crown.  The  royal  standiu-d  of  the  Ne- 
therlands is  the  same  as  the  merchant  fiag,  with 
the  royal  arms  on  the  white  bar.  The  Belgian 
royal  standard  is  the  same  as  the  ensign,  with 
the  arms  on  the  yellow  division.  The  ensigns 
of  Sweden  and  Norway  are  formed  of  the  united 
fiags  of  the  two  connti'ies.  The  fiag  of  Sweden 
is  blue  with  a  yellow  cross,  that  of  Norway  red 
with  a  blue  cross.  The  two,  combined  in  the 
manner  of  the  union  jack  of  Great  Britain,  are 
cantoned  in  the  national  ensigns.  The  Danish 
merchant  fiag  is  the  same  in  color  and  device 
as  the  naval  ensign,  but  is  rectangular.  The 
same  remark  applies  to  the  merchant  flag  of 
Sweden.  The  commercial  fiag  of  Greece  is  the 
same  as  the  naval,  omitting  the  crown  on  the 
cross.  The  royal  standard  of  Greece  is  bine 
charged  with  a  white  cross,  the  canton  of  the 
ensign.  The  crescent  and  star  of  Turkey  was 
the  device  of  Diana  Byzantina,  the  patroness 
of  Byzantium,  and  was  hoisted  first  by  Moham- 
med II.,  after  the  capture  of  Constantinople. — 
The  English  colonies  in  America  displayed  at 
first  the  fiag  of  the  mother  country,  the  cross 
of  St.  George.  In  1636  Endioott,  the  Puritan 
governor  of  Massachusetts,  cut  the  cross  out  of 
the  banner  to  show  his  hatred  of  Romanism. 
In  1637  the  king^s  arms  were  substituted  for  the 
obnoxious  emblem ;  but  in  1661,  the  parliament 
of  the  commonwealth  having  revived  the  old 
standard  of  St.  George,  it  was  ordered  by  the 
general  court  to  be  used  on  all  necessary  occa* 
sions.  Various  modifications  were  in  use  at 
different  times.  Sometimes  the  field  was  white 
charged  with  the  cross,  sometimes  red  with  the 
cross  cantoned  on  a  white  field,  and  sometimes 
blue  w^ith  the  cross  similarly  cantoned;  and 
occasionally  a  globe  or  a  pine  tree  was  depicted 
in  the  upper  canton  formed  by  the  cross.  The 
flag  of  New  England  under  Sir  Edmund  Androa 
was  white  charged  with  St.  George^s  cross, 
bearing  in  the  centre  the  letters  J.  R.  {Jacobui 
Rex)  surmounted  by  the  crown.  In  1707  the 
union  jack  of  King  James  was  adopted,  and 
distinctive  colonial  flags  probably  went  out  of 
use.  In  the  beginning  of  the  revolution  a  va' 
riety  of  flags  were  displayed  in  the  revolted 
colonies.  The  ^^  union  flags  ^^  mentioned  so  fre^ 
quently  in  the  newspapers  of  1774  were  the 
ordinary  English  red  ensigns  bearing  the  union 
jack.  These  generally  bore  some  patriotic 
motto,  such  as  "  Liberty,"  "Liberty  and  Prop- 
erty," "Liberty  and  Union,"  &c.  After  the 
battle  of  Lexington  the  Connecticut  troops  dis- 
played on  their  standards  the  arms  of  the  colony 
with  the  motto  Qui  transtulit  tustinet;  and 
later,  by  act  of  the  provincial  congress,  the 
re^ments  were  distinguished  by  the  colors  of 


/ 


X 


w 


FLAGS  OF  THE  PRINCIPAL  NATIONS. 


ffi 


MLBBIX.  NAVAL. 


T 

^™ 

SPAtN.lTAVAL. 

spaiNpMehchujt; 

I  EGYPT. 


r 


PRINCIPAL  NATIONS. 


BOLIVIA. 


m 


URUGUAy. 

FLAGS  OF  THE  AMERICAN  REVOLUTION. 


PINE  TREE  PLA&. 


lUVAI.FLACarlT7S. 


KATTLESHAKE  FLAO. 


GRAND  UinONfLAG 


FLAGS  OF  THE  CONFEDERATE  STATES  OF  AMERICA. 


V"i\ 


\ 


H   , 


FLAG 


251 


their  flaga,  as,  for  the  7th  blae,  for  the  8th  or- 
ange, &c.  The  early  armed  ships  of  New  York 
are  said  to  have  displayed  a  beaver,  the  device 
of  the  seal  of  New  Netherland,  on  their  en- 
signs. It  is  uncertain  what  Dag,  if  any,  was 
u^  by  the  Americans  at  Bunker  Hill.  That 
displayed  by  Putnam  on  Prospect  hill  on  July 
18  following  was  red,  with  Qui  transtulit  9U9- 
tinet  on  one  side,  and  on  the  other,  *^  An  Appeal 
to  Heaven."  This  last  motto  was  adopted, 
April  29,  1776,  by  the  provincial  congress  of 
Massachusetts  ss  the  one  to  be  borne  on  the 
flag  of  the  cruisers  of  that  colony,  *^a  white 
flag  with  a  green  pine  tree."  What  fla^  Ar- 
nold carried  in  the  expedition  to  Canada  is  not 
known.  The  first  armed  vessels  commissioned 
by  Washington  sailed  under  the  pine-tree  flag. 
The  first  republican  flag  unfurled  in  the  south- 
em  states,  blue  with  a  white  crescent  in  ttie 
upper  comer  next  to  the  staff,  was  designed 
by  Col.  William  Moultrie  of  Charleston,  at  the 
request  of  the  council  of  safety,  and  was  hoist- 
ed on  the  fortifications  of  that  city  in  Septem- 
ber, 1775.  The  flag  displayed  on  the  E.  bas- 
tion of  Fort  Sullivan,  afterward  called  Moul- 
trie, on  June  28,  1776,  was  the  same,  with  the 
word  "  Liberty  "  on  it.  On  the  W.  bastion 
waved  the  flag  called  the  ^*  great  union,"  first 
rused  by  Washington  at  Cambridge,  Jan.  2, 
1776.  This  consisted  of  the  13  alternate  red 
and  white  stripes  of  the  present  flag  of  the 
United  States,  with  the  crosses  of  St.  George 
and  St.  Andrew  emblazoned  on  the  blue  can- 
ton in  place  of  the  stars.  This  flag  was  carried 
alao  by  the  fleet  under  command  of  Commo- 
dore Esek  Hopkins,  when  it  sailed  from  the 
Delaware  capes,  Feb.  17,  1776.  Hopkins  had 
displayed  previously  a  yellow  ensign  bearing 
the  device  of  a  rattlesnake  in  the  attitude  of 
striking,  with  the  motto  ^^Don^t  tread  on  me." 
This  emblem  was  suggested  probably  by  the 
cuts  displayed  at  the  head  of  many  newspapers 
of  the  time,  which  represented  a  snake  divided 
into  13  parts,  each  bearing  the  abbreviation 
of  a  colony,  with  the  motto  beneath,  **  Join  or 
Die,"  typifying  the  necessity  of  union.  The 
snake  was  represented  generally  with  13  rat- 
tles; sometimes  it  was  coiled  around  the  pine 
tree  at  its  base,  and  sometimes  depicted  at 
length  on  a  field  of  13  alternate  red  and  white 
or  red  and  blue  stripes.  The  oflScial  ori- 
gin of  the  *' grand  union"  flag  is  involved 
in  obscurity.  At  the  time  of  its  adoption  at 
Cambridge  the  colonies  still  acknowledged  the 
legal  rights  of  the  mother  country,  and  there- 
fore retained  the  blended  crosses  of  St.  George 
.  and  St.  Andrew,  changing  only  the  field  of  the 
old  ensign  for  the  13  stripes  emblematic  of 
their  union.  The  colors  of  the  stripes  may 
have  been  suggested  by  the  red  flag  of  the 
army  and  the  white  one  of  the  navy,  previous- 
ly in  use.  These  13  stripes  are  supposed  to 
have  been  used  first  on  a  banner  presented  in 
1774  or  1775  to  the  Philadelphia  troop  of  light 
horse  by  Capt  Abraham  Markoe,  and  still  in 
the  poasession  of  that  troop.    After  the  decla- 


ration of  independence  the  emblems  of  British 
union  became  inappropriate,  but  they  were  re- 
tained in  the  flag  until  the  following  year. 
Congress  resolved  on  June  14,  1777,  **that  the 
flag  of  the  13  United  States  be  13  stripes  alter- 
nate red  and  white ;  that  the  union  be  18  stars, 
white  in  a  blue  field,  representing  a  new  con- 
stellation." This  is  the  first  recorded  legisla- 
tive action  for  the  adoption  of  a  national  flag. 
The  resolution  was  not  promulgated  oflScially 
until  Sept.  3,  although  the  newspapers  published 
it  a  month  earlier.  It  is  supposed  that  the  flag 
was  unfurled  flrst  by  Paul  Jones  on  the  Ranger, 
to  the  command  of  which  he  was  appointed  on 
the  same  day  that  the  resolution  regarding  the 
flag  was  passed.  It  is  not  known  by  whom  the 
stars  were  suggested.  By  some  they  have  been 
ascribed  to  John  Adams,  and  by  others  it  has 
been  urged  that  the  entire  flag  was  borrowed 
from  the  coat  of  arms  of  tiie  Washington  fam- 
ily; but  both  conjectures  are  without  proof, 
and  the  latter  is  improbable.  The  13  stars  of 
the  flag  of  1777  were  arranged  in  a  circle,  al- 
though no  form  was  prescribed  oflScially.  The 
flag  thus  adopted  remained  unchanged  till  1704, 
when,  on  motion  of  Senator  Bradley  of  Ver- 
mont, which  state,  with  Kentucky,  had  been 
admitted  into  the  Union,  it  was  resolved  that 
from  and  after  May  1, 1796,  ^^the  flag  of  the 
United  States  be  15  stripes  alternate  red  and 
white,  that  the  union  be  15  stars,  white  in  a 
blue  field."  This  was  the  flag  used  in  the  war 
of  1812-^4.  The  act  made  no  provision  for 
future  alterations,  and  none  were  made  till 
1818,  although  several  new  states  had  mean- 
while been  admitted  into  the  union.  In  1816, 
on  the  admission  of  Indiana,  a  committee  was 
appointed  **  to  inquire  into  the  expediency  of 
altering  the  flag."  A  bill  was  reported,  Jan. 
2, 1817,  but  was  not  acted  on,  which  embodied 
the  suggestions  of  Capt.  Samuel  C.  Reid,  dis- 
tinguished for  his  defence  of  the  brig  General 
Armstrong  against  a  superior  British  force  in 
Fayal  roads  in  1814,  who  recommended  the 
reduction  of  the  stripes  to  the  original  13,  and 
the  adoption  of  stars  equal  to  the  number  of  the 
states,  formed  into  one  large  star,  and  a  new  star 
to  be  added  on  the  4th  of  July  next  succeeding 
the  admission  of  each  new  state.  On  April  4, 
1818,  a  bill  embodying  these  suggestions,  with 
the  exception  of  that  designating  the  manner 
of  arranging  the  stars,  was  approved  by  the 
president,  and  on  the  13th  of  the  same  month 
the  flag  thus  established  was  hoisted  on  the 
hall  of  representatives  at  Washington,  although 
its  legal  existence  did  not  begin  until  the  fol- 
lowing 4th  of  July.  In  1859,  when  congress 
passed  a  vote  of  thanks  to  Capt.  Reid,  the  de- 
signer of  the  flag,  it  was  suggested  that  the 
mode  of  arrangement  of  the  stars  should  be 
prescribed  by  law,  but  the  matter  was  over- 
looked. The  stars  in  the  unions  of  flags  used 
by  the  war  department  of  the  government  are 
generally  arranged  in  one  large  star;  in  the 
navy  flags  they  are  invariably  set  in  parallel 
lines.    The  blue  union,  which  now  contains  87 


252 


FLAGELLANTS 


FLAGG 


stara,  when  used  separately  is  called  the  union 
jack.  Tlie  United  States  revenue  flag,  adopted 
in  1799,  consists  of  16  perpendicular  stripes, 
alternately  red  and  white,  the  union  white 
witli  the  national  arms  in  dark  blue.  The 
union  used  separately  constitutes  the  revenue 
jack.  The  American  yacht  flag  is  like  the  na- 
tional flag,  with  the  exception  of  the  union, 
which  displays  a  white  foul  anchor  in  a  circle 
of  13  stars  in  the  blue  field. — ^During  the  civil 
war  the  several  seceded  states  used  at  first  dis- 
tinctive state  flags.  In  March,  1861,  the  con- 
federate congress  adopted  the  so-called  ^^  stars 
and  bars,^^  composed  of  three  horizontal  bars 
of  equal  width,  the  middle  one  white,  the 
others  red,  with  a  blue  union  containing  nine 
white  stars  arranged  in  a  circle.  The  resem- 
blance of  this  to  the  **  stars  and  stripes  ^^  led  to 
confusion  and  mistakes  in  the  field;  and  in 
September,  1861,  a  battle  flag  was  adopted,  a 
rea  field  charged  with  a  blue  saltier,  with  a 
narrow  border  of  white,  on  which  were  dis- 
played 13  white  stars.  In  1863  the  **  stars  and 
bars  ^^  was  supplanted  by  a  flag  with  a  white 
field  having  the  battle  flag  for  a  union.  The 
flag  of  1863  was  found  deficient  in  service,  it 
being  liable  to  be  mistaken  for  a  flag  of  truce ; 
and  on  Feb.  4,  1865,  the  outer  half  of  the  field 
beyond  the  union  was  covered  with  a  vertical 
red  bar.  This  was  the  last  flag  of  the  confed- 
eracy.— See  "  Origin  and  Progress  of  the  Flag 
of  the  United  States  of  America,''  by  George 
Henry  Preble,  U.  S.  N.  (8vo,  Albany,  1872). 

FUGELLANTB  (Lat.  flagellare^  to  scourge),  a 
name  given  during  the  middle  ages  to  various 
societies  of  penitents,  who  went  about  scourg- 
ing themselves  in  public.  The  first  organiza- 
tion of  tliis  kind  arose  in  1056,  and  was  due 
to  St.  Peter  Damian;  and  his  efibrts  were 
crowned  with  such  success  that  persons  were 
everywhere  seen  scourging  and  lacerating 
themselves  to  appease  the  wrath  of  heaven. 
This  practice,  though  discountenanced  by  the 
ecclesiastical  authorities,  became  more  and 
more  prevalent.  In  1260  the  calamities  con- 
sequent upon  the  long  wars  between  Guelphs 
and  Ghibellines  impressed  the  popular  mmd 
with  the  belief  that  the  end  of  the  world  was 
at  hand,  and  a  guild  of  flagellants  was  founded 
in  Perugia  by  one  Ramier,  a  Dominican  friar. 
A  branch  society  was  soon  after  established  in 
Rome,  and  thence  rapidly  spread  throughout 
Italy.  Vast  bodies  of  men,  girded  with  ropes, 
marched  in  procession  through  the  streets,  and 
from  city  to  city,  singing  lugubrious  chants, 
scourging  their  naked  shoulders,  and  calling  on 
the  people  to  repent.  All  hostilities  ceased; 
and  the  eflTect  of  this  display,  though  not  last- 
ing, was  at  first  irresistible.  Such  processions 
spread  from  Italy  to  other  countries.  In  1261 
large  numbers  of  flagellants  were  to  be  seen  in 
Austria,  Hungary,  and  Poland,  scourging  them- 
selves publicly  during  33  days  in  memory  of  the 
33  years  of  Christ's  life  upon  earth.  These 
displays  were  repressed  for  the  time  by  tiiie 
civil  magistrates  {  but  they  recommenced  on  a 


larger  scale  about  1349,  when  all  Europe  had 
been  desolated  by  the  **  black  death."  The 
flagellants  now  proclaimed  that  Christ  was 
about  to  come  back  on  earth,  that  the  world 
was  to  be  purified  by  the  baptism  of  blood, 
and  that  flagellation  was  to  be  the  sole  sacra- 
ment of  this  new  era.  These  fanatics  spread 
all  over  Europe,  and  a  band  of  120  reached 
Londoi;  in  the  time  of  Edward  IIL,  but  found 
no  sympathy  among  the  English  people.  On 
the  continent  women  and  boys  joined  in  these 
processions.  But  to  the  excesses  which  ohar* 
acterized  their  devotion  were  soon  added  dis- 
orders of  every  kind.  In  several  places  they 
excited  the  populace  to  rise  against  the  Jews, 
whom  they  represented  as  the  cause  of  the 
''black  death.'^  In  1349  Pope  Clement  VL 
issued  a  bull  against  them,  and  in  1872  they 
were  denounced  as  heretics  by  Gregory  XL 
Early  in  the  15th  century  they  reappeared  in 
Germany ;  but  their  leader,  Conrad  Schmidt, 
was  burned  as  a  heretic  in  1414.  In  France 
the  celebrated  Gerson  wrote  against  them  in 
the  name  of  the  university  of  Paris,  and  a 
royal  edict  forbade  their  processions.  In  Italy 
and  Spain  some  good  men,  like  Vincent  Ferrer, 
endeavored  to  encourage  the  practice  of  public 
flagellation,  while  restraining  every  excess  and 
disorder;  but  after  the  council  of  Constance 
the  flagellants  disappeared  from  European  his- 
tory.— The  name  of  flagellants  was  also  given 
to  some  pious  guilds  in  Catholic  countries,  ap- 
proved by  the  ecclesiastical  authorities,  but 
which  are  now  almost  entirely  extinct.  In 
southern  France  they  existed  under  the  name 
of  the  white  flagellants  (blanc»  battut)  down 
to  the  reign  of  Henry  IIL,  who  established  a 
branch  of  them  in  Paris,  and  joined  them,  with 
several  of  his  most  licentious  courtiers.  This 
effectually  extinguished  them. — See  Muratori, 
Antiquitatei  Italica  Medii  jf&)i;  and  espe- 
cially FOrstemann,  Die  chrUtliehen  Geulerge- 
iellichqften, 

FLAGG*  !•  George  WUtlag,  an  American  ar- 
tist, born  in  New  Haven,  Conn.,  June  26, 1816. 
His  boyhood  was  passed  in  Charleston,  S.  C, 
where  his  juvenile  portrait  of  Bishop  England 
excited  much  iigudicious  admiration.  He  soon 
became  a  pupil  of  his  uncle,  Washington  All- 
ston,  whose  instruction  he  enjoyed  for  two  or 
three  years.  The  pictures  "A  Boy  listening 
to  a  Ghost  Story,"  *'A  Young  Greek,"  and 
^*  Jacob  and  Rachel  at  the  Well,"  were  punted 
at  tiiis  time.  A  picture  of  the  "  Murder  of  the 
Princes,"  from  "  Richard  IIL,"  procured  him 
the  patronage  of  Luman  Read  of  New  York, 
through  whose  assistance  he  visited  Europe 
and  spent  three  years  in  study.  He  resided 
for  six  years  in  London,  where  he  painted  por- 
traits principally,  but  executed  nlso  a  (ew  genre 
pictures,  among  which  the  ^*  Match  Girl," 
"Haidee,"  and  the  "Scarlet  Letter"  received 
the  most  approbation.  After  his  return  he 
opened  a  studio  in  New  Haven  and  painted  a 
number  of  historical  pictures,  the  chief  of  which 
are  "  The  Landing  of  the  Pilgrims,"  "  The  Land- 


FLAHAUT  DE  LA  BILLARDERIE 


FLAME 


253 


tag  of  the  Atlantic  Cable/^  and  *'  Washington 
receiving  his  Mother's  Blessing/*  Mr.  Flagg 
has  suffered  much  from  ill  health,  and  his 
efforts  have  been  in  consequence  uneauaL  II* 
Jare4  Bndky,  an  American  artist  and  clergy- 
man, brother  of  the  preceding,  born  in  New 
Haven,  Conn.,  June  16,  1820.  He  studied  for 
a  short  time  with  his  brother,  and  had  some 
instmction  also  from  Washington  Allston. 
When  but  16  years  old  ho  exhibited  in  the 
national  academy  a  portrait  of  his  father.  He 
settled  in  Hartford,  where  he  painted  many 
portraits  and  a  few  other  pictures.  In  1849 
he  removeil  to  New  York,  and  the  following 
year  the  exhibition  of  his  *^  Angelo  and  Isabel- 
la*' from  ** Measure  for  Measure*'  secured  his 
election  as  an  academician.  He  afterward 
studied  theology,  and  in  1854  was  ordained 
deacon  in  the  Episcopal  church.  Since  then 
he  has  been  pastor  of  several  churches,  and 
has  foand  time  also  to  paint  many  pictures. 

FLAHADT  DE  LA  BILLARDEKIE.  I.  Aigwto 
Charles  iaeeph,  connt,  a  French  general  and 
diploamtist,  bom  in  Paris,  April  21, 1785,  died 
'  there,  Sept  2,  1870.  His  father  succeeded 
Buffon  as  director  of  the  jardin  det  plantes^ 
and  was  executed  by  the  revolutionists.  The 
property  of  his  widow  was  confiscated.  In 
1800  Flahaut  joined  the  army  in  Italy,  became 
successively  aide-de-camp  of  Murat,  Berthier, 
and  Napoleon,  fought  in  Portugal,  Russia,  and 
Germany,  and  gained  particular  distinction  at 
the  battle  of  Leipsic,  on  which  occasion  he  was 
made  general  of  division,  with  the  title  of 
count.  During  the  hundred  days  he  was  created 
a  peer,  and  took  part  in  the  battle  of  Water- 
loo. After  the  revolution  of  1830  he  was  re- 
instated in  his  rank  and  title.  In  1831  he  was 
for  a  short  time  ambassador  in  Berlin,  and 
officiated  in  the  same  capacity  in  Vienna  from 
1841  to  1848.  On  the  coup  d'etat  of  Dec.  2, 
1851,  he  became  a  member  of  the  consulta- 
tive commission,  in  1853  senator,  in  1854  a 
member  of  the  commission  to  collect  the  cor- 
respondence of  Napoleon  I.,  and  in  18G0  am- 
bassador to  London.  He  married  on  July 
28,  1817,  Margaret  Mercer  Elphinstone,  who 
succeeded  to  the  peerages  of  the  United  King- 
dom and  Ireland  as  Baroness  Keith  in  1823, 
and  to  the  Scottish  barony  of  Nairn  in  1888. 
The  saloon  of  Mme.  de  Flahaut  was  a  favorite 
resort  of  eminent  politicians.  The  count  was 
one  of  the  intimate  friends  of  Louis  Napoleon*s 
mother,  Queen  Ilortense,  who  is  said  to  have 
composed  for  him  her  popular  air  Partantpaur 
laSyrie;  and  he  was  believed  to  have  been 
the  father  of  M.  de  Momy.  IL  Adele  Flilesl,  a 
French  authoress,  mother  of  the  preceding, 
bom  in  the  chateau  of  Longpr6  in  Normandy, 
May  14,  1761,  died  in  Paris,  April  16,  1836. 
Her  second  husband  was  the  marquis  Jos6 
Maria  de  Souza  Botelho  (bom  in  Oporto,  March 
9, 1758,  died  in  Paris,  June  1,  1825),  who  was 
for  some  time  Portuguese  ambassador  in  Paris, 
and  who  prepared  a  valuable  edition  of  Camo- 
Sos^s  **  Lusiad."    Her  first  and  best  work,  AdHe 


de  ShiangeB^  ou  Lettret  de  Lard  Sydenham^  ap- 
peared in  London  in  1794,  with  a  preface  by 
the  marquis  de  Montesquiou.  It  was  followed 
in  1799  by  jSmilie  etAlphonsA,  and  by  a  series 
of  other  works,  a  complete  edition  of  which 
appeared  in  Paris  in  1821-2  (6  vols.  8vo  and 
12  vols.  12mo).  A  charming  representation 
of  the  best  French  society  in  the  18th  century 
is  found  in  her  writings. 

FLUIBOROUCil  HEAD,  a  promontory  on  the 
coast  of  Yorkshire,  England,  in  lat.  54"*  7'  N., 
Ion.  0**  6'  W.  It  is  a  range  of  steep  and  in 
some  places  perpendicular  chalk  cliffs,  some  of 
which  rise  to  a  height  of  450  ft.  On  the  head- 
land stands  a  lighthouse  214  ft.  above  the  sea, 
with  a  revolving  light  visible  at  a  distance  of 
80  m.  The  cliffs  are  perforated  by  numerous 
caverns,  which  during  the  summer  are  resorted 
to  by  immense  numbers  of  sea  fowl.  The  ruins 
of  an  ancient  tower  and  a  Danish  intrenchment 
are  on  the  summit,  and  Flamborough  village 
stands  near  the  centre  of  the  promontory. 

FLAME)  the  luminous  appearance  caused  by 
the  combustion  of  gases  or  vapora  When  a 
liquid  or  solid  is  burned  so  as  to  form  a  flame, 
it  is  first  converted  into  gas  or  vapor.  The 
small  blue  flame  which  appears  upon  burning 
charcoal  is  caused  by  the  union  of  atmospheric 
oxygen  with  the  carbonic  oxide  gas  which  is 

the  first  product  of  the  union 
of  oxygen  with  carbon.  The 
structure  of  a  flame  is  best  ob- 
served in  the  burning  of  a  sperm 
or  tallow  candle,  or  an  oil  lamp 
having  a  solid  wick.  In  the 
candle  flame,  represented  in  sec- 
tion in  fig.  1,  the  central  dark 
inner  cone  a,  surrounding  the 
wick  and  proceeding  to  a  point  a 
short  distanqe  above  it,  is  chief- 
ly composed  of  light  and  heavy 
carburetted  hydrogen  gases, 
formed  by  the  action  of  heat  on 
the  melted  fat,  and  such  as  are 
contained  in  common  illumina- 
ting gas,  of  nitrogen  obtained  from  the  air,  of 
watery  vapor,  and  also  of  carbonic  oxide  and 
carbonic  acid  gases.  In  the  blue  zone,  5,  at 
the  base  of  the  flame,  the  gas  of  the  base  of 
the  inner  cone  is  completely  burned  by  oxygen 
less  rarefied  than  that  which  reaches  other 
parts  of  the  flame.  This  zone  has  the  same 
character  as  the  inner  flame  of  the  blowpipe. 
That  part  of  the  flame  which  furnishes  the 
principal  part  of  its  light  is  called  the  luminous 
cone,  represented  at  e.  Its  base  surrounds  the 
inner  cone,  its  apex  reaching  above  it.  It  is 
luminous  in  consequence  of  the  incandescence 
of  numerous  minute  particles  of  solid  carbon 
which  have  been  formed  by  the  abstraction  oi 
the  constituent  hydrogen  of  the  carbo-hydro-] 
gen  gas,  and  its  union  with  atmospheric  oxy-' 
gen.  The  supply  of  oxygen  to  the  inner  parts 
of  this  flame  is  not  sufficient  to  consume  the 
carbon,  but  the  combustion  of  hydrogen  fur- 
nishes sufficient  heat  to  produce  white  light  in 


-a 


Fio.  1. 


254 


FLAME 


the  particles  of  solid  carbon.  The  combustion 
is  completed  in  the  outer  cone,  d^  by  the  union 
of  carbon  and  remaining  nnoonsumed  gases, 
with  atmospheric  oxygen.  It  is  called  the 
mantle,  and  is  much  less  luminous  than  the 
cone  last  described,  the  light  being  principally 
caused  by  incandescent  gas  and  vapor.  This 
part  of  the  flame  is  sometimes  confounded  with 
the  blue  zone  at  the  base,  but  tlie  mistake  can 
readily  be  demonstrated  by  holding  a  piece  of 
cardboard  between  the  eye  and  the  flame  in 
such  a  way  as  to  cut  off  the  luminous  cone, 
and  thus  enable  the  difference  in  the  character 
of  the  light  of  the  two  cones  in  question  to  be 
distinguished.  The  flame  of  a  lamp  wick  is  of 
course  similar  to  that  of  a  candle ;  and  a  flat 
flame  has  the  same  structure,  only  the  part 
corresponding  to  the  inner  cone  is  very  thin. 
The  blue-colored  parts  of  an  ordinary  flame  are 
chiefly  owing  to  the  combustion  of  carbonic 
oxide  gas,  which  may  be  considered  as  the 
transition  state  of  the  carbon  element  during 
its  complete  union  with  atmospheric  oxygen 
and  formation  of  carbonic  acid.  The  upward 
current  of  heated  gas  produced  by  a  flame 
burning  in  air,  undisturbed  by  external  cur- 
rents, is  quite  rapid,  as  may  be  observed  when 
smoke  is  allowed  to  be  carried  up  with  it,  and 
the  resistance  which  it  offers  to  horizontal  cur- 
rents is  considerable. — The  structure  and  com- 
position of  a  candle  flame  may  be  demonstrated 
in  several  ways.  If  a  fine  metallic  wire  is 
passed  horizontally  through  the  centre,  it  will 
soon  become  incandescent  in  the  luminous 
cone  and  mantle  on  each  side  of  the  flame,  while 
that  part  which  is  in  the  dark  inner  cone  will 
slowly  become  only  slightly  red  from  conduc- 
tion of  heat,  or  not  at  all  if  the  wire  is  very  small. 
If  the  wire  Is  of  steel  or  iron,  after  being  held 
for  some  time  in  the  flame  it  will  be  found  on 
examination  to  have  become  corroded  at  those 
points  which  were  in  the  mantle  and  outer  part 
of  the  luminous  cone,  in  consequence  of  com- 
bining with  atmospheric  oxygen,  which  it 
readily  does  under  the  influence  of  incandes- 
cent heat.  That  pest  of  the  wire  which  is  in 
the  inner  cone  will  not  be  affected,  while  that 
part  which  is  in  the  inner  part  of  the  luminous 
cone  will  be  covered  with  lampblack.  If  a 
silver  or  copper  wire  which  has  had  the  sur- 
face tarnished  by  oxygen  be  employed,  the 
tarnish  will  disappear  at  those  points  which 
are  in  the  inner  part  of  the  luminous  flame, 
because  the  oxygen  which  had  united  with  the 
metal  is  now  taken  up  by  the  heated  free  car- 
bon in  the  flame.  In  the  outer  cone  or  mantle 
the  coating  of  oxide  will  be  increased.  This 
furnishes  an  explanation  of  the  nature  of  the 
common  or  mouth  blowpipe  flame,  which  is 
produced  by  blowing  a  nne  stream  of  air 
through  the  flame  of  an  oil  or  alcohol  lamp  or 
a  candle,  flg.  2.  The  tip  of  the  blowpipe  is 
usually  introduced  into  the  inner  cone,  and  air 
from  the  mouth  is  forced  through  it,  which 
mingles  atmospheric  oxygen  with  the  combus- 
tible gases,  and  produces  complete  combustion 


of  all  those  portions  in  the  line  of  the  jet.  The 
whole  flame  is  directed  by  the  current  of  the 
jet,  and  a  current  of  air  surrounding  it  also 
passes  in  the  same  direction.  The  whole  of 
the  gases  of  the  inner  cone  are  not  consumed 
by  the  air  blown  through  the  pipe  (unless  it  be 


Fio.  S. 


Fxo.  8. 


too  large),  but  a  portion  is  left  to  be  consumed 
in  the  luminous  outer  hollow  cone,  0,  where  it 
meets  with  the  oxygen  of  the  air.  As  the 
oxides  of  metals  are  reduced  to  a  metallic  state 
by  parting  with  oxygen  to  the  carbon,  the 
inner  flame  a  is  called  the  reducing  flame,  and 
its  point  h  is  also  the  hottest  point  in  the  whole 
flame.  The  outer  cone  is  the  oxidizing  flame, 
which  varies  in  quality  in  different  portions, 
the  most  effective  point  for  most  purposes  of 
oxidation  being  at  the  tip,  although  the  flame 
is  used  in  a  variety  of  ways,  depending  upon 
the  material  under  examination  and  the  nature 
of  the  substance  in  which  it  is  held.  If  a  piece 
of  flne  wire  gauze  is  held  in  a  horizontal  posi- 
tion and  lowered  into  the  flame,  the  latter  will 
only  continue  to  bum  below  it,  the  unconsumed 
gases  passing  through,  but  without  suflScient 
heat  to  bum.  A  central  dark  circle,  a  section 
of  the  inner  cone,  will  then  be  observed,  and 
also  a  luminous  outer  ring,  formed  of  the  lumi- 
nous cone  and  the  mantle.  (See  fig.  8.)  I^ 
while  the  gauze  is  held  in  the  flame,  a  lighted 
taper  be  applied  to  the  upper  surface,  the  un- 
consumed gas  will  take  flre,  and  the  original 
flame  will  be  nearly  restored,  the  gauze  form- 
ing a  horizontal  section.  If  the  flame  be  ex- 
tinguished by  the  breath,  and  while  the  wick 
is  smoking  the- gauze  be  quickly  placed  a  short 
distance  above  it,  and  a  lighted  taper  applied 
to  the  upper  side,  the  ascending  combustible 
gases  which  still  issue  from  the  wick  and  pass 
through  the  gauze  will  take  fire,  producing  a 
flame  above  it,  which  will  not  extend  beneath 
because  the  gauze  conducts  away  the  heat 
sufficiently  to  prevent  ignition  of  the  column 
of  gas  below.  This  phenomenon,  however, 
will  only  last  a  moment,  as  the  wick  soon 
ceases,  in  the  absence  of  heat,  to  furnish  com- 
bustible gases.  The  experiment  can  be  better 
made  over  a  jet  of  common  illuminating  gas. 
(See  fig.  4.)  The  flame  above  the  gauze  will 
not  be  so  distinctly  divided  nor  so  luminous  as 
in  an  entire  flame,  because  of  the  partial  mix- 


FLAME 


FLAMEL 


255 


ture  of  oxygen  with  the  coinhustible  gases  be- 
fore passmg  through  the  gauze. — If  one  end  of 
a  small  glass  or  metal  tube,  open  at  both  ends, 
be  introduced  into  the  inner  cone  of  a  candle 
flame,  and  the  other  end  elevated  and  a  lighted 
taper  applied  to  it,  a  second  flame  will  b^  pro- 


Fio.  4. 


Fxo.  fi. 


daced  from  the  combustible  gases  which  ha^e 
been  conveyed  oflT  by  the  tube.  (See  flg.  6.) 
It  is  by  the  use  of  such  a  tube,  only  longer,  and 
bent  so  as  to  pass  under  water  and  into  collect- 
ing vessels,  that  the  gases  are  collected  for 
analysis.    Bunsen^s  burner,  flg.  6,  furnishes  an 

example  of  the  effect  of 
a  free  and  full  supply 
of  oxygen  to  a  burning 
gas.  The  carbon  being 
consumed  almost  simul- 
taneously with  its  hydro- 
gen constituent,  scarce- 
ly any  separation  of  sol- 
id particles  occurs,  and 
therefore  there  is  but 
little  light  other  than 
that  produced  by  the 
incandescent  gases  and 
vapors.  Conversely,  the 
luminosity  of  a  flame 
may  be  increased  by  the 
addition  of  substances 
rich  in  carbon.  If  hy- 
drogen gas  or  light  car- 
buretted  hydrogen  be 
passed  through  naphtha  or  benzole,  its  flame 
may  be  rendered  highly  luminous.  So  also  the 
addition  of  a  substance,  as  chlorine  gas,  which 
has  the  power  of  abstracting  tbib  constituent 
hydrogen  from  a  carbo-hydrogen  gas  and  set- 
ting free  the  carbon,  will  increase  the  luminos- 
ity of  a  flame. — Increase  and  diminution  of 
pressure  have  been  found  by  Frankland  to  have 
a  remarkable  influence  upon  the  luminosity  of 
flames.  On  the  summit  of  Mont  Blanc  candles 
burn  with  a  feeble  light,  and  in  artiflcially 
rarefied  air  it  has  been  found  that  the  bright- 
ness of  ordinary  flames  increases  or  diminishes 
in  proportion  to  the  increase  or  diminution  of 
pressure,  down  to  that  which  supports  a  column 
of  mercury  of  14  inches.  Below  this  pressure 
the  luminosity  diminishes  at  a  less  rate  than 
the  pressure.  Under  increased  pressure  a 
824  VOL.  vii.— 17 


Fio.  6u 


flame  fed  with  amylic  alcohol  was  found  to  in- 
crease in  direct  proportion  to  the  pressure  till 
it  was  equal  to  two  atmospheres,  and  beyond 
this  the  light  increased  more  rapidly  than  the 
pressure.  The  increase  of  light  is  caused  by 
the  greater  separation  of  carbon  particles  un- 
der increased  pressure,  the  incandescence  of 
which  is  the  cause  of  the  light.  Under  a  pres- 
sure of  two  atmospheres  candle  flames  evolve 
much  smoke ;  and  the  flame  of  alcohol,  which 
is  ordinarily  very  pale,  becomes  highly  lumi- 
nous under  a  pressure  of  four  atmospheres. 
Conversely,  flames  which  smoke  in  an  ordinary 
atmosphere  cease  to  do  so  in  a  rarefied  one,  the 
combustion  being  more  complete  in  consequence 
of  the  greater  mobility  of  the  gaseous  particles. 
The  reason  why  the  luminosity  of  names  in 
very  rare  atmospheres  does  not  decrease  in 
exact  proportion  to  diminution  of  pressure  is 
that  the  incandescent  carbon  does  not  furnish 
all  the  light ;  the  remainder,  which  amounts  to 
about  1  per  cent,  under  ordinary  circumstances, 
being  produced  by  incandescent  gas,  and  not 
being  affected  by  pressure,  adding  a  greater 

groportional  fraction  to  the  amount. — Singing 
ames  were  partially  investigated  by  De  la 
Rive  in  1802.  A  small  quantity  of  water 
heated  in  the  bulb  of  a  thermometer  pro- 
duced musical  sounds  by  the  periodic  expansion 
and  condensation  of  vapor  in  the  tube ;  and  he 
referred  the  singing  of  ordinary  gas  flames  in 
tubes  to  a  similar  expansion  and  condensation 
of  the  aqueous  vapor  formed  by  the  combus- 
tion. Faraday,  however,  in  1818  showed  that 
flames  which  did  not  produce  water  in  burning, 
such  as  that  of  carbonic  oxide  gas,  would  pro- 
duce musical  sounds ;  and  that  they  would  also 
occur  in  ordinary  flames  when  the  surrounding 
air  was  raised  above  212^  F.,  so  that  no  con- 
densation of  vapor  could  take  place.  Experi- 
ments in  which  flames  are  subjected  to  the  in- 
fluence of  acoustic  vibrations  producing  musi- 
cal tones  show  conclusively  that  the  notes  pro- 
duced by  them  are  not  of  that  independent 
character  which  would  result  from  expansion 
and  condensation  of  vapor,  but  that  they  have 
an  intimate  relation  with  the  principles  of  liar- 
mony.  llie  influence  which  the  length  and 
calibre  of  the  tube  in  which  the  combustion 
takes  place,  being  precisely  of  the  same  kind 
as  that  exerted  on  a  jet  of  air  blown  into  an 
organ  pipe,  and  the  sensitive  manner  in  which 
flames  respond  to  certain  musical  tones  (as  has 
been  beautifully  illustrated  in  experiments  by 
Tyndall),  indicate  their  relation  to  and  depen- 
dence upon  the  acoustic  vibrations  which  pro- 
duce these  tones.  This  subject,  and  also  that 
of  KCnig's  sensitive  manonietric  flames,  which 
pulsate  on  receiving  musical  vibrations  under 
circumstances  in  which  they  indicate  by  their 
forms  the  nature  of  the  sounds,  will  be  treated 
of  in  the  article  Sound. 

FLIMEL,  Nicolas,  a  French  scribe  and  repu- 
ted alchemist,  bom  about  1330,  died  in  Paris, 
March  22,  1418.  He  combined  the  occupations 
of  copyist  and  bookseller,  married  Pernelle,  a 


256 


FLAMESr 


widow  of  soma  property,  and  also  received 
pupils  in  his  house,  to  wbom  he  taught  writing 
ana  the  rudiments  of  letters.  The  means  which 
he  thus  acquired  were  profitably  invested,  and 
the  products  of  bis  industry  and  renta  enabled 
him  to  build  hospitals  and  free  lodging  honses, 
found  chapels,  and  endow  churches,  which  he 
often  adorned  with  paintings  and  sculptures, 
eapecially  with  bass  reliefs  of  himself  and  his 
wife.  His  fame  increased  after  his  death,  and 
the  attempt  to  account  for  &  fortune  which  had 
been  magnified  by  popular  credulity  resulted  in 
attributing  to  bim  the  poascsaion  of  the  plii- 
losopher'a  stone.  In  1601  the  Sommaire  phi- 
iomphi'jvs,  a  metrical  treatise  on  alchemy,  was 
pulflished  probably  by  Gohorry,  under  the 
name  of  Flamel ;  and  it  complet«l7  established 
hia  reputation  as  an  alchemist  till  Vilain  criti- 
cally ioTestigated  his  history  (ITfll).  It  has 
been  coiyeotured  that  the  Jews,  who  were  then 
mnoh  persecuted  in  France,  made  him  the 
depositary  of  their  wealth ;  or,  which  is  still 
more  improbable,  that  the  cabalistic  book  of 
Hairakam  Jti^f,  which  he  is  said  to  have 
studied,  contained  emblematic  signs  of  the  va- 
rious places  where  the  Jews,  expelled  from  the 
kingdom,  had  buried  their  treasures. 

il.lMEII,  in  Roman  antiquity,  a  member  of 
an  ancient  college  of  priests,  established  by 
Nnma,  each  of  whom  was  confined  to  the  ser- 
vice of  a  particular  deity.  The  original  three, 
the  dialii^  martialu,  and  quirinalu,  conse- 
crated to  Jupiter,  Hars,  and  the  deified  Rom- 
nlna,  were  afterward  distinguished  as  majore*, 
and  chosen  from  a  select  class  of  the  patrician 
order  (see  Oosfarrbation)  :  while  the  later 
12,  called  minority  were  elected  from  the  ple- 
beians. Their  dignity  was  for  life,  but  could 
be  forfeited  by  neglect  of  duty,  or  lost  in  con- 
sequence of  an  ill-omened  event  disturbing  any 
of  their  sacred  performances.  Their  omcial 
dress  was  the  apex,  a  cap  either  conical  or 
olose-litting,  having  at  the  top  a  pointed  piece 
of  olive  wood,  surrounded  at  its  hose  by  a  lock 
of  wool  {filum^  whence,  according  to  some, 
their  name,   while  Plutarch   derives  it  from 

f<iUwn,  hat),  the  lana,  or  mantle,  and  the 
aurel  wreath.  The  most  distinguished  mem- 
ber of  this  college  of  priests  was  the  dialit, 
honored  with  the  priTileges  of  a  seat  in  the 
senate,  the  toga  pratexta,  a  lictor,  and  the 
higher  prerogative  of  procuring  pardon  or  res- 

Eite  for  criminals  who  came  to  bim  for  refuge; 
at  be  was  also  burdened  by  several  restric- 
tions, being  forbidden,  for  instance,  to  leave  the 
city  even  for  a  single  night,  to  swear  an  oath, 
to  wear  a  ring,  to  ride  or  touch  a  horse,  and  to 
remarry  after  the  death  of  his  wife,  who  assist- 
ed bim  in  the  performance  of  some  of  his  sacred 
functions,  and  was  called  flaminiea.  In  later 
times  tiie  deified  emperors  of  Rome  bad  par- 
ticular flamens  appointed  to  their  worship. 

FUMINfiO,  a  wading  bird  of  the  order  nata- 
toret,  family  anatida,  aubfamily  phanie^teri- 
na,  and  genus  pAfflnwopt*™*  (Linn.).  The  bill 
is  longer  than  the  head,  high  at  the  base,  com- 


FLAMINGO 

pressed,  suddenly  bent  at  a  right  angle  fn  the 
middle,  the  sides  growing  narrower,  and  rather 
obtuse  at  the  tip;  the  lateral  margins  are  in- 
curved and  finely  laminated ;  the  base  to  aroand 
and  behind  the  eye  is  covered  with  a  soft  and 
delicate  skin,  finer  than  the  finest  kid,  the  end 
being  corneous ;  the  nostrils  are  near  the  base, 
linear,  1|  in.  long ;  length  about  6  in,  ;  beyond 
the  curve  the  color  is  black,  the  base  being 
orange  and  yellow.  The  wings  are  moderate, 
with  the  first  and  second  quills  nearly  equsd 
aud  longest ;  the  tail  is  6  in.  long ;  tlie  tibia  is 
[engtbeoed  aud  naked;  the  tarsi  are  very  long 
and  slender,  and  both  covered  by  transverse 
scales;  tlie  toes  are  short,  the  anterior  cmes 
nnited  by  a  membranous  web;  the  hind  toe 
is  very  short,  almost  touching  the  ground,  and 
free;  the  claws  are  short  and  flat.  There  are 
five  or  six  species,  inhabiting  the  warmer  parts 
of  the  globe,  frequenting  the  seashore  and  marsh- 
es in  considerable  flocks ;  one  acts  aa  sentinel 
while  the  rest  are  feeding  or  resting,  and  on  the 
approach  of  danger  gives  the  alarm  by  a  tmm- 
pet-like  noise,  and  starts  offleading  all  the  rest; 
they  fiy  either  in  triangular  lines  like  the  wild 
goose,  or  in  Indion  file  when  they  are  about  to 
alight;  they  can  run  quickly,  bnt  when  walk- 
ing are  said  to  assist  themselves  by  placing  the 
upper  mandible  on  the  ground ;  though  web- 
footed,  they  do  not  swim,  the  webs  serving  to 
support  them  in  wading  over  soft  mod.  The 
fooo  consists  of  mollnsks,  crustaceans,  fish 
spawn,  marine  insects,  and  small  fish ;  the 
singular  form  of  their  bill  enables  them,  by 
taming  it  toward  the  body,  to  place  the  npper 
mandible  downward,  and  tbus  to  collect  their 
food  as  In  the  bowl  of  a  spoon.  The  small 
head,  angular  bill,  long  and  slender  neck,  stilt- 


like  legs,  comparatively  small  body,  and  bril- 
liant colors  render  the  flamingo  one  of  the 
most  extraordinary  forms  among  birds.— Tlio 
American  flamingo  (P.  ruber,  Linn.)  is  about 
4  ft.  long  from  bill  to  end  of  tail,  and  5}  ft.  to 
end  of  claws;  the  extent  of  wings  is  6^  ft., 


FLAMINGO 


FLAMMARION 


257 


that  of  each  wing  being  16^  in. ;  the  tarsns  12^ 
in. ;  bill  along  gape  5  m.,  along  tlie  curve  6 
in. ;  middle  toe  8^  in. ;  the  circumference  of 
tbe  body  is  only  24  in.,  and  the  weight  about  7i 
lbs. :  the  female  is  considerably  smaller.    The 
space  between  tbe  bill  and  eye  is  bare,  but  the 
plumage  generally  is  compact  and  the  feathers 
rounded,  those  on  the  neck  being  short;  the 
color  is  a  bright  scarlet,  deepest  on  the  wings ; 
the  quills  are  black,  the  legs  red,  the  feet  lake 
color,  and  the  iris  blue.    The  habits  of  the  lia- 
mmgo  are  more  nocturnal  than  those  of  tbe 
heron ;  over  the  water  they  fly  low,  but  over 
the  land  very  high,  with  neck  and  legs  extend- 
ed, alternately  flapping  their  wings  and  sailing ; 
before  alighting  they  generally  sail  around  the 
place,  and  come  down  in  the  shallow  water, 
often  wading  to  the  shore ;  they  are  very  shy. 
The  nest  is  made  on  a  hillock  of  mud  about 
2  ft.  high,  in  the  hollow  top  of  which  on  the 
bare  earth  two  or  three  white  eggs  are  laid 
about  the  size  of  a  goose  egg ;  the  bird  covers 
the  eggs  standing,  with  one  foot  in  the  water, 
and  the  young  are  hatched  about  the  end  of 
May ;  they  take  to  the  water  at  once,  it  is  said, 
and  cannot  fly  till  they  are  three  months  old ; 
they  do  not  attain  their  full  scarlet  plumage 
until  the  second  year,  being  rose- colored  du- 
ring the  first.    On  account  of  its  shyness  the 
flamingo  is  rarely  himted,  and  then  only  for  its 
handsome  feathers.    It  is  easily  tamed,  and  in 
captivity  feeds  on  rice,  maize,  and  similar  sub- 
stances.   It  inhabits  the  warmer  parts  of  Amer- 
ica, especially  the  West  Indies ;  it  is  not  un- 
common in  West  Florida  and  northern  Alaba- 
ma, but  is  rare  to  the  north  and  west  of  these 
points. — ^The  European  bird  (P.  antiquarum, 
Temm.)  is  smaller  and  less  brilliant.    It  is  a 
regular  visitant  to  the  shores  of  the  Mediterra- 
nean, and  sometimes  wanders  to  France  and 
Germany;  it  is  extensively  spread  over  the 
warmer  parts  of  Asia,  and  is  very  common 
along  the  shores  of  noiihem  Africa.    Its  ap- 
pearance and  habits  are  tbe  same  as  those  of 
tbe  American  species.  According  to  Gould,  this 
species  requires  four  years  to  reach  maturity, 
during  which  the  plumage  changes  greatly; 
before  the  first  moult  the  color  is  uniform  gray, 
with  black  tail  and  secondaries ;  in  the  male, 
the  head,  neck,  upper  and  under  surfaces,  are 
a  delicate  rosy  white,  the  centre  of  the  wing 
bright  scarlet,  the  primaries  black,  the  bill 
reddish  at  the  base  and  black  at  the  tip,  the 
tarsi  and  toes  rosy  red ;  the  scarlet  color  is  not 
assumed  until  the  third  or  fourth  year,  and  is 
brightest  during  spring  and  summer.    The  flesh 
of  the  flamingo  is  savory,  and  its  fatty  tongue 
is  considered  a  delicious  morsel;   they  were 
especially  esteemed  by  the  ancient  Romans, 
and  many  allusions  to  this  dish  are  found  in 
their  writings. — The  position  of  the  flamingo 
among  birds  is  a  subject  of  dispute ;  some  au- 
thors place  it  among  the  waders  or  grallatores, 
from  its  long  neck  and  legs,  and  consequent 
habits ;  but  the  best  authorities  rank  it  among 
the  aruereSj  or  web-footed  swimmers,  on  ac- 


count of  its  lamellar  duck-like  bill,  webbed 
feet,  and  muscular  gizzard ;  if  it  be  true  that 
the  young  run  to  the  water  as  soon  as  they  are 
bom,  this  of  itself  would  seem  to  establish 
their  rank  among  the  anseres, 

nJMlNIAN  WAT  (Lat.  via  Flaminia),  the 
principal  road  leading  ft'om  ancient  Rome  to 
the  northern  provinces,  constructed  in  220  B. 
C,  in  the  censorship  of  0.  Flaminius,  fi-om 
whom  it  was  named.  It  extended  to  Arimi- 
num,  now  Rimini,  on  the  Adriatic,  about  220 
m.,  where  it  joined  the  j£milian  way.  It  di- 
vided into  two  branches  at  Namia,  now  Narni, 
in  Umbria,  which  met  at  Fulgininm  (Foligno), 
again  dividing  at  Nuceria  (Nocera),  and  meet- 
ing at  Fanum  Fortunes  (Fano).  It  bad  great 
commercial  and  military  importance,  and  still 
retains  many  of  the  works  erected  by  the  Ro- 
man emperors. 

FLAMINIHIJ8,  TItas  Qilattas,  a  Roman  general, 
bom  about  230  B.  0.,  died  about  175.  He 
was  elected  consul  in  108,  and  undertook  the 
conduct  of  the  war  against  Philip,  king  of 
Macedon.  By  pretending  that  his  object  was 
to  remove  from  Greece  the  Macedonian  yoke, 
he  detached  many  of  the  Greek  states  from 
Philip,  and  defeated  him  at  Cynoscephals  (107), 
in  Thessaly,  where  the  Roman  legion  demon- 
strated its  superiority  over  the  famous  Mace- 
donian phalanx.  Philip  surrendered  all  his 
Greek  towns  in  Europe  and  Asia,  and  paid  a 
heavy  contribution  to  the  Romans.  At  the 
Isthmian  games  in  196  Flamininus  proclaimed 
the  freedom  of  those  states  which  had  been 
subdued  by  Macedon.  In  196  he  diminished 
the  power  of  the  tyrant  Nabis  of  Sparta,  after 
which  he  occupied  himself  in  restoring  inter- 
nal peace  and  prosperity  to  Greece.  The  next 
spring  he  returned  to  Rome,  where  his  triumph 
lasted  three  days.  In  188  he  was  sent  as  am- 
bassador to  Prasias,  king  of  Bithynia,  to  seek 
the  surrender  of  Hannibal,  who  had  obtained 
an  asylum  there. 

FLAHUnVS,  CaiWy  a  Roman  general,  killed 
June  28,  217  B.  0.  He  was  a  tribune  of  the 
people  in  282,  consul  in  228  and  217,  and  censor 
in  220.  As  tribune  he  carried  an  agrarian  law 
against  the  opposition  of  the  senate.  In  his 
first  consulship  he  and  his  colleague  attacked 
tbe  Gauls  beyond  the  Po,  and  were  defeated. 
The  senate  then  recalled  the  consuls,  but  Fla- 
minius would  not  open  the  letter  of  recall, 
and  obtained  a  victory  over  tbe  Insubrians.  A 
triumph  was  refused  him  on  his  return,  but  he 
was  rewarded  with  demonstrations  of  popular 
favor.  The  circus  Flaminius  and  via  Flaminia 
were  the  monuments  of  his  censorship.  In 
his  second  consulship  he  marched  against  Han- 
nibal, rashly  gave  battle,  and  was  slain,  with 
the  greater  part  of  his  army,  on  the  border  of 
Lake  Thrasymenus. 

FLAHMARIOM,  Caallle,  a  French  astronomer, 
bom  at  Montigny-le-Roi,  Haute-Mame,  Feb. 
25,  1842.  He  first  studied  theology  and  after- 
ward astronomy,  was  attached  as  a  pupil  to 
the  Paris  observatory  from  1868  to  1862,  and 


258 


FLAMSTEED 


FLAKDERS 


then  became  one  of  the  editors  of  Le  Coimm, 
In  1865  he  was  charged  with  the  scientific  de- 
partment of  the  SiiclSy  and  he  also  became 
known  as  a  lectnrer,  an  aeronaut,  and  an  ad- 
vocate of  spiritualism  and  other  peculiar  doc- 
trines. He  was  eventually  appointed  professor 
of  astronomy  at  the  polytechnic  association, 
president  of  the  meteorological  society,  and 
member  of  several  learned  bodies.  Uis  princi- 
pal works  are  :  La  pluralite  des  mondes  habi- 
tes  (1864;  15th  ed.,  1869);  Les  habitants  de 
V autre  monde  (2  vols.,  1862-'8) ;  Les  mondes 
imaginaires  et  les  mondes  reels  (1865 ;  8th  ed., 
1869);  Les  merveilles  celestes  (1865);  Dieu 
dans  la  nature  (1866;  6th  ed.,  1869);  and 
Histoire  du  del  (1867).  Several  of  his  works 
have  been  translated  into  English,  including 
his  Voyages  aeriens  (in  Glaisher's  "  Travels  in 
the  Air,"  1871),  Becits  de  Vinfini  ("Stories 
of  the  Infinite,"  by  S.  R.  Crocker,  Boston, 
1878),  and  L' Atmosphere  (Paris,  1873),  by  C.  B. 
Pitman,  edited  by  J.  Glaisher  (London,  1873). 
FLAMSTEED,  J«hi,  the  first  English  astron- 
omer royal,  born  at  Denby,  near  Derby,  Aug. 
19,  1646,  died  in  Greenwich,  Dec.  81,  1719. 
He  was  educated  at  the  free  school  of  Derby, 
and  at  a  very  early  age  manifested  a  strong  in- 
clination for  astronomical  studies.  His  health 
was  so  delicate  that  he  was  not  sent  to  a 
university,  but  continued  for  several  years  to 
prosecute  his  astronomical  researches  at  home 
with  great  success.  In  1667  he  demonstrated 
the  true  principles  of  the  equation  of  time,  in  a 
tract  which  Dr.  Wallis  appended  to  his  edition 
of  the  works  of  Horrocks.  Flamsteed  appears 
to  have  been  the  first  astronomer  who  brought 
into  common  use  the  method  of  simultaneously 
observing  the  right  ascension  of  the  sun  and 
stars,  a  mode  by  which  the  true  place  of  any 
star  is  determinable  by  means  of  meridional 
altitudes  and  transits.  In  1669  he  communi- 
cated to  the  royal  society  his  calculation  of  a 
solar  eclipse  that  had  been  omitted  in  the 
ephemerides  for  the  following  year,  together 
with  several  other  astronomical  observations. 
In  1670  he  visited  London,  and  was  introduced 
to  the  savants  of  the  metropolis.  He  then  en- 
tered Jesus  college,  Cambridge,  and  made  the 
acquaintance  of  Wroe,  Barrow,  and  Newton. 
In  1673  he  composed  his  treatise  on  ^*  The  True 
and  Apparent  Places  of  the  Planets  when  at 
tiieir  Greatest  and  Least  Distance  from  our 
Earth,"  a  work  of  which  Newton  availed  him- 
self in  his  first  edition  of  the  Frineipia,  In 
1674  appeared  his  Ephemeris^  which,  with  two 
barometers  previously  constructed  by  him,  was 
presented  by  his  friend  Sir  Jonas  Moore  to 
Charles  II.  and  his  brother  the  duke  of  York. 
In  1675  he  was  a<lmitted  to  holy  orders.  Soon 
afterward,  the  king^s  attention  having  been 
called  to  the  enormous  errors  of  the  astronom- 
ical tables  then  in  use,  he  resolved  to  found  an 
observatory,  of  which  Flamsteed,  through  the 
mediation  of  Moore,  was  appointed  the  first 
director.  The  observatory  was  completed  in 
1676,  but  the  astronomer  had  already  entered 


on  the  discharge  of  his  duties  in  Greenwich. 
The  new  observatory  received  the  name  of 
Flamsteed  house.  It  was  so  inadequately  sup- 
plied with  astronomical  apparatus  that  its  prin- 
cipal, out  of  his  salary  of  £100  a  year,  often 
not  regularly  paid,  and  his  other  limited  re^ 
sources,  had  to  provide  most  of  those  instru- 
ments which  were  indispensable.  Here  Flam- 
steed composed  his  great  work,  Historia  C(b- 
lestis,  the  period  of  whose  publication  forms  an 
epoch  in  the  annals  of  modem  astronomy.  In 
1684  he  was  presented  to  the  small  living  of 
Burslow  in  Surrey,  the  only  ecclesiastical  pre- 
ferment he  ever  obtained.  Mr.  Francis  Baily^s 
discovery  of  his  papers  and  correspondence  in 
1832,  published  in  1835  by  authority  of  the 
admiralty,  has  thrown  much  light  on  the  his- 
tory of  his  difiTerences  with  Newton  and  Hal- 
ley.  These  documents  give  us  Flamsteed's  ver- 
sion of  those  unseemly  controversies,  and  it 
is  not  at  all  favorable  to  the  reputation  of 
those  great  masters  of  science ;  but  there  is  an- 
other account  in  Sir  David  Brewster's  "  Me- 
moirs of  the  Life,  &c.,  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton," 
which  makes  their  conduct  toward  him  appear 
less  culpable,  though  neither  just  nor  generous, 
than  Flamsteed  would  lead  us  to  suppose.  His 
Historia  Ccslestis  Britannica  (8  vols,  fol.,  Lon- 
don, 1725)  was  not  published  complete  till 
after  his  death,  though  a  partial  edition  had 
been  issued  in  1712,  against  his  protest,  by 
Halley,  under  authority  of  a  committee  com- 
posed of  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  Sir  Christopher 
Wren,  and  others.  The  first  volume  contains 
his  observations  on  the  fixed  stars,  planets, 
comets,  &c. ;  the  second,  the  transits  of  stars 
and  planets  over  the  meridian,  with  their 
places ;  the  third,  an  account  of  the  methods 
and  instruments  used  by  Tycho  Brahe  and 
himself,  and  various  catalogues  of  fixed  stars, 
including  his  own  catalogue  of  2,934  stars. 
He  also  prepared  an  Atlas  Calestis,  as  an  ac- 
companiment to  the  above  work,  which  was 
published  in  1729,  and  again  in  1753. 

FLANDERS  (Flem.  Vlaenderen,  Fr.  Flandre), 
formerly  a  part  of  the  Netherlands  or  Low 
Countries  of  western  Europe,  now  included  in 
Belgium,  Holland  (the  southern  part  of  the 
province  of  Zealand),  and  France  (parts  of  the 
departments  of  Le  Nord  and  Pas-de-Calais). 
Stretching  along  the  North  sea  from  the  west- 
ern inlet  of  the  Scheldt  to  the  entrance  of  the 
straits  of  Dover,  it  was  bounded  N.  and  £.  by 
that  river  and  its  branch  the  Dender,  while  on 
the  south  it  joined  the  province  of  Artois.  The 
name  occurs  for  the  first  time  in  the  7th  cen- 
tury, when  Eloi,  bishop  of  Noyon  and  treasurer 
of  King  Dagobert  I.,  visited  northern  Neustria. 
By  the  treaty  of  Verdun  (843)  Flanders  was 
included  in  the  kingdom  of  France,  and  about 
20  years  later  it  was  erected  into  a  county  un- 
der the  rule  of  Baldwin  of  the  Iron  Arm,  son- 
in-law  of  King  Charles  the  Bald.  Baldwin^s 
successors  took  rank  among  the  six  lay  peers 
of  France,  and  figured  conspicuously  in  French 
history.     His  family  having  become  extinct  in 


FLANDERS 


FLANDIN 


259 


1119,  the  connty  was  held  till  1127  hy  Charles 
I.,  the  Good,  sou  of  Canute,  king  of  Denmark ; 
then  for  a  year  by  William  Cliton,  the  nephew 
of  Henry  I.  of  England  ;  and  finally  by  Thierry, 
son  of  the  duke  of  Lorraine,  whose  dynasty, 
known  as  the  Alsatian,  reigned  till  1280.  A 
last  family  of  counts  was  established  by  Guy  de 
Dampierre,  and  lasted  till  1384,  when  Flanders 
was  united  to  the  states  of  Philip  the  Bold  of 
Bnrgandy,  who  had  married  the  heiress  of  the 
last  count.  At  the  death  of  Charles  the  Bold  in 
1477,  his  daughter  Mary,  by  marrying  the  arch- 
duke Maximilian,  brought  Flanders  to  the  house 
of  Anstria.  It  was  incorporated  by  the  em- 
peror Charles  V.  among  the  17  provinces  which 
formed  the  circle  of  Burgundy.  On  his  abdica- 
tion it  became  one  of  the  dependencies  of  Spain, 
which  lost  a  portion  of  it  by  its  northernmost 
section  being  annexed  to  Zealand  when  the 
seven  United  Provinces  declared  their  inde- 
pendence. Afterward  a  portion  of  its  southern 
territory  was  conquered  by  Louis  XIV.,  and 
received  the  name  of  French  Flanders.  In 
1713  the  peace  of  Utrecht  transferred  glanders 
from  Spain  to  Austria.  In  1792  it  was  invaded 
by  the  French,  who  held  it  till  1814,  during 
which  period  it  formed  the  departments  of  Lys 
and  Scheldt.  On  the  fall  of  the  French  empire, 
it  was  given  to  the  king  of  the  Netherlands, 
who  divided  it  into  two  provinces.  East  and 
West  Flanders,  which  since  1881  have  con- 
stituted an  important  part  of  the  kingdom  of 
Belgium.  In  spite  of  so  many  revolutions, 
Flanders  has  always  been  distinguished  for  its 
industrial,  commercial,  and  agricultural  pros- 
perity. As  early  as  the  12th  century  its  cities 
nad  acquired  considerable  importance  through 
their  manufactures,  and  had  secured  a  certain 
degree  of  freedom.  The  democratic  spirit  kept 
even  pace  with  the  progress  of  trade  and  in- 
dustry; and  in  the  following  centuries  the 
Flemish  cities  were  so  many  republican  com- 
munities, paying  little  more  than  a  nominal 
obedience  to*  their  counts.  They  more  than 
once  took  the  management  of  affairs  into  their 
own  hands,  and  successfidly  resisted  their  lord 
paramount,  the  king  of  France.  Such  was  the 
case  in  1837,  when  Jacob  van  Artevelde,  the 
brewer  of  Ghent,  expelled  Count  Louis  I.  from 
the  country,  causea  his  countrymen  to  ac- 
knowledge Edward  III.  of  England  as  king  of 
France,  and  held  for  a  while  the  balance  be- 
tween the  two  great  contending  nations.  Even 
when  the  cities  of  Flanders  submitted  to  their 
sovereigns,  they  protected  their  liberties  and 
privileges  against  any  encroachment,  revolting 
repeatedly  during  the  14th  and  15th  centuries. 
The  interest  of  their  lords,  however,  was  to 
deal  mildly  with  the  subjects  from  whom  they 
could  obtain  immense  sums  of  money  by  volun- 
tary taxation.  It  was  through  them  that  the 
bouse  of  Burgundy  became  the  wealthiest  in 
Europe,  for  they  had  then  reached  the  height 
of  their  prosperity ;  many  burgesses  of  Ghent, 
Ypres,  and  Bruges  had  princely  fortunes,  and 
plenty  was  apparent  everywhere.    Charles  V., 


by  forbearance  and  skilful  management,  con- 
ciliated the  Flemings,  and  even  the  despotism 
of  Philip  II.  could  not  entirely  alienate  them 
from  Spain.  Flanders  is  still  a  well  cultivated 
country,  famous  for  its  industry  and  commerce, 
and  forming  the  richest  part  of  Belgium ;  but 
the  indomitable  si>irit  of  old  times  has  been 
tamed  into  a  moderate  love  of  political  liberty. 
(See  Flemish  Language  and  Literatube.) 

ILANDEKS,  East,  a  province  of  Belgium, 
bounded  N.  by  Holland,  E.  by  the  Scheldt 
(separating  it  fVom  the  province  of  Antwerp) 
and  by  South  Brabant,  S.  by  Hainaut,  and 
W.  by  West  Flanders;  area,  1,158  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1871,  887,726.  It  forms  an  extensive 
plain,  drained  by  the  Scheldt  and  its  tributa- 
ries, which,  being  united  by  canals,  afford  am- 
ple water  conmmnication.  Its  soil  is  not  of 
superior  quality,  but  is  industriously  cultivated, 
and  it  gives  excellent  crops  of  flax,  hemp,  wheat, 
rye,  colewort,  hops,  beets,  potatoes,  and  other 
vegetables.  Great  numbers  of  cattle  are  raised. 
Manufactures  are  prosperous,  and  comprise  lin- 
en, woollen,  and  cotton,  and  beet-root  sugar. 
Capita],  Ghent;  other  chief  towns,  OudeDa^de, 
Dendermonde,  Eedoo,  Alost,  and  St.  Nicholas. 

FLiNDEIUVWcst,  a  province  of  Belgium, 
bounded  N.  W.  by  the  North  sea,  S.  W.  and  S. 
by  France,  and  E.  by  the  provinces  of  Hainaut 
and  East  Flanders,  and  Holland;  area,  1,240 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  668,976.  Besides  ihe  Lys 
and  the  Scheldt,  by  which  it  is  watered  on  the 
southeast,  it  has  only  small  streams  emptying 
into  the  sea.  Its  surface  is  generally  flat ;  and 
although  most  of  its  soil  is  sandy  and  poor,  it 
has  been  so  much  improved  that  it  yields  abun- 
dant crops  of  wheat,  oleaginous  plants,  flax,  and 
tobacco.  Cattle  and  horses  are  abundant.  The 
manufacture  of  linen  and  damask  is  the  prin- 
cipal industry.  Capital,  Bruges;  other  chief 
towns,  Ostend,  Furnes,  Ypres,  Courtrai,  and 
Dixmude. 

riiANDIir,  Eig^M  Naptlte,  a  French  painter 
and  archcBologist,  born  in  Naples,  Aug.  15,1809. 
His  father  was  chief  of  the  military  commissa- 
riat under  Murat,  and  settled  in  Paris  after  the 
downfall  of  Napoleon.  Young  Flandin  studied; 
drawing  and  painting  without  a  master,  visited 
Italv  in  1834,  and  exhibited  in  1836  ''  Venice'' 
and  the  ''Bridge  of  Sighs.'*  In  1838.  after  a 
brief  sojourn  in  Algeria,  he  painted  the  "  Storm- 
ing of  Constantine,"  wnich  became  the  proper- 
ty of  Louis  Philippe.  In  1839  Flandin  was  cho- 
sen by  the  academy  of  fine  arts  to  accompany 
to  Persia  the  French  ambassador  De  Sercey ;, 
and  on  his  return  in  1842  his  report  and 
drawings  were  adopted  by  the  academies  and 
published  by  the  government.  He  was  at 
once  chosen  by  the  academy  of  inscriptions 
and  belles-lettres  to  go  to  Nineveh  with  P.. 
E.  Botta  to  continue  explorations  there,  and 
to  sketch  the  monumental.  He  returned  in: 
1845,  and  the  chambers  unanimously  voted 
to  publish  the  result  of  their  labors,  which 
appeared  in  the  Monument*  de  Ninive  and  at- 
las (1849-'50).    In  1846,  while  pceparing  this. 


260 


FLANDRIN 


FLATHEADS 


work,  he  published  articles  relating  to  As- 
syria in  the  Eetue  des  Deux  Mondes.  In  1854 
he  began  the  publication  of  another  splendid 
work  descriptive  of  the  countries  between 
Nineveh  and  the  gulf  of  Persia.  Ue  has  since 
exhibited  many  paintings  on  Italian  and  east- 
em  subjects.  He  now  lives  in  retirement  at 
Tours.  His  works  are :  Voyage  en  Perw  (2 
vols.  8vo,  Paris,  1851);  atlas  to  the  same  (6 
vols,  fol.,  260  plates  in  line  engraving,  and 
100  lithographed  plates,  with  descriptive  texts, 
184d-'54) ;  t  Orient,  to  be  published  in  40  parts 
of  5  plates  each  (parts  1  to  31,  fol.,  1858-'67) ; 
and  Histovre  dei  chevaliers  de  Bhodea  (large 
8vo,  Tours^  1864). 

FLANDRDT.  I.  !«■■  ffippolyte,  a  French  his- 
torical painter,  bom  in  Lyons,  March  28, 1800, 
died  in  Rome,  March  21,  1864.  He  was  the 
son  of  an  obscure  miniature  painter,  and  be- 
came a  pupil  of  Ingres  in  1829.  In  1882  his 
painting  of  *^  Theseus  recognized  by  his  Fa- 
ther "  won  the  grand  prize,  entitling  hun  to 
spend  five  years  in  Rome,  where  he  continued  to 
study  under  Ingres,  who  had  been  appointed  di- 
rector of  the  French  academy  in  that  city.  De- 
voting himself  principally  to  historical  subjects, 
he  produced,  amoug  other  oompositiotis,  *^  Dan- 
te in  the  Circle  of  the  Envious  "  (1836),  which 
won  him  a  second-class  medal,  and  ^^  St.  Clair 
curing  the  Blind"  (1887).  He  returned  to 
Paris  in  1838 ;  and  m  1839  his  '*  Christ  bless- 
ing Little  Children "  obtained  a  first-class 
medal.  Several  remarkable  portruts  exhibited 
in  1840-^41,  and  his  first  monumental  frescoes 
executed  in  the  church  of  St.  S^verin,  Paris, 
now  established  his  reputation;  and  he  was 
employed  by  the  chief  cities  of  France  and  the 
government  in  decorating  their  most  beautiful 
edifices.  He  was  preparing  cartoons  for  what 
he  hoped  to  be  the  crowning  labor  of  his  life, 
the  frescoing  of  the  minster  of  Strasburg,  when 
his  health  broke  down  in  the  autumn  of  1863. 
He  proceeded  to  Rome,  where  he  was  attacked 
by  the  smaQpox,  and  died  after  an  illness  of 
three  days.  His  principal  frescoes  and  works 
in  stained  glass  are  in  the  chamber  of  peers 
and  other  national  buildings,  the  church  of  St. 
Oermain-des-Pr^s,  Paris,  and  in  the  churches 
of  Dreux,  Lyons,  Nimes,  &c.  His  talent  as  a 
portrait  painter  was  no  less  remarkable.  Comu 
nas  been  intrusted  with  the  completing  of  his 
frescoes  in  St.  Oermain-des-Pr^s,  where  a  pub- 
lic monument  to  his  memory  has  been  raised 
by  subscription. — See  Vicomte  Delaborde,  Let- 
tree  et  penseee  d^Hippolyte  Flandrin.  IL  Aip 
gute,  a  French  painter,  brother  of  the  prece- 
ding, bom  in  Lyons  in  1804,  died  there  in  1842. 
He  studied  under  Ingres  in  Paris  and  Rome, 
became  a  professor  in  the  Lyons  school  of  art, 
<md  obtained  in  1840  a  gold  medal  for  his 
^^  Savonarola  preaching  in  San  Miniato,  Flor- 
ence." III.  Jeai  Paal,  a  French  landscape 
£ainter,  brother  of  the  preceding,  bom  in 
yons  in  1811.  He  studied  with  his  brothers 
under  Ingres,  obtained  second  prizes  for  his 
landscapes  in  1839  and  1848,  and  a  first  prize 


in  1850.    He  also  painted  the  baptistery  of  the 
church  of  St.  S6verin. 

FLATBVSH,  a  town  of  Kings  co.,  New  York, 
bordering  on  Brooklyn;  pop.  in  1850,  2,977; 
in  1860,  8,471 ;  in  1870,  6,309.  It  is  the  seat 
of  the  almshouse,  hospital,  lunatic  asylum,  and 
nursery  of  the  county,  and  contains  Dutch 
Reformed,  Episcopal,  Methodist,  and  Roman 
Catholic  churches.  Erasmus  Hall  academy  in 
1871  had  9  instructors,  121  students,  and  a 
library  of  2,738  volumes.  The  town  has  been 
much  improved  within  a  few  years,  and  num- 
bers among  its  residents  many  business  men  of 
Brooklyn  and  New  York.  The  battle  of  Long 
Iriand  (August,  1776)  was  fought  here. 

FLATHEAD8*  I.  A  term  applied  at  different 
times  to  tribes  of  Indians  in  widely  distant 
parts  of  America,  and  incorrectly  to  the  Selish, 
the  tribe  now  known  ofiicially  as  Flatheads. 
The  name  is  derived  from  the  practice  of  flat- 
tening the  skulls  of  their  infants  by  various 
mechanical  contrivances ;  the  model  of  the  de- 
formity is  the  same  in  all  the  tribes,  and  much 


SknUs  of  Flatfaoad  Indiaiifl. 

like  that  observed  in  the  ancient  Peravian 
crania.  The  forehead  is  depressed  and  indent- 
ed ;  the  upper  and  middle  parts  of  the  face  are 
pushed  back  so  that  the  orbits  are  directed  a 
little  upward ;  the  head  is  so  elongated  that  in 
extreme  cases  the  top  becomes  nearly  a  hori- 
zontal plane ;  the  parietals  are  bent  so  as  to 
form  an  acute  angle,  and  instead  of  the  oc- 
ciput constitute  the  posterior  portion  of  the 
head;  the  breadth  of  the  skull  and  face  is 
much  increased,  and  the  two  sides  are  in  most 
cases  unsymmetrical.  The  best  known  tribes 
which  flatten  the  heads  of  their  children  are 
the  Chinooks,  Calapuyas,  Clickitats,  Clatsopa, 
Cowalitsk,  and  Clatstani.  Among  the  Chinooks 
the  child  is  placed  in  a  wooden  cradle,  and  a  pad 
of  grass  is  tightly  bandaged  over  the  forehead 
and  eyes,  so  that  it  is  impossible  for  him  to  see 
or  move ;  and  when  bandaged  and  suspended  in 
the  usual  way,  the  head  is  lower  than  the  feet. 
A  more  cruel  way  is  practised  in  other  tribes 
by  binding  a  flat  board  obliquely  on  the  fore- 
head. These  processes  continued  for  several 
months  produce  the  deformity,  which,  accord- 
ing to  Dr.  Pickering,  disappears  with  age,  so 
that  most  adults  present  no  trace  of  it.    This 


FLATHEADS 


FLAVEL 


261 


abape  of  the  head  is  so  highly  prized  among 
the  Chinooks  that  their  slaves  are  not  allowed 
to  practise  artificial  flattening.  The  internal 
capacity  of  the  skull  is  not  diminished  by  tlie 
flatness,  and  the  intellect  is  not  affected,  as  all 
travellers  agree  that  these  nations  are  remark- 
ably shrewd  and  intelligent ;  bat  it  is  said  that 
they  are  particularly  subject  to  apoplexy.  The 
Chinooks  are  the  best  known  of  the  Flatheads ; 
they  inhabit  the  S.  shore  of  the  straits  of  Fuca, 
and  the  deeply  indented  territory  as  far  as  tlie 
tide  waters  of  the  Oolumbia  river.  They  are 
conomonly  diminutive,  with  ill-shaped  limbs  and 
unprepossessing  features ;  the  oblique  eye  and 
arched  nose  are  occasionally  seen  among  them ; 
their  complexion  is  darker  than  that  of  the 
more  northern  tribes  who  do  not  flatten  the 
head.  They  have  the  filthy  habits  and  the 
asaal  vioes  of  the  N.  W.  Indians,  but  are  said 
to  be  superior  to  the  hunting  tribes  of  America 
in  the  nsefdl  and  ornamental  arts ;  their  climate 
IS  comparatively  mild  and  moist  from  the  prev- 
alence of  westerly  winds,  and  they  are  a  fish- 
ing and  maritime  people.  They  diflfer  from 
the  Borthem  tribes  in  language  as  well  as  in 
physical  characters.  Dr.  Morton,  in  plates  42 
to  60  of  the  Crania  Americana^  gives  descrip- 
tive  illustrations  of  several  skulls  of  the  Co- 
lumbia river  tribes. — The  custom  of  flattening 
the  head  is  very  ancient,  but  the  modem  Indians, 
except  those  of  the  N.  W.  coast,  do  not  gener- 
ally practise  it ;  it  was  a  custom  in  Peru  before 
the  arrival  of  the  Inoas,  and  was  practised  idso 
by  the  Inca  Peruvians  to  a  comparatively  re- 
cent date.  It  seems  to  have  been  principally 
employed  by  the  Toltecan  branch  of  the  Ameri- 
can nations,  including  the  semi-civilized  race 
of  Mexico,  Peru,  and  Central  America,  and  the 
ancient  mound  builders  of  the  Ohio  and  Mis- 
sissippi yalleys;  the  Natchez  tribe  of  Florida 
and  the  southern  states,  the  Choctaws,  and  the 
Caribs  (both  insular  and  continental)  flattened 
the  skulls  of  their  children  by  various  devices, 
either  in  a  vertical  direction  (as  in  the  Natchez) 
or  longitudinal  one  (as  in  the  ancient  Peruvians). 
IL  Properly  Sblish,  a  small  tribe  of  Indians, 
the  most  important  and  civilized  branch  of  the 
Selish  family.  The  origin  of  the  name  Flat- 
heads  as  applied  to  them  is  unknown,  as  they 
do  not  flatten  the  head.  They  were  visited  by 
Lewis  and  Clarke  in  1806-'7,  and  are  mentioned 
by  the  name  of  Hopilpo.  They  resided  on  the 
Bitter  Root  or  St.  Mary^s  river,  the  largest  trib- 
utary of  Clarke's  river,  and  numbered  about  600. 
In  1830  they,  with  other  Oregon  tribes,  were 
greatly  reduced  by  pestilential  fevers.  Al- 
though a  peacefiil,  industrious  tribe,  they  be- 
came warriors  to  defend  themselves  against 
the  Bannacks,  Crows,  and  Blackfeet,  but  have 
never  made  war  upon  the  whites.  Hearing 
of  Christianity  from  an  Iroquois  of  one  of 
the  Canada  missions,  they  sent  three  deputa- 
tions to  the  Jesuits  in  St.  Louis  to  obtain  a 
missionary.  Father  P.  J.  De  Smet  went  to  the 
tribe  in  1840,  and  began  a  mission  which  soon 
made  the  whole  tribe  Christians.    They  were 


poor,  miserable,  half  starved,  and  nearly  naked, 
living  on  fish  and  roots,  and  having  no  meaniT 
of  crossing  rivers  except  their  lodge  skins ;  but 
they  were  willing  to  work,  made  rapid  progress 
in  agriculture,  and  have  adopted  the  habits  and 
dress  of  whites.  They  are  remarkably  sober 
and  honest,  and  good  warriors,  although  pre- 
ferring peace.  They  were  long  governed  by 
an  excellent  chief,  Victor,  regarded  also  as 
chief  of  the  Pend  d'Oreilles  and  Eootenays* 
The  missionaries  introduced  agricultural  im- 
plements, horses,  and  cattle,  and  the  tribe  pros- 
pered, being  long  without  agents  or  traders. 
The  treaty  of  Hellgate,  July  16, 1865,  approved 
by  the  senate  on  March  8, 1859,  ceded  afi  their 
lands  without  any  consideration  paid  by  gov- 
ernment; and  thoueh  it  seemed  to  secure 
them  their  lands  on  the  Bitter  Root,  yet  under 
an  order  issued  by  President  Grant  on  Nov. 
14, 1871,  they  were  removed  to  the  Jocko  reser- 
vation, which  comprises  1,488,600  acres  in  the 
N.  W.  part  of  Montana.  Of  this  tract  the  por- 
tion assigned  to  them  is  the  worst.  Any  head 
of  a  family  who  would  renounce  tribal  relations 
was  permitted  to  take  up  160  acres  in  the  Bit- 
ter Koot  valley,  and  congress  appropriated 
(June  5,  1872)  (50,000  to  pay  for  their  houses 
and  improvements  there.  It  was  also  stipulated 
that  60  houses  should  be  built  for  them,  but 
only  11  were  begun.  Chariot,  the  chief  who 
succeeded  Victor,  reftised  to  sign  the  contract 
for  the  removal  to  the  Jocko  reservation.  They 
have  recently  been  attacked  by  the  Sioux  and 
lost  many  warriors.  In  1872  they  were  re- 
ported at  460,  which  is  evidently  too  low,  with 
a  school  directed  by  missionaries  and  sisters 
of  charity,  and  containing  29  pupils ;  they  raised 
wheat,  com,  oats,  potatoes,  and  nay  to  the  value 
of  more  than  (7,000 ;  had  1,200  horses,  800 
cattle,. and  250  swine.  Their  language  is  re- 
markably difficult.  Its  grammar  has  been 
fiublished  by  Mengarini  (New  York,  1861). 
t  is  spoken  with  some  dialectic  difi*erences  by 
the  Ejalispels  or  Pend  d'Oreilles,  the  Spokans, 
CcBurs  d' Alines,  Kettlefall  Indians,  Okanagans, 
Clallams,  Lummi,  and  Shewhapmuck. 

FLADBEKT,  Gutove,  a  French  novelist,  bom 
in  Rouen  about  1 821 .  He  abimdoned  the  study 
of  medicine  for  literature,  and  published  a  li- 
centious novel,  Madame  de  Bavary  (2  vols., 
Paris,  1857),  which  met  with  considerable  suc- 
cess, partly  owing  to  legal  proceedings  which 
were  instituted  against  him  for  its  alleged  im- 
morality, but  which  fell  to  the  ground.  Among 
his  other  works  are  Salammho  (1862),  a  novel 
embodying  the  results  of  his  explorations  about 
Carthage,  and  Vtiducation  eentimentale,  Aii- 
taire  d'unjeune  h<Hnme{2  vols.,  1869). 

VLkJELf  Joii%  an  English  clergyman  and 
author,  bom  at  Bromsgrove,  Worcestershire, 
about  1627,  died  in  Exeter,  June  26,  1691. 
He  was  educated  at  Oxford,  became  a  curate 
at  Diptford,  and  was  called  in  1656  to  Dart- 
mouth. He  was  one  of  the  2,000  clergymen 
who  refused  to  subscribe  to  the  ^^  Act  of  Con- 
formity" passed  in  1662,  and  was  therefore 


expelled  from  hia  benefice.  He  continned  to 
preocli  as  opportanit;  offered,  io  private  dwell- 
ings, obscure  neighborhoods,  or  foreata,  UU 
1687,  when,  the  royal  license  being  granted  to 
worship  without  molestation,  lie  resumed  his 
public  labors  in  a  new  church  erected  b;  bis 

Eeople.  Most  of  his  works,  which  are  held  in 
ign  esteem  and  have  been  many  times  reprint- 
ed, were  composed  daring  the  period  of  his 
persoCDtion.  "  Unsbondr;  Spiritualized "  is 
ose  of  the  most  popular ;  among  Lis  other  chief 
works  are  "  A  Treatise  of  the  Soul  of  Man," 
"Divine  Condnct,"  "The  Fountdn  of  Life," 
"The  Method  of  Grace,"  "  ATokenforMonrn- 
era,"  &c.  An  edition  in  6  vols.  Sva  appeared 
in  London  in  1820 ;  "  Select  Works,"  1833. 

FLiX,  the  common  name  of  the  plant  tinum 
imlatutimum,  and  also  of  its  moat  important 
product,  the  filaments  obtained  from  the  fibrous 
eoveriug  of  its  hollow  stems,  used  from  the 
remotest  times  in  tbe  mannfacture  of  linen 


Flu  iUnac 

thread.  The  coverings  of  the  Egyptian  mnm- 
mies  testify  that  the  linen  mentioned  by  the 
most  ancient  writers  was  the  product  of  tbe 
fiai  plant.  The  seeds  furnish  linseed  oil;  and 
of  the  residue,  after  this  is  expressed,  is  made 
the  oil  cake  which  is  extensively  used  for  feed- 
ing and  fatt«ning  cattle.  On  account  of  its 
mucilaginous  character,  fiaz  seed  is  also  em- 
ployed in  medioine,  its  infusion  in  boiling  water 
naving  a  soothing  effect  in  coses  of  inflamma- 
Uon  of  the  lungs,  intestines,  &c. ;  and  when 
ground  to  meal  and  mixed  with  hot  water,  it 
forms  an  excellent  emollient  poultice.  The  fiax 
plant  is  a  slender  annual,  from  2  to  3  ft.  high, 
bearing  small  lanceolate  leaves  distributed  al- 
ternately over  the  stalks.  These  terminate  in 
delicate  blue  flowers,  which  are  succeeded  by 
globniar  seed  vessels  of  the  size  of  small  peas, 
conttuning  each  10  seeds,  brown,  oval,  and  fiat, 
and  remarkably  bright,  smooth,  and  slippery. 
The  husk  of  the  seed  yields  GS'T  per  cent  of  a 


pure  gnm  solnble  in  cold  water ;  and  the  inte- 
rior portion  yields  the  pecnliar  oil  already  re- 
ferred to.  Tbe  plant,  now  caltivat«d  in  almost 
all  parts  of  the  world,  is  supposed  by  many  ta 
have  been  first  known  in  Egypt,  or  pos^bly  in 
the  elevated  plains  of  centrd  Asia;  but  though 
no  doubt  a  nalJve  of  warm  climates,  the  fibre 
attains  its  greatest  fineness  and  perfection  in 
temperate  regions.  Tbe  seed  is  richer  in  the 
tropics.  Near  tbe  northern  limits  of  its  cul- 
tivation the  prodnct  of  tbe  flax  is  abundant, 
bat  the  quality  is  inferior.  The  flax  of  Holland 
and  Belgium  commands  a  higher  price  than 
that  of  Rnssia.  This  difference  is  owing  partly 
to  the  extreme  core  ^ven  by  the  HoUanders 
and  Belgians  to  its  preparation.  The  Irish, 
who  have  ooltivated  the  crop  from  an  early 
period,  and  who  seem  to  possess  as  great  nata- 
ral  advantages  for  its  culture  as  any  people, 
rarely  fumi^  so  valuable  an  article  as  the  Bel- 
gians. The  greater  port  of  the  importation  is 
from  Russia,  and  the  countries  bordering  on 
the  Baltic.  The  rich  soil  of  the  valley  of  the 
Nile  ia  well  adapted  for  its  cultivation,  and  tbe 
product  of  Egypt  is  increasing  under  the  en- 
Gonrogement  given  by  the  English,  who  find 
it  more  economical  to  procure  their  supplies 
from  foreign  countries  than  from  their  own. 
— The  New  Zealand  fiax  is  obtained  from  tbe 
leaf  of  an  endogenous  perennial  plant,  p/Un^ 
miam  Unax,  which  is  a  native  of  New  Zralaad 
and  Norfolk  island.  The  leaves  are  from  2  Io 
6  ft.  long  and  from  1  to  8  in.  broad,  and  have 
a  fine  strong  fibre,  which  was  once  used  by 
the  New  ZoSanders  for  making  dresses,  ropea, 
twine,  mats,  cloth,  &c.  This  species  of  flax 
has  been  imported  into  Great  Britain,  where 
it  has  been  chiefiy  used  for  making  twine  and 
ropes;  but  its  importation  is  now  nnimportaDt 
and  ita  price  low. — Flax  appears  to  have  been 
cultivated  in  New  Netherland  as  early  as  1626. 
The  seed  of  fiax  was  ordered  to  he  introdnced 
into  the  colony  of  Massachusetts  in  1929,  and 
fiax  was  cultivated  In  that  state  soon  after  the 
war  of  independence,  particularly  at  a  distance 
from  the  coast.  Manufactories  for  making 
soil  cloth  were  established  at  Salem  and  Spring- 
field in  ITBO.  In  Virginia  flai  was  annnally 
cultivated,  spun,  and  woven  by  Capt.  Mattbewe 
prior  to  1648.  Bounties  for  its  production  in 
that  colony  were  offered  in  1S6T.  Flazwas 
among  the  products  for  the  encouragement  of 
whose  cultivation  tbe  British  parliament  made 
considerable  grants  to  the  patentees  of  Georgia 
in  1738,  1743,  and  1748.  Early  attention  waa 
given  to  tbe  cultivation  and  manufactnre  in 
Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  Kentucky,  and  Indiana. 
According  to  the  census  of  1670,  tbe  total 
amount  of  floi  produced  in  the  United  States 
was  27,133,034  lbs.,  of  which  17,880,824  lbs. 
were  produced  in  Ohio,  8,670,818  in  New  York, 
and  2,204,606  in  Illinois.  The  total  amonnt 
of  fioi  seed  was  1,730,444  bushels,  of  which 
631,894  were  tbe  product  of  Ohio.  In  1673 
85,863  acres  were  sown  with  fiax  in  Ohio, 
which  produced  738,384  bushels  of  seed  and 


FLAX 


263 


24,477,361  lbs.  of  fibre.  In  1870  there  were 
in  the  United  States  90  establishments  for 
dressing  flax,  the  products  of  which  were  val- 
ued at  $815,010.  Of  these  establishments,  46 
were  in  New  York  and  27  in  Ohio.  Darinfi^ 
the  year  ending  Jane  SO,  1878,  4,171  tons  of 
raw  flax,  valued  at  $1,187,737,  were  imported 
into  the  United  States,  the  largest  quantities 
being  from  England  and  Russia;  and  the  im- 
ports of  flax  manufactures,  chiefly  from  Eng- 
land and  Scotland,  amounted  to  $20,428,801. — 
The  manufacture  of  flax  constitutes  an  impor- 
tant element  of  British  industry.  In  1871 
there  were  in  England  and  Wales  155  flax 
factories,  with  860,768  spinning  spindles  and 
19,816  operatives,  of  whom  12,614  were  fe- 
males; in  Scotland  the  number  of  factories 
was  191,  having  317,085  spinning  spindles  and 
employing  49,917  hands,  of  whom  36,362  were 
females ;  while  in  Ireland  there  were  154  fac- 
tories with  866,482  spinning  spindles  and 
55,089  operatives,  of  whom  87,700  were  fe- 
males. The  imports  of  rough  or  undressed 
flax  for  1872  amounted  to  1,518,855  cwt., 
valued  at  £3,772,279.  Most  of  this  amount 
eame  from  Russia,  the  imports  from  that  coun- 
try amounting  to  1,115,804  cwt.,  valued  at 
£2,690,610.  Germany,  Belgiam,  and  Holland 
ranked  next  in  order.  In  addition  to  the 
above,  176,789  cwt.  of  dressed  flax,  valued  at 
£659,704,  were  imported,  mostly  from  Belgium. 
In  1872  there  were  187,360  acres  planted  with 
flax  hi  the  United  Kingdom,  of  which  122,003 
were  in  Ireland. — The  flax  crop  thrives  upon 
almost  any  good  soil  thoroughly  pulverized  and 
well  drained,  but  more  especially  upon  rich 
■andy  loams  regularly  supplied  with  moisture 
during  the  spring  months.  In  Ohio,  three 
pecks  of  seed  are  sown  to  the  acre,  which 
yields  from  six  to  twelve  bushels  of  seed  and 
from  one  to  two  tons  of  straw,  which  is  manu- 
fiictured  into  tow  for  rope  walks  and  paper 
mills.  It  may  be  sown  very  early  in  the  spring, 
and  to  good  advantage  succeeding  a  crop  of 
grain.  As  it  is  gathered  in  July  or  early  in 
August,  another  crop  may  be  obtained  from 
the  same  land  during  the  season.  A  common 
practice  with  the  Belgians  is  to  sow  the  white 
carrot  broadcast  with  the  flax,  and  when  the 
latter  is  gathered,  which  is  done  by  pullmg  the 
plants  by  the  roots,  the  soil  is  loosened  around 
the  young  carrots,  and  being  then  top-dressed 
with  liquid  manure,  they  thrive  luxuriantly. 
Grass  or  clover  seed  is  also  often  sown  imme- 
diately upon  the  flax  seed.  The  better  soils 
take  three  bushels  of  seed  to  the  acre,  the 
poorer  two  bushels.  The  finest  fibre  is  ob- 
tained by  a  thick  growth  of  slender  stalks. 
The  Dutch  take  great  pains  to  weed  the  crop 
by  hand,  when  the  plants  are  two  or  three 
inches  high.  In  June  the  plants  are  in  bloom, 
and  the  fields  present  a  beautiful  appearance, 
covered  with  the  delicate  blue  fiowers.  The 
time  for  gathering  is  indicated  by  the  leaves 
beginning  to  drop  off,  and  by  the  bottom  of 
the  stalks  becoming  yellow ;  also  by  the  con- 


dition of  the  seed  bolls,  which  should  be  ex- 
amined almost  daily  about  the  time  of  maturity 
of  the  crop.  When  the  ripest  on  being  cut 
open  with  a  sharp  knife  do  not  appear  within 
whitish  and  watery,  but  firm  and  dark  green, 
the  flax  is  fit  for  pulling.  Soon  after  this  the 
seeds  would  begin  to  fall,  and  the  fibre  would 
lose  its  silkiness  and  elasticity.  But  if  it  be 
desired  to  obtain  seed  for  sowing,  the  plants 
must  be  allowed  to  fully  ripen  at  the  cost  of 
the  deterioration  of  the  fibre.  As  the  fiax  is 
pulled,  it  is  gathered  in  bundles  to  dry ;  and 
then  if  the  seeds  are  thoroughly  ripened,  they 
may  be  separated  by  the  threshing  miU.  The 
ordinary  course,  however,  is  to  strip  the  seeds 
by  the  process  called  rippling,  which  is  draw- 
ing the  stalks,  a  handful  at  a  time,  through  a 
set  of  iron  teeth  standing  in  a  row,  half  an  inch 
apart  at  top  and  a  quarter  of  an  inch  at  bot- 
tom. Four  men  with  two  rippling  combs  will 
separate  the  seeds,  it  is  estimated,  from  more 
than  an  acre  of  flax  in  a  day.  The  seed  bolls 
should  be  well  dried,  and  then  stored  away  in 
bags  in  an  airy  place.  At  convenient  times 
they  are  threshed  and  winnowed  to  separate 
the  seed  from  the  capsules,  preparatory  to  ob- 
taining by  expression  the  oil  and  the  oil  cake. 
The  culture  of  flax  and  its  preparation  for  mar- 
ket involve  more  labor  than  almost  any  other 
crop.  The  seeds  are  preferred  which  are  brought 
from  Riga,  and  next  to  these  the  Dutch ;  the 
American  produce  a  coarser  stem.  The  soil 
should  be  thoroughly  prepared  by  repeated 
harrowing  after  deep  ploughing.  The  weeding 
requires  peculiar  care,  that  it  may  be  sufficient 
without  injury  to  the  young  plants.  The  soil 
should  be  kept  rich  by  judicious  manuring; 
for  flax  is  commonly  regarded  as  an  exhausting 
crop.  The  plan  of  returning  to  the  soil  the 
water  in  which  the  stalks  are  steeped,  by  which 
it  is  estimated  nine  tenths  of  the  nutritious 
matter  taken  away  are  restored,  is  highly  rec- 
ommended. The  pure  fibre  vields  no  ashes, 
so  that  it  takes  nothing  from  the  soil,  and  the 
manure  of  the  cattle  fed  upon  the  oil  cake  will 
restore  much  of  the  solid  constituents  of  the 
seeds.  Dr.  Ure  gives  the  following  mixture  of 
salts,  **  which  it  has  been  said  will  replace 
chemically  the  constituents  of  the  plants  pro- 
duced from  an  acre  of  land,  viz.:  muriate 
of  potash,  30  lbs. ;  common  salt,  28 ;  burned 
gypsum,  powdered,  84;  bone  dust,  54;  sul- 
phate of  magnesia,  56."  The  preparation  of 
the  flax  for  market  finds  occupation  for  the  cul- 
tivators in  the  winter  season ;  but  this  can  be 
economically  conducted  only  where  many  are 
engaged  in  the  culture,  and  mills  are  provided 
with  the  requisite  machinery.  In  the  flax  dis- 
tricts of  Belgium  it  is  stated  there  are  no  pau- 
pers, as  the  whole  population  find  employment 
during  the  winter.— The  first  process  in  the 
preparation  of  the  fibre  is  to  steep  the  stalks 
in  water  until  fermentation  takes  place.  This 
causes  the  glutinous  matter,  which  binds  the 
harl  or  the  fibrous  portion  to  the  woody  core, 
called  the  boon,  to  be  decomposed,  and  the 


264 


FLAX 


fibres  are  tbus  set  free.  The  water  most  suit- 
able for  this  purpose  is  soft  river  water.  The 
flax  is  left  more  free  from  color  by  a  stream  of 
water  flowing  over  the  bandies  than  if  these 
are  steeped,  as  is  often  done,  in  a  pool,  the 
water  of  which  is  kept  to  be  applied  to  the  soil. 
This  process  is  called  water-retting  or  rotting. 
The  result  is  sometimes  obtained  by  exposing 
the  flax  on  grass  plots  to  the  dew  and  rain, 
when  the  operation  is  called  dew-retting.  This 
requires  much  longer  time,  and  also  the  con- 
trol of  extensive  grass  fields.  It  is  an  excellent 
method  to  combine  the  two  processes,  com- 
mencing with  the  water-retting,  and  when  the 
boon  is  partially  rotted  and  the  gummy  matter 
loosened,  to  complete  the  operation  upon  the 
grass ;  the  risk  of  carrying  the  fermentation  too 
far  and  ii\juring  the  fibre  is  thus  avoided.  When 
the  steeping  process  alone  is  employed,  the  flax 
is  removed  from  the  water  as  soon  as  the  harl 
is  found  to  separate  by  the  fingers  from  the 
boon,  and  this  breaks  without  bending.  At 
this  stage  also  several  stalks  knotted  together 
sink  in  the  water.  The  duration  of  the  process 
is  from  6  to  20  days.  The  riper  the  plant, 
the  longer  is  the  time  required ;  hence  the  ne- 
cessity of  sorting  the  stalks  into  bundles  of 
similar  qualities.  The  bundles,  being  lifted  out 
of  the  water  by  hand,  are  set  on  end  to  drain 
for  24  hours,  and  the  stalks  are  then  spread 
upon  grass,  and  occasionally  turned,  to  be  soft- 
ened and  ripened  by  exposure  for  several  days. 
When  again  gathered  and  made  into  sheaves, 
these  may  be  kept  for  years  in  stacks,  the  qual- 
ity of  the  fibre  continuing  to  improve  for  some 
seasons.  Though  the  fermenting  process  is  not 
intended  to  pass  to  the  putrefying  stage,  a  dis- 
agreeable odor  is  given  out  from  the  flax,  which 
even  contaminates  the  air  of  the  district,  and 
the  waters  are  so  affected  that  the  fish  are  poi- 
soned. A  more  expeditious  and  agreeable  pro- 
cess was  therefore  highly  desirable,  and  such 
a  one  was  devised  by  Mr.  R.  6.  Sohenck  of 
New  York,  and  successfully  introduced  into  the 
flax  districts  of  Ireland  in  1847.  This  consisted 
in  steeping  the  stalks  in  water  heated  by  steam 
pipes  to  a  temperature  of  about  90°  F.  The 
gummy  matter  is  thus  rapidly  decomposed,  so 
that  in  about  60  hours  the  operation  is  com- 
pleted without  the  escape  of  any  disagreeable 
odors.  The  mucilaginous  water  is  then  drawn 
off,  and  the  flax  is  set  to  dry  upon  frames,  the 
waste  steam  of  the  engine  being  used,  if  neces- 
sary, to  heat  the  air  for  hastening  the  drying. 
Other  improvements  have  also  been  introduced, 
as  that  of  Mr.  Bower  of  Leeds,  which  consists 
in  rolling  the  stalks  after  they  have  been 
steeped  in  cold  or  warm  water,  again  steeping, 
and  again  rolling.  The  glutinous  matter  is 
thus  more  thoroughly  removed.  The  addition 
of  a  pound  of  caustic  ammonia  or  of  common 
salt  or  Glauber  salt  to  every  150  lbs.  of  rain 
water  is  recommended;  and  the  temperature 
being  kept  at  from  90°  to  120°,  the  operation 
may  be  completed  in  80  hours.  The  most 
rapid  process,  however,  i»  to  steep  the  flax  for 


a  short  time,  and  then  exhaust  the  air  from  its 
fibres  by  the  action  of  an  air  pump.  Twice 
steeping  and  twice  exhausting  the  air  serve  to 
remove  the  glutinous  matter  in  a  few  hours. 
Attempts  have  been  made  to  substitute  for  the 
retting  mechanical  methods  of  separating  the 
fibre  from  the  boon,  but  they  have  not  been 
successful,  owing  to  the  inferior  quality  of  the 
filaments  thus  prepared.  The  introduction  of 
chemical  matters  to  hasten  the  fermentation 
has  been  greatly  objected  to  from  their  liabili- 
ty to  weaken  the  fibres.  The  reducing  of  the 
fibre  to  the  condition  of  cotton  by  the  process 
of  the  chevalier  Claussen  has  excited  strong 
opposition  on  this  account.  He  had  observed 
that  the  fiax  cau^t  in  the  branches  overhang- 
ing a  stream  in  Jorazil,  which  ran  through  his 
fiax  fields,  was  by  repeated  wetting  and  ex- 
posure converted  into  a  substance  exactly  like 
cotton.  He  then  contrived  a  way  of  attaining 
the  same  result  by  exposing  the  fiax  to  the 
action  of  a  weak  alkaline  solution,  and  after- 
ward removing  the  alkali  by  boiling  in  water 
to  which  -g^  to  Yhf  ^^  sulphuric  acid  is  added* 
The  straw  is  next  steeped  in  a  strong  solution 
of  bicarbonate  of  soda ;  and  when  the  fibres 
are  filled  with  this  salt,  it  is  transferred  to  a 
solution  of  sulphuric  acid,  weak  like  the  former. 
Carbonic  acid  gas  is  generated  throughout 
the  substance,  and  this  bursts  and  splits  the 
fibre  in  a  remarkable  manner,  giving  it  the  ap- 
pearance of  cotton.  Samples  of  various  fabrics 
of  this  material,  both  alone  and  mixed  with 
cotton,  and  others  with  wool,  and  also  with 
silk,  were  placed  by  Claussen  in  the  London 
exhibition  of  1851,  and  attracted  much  atten* 
tion.  The  same  article,  however,  appears  to 
have  been  made  in  England  and  Germany  du- 
ring the  last  century,  and  a  factory  was  estab- 
lished near  Vienna  in  1780  for  its  manufacture. 
BerthoUet,  Gay-Lussao,  and  Giobert  have  ex- 
perimentally investigated  the  subject,  and  Ber- 
thoUet states  that  as  fine  cotton  may  be  ob- 
tained from  the  commonest  refuse  tow  as  from 
the  best  fiax.  For  some  reason,  however,  pos- 
sibly the  expense  of  the  process  or  the  inferior 
quality  of  the  fibre,  the  operation  does  not  seem 
to  have  prospered. — After  the  fiax  has  been 
retted  and  dried,  it  is  submitted  to  the  pro- 
cess called  breaking,  by  which  the  straws  are 
cracked  repeatedly  across,  the  effect  of  which 
is  to  produce  the  separation  of  the  brittle 
woody  portion,  which  falls  away  in  pieces  from 
the  filaments  when  afterward  beaten  by  a  broad 
fiat  blade  of  wood  in  the  operation  of  scutching. 
A  variety  of  machines  are  used  for  cracking 
the  boon.  The  most  simple  is  made  with  a 
large  wooden  blade,  called  a  swingling  knife, 
worked  by  a  handle  at  one  end,  and  fastened 
by  a  pivot  at  the  other  into  a  block  with  a  cleft 
into  which  it  fits ;  across  this  block  the  fiax  ie» 
laid,  a  handful  together,  broken  by  the  blade, 
and  moved  along,  as  straw  or  hay  is  chopped 
in  a  common  cutter.  Other  brakes  are  worked 
by  the  foot — a  grooved  block  being  brought 
down  by  each  impulse  upon  the  flax,  which  is 


FLAX 


FLEABANE 


265 


held  across  a  fixed  block  with  corresponding 
grooves ;  a  rade  spring  jerks  the  movable  block 
Qp  again  as  the  foot  releases  it.  In  the  win- 
nowing or  scutching  the  Germans  make  much 
use  of  a  thin  sabre-shaped  wooden  knife,  with 
which  they  strike  the  fiax  as  a  handful  of  it 
is  held  in  a  horizontal  groove  in  an  upright 
board.  The  coarse  tow  and  woody  particles 
are  thos  removed,  those  which  adhere  most 
firmly  being  scraped  or  rubbed  oS  by  laying 
the  flax  upon  the  leather  worn  for  this  purpose 
upon  the  leg  of  the  operator.  It  is  estimated 
that  100  lbs.  of  dried  retted  flax  should  yield 
45  to  48  lbs.  of  broken  flax ;  and  ft*om  this  when 
the  boon  waste  is  further  removed  by  scutching 
about  24  lbs.  of  flax  are  obtained  and  9  or  10 
lbs.  of  tow.  The  breaking  of  100  lbs.  of  straw 
by  the  machine  described  requires  the  labor  of 
17  to  18  hours;  and  the  cleaning  of  100  lbs.  of 
broken  flax  by  the  swingling  knife  takes  about 
130  hours.  Flax  is  broken  also  upon  a  larger 
scale  by  machines  consisting  of  fluted  rollers, 
varioaaly  contrived ;  and  other  labor-saving 
machines  with  rotating  blades  have  been  ap- 
plied to  the  process  of  scutching.  The  next 
process  is  hatchelling  or  carding.  As  per- 
formed by  hand,  a  wisp  of  flax,  held  in  the 
middle  and  well  spread  out,  is  thrown  so  as  to 
draw  one  end  of  it  over  a  set  of  sharp  steel 
teeth  which  are  set  upright  and  serve  the  pur- 
pose of  a  comb.  One  end  of  the  bundle  being 
hatchelled,  it  is  turned  round,  and  the  other  is 
treated  in  the  same  way ;  and  the  process  is 
repeated  on  finer  hatchels.  By  this  means 
Bbont  60  per  cent,  of  tow  and  dust  and  woody 
particles  are  separated  from  the  long  fibre, 
now  called  line.  This  is  fit  for  spinning  into 
linen  threads,  and  the  tow  may  be  used  for 
the  same  purpose  for  coarser  fabrics.  Machine 
hatchelling,  however,  has  for  the  most  part 
taken  the  place  of  hand  labor,  and  is  conducted 
upon  a  large  scale  and  with  many  modifications 
in  the  extensive  linen  mills.  The  flax,  being 
cut  in  lengths  of  10  or  12  inches,  is  arranged  in 
flat  layers  called  stricks,  the  fibres  parallel  and 
ending  together.  Each  of  these  is  held  by 
two  strips  of  wood  clamped  together  across  its 
middle,  or  sometimes  across  one  end.  They 
are  placed  around  a  revolving  drum,  within 
which  another  drum  armed  with  teeth  rapidly 
revolves  in  a  contrary  direction,  and  combs  the 
flax  as  the  ends  fall  among  the  teeth.  When 
hatchelled  on  one  side  the  strick  is  turned  over 
and  the  process  is  repeated  on  the  other.  The 
outer  drum  revolves  slowly,  and  discharges  the 
stricks  when  they  have  been  carried  over  the 
top  of  the  inner  drum,  beyond  the  point  where 
the  fibres  could  no  longer  fall  among  the  teeth. 
Much  ingenuity  is  displayed  in  the  modifica- 
tions of  -^is  machinery,  and  also  of  a  prepara- 
tory machine  for  dividing  the  fibres  into  equal 
lengths  and  sorting  the  lower  ends,  the  middles, 
and  the  upper  ends,  each  by  themselves.  The 
stricks  when  hatchelled  are  sorted  according  to 
the  fineness  of  the  fibres,  those  made  up  of  the 
bwer  ends  being  the  coarsest;  but  the  divi- 


sions are  much  more  minute  than  those  of  each 
fibre  into  three  lengths.  In  making  this  sep- 
aration the  line  sorter,  as  the  operator  is  called^ 
is  guided  entirely  by  the  sense  of  feeling,  this 
indicating  the  quality  of  the  fibres  more  deli- 
cately than  the  sight.  The  next  operation  pre- 
paratory to  spinning  is  to  lay  the  fibres  upon 
a  feeding  cloth,  each  successive  wisp  overlap- 
ping half  way  the  one  preceding  it.  The  feed- 
ing cloth  conveys  them  to  rollers,  between 
which  they  are  flattened  and  held  back  as  a 
second  pair  more  rapidly  revolving  seizes  the 
part  in  advance  and  draws  out  the  flax.  A 
tape  or  ribbon  of  flax  is  thus  formed,  which  is 
discharged  into  a  tin  cylinder,  a  row  of  cylin- 
ders standing  upon  the  floor  in  front  of  the 
machines.  The  tapes  or  slivers  are  afterward 
joined  several  together,  and  at  the  roving  frame 
are  slightly  twisted,  when  they  are  wound  upon 
bobbins,  which  is  the  last  process  before  spin- 
ning. (See  Linen.) — ^The  principal  treatise 
upon  this  subject  is  the  prize  essay  of  James 
MacAdam,  jr.,  secretary  to  the  society  for  the 
promotion  and  iniprovement  of  the  growth  of 
flax  in  Ireland.  The  prize  was  awarded  to  it 
by  the  royal  agricultural  society  of  England, 
and  the  essay  was  published  in  vol.  viii.  of 
their  '*  Journal."  It  nas  furnished  a  great  part 
of  the  data  of  many  of  the  valuable  papers  pub- 
lished in  the  English  scientific  dictionaries. 

FLAXMAN,  Jslu,  an  English  sculptor,  born  in 
Tork,  July  6,  1766,  died  in  London,  Deo.  0, 
1826.  In  the  workshop  of  his  father,  a  mould- 
er of  figures  in  I^ondon,  he  acquired  his  first 
ideas  of  form.  Showing  a  strong  inclination 
for  modelling,  he  was  placed  at  the  royal  acade- 
my. After  many  years  of  severe  study,  daring 
which  he  supported  himself  by  designing  for 
the  Wedgwooos  and  others,  and  produced  some 
meritorious  works,  including  a  monument  to 
the  poet  Oollins  in  Chichester  cathedral,  he 
went  in  1787  to  Rome.  He  had  read  the  Greek 
poets  in  the  ori^nal,  and  produced  two  series 
of  outline  illustrations  of  Homer  and  ^schylus, 
by  which  he  is  perhaps  more  widely  known 
than  by  any  of  his  other  works.  His  series 
of  illustrations  of  Dante  is  almost  equally  cele- 
brated. After  seven  years*  sojourn  in  Rome  he 
returned  to  England,  and  commenced  a  series 
of  Scriptural  compositions,  remarkable  for  re- 
ligious fervor  and  pathos.  Of  the  numerous 
statues  which  he  executed,  those  of  Nelson, 
Howe,  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  Mansfield,  and 
Kemble  are  the  best  known.  His  ^^  Shield  of 
Achilles'*  is  one  of  the  finest  achievements  of 
modem  art.  Fiaxman  was  a  member  of  the 
royal  academy,  in  which  he  also  filled  the 
chair  of  professor  of  sculpture,  to  which  he  was 
appointed  in  1810.  He  received  for  his  designs 
for  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey,  73  in  all,  15«.  each, 
and  for  many  of  his  models  for  Wedgwood  only 
half  a  guinea.  His  lectures  were  published  in 
1829,  and  a  new  edition  with  a  memoir  in  1838. 

FLEA.    See  Epizoa. 

FLEABAHE,  the  common  name  of  herbs  of 
the  genus  erigeron^  order  eymposita^  having  a 


266 


FLfiOHIER 


FLEETWOOD 


naked  receptacle,  and  a  rough  pappus,  consist- 
ing of  a  single  row  of  capUlarj  bristles  with 
minuter  ones  intermixed,  or  with  a  distinct 
outer  pappus  of  small  bristles  or  scales.  The 
solitary  or  corymbed  heads  are  many-flower- 
ed, radiate,  flat  or  hemispherical ;  disk  yellow, 
rays  white  or  purple ;  leaves  entire  or  toothed, 
and  generally  sessile.  Formerly  the  plants  were 
supposed  to  have  the  power  when  suspended  in 
a  room  of  driving  away  fleas ;  hence  the  name. 
The  daisy  fleabanes,  E,  annuum  and  B.  Phila- 
delphieum,  are  found  in  various  parts  of  the 
United  States.  They  have  a  bitterish  taste  and 
a  feebly  aromatic  odor,  due  to  a  small  amount 
of  volatile  oil.  Fleabane  is  diuretic,  and  has 
been  used  in  nephritic  diseases  and  dropsy.  It 
is  most  conveniently  given  in  infusion  or  de- 
coction. B,  Canadense,  or  Canada  fleabane, 
Possesses  similar  properties.  It  is  also  called 
orseweed  and  butterweed,  and  is  common 
throughout  the  country.  The  volatile  oil,  of 
which  it  contains  a  larger  proportion  than  the 
two  species  first  mentioned,  is  officinal,  and  may 
be  used  in  the  dose  of  from  five  to  ten  drops. 
It  has  been  recommended  by  some  practitioners 
in  the  treatment  of  uterine  hsBmorrhage,  but 
does  not  possess  much  control  over  that  diffi- 
culty. Occasionally  when  the  stomach  is  irri- 
table it  will  be  retained  while  other  diuretics 
are  rejected.  It  may  often  be  added  with  ad- 
vantage to  other  agents  similar  in  effect. 

FLfeCHIEK,  Esprit,  a  French  pulpit  orator,  bom 
at  Femes,  June  10,  1682,  died  in  Montpellier, 
Feb.  16,  1710.  He  was  educated  at  Avignon, 
in  the  college  of  the  *'  Fathers  of  the  Ohristian 
Doctrine,"  gave  special  attention  to  the  culture 
of  eloquence,  was  noted  for  the  elegance  of  his 
language,  taught  rhetoric  at  Nar bonne,  and  in 
1661  went  to  Paris,  where  without  fortune  or 
friends  he  became  catechist  in  a  parish.  A 
Latin  poem  which  he  wrote,  describing  the  fa- 
mous tournament  celebrated  by  Louis  XIV.  in 
1662,  was  much  admired,  and  he  soon  after  be- 
came preceptor  in  the  house  of  Canmartin,  a 
councillor  of  state,  and  was  admitted  into  the 
society  of  the  h6tel  de  Rarobonillet.  Many  of  bis 
sermons  w^re  highly  esteemed,  but  his  funeral 
oration  on  the  duchess  of  Montausier  in  1672 
was  his  first  great  triumph.  His  funeral  ora- 
tion on  Turenne,  delivered  in  Paris  in  1676, 
was  a  masterpiece  of  art,  and  placed  him,  in 
the  opinion  of  many  of  his  contemporaries,  by 
the  side  of  Bossuet.  Among  his  other  funeral 
orations,  those  on  the  first  president  Lamoi- 
gnon,  on  Queen  Marie  Th6r^se,  and  on  the  chan- 
cellor I^tellier,  were  most  admired.  Louis 
XIV.  bestowed  upon  him  first  the  abbey  of 
St.  S^verin,  then  the  position  of  reader  to  the 
dauphin,  tlie  bishopric  of  Lavaur  in  1G85,  and 
that  of  Nimes  in  1687.  The  edict  of  Nantes 
having  been  revoked  shortly  before  the  ap- 
pointment of  Fl^chier  to  his  last  diocese,  which 
contained  numerous  Prot-estants,  he  found  great 
difficulty  in  the  ecclesiastical  government  of  it. 
His  conduct,  however,  made  him  equally  dear 
to  the  Catholics  and  Protestants  of  Languedoc, 


who  united  in  mourning  his  death.  Besides 
his  faneral  orations,  he  left  Paneffpriques  deM 
mints  (3  vols.).  Vie  de  Theodose  le  Grand^  and 
L^Histoire  du  eardirud  XimerUs,  Fi^chier's 
charity  and  amiability  appear  especially  in  his 
letters.  A  complete  edition  of  his  works  waM 
published  at  Ntmes  in  1782  (8  vols.  8vo). 

FLECKNOE,  Uehard,  a  British  poet,  contem- 
porary with  Dryden^  died  about  1678.  Little 
is  known  of  his  life,  and  he  is  remembered 
only  because  his  name  furnished  Dryden  the 
title  of  his  satirical  poem  against  Shadwell, 
"  MacFlecknoe.''  He  is  believed  to  have  been 
an  Irish  Oatholic  priest,  and  wrote  several 
comic  plays,  among  which  are  ^^  Demoiselles  A 
la  Mode,"  "Love's  Dominion,"  "The  Marriage 
of  Oceanus  and  Britannia,"  and  "Ermina,  or 
the  Chaste  Lady."  He  wrote  also  a  volume 
of  "  Epigrams  and  Enigmatic  Characters."  His 
poems  are  of  little  value,  though  some  of  them 
have  been  praised  by  Southey. 

FLEETWOOD,  Charies,  an  English  republican, 
son  of  Sir  William  Fleetwood,  died  in  1692. 
At  the  commencement  of  the  civil  war  he  en- 
listed as  a  trooper  in  the  parliamentary  army, 
and  in  1646  was  made  colonel,  and  governor 
of  Bristol.  In  the  same  year  he  was  returned 
to  parliament  for  Buckinghamshire,  and  in 
1647  he  was  one  of  the  commissioners  to  treat 
with  the  king.  After  the  establishment  of  the 
commonwealth  he  became  lieutenant  general, 
distinguished  himself  at  the  battle  of  Worces- 
ter, and  in  consequence  of  his  great  influence 
with  the  army,  after  the  death  of  his  first  wife 
Cromwell  gave  him  his  eldest  daughter  Bridget, 
the  widow  of  Ireton,  in  marriage.  In  1652  he 
was  appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the  forces 
in  Ireland,  and  afterward  lord  deputy ;  but  his 
opposition  to  the  ambitious  projects  of  his 
father-in-law  soon  caused  his  recall.  He  was 
appointed  one  of  the  fourteen  migor  generals 
to  whom  the  internal  government  was  com- 
mitted during  the  latter  days  of  the  protector- 
ate. On  the  death  of  the  protector  he  endeav- 
ored by  his  influence  with  the  troops  to  sup- 
plant Richard  Cromwell,  but  in  the  midst  of 
his  intrigues  the  Stuarts  were  restored,  and  he 
narrowly  escaped  execution  as  a  rebel.  He 
retired  to  Stoke-Newington,  and  passed  the 
rest  of  his  life  in  obscurity.  He  was  cunning, 
timid,  and  irresolute,  with  but  little  military 
skill;  and  his  influence  and  promotion  in 
CromwelPs  army  were  mainly  due  to  his  pow- 
er in  praying  and  extemporaneous  preaching. 

FLEETWOOD,  WIUUiB,  an  English  prelate  and 
author,  born  in  London  in  January,  1656,  died 
at  Tottenham,  Aug.  4,  1728.  He  graduated  at 
Cambridge,  and  became  chaplain  of  William 
III.,  bishop  of  St.  Asaph  in  1707,  and  bishop 
of  Ely  in  1714.  He  was  an  eminent  pulpit 
orator,  and  probably  the  best  preacher  of  his 
time.  Among  his  numerous  works  are:  "Es- 
say on  Miracles  "  ( 1 70 1 ) ;  Chronicum  Preeiowm 
(1707);  and  "Free  Sermons"  (1712),  the  pre- 
face of  which  was  condemned  by  the  house  of 
commons  to  be  burned  because  it  advocated 


FLEISCHER 


FLEMISH  LANGUAGE 


267 


whig  principles.    It  was  nevertheless  pahlished 
and  praised  in  Addison^s  **  Spectator." 

FLHSCHES,  Helnrich  Lefeeracht,  a  German  ori- 
entalist, born  at  Schandau,  Feb.  21, 1801.  He 
studied  in  Leipsic  and  Paris,  and  was  professor 
at  Leipsio  from  1885  to  1860.  Since  then  he  has 
occupied  the  chair  of  the  Arabic,  Persian,  and 
Turkish  languages  at  the  university  of  Berlin, 
and  ranks  among  the  best  Arabic  scholars 
of  Germany.  His  translation  of  Zamahshari^s 
"Golden  Necklaces"  (Leipsio,  1885)  involved 
him  in  a  protracted  controversy  with  Ham- 
nier-PurgstaU.  He  continued  the  edition  of 
the  Arabic  text  of  the  "Thousand  and  One 
Nights,"  which  was  commenced  by  Habioht 
(completed  in  12  vols.,  Breslan,  1848).  Among 
his  principal  works  are  his  editions  of  Abnl- 
feda^s  ffiatoria  Ante-hlamiea  (with  transla- 
tion, 1831),  of  Beidhawi^s  "Commentary  on 
the  Koran  "  (1844-^8),  and  a  free  translation  of 
Mirza  Mohammed  Ibrahim^s  modern  Persian 
grammar  (1847). 

FLESmiG,  a  N.  E.  county  of  Kentucky,  bound- 
ed S.  W.  by  Licking  river ;  area  estimated  at 
500  sq.  m.;  pop.  in  1870,  18,898,  of  whom 
1,556  were  colored.  The  E.  part  is  hilly 
and  the  W.  undulating.  The  soil  is  generally 
good.  Near  Licking  river  is  a  remarkable  de- 
posit of  iron  fulgurites,  the  oxide  being  formed 
into  regular  tubes  of  various  diameters,  from 
that  of  a  pistol  barrel  to  several  inches.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  58,011  bushels 
of  wheat,  26,466  of  rye,  686,588  of  Indian  com, 
78,242  of  oats,  26,488  of  potatoes,  219,970  lbs. 
of  batter,  27,854  of  wool,  and  805,954  of  to- 
bacco. There  were  4,705  horses,  2,915  milch 
cows,  6,019  other  cattle,  9,552  sheep,  and 
1,904  swine;  2  flour  mills,  8  saw  mills,  and  2 
distilleries.    Capital,  Flemingsburg. 

FUanNG,  J«lu,  a  Scottish  naturalist,  bom  at 
Kirkroads,  near  Bathgate,  Linlithgowshire,  in 
1786,  died  in  Edinburgh,  Nov.  18,  1857.  Al- 
though possessing  an  unusual  taste  for  the 
natural  sciences,  he  entered  the  ministry,  and 
about  1807  was  licensed  as  a  preacher.  In 
1808,  while  engaged  in  a  survey  of  the  western 
isles,  he  accepted  the  living  of  Bressay  in  Shet- 
land. About  the  same  time  appeared  his 
"Economical  Mineralogy  of  the  Orkney  and 
Zetland  Islands;"  and  thenceforth  for  nearly 
80  years  his  attention  was  pretty  equally 
divided  between  his  clerical  duties  and  his 
scientific  pursuits.  In  1810  he  exchanged  the 
living  of  Bressay  for  that  of  Flisk,  in  Fife- 
shire.  Ilis  contributions  to  public  journals 
and  to  learned  societies  now  became  frequent. 
In  1822,  having  furnished  the  article  "Ich- 
thyology "  for  the  "  Encyclopaedia  Britannica," 
and  those  on  "  Helminthology  "  and  "  Insecta  " 
for  the  "Edinburgh  Encyclopaadia,"  besides 
numerous  papers  for  the  "  Proceedings "  of 
the  Wemerian  society  and  the  royal  society  of 
Edinburgh,  and  the  "  Edinburgh  Philosophical 
Journal,"  he  published  his  first  important 
work,  the  "  Philosophy  of  ZoOlogy  "  (2  vols., 
Edinburgh).    In  the  second  volume  he  enun- 


ciated a  system  of  classification  at  variance 
with  those  of  LinnsBus  and  Cuvier,  and  known 
as  the  binary  or  dichotomous  system,  the  lead- 
ing feature  of  which  consists  in  arranging  ani- 
mals according  to  their  positive  and  negative 
characters.  In  his  "History  of  British  Ani- 
mals "  (Edinburgh,  1828),  the  first  decided  at- 
tempt was  made  by  a  British  naturalist  to  ex- 
hibit the  palsBontological  history  of  animals, 
by  the  side  of  those  belonging  to  our  epoch. 
The  great  principle  laid  down  by  him,  from 
which  he  never  receded,  is  that  the  revolutions 
which  have  taken  place  in  the  animal  kingdom 
have  been  produced  by  the  changes  which  ac- 
companied the  successive  depositions  of  the 
strata.  In  1882  he  was  called  to  the  chair  of 
natural  philosophy  at  King^s  college,  Aberdeen ; 
but  in  1848,  having  identified  himself  with  the 
Free  church,  he  was  obliged  to  retire  from  his 
professorship.  Two  years  later  he  was  elected 
to  the  chair  of  natural  science  in  the  New 
(Free  church)  college,  Edinburgh,  with  which 
he  remained  connected  until  his  death.  In  ad- 
dition to  the  works  enumerated.  Dr.  Fleming 
published  "  Molluscous  Animals,  including  Shell 
Fish"  (Edinburgh,  1887),  "The  Temperature 
of  the  Seasons'^  (1851),  "The  Lithology  of 
Edinburgh"  (1858),  and  considerably  more 
than  100  papers,  principally  on  zoology,  pa- 
Ifeontology,  and  geology. 

FLEMISH  LiNfiUAGE  AUD  LITERATURE.  The 
Vktemsch  or  DuyUeh,  one  of  the  many  Teu- 
tonic dialects,  is  the  vemacular  of  the  Vlamin- 
gen  (about  2,500,000)  in  the  Belgian  provinces 
of  East  and  West  Flanders,  Antwerp,  and  Lim- 
burg,  in  North  Brabant,  Holland,  and  in  some 
parts  of  the  French  department  of  Le  Nord, 
and  also  scattered  in  the  Wallonic  (Gallo-Ro- 
manic)  provinces  of  Belgium ;  French  also  being 
spoken  in  the  large  cities  and  used  in  ofiSciid 
documents.  It  is  akin  to  the  Frisian  and  to 
the  Hollandish  or  Dutch,  which  is  its  younger 
branch.  It  is  more  palatal  and  nasal  than  the 
Dutch,  which  is  more  guttural.  The  difference 
between  the  Flemish  and  Dutch  languages  con- 
sists principally  in  the  orthography  of  words 
contioning  in  Dutch  the  double  vowels  aa^  ii  or 
ij,  00,  uuy  which  in  Flemish  retain  the  older 
forms  ae^  y^  oe,  ue.  All  words  containing  these 
double  vowels  are  pronounced  alike  in  the  two 
languages,  with  one  partial  exception.  In  West 
Flanders  and  the  department  of  Le  Nord, 
France,  where  the  old  Flemish  is  spoken  in 
the  greatest  purity,  the  y  has  the  sound  of  the 
English  short  i  in  pin^  instead  of  that  of  long  % 
in  mine^  like  its  Dutch  analogue  ij  ;  as  in  Myn- 
heer,  Mijnheer.  In  the  provinces  of  East  Flan- 
ders, Antwerp,  and  Brabant,  however,  the  y 
has  the  long  sound.  The  main  difference  be- 
tween Flemish  and  High  German  consists  in 
the  change  of  seh  (German)  into  «,  and  the  harsh 
9z  into  t  So  little  alteration  has  taken  place 
in  the  Flemish  language,  that  many  old  manu- 
scripts can  be  easily  deciphered  at  the  present 
day. — ^The  earliest  Flemish  manuscript,  Eei- 
naert  de  Vob  ("Reynard  the  Fox"),  attributed 


268 


FLEMISH  LANGUAGE 


FLENSBURG 


to  a  priest  named  Willem  van  Utenhoven  (in 
the  12th  century),  was  for  many  years  consid* 
ered  of  doubtful  origin ;  but  at  the  linguistic 
congress  held  at  Ghent  in  1841  it  was  con- 
ceded and  proved  beyond  a  doubt  to  belong  to 
Belgium.  The  next  monument  of  the  early 
literature  is  an  ordinance  of  Duke  Henry  L  of 
Brabant  (1229).  A  printed  copy  of  this  ordi- 
nance, taken  from  the  ^*  Book  of  Privileges  *'  in 
the  archives  of  the  city  of  Brussels,  is  to  be 
found  in  the  literary  collection  of  J.  F.  Willems 

iVerhandeling  over  de  Nederduytsche  Tael  en 
stterkunde^  1824).  The  next  work  of  any  im- 
portance was  Minneloep  (Cours  d'atnour),  by 
Dire  Potter,  1230.  The  Rymhylel  (  "  Bible  in 
Rhymes"),  the  Spiegel  hUtoriael  ("  Historical 
Mirror")  of  Jacob  Maerlant  (about  1285),  and 
the  civic  laws  of  Antwerp  compiled  by  J.  van 
Clere  (1300),  are  the  principal  works  of  the 
13th  century.  In  the  14th  century  there  were 
scarcely  any  wnters  of  note.  The  first  reli- 
gious play,  St.  Gomairey  written  by  H.  Bal 
of  Mechlin  (1444),  several  others  written  by 
C.  Everaet  (1496),  and  a  translation  of  BoS- 
thius  by  Jacob  Velt  of  Bruges,  are  the  only 
literary  monuments  of  the  15th  century.  In 
the  16th  we  have  the  ffistorie  van  Belgis,  by 
Marc  van  Vaemewyck  of  Ghent  (1514),  and 
the  ''  Hive  of  the  Catholic  Church,"  by  Philip 
van  Mamix  (1569).  Many  French  forms  of 
speech  were  introduced  during  the  Burgundian 
reign,  and  also  many  Hollandish  during  the 
sway  of  the  Hapsburgs,  so  that  the  old  Flemish 
lost  much  of  its  purity  and  terseness.  Hooft, 
Yondel,  and  Cats  are  the  three  most  prominent 
names  of  the  17th  century,  which  embraces 
the  golden  age  of  Flemish  literature  (coinciding 
with  the  stadtholdership  of  Frederick  Henry 
of  Orange,  1625-'47).  The  18th  century  fur- 
nishes scarcely  any  work  of  note,  if  we  except 
the  *^  Comparison  of  the  Gothic  and  Low  Dutch 
languages,"  by  Ten  Kate  ( Oemeeneehap  tustehen 
de  Oothieche  Spraeke  en  de  NederduyUch^ 
1710),  Orameehapy  a  poem  by  the  Jesuit  Li^vin 
de  Meyer  of  Ghent  (1725),  and  the  beautifhl 
poem  Eooeje  ("Little  Rose"),  by  Bellamy 
(1772),  which  has  been  translated  into  nearly 
all  the  European  languages.  At  the  commence- 
ment  of  the  19th  century  we  have  Feith,  the 
imitator  of  Goethe  and  the  apostle  of  the  mod- 
em school  of  Flemish  literature  (1812) ;  Wil- 
lems, on  the  Flemish  and  Dutch  mode  of  wri- 
ting the  language  of  the  Netherlands  ( Over  de 
Hollandieche  en  Vlnemeche  Schryfwyzen  van 
Jiet  NederdvyUchy  1824) ;  and  D'Hulster  (1834). 
The  prize  poem  on  the  subject  of  Belgian  in- 
dependence was  written  by  Ledeganck,  who 
was  crowned  poet  laureate  at  Ghent  in  1834. 
The  most  popular  writer  at  the  present  day  is 
Hendrik  Conscience,  bom  in  Antwerp  in  1812. 
His  novels  are  translated  into  English,  French, 
and  German.  Among  the  names  of  those  who 
have  exerted  themselves  toward  the  diflTusion 
and  improvement  of  the  language  are  Blom- 
maert,  Van  der  A^'oorde,  Delecourt,  De  Laet, 
Dedecker,  Van  Ryswyck,  Rense,  Van  Duyse, 


F.  Blieck,  Serrnre,  the  abb6  David,  Bormans, 
Snellaert,  and  Lebrocquy.    The  Belgian  gov- 
ernment was  at  first  opposed  to  this  movement, 
or  at  least  looked  upon  it  with  coldness ;  but 
latterly  it  has  come  to  recognize  it  and  give  it 
countenance.    On  the  occasion  of  the  linguistic 
congress  at  Ghent  in  1841,  the  members  of 
the  government  for  the  first  time  publicly  ad- 
dressed the  people  in  the  Flemish  language. 
In  1860  there  were  76  political  and  81  other 
newspapers  and  periodicals  published  in  Flem- 
ish.—-See  Vandenbossche,  Nonvelle  grammaire 
raisonnSe  four  apprendre  Is  ftamand  et  le  hoi- 
landaU  (Lille,  1825) ;  J.  Desroches,  Orammaire 
flamande  (Antwerp,  1826) ;  the  grammars  of 
Van  Beers  and  Van  Heremans ;   Noel  de  Ber- 
lemont,  Voeabulaire  franpoya  etflameng  (Ant- 
werp, 1511);    Plautin,    Theeaurua   Tentoniem 
Lingua^  perfected  by  C.    Eilian   (Antwerp, 
1573)  ;  Corleva,  Treeor.  de  la  kingue  flamande 
(Amsterdam,  1741) ;    HaJma,  Grand  dittion- 
naire  fran^ie  et  flamand    (Ley den,  1778) ; 
DesrocheSy    Nouveau    dietionnaire  Jranpais- 
flamand  et  flamand-franpaU  (Ghent,    1805); 
dinger,  Novveau  dietionnaire  fran^is-fla- 
mand  (Mechlin,  1834).     On  modem  Flemish 
literature  see  Ida  von  DUringsfeld,    Vo7i  der 
Sehelde  hie  eur  Maae  (8  vols.,  Leipsic,  1861). 

FLENMIMG,  Ptnl,  a  German  poet,  born  at 
Hartenstein  in  October,  1609,  died  in  Hamburg, 
April  2,  1640.  He  was  the  son  of  a  clergy- 
man. His  medical  studies  in  Leipsic  being  in- 
terrupted by  the  thirty  years'  war,  he  accom- 
panied the  envoy  of  Duke  Frederick  of  Got- 
torp-Holstein  to  Russia  and  Persia,  married 
the  daughter  of  an  Esthonian  merchant,  and 
shortly  before  his  death  received  his  medical 
diploma  at  Leyden.  He  belonged  to  the  Silesian 
school  of  lyrical  poets,  and  in  some  respects 
eclipsed  even  Opitz.  His  Geietliehe  and 
weltliche  Poemata  (Jena,  1642)  and  his  eloquent 
hymn  In  alien  meinen  TTiaten  rank  among  his 
finest  productions.  Selected  editions  of  his 
works  have  been  published  in  Stuttgart  (1820) 
and  in  Miller's  collection  of  German  poets  of 
tiie  17th  century  (Leipsic,  1822).  His  posthu- 
mous Latin  poems  and  his  pastoral  entitled 
Margenis  were  published  by  Lappenberg  in 
Stuttgart  in  1863. 

FLENSBURG,  or  Flensborg,  a  seaport  and  mar- 
ket town  of  the  Prussian  province  of  Schleswig- 
Holstein,  at  the  head  of  Flensburg  fiord,  an 
inlet  of  the  Baltic,  20  m.  N.  N.  W.  of  Schles- 
wig ;  pop.  in  1871,  21,325.  It  is  the  most 
populous  town  and  the  chief  commercial  mart 
of  the  former  duchy  of  Schleswig.  It  manufac- 
tures sugar,  tobacco,  paper,  soap,  and  iron, 
has  breweries  and  distilleries,  and  builds  ships 
for  the  West  India  trade.  Railways  connect 
it  with  the  principal  towns  of  the  province, 
and  with  Kolding  in  Jutland,  and  steamships 
with  Stettin  and  other  ports  of  the  Baltic. 
The  harbor  is  deep  enough  for  large  craft, 
but  is  difiicult  of  entrance.  About  200  vessels, 
many  of  which  are  employed  in  the  Greenland 
whale  fishery,  are  owned  here.    The  number 


FLETCHER 


FLEURUS 


269 


of  entrances  in  1 869  was  2,21 1 .  Flensbnrg  was 
a  wealthy  town  as  earlj  as  the  12th  century, 
but  it  afterward  suffered  much  from  wars  and 
conflagrations. 

FLEICIIEE,  Andrew  (commonly  called  Fletcher 
of  Saltonn),  a  Scottish  author,  born  in  Saltoun, 
East  Lothian,  in  1658,  died  in  London  in  1716. 
He  was  educated  under  the  care  of  Gilbert 
Burnet,  then  minister  of  the  parish  of  Saltonn, 
and  spent  several  years  in  travel  on  the  conti- 
nent. In  1681  he  obtained  a  seat  in  the  Scot- 
tish parliament  for  his  native  county,  and  dis- 
tinguished himself  by  his  inflexible  opposition 
to  the  tyrannical  tendencies  of  the  English 
government.  He  soon  found  it  necessary  to 
withdraw  to  Holland,  was  then  summoned  be- 
fore the  privy  council  at  Edinburgh,  and  failing 
to  appear  was  outlawed,  and  his  estate  con- 
fiscated. He  accompanied  the  expedition  of 
the  duke  of  Monmouth  to  England  in  1685,  but 
immediately  went  abroad  again  in  consequence 
of  shooting  the  mayor  of  Lyme-Regis  in  a  scuf- 
fle. In  Spain,  on  the  application  of  the  British 
ambassador,  he  was  imprisoned,  but  escaped  by 
the  aid  of  an  unknown  friend ;  and  in  Hungary 
he  gained  distinction  as  a  volunteer  in  the 
army  against  the  Turks.  At  the  Hague  he 
was  prominent  in  forwarding  the  scheme  of 
the  revolution  of  1688,  which  restored  him  to 
his  country.  He  soon  recovered  his  estate 
and  resumed  his  seat  in  the  Scottish  parlia- 
ment, but  became  as  vehement  an  opponent 
of  the  government  of  William  as  he  had  been 
of  that  of  his  two  predecessors.  He  exerted 
himself  to  the  last  against  the  union  of  the  two 
kingdoms,  and  because  the  12  ^limitations" 
which  he  proposed  failed  to  be  adopted  he  re- 
tired from  public  life.  He  possessea  fine  schol- 
arly accomplishments,  and  his  writings  some- 
times display  a  high  degree  of  literary  excel- 
lence. The  principal  of  them  are :  a  "  Dis- 
conrse  of  Government  with  Relation  to  Mili- 
tias*' (Edinburgh,  1698);  two  ''Discourses 
oonceming  the  Affairs  of  Scotland"  (Edin- 
burgh, 1698):  Discono  delle  com  di  Spagna 
(Naples,  1698);  "  Speeches,"  Ac.  (Edinburgh, 
1703) ;  and  an  '*  Account  of  a  Conversation 
concerning  a  Right  Regulation  of  Governments 
for  the  Common  Good  of  Mankind"  (Edin- 
burgh, 1704).  His  collected  writings  were 
published  at  London  in  1  vol.  8vo  in  1787,  and 
an  essay  on  his  life  and  writings,  by  the  earl  of 
Buohan,  appeared  in  1797. 

FLETCinaU  I.  Gttes,  an  English  poet,  cousin 
of  Fletcher  the  dramatist,  bom  about  1580, 
died  at  Alderton,  Suffolk,  in  1628.  He  was 
educated  at  Trinity  college,  Cambridge,  and 
became  rector  of  Alderton,  where  his  life 
passed  with  little  variety  of  incident.  The 
sitigle  poem  which  he  left,  entitled  '' Christ's 
Victory  and  Triumph  "  (Cambridge,  1610),  has 
peculiar  and  original  beauties,  with  many  of 
Spenser's  characteristics.  IL  Pkliiets,  a  poet 
and  clergyman,  brother  of  the  preceding,  bom 
about  1584,  died  at  Hilgay,  Norfolk,  about  1650. 
After  being  educated  at  Eton  and  Cambridge, 


he  was  presented  in  1621  to  the  living  of  Hil- 
gay,  which  he  retained  till  his  death.  He 
wrote  "Piscatory  Eclogues"  and  a  drama 
called  "Sieelides,"  but  his  chief  work  is  a 
poem  entitled  "The  Purple  Island"  (Cam- 
bridge, 1638),  an  anatomical  and  allegorical 
description  of  the  human  body  and  mind. 
The  poem  is  given  entire  in  Southey's  "Early 
English  Poets."  These  brothers  were  disciples 
of  Spenser,  and  influenced  the  style  of  Milton. 

FLETCHEft,  Jolm.  See  Beaumont  and 
Flbtohbs 

FLETCinS,  Johi  WilUaB  (originally  Fl£- 
OHi^BE,  Jean  Guillaume  de  la),  a  clergyman 
of  the  church  of  England,  bom  at  Nyon,  Switz- 
erland, Sept.  12,  1729,  died  at  Madeley,  Eng- 
land, Aug.  14,  1785.  Of  a  noble  Savoyard 
family,  he  was  educated  at  the  university  of 
Geneva.  Through  inability  conscientiously  to 
conform  to  the  Calvinistio  doctrines  of  the  Re- 
formed church,  he  was  diverted  from  the  cler- 
ical profession,  and  entered  the  military  service 
of  Portugal.  Receiving  a  oaptain^s  commission 
for  Brazil,  but  accidentally  failing  to  sail  at  the 
time  appointed,  he  accepted  a  commission  in  the 
Dutch  army  and  set  out  for  Flanders.  Peace 
having  been  declared  meantime,  he  went  to 
England  and  became  a  tutor.  About  1755  he 
joined  the  Metliodist  society.  In  1757  he  took 
orders  in  the  church  of  England,  and  three  years 
later  was  presented  with  the  living  of  Dun- 
ham, which  he  declined,  since  "  it  afforded  too 
much  money  for  too  little  work,"  and  the  poor 
parish  of  Madeley  became  his  field  of  labor. 
In  this  region  of  mines  and  manufactories, 
among  a  most  debased  and  neglected  people, 
he  continued  his  labors  of  charity  and  devotion 
in  the  midst  of  opposition  and  persecutions. 
In  1769  Fletcher  visited  France,  Switzerland, 
and  Italy.  Soon  after  his  return,  in  addition 
to  his  parish  labors,  frequent  preaching,  and 
visits  to  London,  Bristol,  Bath,  Wales,  and  York- 
shire, he  assumed  the  presidency  of  the  theo- 
logical school  founded  by  Lady  Huntingdon  at 
Trevecca,  Wales;  but  his  defence  and  advo- 
cacy of  Arminianism  soon  resulted  in  sunder- 
ing his  connection  with  it.  He  afterward  de- 
voted his  life  to  the  elevation  of  his  parishion- 
ers, to  missionary  journeys  throughout  the 
kingdom  in  company  with  Wesley,  Whitefield, 
and  their  coac^utors,  and  to  the  preparation 
of  those  controversial  writings  in  which  the 
peculiar  doctrines  and  policy  of  Wesley  were 
defended  against  the  works  of  Toplady,  Row- 
land Hill,  and  others.  His  works  have  passed 
through  several  editions  in  England  and  also 
in  America ;  the  last  being  issued  by  the  New 
York  Methodist  l^ook  concern,  in  4  vols.  8vo. 

FLEUEUS,  a  town  of  Ilainaut,  Belgium,  near 
the  left  bank  of  the  Sarabre,  7  m.  N.  E.  of 
Charleroi;  pop.  in  1866,  4,098.  It  has  been 
the  scene  of  four  great  battles.  The  first  took 
place  Aug.  29,  1622,  between  the  Spaniards 
under  Gonzales  of  Cordova  and  the  army  of 
the  Protestant  union  under  Christian  of  Bruns- 
wick and  Count  Mansfeld,  the  victory  being 


270 


FLEURY 


FLIEDNER 


claimed  by  both  sides ;  the  second,  Jaly  1, 1690, 
between  the  French  under  Marshal  Luxembourg 
and  the  Germans  under  the  prince  of  Waldeck, 
the  latter  being  defeated ;  the  third,  June  26, 
1794,  when  the  republican  French  general 
Jourdan  defeated  the  imperialists  under  the 
prince  of  Ooburg;  and  the  fourth,  generally 
known  as  the  battle  of  Ligny,  in  which  BlQcher 
was  worsted  by  Napoleon,  June  16,  1815. 

FLEURT,  AndN  Hernile,  cardinal  de,  a  French 
prelate  and  statesman,  bom  in  Loddve,  June 
22, 1653,  died  in  Paris,  Jan.  29, 1748.  He  was 
educated  at  a  Jesuit  college  in  Paris,  and  was 
appointed  almoner  to  the  queen  Marie  Th^r^se, 
tnen  to  Louis  XIV.,  who  unwillingly  promoted 
him  to  the  bishopric  of  Fr^jus  in  1698,  at  the 
request  of  the  archbishop  of  Paris.  On  the 
king^s  death  the  regent  appointed  liim  precep- 
tor to  Louis  XV.,  then  about  five  years  old. 
On  the  death  of  the  regent  in  1728  he  advised 
the  young  king  to  take  the  duke  de  Bourbon 
as  first  minister,  reserving  for  himself  a  seat  in 
the  privy  council,  and  the  dispensation  of  ec- 
clesiastical preferments.  In  1 726  he  caused  the 
duke  de  Bourbon  to  be  dismissed,  and,  not- 
withstanding he  was  himself  in  his  7dd  year, 
assumed  supreme  power,  with  the  title  of  min- 
ister of  state  and  superintendent  of  the  general 
post  office.  In  the  same  year  he  was  created 
a  cardinal.  Under  his  administration  France 
was  generally  at  peace,  the  disorders  of  the 
past  reign  disappeared,  reforms  were  made  in 
the  government,  arts  and  sciences  were  foster- 
ed, and  the  country  enjoyed  comparative  pros- 
perity at  home.  But  abroad  she  lost  her  high 
place  in  the  councils  of  Europe,  her  army  de- 
generated, her  navy  decayed,  and  toward  the 
close  of  his  life  the  cardinal  was  charged  with 
involving  France  in  the  war  of  the  Austrian 
succession,  which  had  been  begun  against  his 
wishes,  and  up  to  the  time  of  his  death  had 
been  little  more  than  a  series  of  disasters  for 
his  country.     He  sought  to  introduce  into  the 

Eublic  administration  the  frugality  practised  in 
is  own  household;  and  with  all  his  oppor- 
tunities for  emolument,  he  died  poor. 

FLEURT,  Cbide,  abb^  a  French  ecclesiastical 
writer,  born  in  Paris,  Dec.  6,  1640,  died  July 
14, 1728.  For  nine  years  he  followed  the  legal 
profession,  giving  much  attention  to  literary 
and  historical  pursuits.  In  1672,  having  re- 
ceived orders,  he  became  preceptor  to  the  sons 
of  the  prince  de  Gonti.  In  1674  he  published 
VHUtoire  du  droit  fran^is ;  in  1678,  a  Latin 
translation  of  Bossuet^s  Bxposition  de  la  foi 
eaiholique;  from  1681  to  1688,  Le%  mcsurs  des 
Israelites,  Les  mcsurs  des  ChrHiens,  and  Le 
grand  catechisme  historique^  three  excellent 
little  books  which  he  had  prepared  for  the  use 
of  his  pupils;  and  in  1687,  V Institution  du 
droit  ecclesiastique.  In  1685  he  accompanied 
F^nelon  to  Saintonge,  and  in  1689  F^nelon 
procured  his  appointment  as  his  assistant  in 
the  education  of  the  dauphin^s  son.  In  this 
employment  he  remained  16  years,  during 
which  he  was  also  engaged  on  his  Histoire 


ecclesiastigue,  the  first  volume  of  which  ap- 
peared in  1691.  He  spent  80  years  in  bring- 
ing this  work  down  to  the  beginning  of  the 
16th  century.  It  ranks  among  the  most  candid 
histories  of  Christianity. 

FUCKEB.    See  Woodpeckeb. 

FLIEDMER9  Theodor,  a  German  clergyman 
and  philanthropist,  born  at  Eppstein,  Rhenish 
Prussia,  Jan.  21,  1800,  died  at  Kaisers werth, 
Oct.  4, 1864.  In  1822  he  became  pastor  of  the 
congregation  at  Kaiserswerth,  to  which  his 
father  had  ministered  until  his  death  in  1818. 
Soon  after  his  settlement  his  parishioners  were 
suddenly  impoverished  by  the  failure  of  a  man- 
ufacturing firm  which  had  employed  most  of 
them.  Refusing  to  take  another  church,  he 
set  himself  the  task  of  relieving  his  people, 
and  visited  the  philanthropic  institutions  of 
other  countries,  particularly  those  of  England. 
On  his  return  he  founded  at  Kaiserswerth  an 
institution  for  the  relief  of  the  sick,  the  poor, 
and  the  fallen.  In  1826  he  founded  a  German 
society  for  the  improvement  of  prison  discipline, 
and  in  1838  an  asylum  for  discharged  female 
convicts.  This  asylum  at  first  consisted  only 
of  a  summer  house  in  his  garden,  which  soon 
proved  too  small,  and  was  exchanged  for  a  more 
substantial  edifice.  His  next  idea  was  to  re- 
establish the  ministry  of  women  in  the  Protes- 
tant church,  and  in  1886  he  inaugurated  the  in- 
stitution of  deaconesses  which  is  still  fiourish- 
ing  at  Kaiserswerth.  ^*We  had  no  money 
wherewith  to  buy  the  house,"  w^rites  Fliedner ; 
"  my  wife  had  been  confined  only  three  days 
before ;  but  nevertheless  she  laid  it  upon  me,  in 
the  name  of  the  Lord,  to  buy  the  house,  and  the 
sooner  the  better.  I  bought  it  cheerfully  on 
the  20th  of  April,  1886.  The  money  was  to  be 
paid  before  Martinmas  of  the  same  year."  The 
money  was  paid  before  that  time,  idthough  the 
price  was  more  than  $  1 ,  600 — a  large  sum  for  that 
country  and  class.  Two  friends,  single  women, 
who  offered  themselves  for  nursing  in  the  hos- 
pital, were  the  first  Kaiserswerth  deaconesses. 
In  1838  Fliedner  first  sent  out  deaconesses  to 
work  in  other  places.  In  1849  he  visited  the 
United  States,  and  established  a  ^*  mother 
house  "  at  Pittsburgh,  Pa.  (See  Deaconess.) 
He  also  established  at  Kaiserswerth  a  lunatic 
asylum,  a  boys*  school,  and  training  colleges 
for  schoolmasters  and  schoolmistresses,  train- 
ing his  deaconesses  as  teachers  in  all  of  them. 
He  himself  frequently  taught  in  them,  and  is 
said  to  have  been  fond  of  striking  and  often 
laughable  illustrations,  such  as  falling  on  the 
floor  when  telling  the  story  of  Goliah,  or  sud- 
denly sending  a  boy  under  the  table  to  repre- 
sent the  fall  of  a  traveller  over  a  precipice. 
De  Liefda  says  that  when  he  visited  the  Kai- 
serswerth establishment  in  1864  it  took  him 
three  hours  to  walk  over  the  premises  and  peep 
into  the  principal  apartments.  From  1886 
Fliedner  published  a  monthly  called  Der  Ar^ 
men-  und  KtanJcenfreundy  and  was  the  author 
of  BueK  der  M&rtyrer  und  andsrer  Olaubens^ 
zeugen    der    evangelischen    Kirche   ton    den 


FUKDERS 


FLINT 


271 


Apoiteln  bis  at^  tinsere  Zeit  (4  vols.,  1852- 
'60).— See  Winkworth's  "Life  of  Pastor  Flied- 
ner  "  (London,  1867). 

ILDf  DEKS,  Mitthew,  an  English  nayigator,  bom 
at  Donington,  Lincolnshire,  about  1760,  died 
Julj  10, 1814.  In  1795  he  was  midshipman  on 
board  the  vessel  which  conveyed  Capt.  Honter, 
the  governor  of  Botany  Bay,  to  Australia.  At 
Port  Jackson  he  embarked  with  the  surgeon 
of  the  ship,  George  A.  Bass,  in  a  boat  8  ft.  long, 
in  which  they  explored  the  estuary  of  George's 
river.  Their  discoveries  determined  them  to 
explore  the  whole  Australian  coast.  In  a  large 
decked  boat  with  six  men,  sailing  S.  through  a 
passage  afterward  named  Bass  strait,  they  first 
discovered  that  Tasmania  was  a  separate  island. 
In  July,  1801,  Flinders,  now  a  captain,  again 
sailed  from  England,  surveyed  the  whole  Aus- 
tralian coast  as  far  as  the  eastern  extremity  of 
Baas  strait,  then  refitted  at  Port  Jackson,  and 
in  the  summer  of  1802,  steering  N.,  explored 
Northumberland  and  Cumberland  islands,  and 
surveyed  the  Great  Barrier  reef  of  coral  rocks. 
He  then  returned  to  Port  Jackson,  where  his 
vessel  was  condemned,  and,  unable  to  procure 
another,  he  embarked  as  a  passenger  on  a  store 
ship  to  lay  his  charts  and  journals  before  the 
admiralty,  and  to  obtain  another  ship  to  con- 
tinue his  examination  of  Australia.  On  the 
way  to  England  the  store  ship  and  a  consort 
were  wrecked  on  a  coral  reef.  Flinders  and 
two  or  three  companions  went  in  an  open  boat 
750  m.  to  Port  Jackson,  where  he  secured  a 
schooner  of  29  tons,  in  which,  accompanied  by 
another  schooner,  he  returned  and  rescued  the 
wrecked  crews.  He  now  determined  to  go  to 
England  in  the  small  schooner;  but  on  his  way, 
having  made  the  Isle  of  France,  he  was  seized  by 
the  governor,  in  spite  of  a  French  passport,  and 
was  detained  for  six  years;  after  which  his 
health  was  so  impaired,  and  his  spirit  so  bro- 
ken, that  he  expired  in  London  on  the  day 
when  his  narrative  was  published  (**  Voyage  to 
Terra  Australis,  &c.,  in  the  Years  1801,  1802, 
and  1803,"  2  vols.  4to,  London,  1814). 

lUNT,  a  peculiar  amorphous  variety  of  near- 
ly pure  quartz,  found  in  chalk,  in  nodular 
masses  or  in  layers,  sometimes  forming  beds 
of  such  extent  as  to  be  used  for  building,  as 
in  the  counties  of  Kent,  Suffolk,  and  Norfolk, 
England.  It  is  usually  of  a  dark  color  from 
the  presence  of  carbonaceous  matter,  supposed 
to  be  derived  from  animal  remains ;  but  some 
specimens 'are  almost  white  and  transparent. 
It  breaks  with  a  smooth  conchoidal  fracture, 
and  very  sharp  edges  may  be  formed  upon  it 
with  a  hammer ;  a  quality  which  adapts  it  for 
being  made  into  gun  fiints  and  arrow  and  spear 
heads.  Its  specific  gravity  is  2*59.  Berzelius 
found  in  a  specunen  0'117  per  cent,  of  potash, 
O'llS  of  lime,  and  traces  of  iron,  alumina,  and 
carbonaceous  matter.  According  to  Fuchs,  the 
silica  is  partly  soluble.  It  was  formerly  thought 
essential  in  the  production  of  flint  glass,  but  is 
now  superseded  by  pure  granular  quartz  or 
sand.    It  is  still  used  in  the  manufacture  of 


825 


VOL.  vn. — 18 


porcelain.  Flint  nodules  constitute  a  peculiar 
feature  in  the  chalk  cliffs  of  the  coast  of  Eng- 
land. They  occur  in  horizontal  layers  scattered 
through  the  upper  portion  of  the  chalk  forma- 
tion, and  in  a  few  instances  have  been  seen  in 
vertical  rows  like  pillars,  at  irregular  distan- 
ces, the  nodules  not  being  in  contact  either  in 
the  horizontal  or  vertical  arrangement.  They 
commonly  contain  a  nucleus  of  parts  of  marine 
fossils,  such  as  are  abundant  in  the  chalk,  as 
shells,  sponges,  echini,  &c. ;  and  they  also  pre- 
sent the  forms  of  hollow  geodes,  their  cavities 
lined  with  quartz  crystals,  iron  pyrites,  carbon- 
ate of  iron,  chalcedony,  &c. — ^Flint  is  a  com- 
mon mineral  production  in  the  United  States, 
but  it  is  converted  to  no  use.  It  abounds  in 
the  tertiary  formations  of  the  southern  states, 
and  is  met  with  in  the  older  rocks,  even  to  the 
metamorphic  quartz  associated  with  the  lowest 
stratified  rocks.  On  the  Lehigh  mountain  in 
Pennsylvania,  at  Leiber^s  Gap,  is  exposed  in 
loose  fragments  in  the  soil  a  vast  amount  of 
flint  rock,  associated  with  cherty  quartz  in- 
crusted  with  chalcedony  and  mammillary  and 
botryoidal  crystallizations.  In  the  woods  west 
of  the  road  20  acres  have  been  dug  over  by  the 
Indians,  to  obtain  the  flint  for  arrow  and  spear 
heads.  Piles  of  broken  flint  still  lie  uncovered 
by  the  sides  of  the  excavations.  The  stone  was 
highly  prized  by  the  Indians,  and  they  worked 
it  skilfully. 

FUNT,  a  city  and  the  capital  of  Genesee  co., 
Michigan,  on  both  sides  of  Flint  river,  near 
the  centre  of  the  county,  about  60  m.  N.  K. 
W.  of  Detroit;  pop.  in  1860,  1,670;  in  1860, 
2,950 ;  in  1870, 5,886.  The  city  is  picturesquely 
situated,  and  is  laid  out  with  broad  streets 
shaded  with  fine  trees.  The  principal  public 
buildings  are  the  court  house,  a  handsome 
brick  structure  surmounted  by  a  cupola;  the 
county  Jail,  built  principally  of  iron ;  the  city 
hall,  of  brick ;  St  Paurs  Episcopal  church,  in 
the  Gothic  style,  of  stone  quarried  in  the  vi- 
cinity ;  five  ward  school  houses,  three  of  brick 
and  two  of  wood,  and  a  handsome  Catholic 
school  house,  recently  erected.  A  high  school 
building,  to  cost  $80,000,  and  a  masonic  temple 
are  in  course  of  erection.  The  Michigan  in- 
stitution for  the  education  of  the  deaf  and 
dumb  and  the  blind  occupies  a  commanding 
site  on  the  S.  W«  side  of  the  city,  with  groves 
and  gardens  covering  94  acres.  The  number 
of  inmates  is  about  800,  nearly  equally  di- 
vided between  the  blind  and  the  deaf  mutes. 
In  the  S.  E.  part  of  the  city,  are  the  fair 
grounds  of  the  Genesee  county  agricultural 
society,  25  acres  in  extent.  The  city  is  at 
the  intersection  of  the  Flint  and  P^re  Mar- 
quette with  the  Chicago  and  Lake  Huron  rail- 
roads. The  most  extensive  manufacture  is 
tbat'of  lumber,  which  employs  10  saw  mills, 
with  an  aggregate  capacity  of  100,000,000  feet 
annually.  There  are  also  seven  planing  mills, 
three  extensive  sash,  door,  and  blind  factories, 
and  two  flouring  mills,  producing  25,000  bar- 
rels of  flour  a  year.    The  other  principal  man- 


272 


FMNT 


nfactnres  are  mill  and  steam  machinery,  agri- 
cultural implements,  carriages,  cabinet  ware, 
and  woollens;  77,360  yards  of  cloths,  cassi- 
mere,  and  flannels  were  produced  in  1872. 
There  are  two  national  banks  and  a  savings 
bank.  The  Flint  scientific  institute  has  a  valu- 
able library  and  a  cabinet  embracing  several 
thousand  specimens  of  natural  history.  The 
ladies*  library  association  has  about  2,000  vol- 
umes. Three  weekly  newspapers  are  published. 
In  1872  there  were  20  public  schools,  with  25 
teachers  and  an  average  attendance  of  1,086 
pupils.  There  are  eight  churches. — The  first 
log  cabin  on  the  site  of  Flint  was  built  in  1819, 
but  the  actual  settlement  dates  only  from  1830. 
The  city  was  incorporated  in  1855,  and  in 
1871  it  was  enlarged  by  annexation,  so  that  in 
1878  the  population  was  about  9,000. 

FLINT.  !•  iisdn,  an  American  physician, 
born  in  Petersham,  Mass.,  Oct.  20,  1812.  He 
was  educated  at  Amherst  and  Harvard  col- 
leges, and  graduated  M.  D.  at  Harvard  in  1833. 
After  practising  successively  in  Boston  and 
Northampton,  he  removed  in  1886  to  Buffalo; 
in  1844  was  appointed  professor  of  the  insti- 
tutes and  practice  of  medicine  in  the  Rush 
medical  college  at  Chicago ;  resigned  after  one 
year,  and' in  1846  established  the  ^^  Buffalo 
Medical  Journal,"  which  he  edited  for  ten 
years.  In  connection  with  Professors  White 
and  Hamilton  he  founded  in  1847  the  Buffalo 
medical  college,  in  which  he  was  for  six  years 
professor  of  the  principles  and  practice  of 
medicine  and  of  clinical  medicine.  From  1852 
to  1856  he  filled  the  chair  of  the  theory  and 
practice  of  medicine  in  the  university  of  Louis- 
ville, Ky.,  and  then  accepted  a  professorship 
of  pathology  and  clinical  medicine  in  Buffalo. 
His  essays  "  On  the  Variations  of  Pitch  in 
Percussion  and  Respiratory  Sounds,"  and  "  On 
the  Clinical  Study  of  the  Heart  Sounds  in 
Health  and  Disease,"  received  the  first  prizes 
of  the  American  medical  association  in  1852 
and  1859.  A  translation  of  the  former  of 
these  and  of  his  clinical  reports  appeared  in 
Paris  in  1854.  From  1858  to  1861  he  spent 
the  winters  in  New  Orleans  as  professor  of 
clinical  medicine  in  the  school  of  medicine  and 
visiting  physician  to  the  charity  hospital.  In 
1859  he  removed  to  New  York,  wnere  two 
years  later  he  was  appointed  visiting  physician 
to  the  Bellevue  hospital,  professor  of  the  prin- 
ciples and  practice  of  medicine  in  the  Bellevue 
hospital  medical  college,  and  of  pathology  and 

Practical  medicine  in  the  Long  Island  college 
ospitaJ.  He  has  published  "  Clinical  Reports 
on  Continued  Fever"  (Buffalo,  1852);  "Clini- 
cal Report  on  Chronic  Pleurisy  "  (1858) ;  "  Clin- 
ical Report  on  Dysentery"  (1853) ;  "Physical 
Exploration  and  Diagnosis  of  Diseases  affect- 
ing UiQ  Respiratory  Organs"  (1856;  2d  ed., 
1866);  "  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Pathology, 
Diagnosis,  and  Treatment  of  Diseases  of  the 
Heart "  (1869 ;  2d  ed.,  1870) ;  and  a  "  Treatise 
on  the  Principles  and  Practice  of  Medicine  " 
'1866).   This  work  has  been  highly  successfiil. 


and  has  passed  through  four  editiona,  the  last 
of  which  appeared  in  1873.  In  1872  Dr.  Flint 
was  elected  president  of  the  New  York  acad- 
emy of  medicine.  II«  Aistli,  jr.,  an  Ameri- 
can physician,  son  of  the  preceding,  bom  in 
Northampton,  Mass.,  March  28,  1836.  He  at- 
tended medical  lectures  in  1854>^6  at  the  uni- 
versity of  Louisville,  Ky.,  and  afterward  at 
the  Jefferson  medical  college  in  Philadelphia, 
where  he  took  his  degree  in  1857.  For  the 
next  two  years  he  resided  in  Buffalo,  where 
he  became  editor  of  the  "Buffalo  Medical 
Journal,"  and  was  appointed  attending  surgeon 
to  the  Buffalo  city  hospital,  and  professor  of 
physiology  and  microscopical  anatomy  in  the 
medical  department  of  the  university  of  Buffalo, 
delivering  one  course  of  lectures  in  1858-'9. 
He  then  removed  with  his  father  to  the  city 
of  New  York,  and  was  almost  immediately 
appointed  professor  of  physiology  in  the  New 
York  medical  college.  In  1860  he  accepted 
the  chair  of  physiology  in  the  New  Orleans 
school  of  medicine.  The  following  spring  he 
visited  Europe  for  professional  study,  follow- 
ing the  courses  and  receiving  the  special  in- 
struction of  Robin  and  Claude  Bernard.    In 

1861,  on  the  organization  of  the  Bellevne  hos- 
pital medical  college  in  New  York,  he  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  physiology  and  microscopic 
anatomy  in  that  institution,  which  position  he 
still  holds  (1874).  He  was  also  for  several 
years  professor  of  physiology  in  the  Long  Isl- 
and college  hospital  at  Brooklyn.  Besides  at- 
taining an  extensive  and  thorough  acquain- 
tance with  the  literature  of  physiology,  he  has 
made  many  original  experiments  and  observa- 
tions, and  has  largely  contributed  to  the  ad- 
vancement of  the  science  by  important  articles 
in  the  medical  journals  and  by  separate  publi- 
cations. His  article  on  "A  New  Excretory 
Function  of  the  Liver,"  in  the  "American 
Journal  of  the  Medical  Sciences  "  for  October, 

1862,  received  in  1869  an  honorable  mention 
and  a  recompense  of  1,600  francs  from  the  com- 
mittee of  the  French  academy  of  sciences  on 
the  Monthyon  prize  of  medicine  and  surgery. 
His  most  important  work  is  "  The  Physiology 
of  Man,"  to  be  completed  in  five  volumes, 
of  which  four  have  appeared,  viz. :  vol.  i.,  on 
"The  Blood,  Circulation,  and  Respiration" 
(New  York,  1866);  vol.  ii.,  "Alimentation, 
Digestion,  Absorption,  Lymph,  and  Chyle" 
(1867);  vol.  iii.,  "  Secretion,  Excretion,  Duct- 
less Glands,  Nutrition,  Animal  Heat,  Move- 
ments, Voice,  and  Speech"  (1870);  voh  iv., 
"On  the  Nervous  System"  (1872).  He  has 
also  published  a  "Manual  of  Chemical  Exami- 
nation of  the  Urine  in  Disease  "  (1870). 

FLlirr,  TbMthy,  an  American  clergyman  and 
author,  bom  in  North  Reading,  Mass.,  July  11, 
1780,  died  in  Salem,  Aug.  16,  1840.  He  grad- 
uated at  Harvard  college  in  1800,  entered  the 
ministry  of  the  Congregational  church,  and  set- 
tled at  Lunenburff,  Mass.,  in  1802.  He  was  a 
diligent  student  of  the  natural  sciences,  and  bis 
chemical  experiments  led  some  ignorant  per- 


FLINT  RIVER 


FLOATING  ISLANDS 


273 


sons  to  charge  him  with  counterfeiting  coin. 
He  prosecuted  them  for  slander ;  an  ill  feeling 
increased  bj  political  differences  sprang  np  be- 
tween him  and  his  parishioners,  and  he  re- 
signed his  charge  in  1814.  He  then  preached 
in  Yarioos  parts  of  New  England^  and  in  Sep- 
tember, 1815,  set  out  for  the  west  as  a  mission- 
ary, and  passed  seven  or  eight  years  in  the 
Ohio  and  Mississippi  yalleys.  In  1825  he  re- 
tamed  to  Massachusetts,  broken  in  health, 
which  the  change  of  climate  soon  restored. 
His  first  work  was  ^*  Recollections  of  Ten  Years 
passed  in  the  Valley  of  the  Mississippi  '^  (8vo, 
Boston,  1826),  which  was  reprinted  in  London, 
and  translate  into  French.  In  the  same  year 
he  brought  out  a  novel,  ^^  Francis  Berrian,  or 
the  Mexican  Patriot."  His  next  publication 
was  a  *'  Condensed  Geography  and  History  of 
the  Western  States  in  the  Mississippi  Valley  " 
(2  vols.  8vo,  Oinoinnati,  1828),  forming  with 
the  ^*  Recollections  "  one  of  the  best  accounts 
of  that  region  ever  written.  In  1828  he  re- 
moved to  Cincinnati,  where  he  edited  for  three 
years  the  "Western  Review."  In  1838  he 
went  to  New  York  and  conducted  a  few  num- 
bers of  the  "Knickerbocker  Magazine."  He 
afterward  took  up  his  residence  in  Alexandria, 
Va.,  spending  most  of  his  summers  in  New 
England*  His  writings  are  spirited  and  power- 
ful, but  somewhat  wanting  in  polish.  His  prin- 
cipal works,  besides  those  mentioned  above, 
are:  "Arthur  denning,"  a  novel  (2  vols. 
12mo,  Philadelphia,  1828);  "George  Mason, 
or  the  Backwoodsman ;"  "Shoshonee  Valley" 
(2  vols.  12mo,  Cincinnati,  1880);  a  transla- 
tion of  Droz,  "  Essay  upon  the  Art  of  Being 
Happy"  (Boston,  1882);  "Indian  Wars  in  the 
West"  (12mo,  1838);  "Lectures  on  Natural 
History,  Geology,  Chemistry,  and  the  Arts" 
(12mo,  Boston,  1833);  and  "  Memoir  of  Daniel 
Boone "  (18mo,  Cincinnati,  1884).  He  also 
contributed  to  the  London  "Athennum"  in 
1885  a  series  of  papers  on  American  Hterature. 

FLllIT  RIV£R  (Indian  name,  Thronateeska), 
a  river  of  Georgia,  rising  in  the  N.  W.  part  of 
the  state,  near  Fayetteville,  flowing  S.,  and 
uniting  with  the  Chattahoochee  at  3ie  S.  W. 
extremity  of  the  state,  to  form  the  Appalachi- 
cola.  It  is  about  800  m.  long,  and  is  navigable 
to  Albany,  250  m.  from  the  gulf  of  Mexico. 

fLLVTSHlRE,  a  N.  E.  county  of  Wales,  con- 
sisting of  two  separate  portions,  lying  at  a  dis- 
tance of  8  m.  from  each  other,  with  a  part  of 
Denbighshire  between  them,  the  larger  portion 
bordering  on  the  Irish  sea  and  the  estuary  of 
the  Dee ;  aggregate  area,  289  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1871,  76,245.  It  is  the  smallest  but,  in  pro- 
portion to  its  extent,  most  populous  county  in 
Wales.  ^  The  surface  near  the  coast  is  low,  and 
elsewhere  is  diversified,  though  there  are  no 
great  elevations.  A  range  of  hills  runs  along- 
side the  S.  W.  boundary,  and  a  branch  of  them 
traverses  the  county  in  a  N.  E.  direction.  Be- 
tween these  ridges  are  fertile  valleys,  including 
the  well  known  vale  of  Clwyd,  watered  by  sev- 
eral rivers,  which  flow  on  the  one  side  into  the 


Clwyd  and  Alyn,  and  on  the  other  into  the 
Dee,  which  forms  the  N.  E.  boundary.  The 
greater  part  of  the  county  rests  upon  the  coal 
measures,  which  exist  chiefly  on  the  coast  of 
the  estuary  of  the  Dee.  In  1867  there  were  40 
collieries  and  45  lead  mines  in  the  county. 
The  principal  smelting  works  are  at  Mold  and 
Holywell.  The  other  minerals  are  copper, 
iron,  zinc,  and  calamine.  Agriculture  employs 
about  8  per  cent,  of  the  population.  Wheat 
and  rye  are  principally  cultivated,  and  consid- 
erable (quantities  of  butter  and  cheese  are  made. 
The  shipping  trade  is  not  extensive,  as  the 
ports  are  accessible  only  to  small  craft.  The 
Chester  and  Holyhead  railway  traverses  the 
county,  and  the  Chester  and  Mold  railway 
penetrates  to  its  centre.  The  chief  towns  are 
Mold,  the  capital,  Flint,  St.  Asaph,  Holywell, 
Rhyddlan,  Hawarden,  and  Bagilt. 

FLOATING  ISLANDS.  An  early  notice  of  this 
phenomenon  is  recorded  in  an  interesting  let- 
ter of  the  younger  Pliny  to  Gallus,  in  which  he 
describes  the  appearance  of  a  number  of  float- 
ing islands  in  the  Lacus  Yadimonis,  now  La- 
ghetto  di  Bassano,  near  Rome.  They  were 
covered  with  reeds  and  rushes,  and  the  sheep 
grazing  upon  the  borders  of  the  lake  passed 
upon  them  to  feed,  and  were  often  floated  away 
from  the  shore.  On  a  lake  near  Gerdauen,  in 
East  Prussia,  the  extent  of  such  islands  is  said 
to  be  sufScicnt  for  the  pasturage  of  100  head 
of  cattle;  and  on  one  in  Lake  Kolm,  near 
OsnabrUck,  are  many  fine  elms.  These  islands 
are  produced  by  accumulations  of  drift  wood, 
among  which  drifting  sands  and  earth  collect 
and  form  a  soil,  in  which  plants  take  root  and 
flourish.  The  great  "  rafts "  of  some  of  the 
western  rivers  are  of  this  nature ;  for  the  most 
part  these  do  not  float  from  place  to  place, 
but  masses  are  occasionally  detached  and  drift 
out  from  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi,  carry- 
ing the  birds,  serpents,  and  alligators  that  had 
taken  refuge  upon  them.  Such  islands  have 
been  seen  floating  100  miles  off  from  the  mouth 
of  the  Ganges,  from  which  they  had  been  dis- 
charged. On  the  great  rivers  of  South  Amer- 
ica they  are  very  often  met  with,  carrying  the 
prolific  productions  of  the  vegetable  and  ani- 
mal life  of  the  tropics,  and  depositing  them  in 
new  localities.  Thus  they  may  have  been  the 
means  of  distributing  species  of  the  larger  ani- 
mals among  the  islands  of  the  south  Pacific, 
upon  many  of  which  their  introduction  by  any 
other  mode  is  difiicult  to  account  for.  Prescott 
describes  the  floating  gardens  or  chinampas  of 
Mexico  as  an  archipelago  of  wandering  islands. 
The  primitive  Aztecs  adopted  the  plan  sug- 
gested by  these  natural  objects,  and  covered 
rafts  of  woven  reeds  and  rushes  with  the  fertile 
sediment  drawn  up  from  the  lake.  Upon  these 
gardens,  gradually  extending  to  200  or  800  feet 
in  length,  the  Indians  cultivated  flowers  and 
vegetables  for  the  market  of  Tenochtitlan. 
Some  of  the  chinampas  were  firm  enough  to 
sustain  smaU  trees  and  a  hut,  and  could  be 
moved  about  with  a  pole  or  fastened  to  it  at 


274 


FLODDEN  FIELD 


FLORENCE 


the  will  of  the  owner.  Remarkable  floating 
islands  occur  in  the  Malay  archipelago. 

FLODDEN  FIELD,  Battle  •f,  fought  Sept.  9, 
1618,  between  the  Scots  under  King  James  lY. 
and  the  English  under  the  earl  of  Surrey. 
Henry  VIII.  was  on  the  continent  engaged  in 
his  expedition  against  France  when  the  border 
feuds  broke  into  open  war.  James  crossed  the 
Tweed,  Aug.  22,  at  the  head  of  the  feudal  ar- 
ray of  his  kingdom,  captured  four  border  for- 
tresses, and  encamped,  Sept.  6,  on  Flodden,  the 
last  of  the  Cheviot  hills,  in  Northumberland,  8 
m.  S.  E.  of  Coldstream.  The  earl  of  Surrey, 
to  whom  was  intrusted  the  defence  of  the  Eng- 
lish border,  summoned  the  gentlemen  of  the 
northern  counties  to  join  him  at  Newcastle, 
and  reached  Alnwick  Sept.  8,  with  26,000  men, 
where  he  offered  battle  to  James  in  a  message 
sent  by  a  pursuivant-at-arms.  By  a  skilful 
countermarch  Jie  placed  himself  on  the  morn- 
ing of  Sept.  9  between  James  and  Scotland. 
The  battle  began  between  4  and  5  o^ clock  P.  M., 
and  was  decided  in  little  more  than  an  hour. 
The  Scottish  army,  setting  fire  to  its  tents,  de- 
scended the  ridge  of  Flodden  to  secure  the 
eminence  of  Brankstone,  and  was  met  by  the 
English  army,  which  advanced  in  four  divisions 
under  the  command  of  Surrey,  his  two  sons, 
Thomas  and  Sir  Edmund  Howard,  and  Sir  Ed- 
ward Stanley.  Earls  Huntley  and  Home,  who 
led  the  Scottish  left  wing,  charged  the  How- 
ards so  successfully  with  a  body  of  spearmen 
that  Sir  Edmund  was  unhorsed  and  his  division 
put  to  flight.  The  battle  was  restored  in  this 
quarter  by  the  advance  of  Lord  Dacre  with 
the  reserve  of  cavalry.  On  the  right  wing  the 
highlanders  were  unable  to  stand  against  the 
severe  execution  of  the  Lancashire  archers. 
James,  surrounded  by  some  thousands  of 
chosen  warriors,  charged  upon  Surrey  in  the 
centre  of  his  army  with  such  resolution  as  to 
penetrate  within  a  few  yards  of  the  royal 
standard,  when  he  was  attacked  in  the  flank 
and  rear  by  Stanley,  already  victorious  over 
the  Scottish  right.  James  fell  by  an  unknown 
hand  within  a  lance's  length  of  Surrey,  and  all 
of  his  division  perished  with  their  king,  not  one 
of  them  being  made  prisoner.  Before  dawn 
the  Scots  abandoned  the  field  in  disorder. 
Their  loss  was  about  10,000  men,  which  in- 
cluded the  prime  of  their  nobility,  gentry,  and 
even  clergy.  "  Scarce  a  family  of  eminence," 
says  Scott,  **but  had  an  ancestor  killed  at 
Flodden,  and  there  is  no  province  of  Scotland, 
even  at  this  day,  where  the  battle  is  mentioned 
without  a  sensation  of  terror  and  sorrow." 
The  English  lost  about  7,000  men.  Scott's 
"  Marmion,  a  Tale  of  Flodden  Field,"  contains 
in  the  last  canto  an  accurate  and  most  animated 
description  of  the  battle. 

FLOOD,  Henry,  an  Irish  orator  and  politician, 
bom  in  1782,  died  Dec.  2,  1791.  He  was  a 
son  of  the  chief  justice  of  the  court  of  king's 
bench  in  Ireland,  and  was  educated  at  Trinity 
college,  Dublin,  and  at  Oxford.  In  1759  he 
became  a  member  of  the  Irish  house  of  com- 


mons, where  his  eloquence  made  a  remarkable 
impression,  and  his  activity  in  support  of  all 
measures  beneficial  to  his  country  won  him 
great  popularity.  His  relations  to  the  govern- 
ment, however,  exposed  him  to  the  charge  of 
inconsistency.  He  was  reelected  to  parliament 
in  1761,  and  was  made  a  privy  councillor  for 
the  two  kingdoms,  and  vice  treasurer  of  Ire- 
land in  1775,  but  resigned  in  1781.  In  1788 
he  held  a  celebrated  discussion  with  Mr.  G  rat- 
tan in  the  house  of  commons.  In  the  same 
year  he  was  returned  to  the  English  parliament 
for  the  city  of  Winchester,  and  in  1786  he  rep- 
resented Seaford.  His  speeches  were  logical, 
pure  in  style,  and  rich  in  figures  and  classical 
allusions.  He  left  a  Pindaric  ^*  Ode  to  Fame," 
and  a  poem  on  the  death  of  Frederick,  prince 
of  Wajes,  to  be  found  in  the  Oxford  collection, 
and  published  a  volume  of  speeches  in  1787. 
His  **  Life  and  Correspondence,"  by  W.  Flood, 
was  published  in  London  in  1888. 

FLORA,  the  Roman  goddess  of  fiowers  and 
spring.  She  was  worshipped  in  Rome  from 
the  very  earliest  time.  Her  temple  stood  near 
the  cireui  maximus;  and  her  festival  was  cele* 
brated  annually  on  the  last  three  days  of  April. 

fLORENCE  (Ital.  Firente),  I.  A  province  of 
central  Italy,  included  in  Tuscany,  bordering 
on  Modena,  Bologna,  Ravenna,  Forli,  Pesaro 
ed  XJrbino,  Arezzo,  Siena,  Pisa,  and  Lucca; 
area,  2,268  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1872,  766,326.  It 
comprises  the  four  districts  of  Florence,  Pis- 
toja,  Rocca  San  Casciano,  and  San  Miniato. 
The  principal  chain  of  the  central  Apennines 
traverses  the  E.  part  of  the  province.  Other 
detached  mountains  extend  into  the  E.  and 
S.  parts.  The  remainder  is  partly  hilly  and 
partly  level.  The  principal  river  is  the  Amo, 
which  receives  a  considerable  number  of  aiSu- 
ents.  Agriculture  is  flourishing  in  the  numer- 
ous valleys,  and  the  wine  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
city  of  Florence  is  the  best  of  Tuscany.  Other 
branches  of  industry  are  cattle  breeding,  the 
cultivation  of  the  olive,  fishing,  and  mining. 
II.  A  city,  capital  of  the  province  and  former- 
ly of  the  grand  duchy  of  Tuscany,  in  lat.  43° 
46'  86"  N.,  Ion.  11°  15'  80"  E.,  194  m.  S.  E. 
of  Turin,  140  m.  N.  N.  W.  of  Rome,  and  250 
m.  N.  N.  W.  of  Naples;  pop.  in  1872, 167,098. 
Of  late  the  area  of  the  city  has  been  consid- 
erably increased  by  the  extension  of  the  sub- 
urbs, and  while  Florence  was  the  capital  of 
Italy  (1865-'71)  the  population  is  believed  to 
have  considerably  exceeded  200,000 ;  but  since 
the  transfer  of  the  seat  of  government  to  Rome 
it  has  rapidly  decreased.  The  city  lies  in  a 
beautiful,  well  wooded,  well  cultivated  valley, 
surrounded  by  the  Apennines.  It  was  encircled 
by  an  old  wall  5  or  6  m.  long,  with  8  gates,  but 
the  wall  was  demolished  in  1873.  The  river 
Amo  flows  through  it,  the  larger  part  of  the  city 
being  on  the  right  or  N.  bank.  The  river  w ithin 
the  city  is  crossed  by  four  fine  stone  bridges, 
of  which  the  most  noted  is  the  Ponte  di  Santa 
TrinitA,  built  in  1566-'70.  It  is  adorned  with 
statues,  is  823  ft.  long,  and  the  central  arch 


has  a  span  of  96  ft.  This  bridge  ia  a  favorite 
eventDg  wHlk  of  the  people.  The  Poote  V«c- 
chio  is  7S  1^  wide,  and  toe  carriagewaj  in  the 
middle  is  liaed  oa  each  aide  by  a  rov  of  abops, 
occupied  chiefly  by  goldsmiths  and  jewellers. 
There  are  also  two  aDepeDsion  bridges.  In  the 
older  parts  of  the  city  the  street*  are  narrow 
and  trregular,  and  the  houses  for  the  most 
part  mewil J  bnilt ;  bat  the  newer  and  larger 
portions  are  very  handsome  uid  stately,  and 
the  streets  wider  tlian  is  conunon  in  the  cities 
of  Bonthem  Europe,  and  solidly  paved  with 
blocks  of  stone.  The  charches  of  Florence  are 
173  in  number,  and  many  of  them  of  great  size 
and  antiquity  ;  bat  few  are  completely  finisbed, 
and  their  general  appearance  is  neither  elegant 
Dor  pictaresqne.     The  Dnomo,  or  cathedral 


!NCE  376 

tectnral  grandenr  only  by  St.  Peter's  at  Rome. 
The  decree  for  it*  erection  was  issned  in  1294, 
and  its  foondations  were  laid  in  1266;  tbegreat 
dome  was  erected  by  Branelleschi  in  the  16th 
oentary,  bnt  the  ta^ade  was  not  completed  Ull 
the  middle  of  the  17th.  The  length  of  the 
building  is  nearly  QOO  ft.,  and  of  the  united  tran- 
septs SOS  ft. ;  its  height  from  the  pavement  to 
the  summit  of  the  cross  is  S87  it. ;  the  height 
of  the  nave  is  1G8  tl,  and  of  the  side  aisles  SQ^ 
ft.,  and  tlie  width  of  the  nave  and  aisles  is  128 
ft.  The  exterior  of  the  chnrch  is  covered 
throughout  with  red,  white,  and  black  marblcL 
disposed  in  panels  and  variegated  figures ;  and 
the  pavement  is  also  of  many-colored  marble, 
much  of  which  was  laid  under  the  direction  of 
Miohel  Angela.  The  dome  of  this  cathedral 
is  the  largest  in  the  world,  its  circumference, 
being  greater  than  that  of  the  dome  of  St.* 


il  Tlav  of  nonnBO. 


Peter's,  and  its  comparative  height  greater, 
thoagh  its  base  is  not  placed  so  high  above  the 
ground.  It  excited  toe  admiration  of  Michel 
Angelo,  to  whom  it  served  as  a  model  for  the 
dome  of  St  Peter's.  This  church  is  richly 
adorned  with  statues  and  pictnres,  most  of 
which  are  by  eminent  masters.  Among  the 
itatnes  is  an  unfinished  group  by  Michel  An- 
'  gelo,  representitig  the  entombment  of  Obriet. 
Among  the  paintings  is  a  portrait  of  Dante,  ex- 
caUd  in  1465.  Near  the  cathedral  stands  the 
eampaniU  or  belfty,  which  was  designed  by 
Giotto,  and  b^mn  in  1SS4.  It  isa  square  tower, 
2T6  ft.  high,  light  and  elegant,  in  the  Italian- 
Gothic  style,  and  divided  into  foar  lofty  stories. 
Charles  V.  used  to  say  that  it  deserved  to  be 
kept  in  a  glass  case.  The  lower  story  contains 
ttro  ranges  of  tablets,  designed,  by  Giotto  and 
executed  by  bim  and  by  Andrea  Pisano  and 


Luca  della  Kobbia.  Opposite  the  principal  front 
of  the  cathedral  stands  the  baptistery,  whose 
three  great  bronze  portals,  adorned  with  basa 
reliefs  by  Andrea  Pisano  and  Ghiberti,  were 
declared  by  Hichel  Angelo  wortliy  to  be  the 
gates  of  Paradise.  The  church  of  San  Lorenzo 
has  attached  to  it  a  sacristy  which  contuns 
seven  statues  by  Michel  Angelo.  Adjoining 
the  same  chnrch  is  the  costly  Medicean  chapel, 
begun  in  1S04  by  Ferdinand  I.,  grand  duke  of 
Tuscanv,  as  the  mausoleum  of  his  family,  on 
which,  it  is  sold,  $17,000,000  have  been  ex- 
pended. It  is  an  octagon  94  ft.  in  diameter 
and  200  ft.  high,  and  is  lined  thronghoat  with 
lapis  lazuli,  Jasper,  onyx,  and  other  precious 
stones.  The  church  of  Santa  Croce,  460  ft. 
long  and  184  ft.  wide,  whose  foundation  stone 
was  l^d  Id  1304,  is  the  Pantheon  or  West- 
minster abbey  of  Florence.     It  contains  the 


276 


FLORENCE 


tombs  of  Michel  Angelo,  Machiavelli,  Galileo, 
Leonardo  Aretino,  Guicciardini,  Alfieri,  Ugo 
Foscolo  (since  Jane  24,  1871),  and  of  many 
other  illustrious  men.  Florence  abounds  in 
palaces  of  a  singularly  solid,  heavy  style  of 
architecture,  resembling  prisons  or  fortresses. 
They  were  built  in  ages  of  turbulence  and  civil 
strife,  for  defence  and  security  rather  than  for 
display  or  luxury.  Their  great  size  and  height, 
the  rough  massiveness  of  their  lower  stories, 
and  the  huge  cornices  frowning  over  their 
fronts,  give  them  a  very  impressive  appearance. 
The  two  principal  palaces,  the  Palazzo  Vec- 
ohio  and  the  Palazzo  Pitti,  contain  celebrated 
collections  of  works  of  art.  The  gallery  in 
the  Palazzo  Yecchio  exhibits  portraits  of  many 
celebrated  Florentines,  from  Cosmo  il  Yecchio 
.(died  in  1464)  to  Cosmo  the  first  grand  duke 
(died  1574).  The  Pitti  gallery,  which  is  very 
rich  and  extensive,  contains  many  of  the  best 
works  of  Michel  Angelo,  Titian,  Salvator  Rosa, 
Andrea  del  Sarto,  Murillo,  Rubens,  and  several 
of  Raphael's,  including  the  celebrated  '*  Ma- 
donna della  Seggiola.''  The  gallery  in  the 
Uffizi  is  considered  one  of  the  choicest  and 
most  varied  in  Europe.  It  displays  in  the 
picture  halls  a  historical  series  of  the  Tuscan 
and  Venetian  schools,  arranged  chronological- 
ly, and  exhibiting  the  finest  specimens  of  the 
Italian  masters.  The  French,  German,  Dutch, 
and  Flemish  schools  are  also  richly  represent- 
ed. AmoDg  the  statues  in  the  room  called  the 
tribune  are  the  famous  Venus  de'  Medici,  the 
Apollino,  the  "  Dancing  Faun,"  the  "  Wres- 
tlers," and  the  "  Knife  Grinder."  The  finest 
paintings  of  the  entire  collection  are  hung  in  the 
tribune.  In  another  hall  is  a  series  of  portraits 
of  eminent  painters,  chiefly  executed  by  them- 
selves. The  gallery  has  also  a  series  of  busts 
of  the  Roman  emperors  from  Ccesar  to  Con- 
stantine,  which  is  unsurpassed  except  in  the 
Oapitoline  museum  in  Rome;  and  there  are 
halls  devoted  to  sculptures  of  the  15th  and  16th 
centuries,  original  drawings  of  the  old  masters, 
engravings,  ancient  bronzes,  medals,  gems,  ca- 
meos, and  intaglios,  the  whole  forming  one  of 
the  finest  collections  in  the  world.  The  library 
is  rich  in  autographs,  letters,  and  portions  of 
the  works  of  Boccaccio,  Poliziano,  Machiavelli, 
Michel  Angelo,  Tasso,  Alfleri,  Monti,  and  oth- 
ers. The  Uffizi  is  connected  with  the  Pitti  pal- 
ace by  a  passage  which  crosses  the  Ponte  Yec- 
chio. This  is  lined  with  tapestries,  paintings, 
drawings,  and  engravings,  and  in  the  middle  of 
these  was  once  a  bathing  room  connecting  with 
the  waters  of  the  Arno.  Besides  these  famous 
collections,  the  city  abounds  in  galleries,  muse- 
ums, and  choice  works  of  art.  The  national 
library,  formed  in  1864  by  the  union  of  the 
Magliabecchian  and  the  Palatine,  contains 
over  200,000  printed  volumes  and  14,000  M88. ; 
the  Marucellion  60,000,  and  the  Riccardian 
30,000  volumes ;  and  the  Laurentian  9,000 
MSS.  Of  the  university,  which  was  opened 
in  1438,  nothing  but  the  theological  library  is 
now  left.    There  are  many  literary  institutions, 


the  chief  of  which  was  formerly  the  academy 
della  Crusca,  founded  in  1682,  whose  object 
was  the  improvement  of  the  Italian  language. 
It  is  now  incorporated  with  two  still  older 
societies  in  what  is  known  as  the  royal  Flor- 
entine academy.  There  are  agricultural  and 
fine-art  academies,  a  medical  college,  an  acad- 
emy of  fine  arts  for  ladies,  an  athenseum, 
an  Egypto-Etrnscan  museum  of  antiquities,  a 
museum  of  Italian  art  and  manufactures,  and 
10  theatres.  The  Boboli  gardens,  named  from 
a  family  which  once  had  a  house  in  the  vicinity, 
are  divided  into  endless  walks,  shady  pathways, 
waters  crowned  with  elaborately  sculptured 
fountains  and  filled  with  gold  fish,  and  groves 
adorned  with  statues,  among  which  are  a  Nep- 
tune executed  in  1565  by  Stoldo  Lorenzi,  Pe- 
gasus by  Costoli,  four  large  unfinished  statues 
by  Michel  Angelo  which  he  intended  as  a  part 
of  his  monument  to  Pope  Julius  II.,  Apollo 
and  Ceres  by  Baccio  Bandinelli,  Paris  and 
Helen  by  Rossi  da  Fiesolo,  and  four  satyrs  and 
a  Venus  by  Giovanni  da  Bologna.  The  acad- 
emy contains  some  of  the  finest  examples  of 
early  Florentine  art,  illustrating  the  lives  of 
the  Saviour,  the  Virgin,  saints,  martyrs,  and 
apostles,  Fra  Angelico's  **  Last  Judgment, ^^ 
with  many  choice  works  of  Bartolommeo, 
Raphael,  Andrea  del  Sarto,  and  other  masters. 
The  Egypto-Etruscan  museum  was  a  convent 
in  the  16th  century,  and  is  adorned  with  fres- 
coes from  the  pencil  of  Raphael.  For  many 
years  it  was  ^evoted  to  secular  uses ;  and  in 
1826,  while  the  proprietor,  a  coach  bnilder, 
was  preparing  to  whitewash  the  walls  of  the 
former  refectory,  was  discovered  beneath  dirt 
and  coats  of  whitening  the  fine  fresco  of  the 
"  Last  Supper,"  in  which  the  border  of  the 
dress  of  St.  Thomas  bears  the  autograph  of 
Raphael  with  the  date  M.D.V.  To  this  build- 
ing quite  recently  have  been  transferred  the 
Etruscan  remains  formerly  in  the  Ufi&zi  gallery. 
This  is  a  most  valuable  collection  of  papyri, 
bassi  rilievi,  statues,  vases,  sarcophagi,  bronzes, 
jewelry,  pottery,  and  other  relics  of  great  an- 
tiquity. The  museum  of  natural  history  was 
opened  in  1780.  Napoleon's  sister,  £lisa  Bac- 
ciochi,  grand  duchess  of  Tuscany,  added  a 
school  of  public  instruction.  In  1859  Victor 
Emanuel  founded  a  school  for  more  advanced 
studies.  The  museum  is  very  rich  in  palsonto- 
logical,  zoological,  geological,  and  mineralogical 
collections,  and  is  celebrated  for  its  wax  prepa- 
rations exhibiting  a  complete  series  of  perfect 
specimens  of  human  and  animal  anatomy.  It 
contains  also  a  valuable  collection  of  physical 
and  astronomical  instruments,  among  them  the 
telescopes  constructed  by  Galileo.  Attached 
to  the  building,  and  adjoining  the  Boboli  gar- 
dens, are  the  botanical  gardens,  remarkable 
for  rare  plants,  and  for  the  great  number  of 
species,  which  have  increased  from  826  in 
1842  to  more  than  120,000  in  1878.  A  new 
observatory  was  opened  in  1871  under  Do- 
nati^s  direction.  The  charitable  institutions 
are  numerous,  including  asylums  for  the  blind, 


FLORENCE 


COUNCIL  OF  FLORENCE       277 


for  the  deaf  and  dnmb,  and  for  orphans,  and 
an  ancient  association  of  the  nobles  and  gen- 
try for  the  relief  of  the  sick  and  suffermg 
poor.  —  The  trade  of  Florence  is  chiefly  in 
the  produce  of  the  surrounding  country,  oil, 
wine,  and  raw  silk,  and  in  her  own  manufac- 
tures, of  which  the  principal  are  silk  stuffs, 
straw  hats,  artificial  flowers,  musical  and  scien- 
tific instruments,  jewelry,  and  fine  porcelain. 
The  climate  is  mild  and  healthy,  though  the 
winds  from  the  Apennines  cause  sudden  tran- 
dtions  from  heat  to  cold,  frequently  in  the 
same  day.  The  city  is  exempt  from  specific 
diseases  and  epidemics.  Foreigners  find  Sep- 
tember, October,  and  November  the  most 
agreeable  months  for  residence,  and  the  spring 
months  are  very  delightful.  The  environs  are 
like  beautiful  gardens,  and  abound  in  delight- 
ful places  for  excursions.  The  Cascine,  which 
takes  its  name  from  the  dairy  to  which  the  ex- 
tensive pastures  and  pleasure  grounds  are  an- 
nexed, is  the  chief  park  of  Florence  for  the  dis- 
play of  equestrian  and  fashionable  equipages. 
The  drives  are  fine,and  the  surrounding  scenery 
is  superb.  The  people  are  lively,  polite,  and 
intelligent,  with  a  refinement  of  manner  and 
language  which  extends  even  to  the  lowest 
elates,  whose  style  of  speech  is  singularly 
graceful,  delicate,  and  expressive.  The  climate, 
the  cheapness  of  living,  the  galleries  of  art,  and 
the  refinement  of  the  people  render  Florence 
a  particularly  pleasant  place  of  residence,  and 
have  attracted  to  it  great  numbers  of  foreign- 
era,  espeoially  English  and  Americans.  During 
the  occupancy  of  the  city  by  the  Italian  gov- 
ernment Florence  was  one  of  the  gayest  capi- 
tals in  Europe. — Florence  was  called  Floren- 
tia  by  the  Romans.  It  is  supposed  to  have 
been  founded  by  the  dictator  Sulla,  about  80 
B.  C. ;  but  it  seems  to  have  been  of  little  im- 
portance till  the  later  ages  of  the  Roman  em- 
pire. In  406  it  was  a  considerable  city,  and 
was  besieged  by  Radagaisus,  at  the  head  of  a 
great  army  of  Vandals,  Burgundians,  Alans, 
and  other  barbarians.  Stilicho  raised  the  siege 
and  captured  and  put  to  death  the  barbarian 
monarch.  About  the  middle  of  the  6th  century 
it  was  destroyed  by  Totila,  king  of  the  Ostro- 
goths. Charlemagne  rebuilt  it  at  the  end  of 
the  8th,  and  during  the  next  two  centuries 
it  grew  in  importance,  till  in  the  10th  the 
people  acquired  the  right  of  electing  their 
own  magistrates.  The  city  was  governed  by 
a  senate  of  100  persons,  with  an  executive  of 
four,  and  afterward  of  six  consuls.  In  1207 
the  chief  executive  functions  were  assigned 
to  a  single  magistrate  called  the  podestd.  In 
1215  the  Florentines  began  to  take  part  in 
the  civil  war  between  the  Guelphs  and  tlie 
GhibelUnes  which  convulsed  Italy.  After  a 
contest  lasting  for  88  years,  the  Guelph  or 
papal  party  was  beaten  and  expelled  from  the 
dty.  A  few  years  later  the  citizens  took  arms 
against  the  nobles,  defeated  them,  demolished 
their  fortified  palaces,  and  established  a  demo- 
cratic government,  with  two  chief  magistrates. 


one  styled  ^^  the  captain  of  the  people  "  and  the 
other  podeatd^  and  various  councils  chosen  from 
all  classes  of  the  population.  The  feuds  be- 
tween Ghibellines  and  Guelphs  were  however 
renewed,  and  carried  on  with  varying  results. 
In  1282  the  republic  adopted  a  new  system  of 
government,  which  continued  unchanged  for 
several  centuries.  A  long  series  of  civil  wars 
between  the  factions  of  the  Bianchi  and  Neri 
(whites  and  blacks)  ensued,  in  spite  of  which 
the  city  grew  very  rich  and  powerful.  It  be- 
came the  financial  capital  of  Europe,  and  its 
merchants  carried  on  an  immense  trade  with 
foreign  countries.  The  population  amounted 
to  150,000,  and  the  armed  militia,  who  could  be 
called  together  by  the  tolling  of  a  bell,  were 
reckoned  at  25,000.  In  1342  Gaultier  de  Bri- 
enne,  an  adventurer  who  bore  the  title  of  duke 
of  Athens,  became  lord  of  Florence  by  a  coup 
d^etat;  but  after  a  year  of  cruel  despotism 
he  was  deposed  and  driven  from  the  city  by  a 
sudden  insurrection.  The  anniversary  of  this 
revolution,  July  26,  1848,  is  still  celebrated  at 
Florence.  The  republic  was  restored,  and 
continued  to  fiourish  in  spite  of  factions,  in- 
surrections, and  civil  and  foreign  wars,  till  the 
15th  century,  when  the  family  of  the  Medici 
obtained  a  controlling  influence  in  its  affairs, 
which  resulted  in  the  final  overthrow  of  re- 
publican institutions  in  the  16th  century. 
(See  Mbdioi,  and  Tusoant.)  In  1 849  Florence 
was  for  a  short  time  the  seat  of  a  provisional 
government.  It  was  the  scene  of  a  revolution, 
April  27,  1859;  and  in  March,  1860,  the  peo- 

Sle  voted  for  annexation  to  Sardinia.  It  was 
ecreed  to  be  the  capital  of  the  new  king- 
dom of  Italy,  Dec.  11,  1864.  Victor  Eman- 
uel and  his  court  removed  thither  from  Turin 
May  18,  1865,  and  on  the  day  following  the 
600th  anniversary  of  Dante^s  birth  was  cele- 
brated. In  July,  1871,  the  seat  of  government 
was  transferred  to  Rome. — Of  the  older  histo- 
ries of  the  city,  MsiohiAveWVs  latorie  ^rentifie^ 
Nardi^s  Staria  delta  eittd  di  Firenze,  and  Yar- 
chi^s  Storiajiorentina  are  the  most  impor- 
tant. A  "Florentine  History,"  by  H.  E.  Na- 
pier (6  vols.  12mo),  was  published  in  London 
m  1846-7,  and  a  ''History  of  the  Republic  of 
Florence,"  by  Adolphus  Trollope,  in  1864. 
For  descriptions  of  Florence  see  "European 
Capitals,"  by  William  Ware  (Boston,  1851), 
"  Six  Months  in  Italy,"  by  George  8.  Hillard 
(6th  ed.,  Boston,  1868),  and  "Walks  in  Flor- 
ence," by  Susan  and  Joanna  Homer  (2  vols. 
12mo,  London,  1878). 

FLORENCE,  CeucU  of,  the  16th  general  coun- 
cil of  the  church,  according  to  Roman  CathoUo 
theologians.  It  was  convened  in  Ferrara  by 
Eugenius  lY.  for  the  purpose  of  reuniting  the 
eastern  and  western  churches.  The  first  session 
was  held  in  Ferrara  Jan.  10, 1488,  Nicholas  Al- 
bergati  presiding  as  cardinal  legate.  The  pope 
himself  opened  the  second  session,  Feb.  15,  and 
on  March  10  the  Greek  emperor  John  VI.  or 
VII.  was  present,  with  the  patriarch  of  Constan- 
tinople and  a  number  of  eastern  prelates.    The 


278 


FLORES 


FLORUN 


public  discossion  of  the  doctrina]  differences 
between  the  churches  commenced  the  next 
da^,  and  was  continaed  withont  any  satisfac- 
tory result  until  the  breaking  out  of  the  plague 
obliged  the  pope,  Jan.  10,  1489,  to  transfer  the 
council  to  Florence.  The  number  of  prelates 
from  the  East  particularly  had  been  now  more 
than  trebled,  and  the  emperor,  whose  power 
was  daily  undermined  by  the  advance  of  the 
Mussulmans,  urged  the  bishops  to  come  to  an 
understanding.  At  length,  on  June  8,  a  doc- 
trinal agreement  was  reached  on  the  proces- 
sion of  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  the  addition  to  the 
Nicene  creed  of  the  words  Filioqusj  and  it 
was  signed  by  all  present.  Another  month's 
continuous  debating  brought  both  parties  to 
an  agreement  on  the  remaining  points,  viz. : 
purgatory,  the  use  of  unleavened  bread  in 
the  eucharist,  and  the  primacy  of  the  bishop 
of  Rome.  On  July  6,  the  pope  ofSciating, 
and  the  Greek  emperor  being  present  with  his 
bishops,  the  solemn  doctrinal  aecree  on  which 
both  East  and  West  agreed  was  promulgated 
by  Cardinal  Oesarini.  The  emperor  and  the 
eastern  prelates  took  their  departure  from 
Florence  Aug.  26 ;  but  the  sessions  continued, 
to  afford  the  other  eastern  communions  an  op- 
portunity of  ratifying  what  was  done.  A  de- 
cree of  union  with  the  Armenian  church  was 
published  on  Nov.  22,  and  another  with  the 
Jacobites  of  Abyssinia  on  Feb.  6,  1441.  Oan- 
onists  are  generally  agreed  in  considering  this 
council  to  have  ended  in  the  solemn  session  of 
April  26,  1442.  The  two  supplementary  ses- 
sions held  afterward  in  Rome  had  for  their  ob- 
ject the  reunion  of  the  Syrians,  Chaldeans,  and 
Maronites,  for  which  preliminary  steps  had 
been  taken  in  Florence. 

FU>RE8,  the  westernmost  of  the  Azore  isl- 
ands in  the  N.  Atlantic  ocean ;  lat.  SQ""  25'  N., 
Ion.  sr  12'  W. ;  length  80  m.,  breadth  9  m. ; 
pop.  in  1864,  10,622.  Its  name  was  given  it 
by  the  Portuguese  in  allusion  to  the  multi- 
tude of  flowers  with  which  it  appeared  to  be 
adorned.    Chief  towns,  Lages  and  Santa  Cruz. 

FLORiS,  Floris,  Eid^,  or  Muganl,  an  island 
of  the  Malay  archipelago,  N.  W.  of  Timor,  be- 
tween lat.  8°  and  9*  10'  S.,  and  Ion.  119**  50' and 
128°  E.;  length  E.  and  W.  about  200  m., 
average  breadth  45  m.  The  strait  of  Flores 
00  the  east  separates  it  from  the  islands  of 
Solor  and  Adenar.  It  has  a  hilly  surface,  and 
like  all  the  islands  of  the  same  chain  is  of 
volcanic  formation.  There  are  several  active 
craters,  one  of  which  is  7,000  ft.  high.  The 
island  produces  copper,  according  to  native 
accounts,  and  also  gold  and  iron,  but  not 
sufficient  to  be  profitably  worked.  The  for- 
ests yield  sapan  wood  and  dye  wood;  rice, 
maize,  edible  roots,  and  a  good  species  of 
cotton,  are  cultivated.  Cotton  is  exported  to 
Celebes.  The  other  principal  articles  of  trade 
Are  benzoin,  ambergris,  beeswax,  slaves,  and 
ships'  provisions,  payment  for  which  is  made 
in  cutlery,  gunpowder,  glassware,  and  linen. 
The  natives  are  divided  into  a  number  of  dis- 


tinct nations,  all  speaking  different  langnagea. 
The  principal  towns  are  £nd4,  with  about  200 
houses,  which  has  a  large  and  safe  harbor ; 
Mangarai  on  the  N.  coast ;  Pota  on  the  same 
side,  the  site  of  a  Dutch  fort  and  trading  post ; 
and  Larantuka  on  the  S.  E.,  where  the  Portu- 
guese have  a  small  settlement. — The  Portu- 
guese visited  the  island  at  an  early  period,  and 
gave  it  the  name  of  Flores.  It  was  subordi- 
nate for  a  time  to  the  Dutch  presidency  on 
Timor  island,  but  in  1812  the  Bughis  expelled 
all  the  European  settlers.  Christianity  has 
obtained  a  foothold  by  the  labors  of  Portu- 
guese missionaries,  and  the  native  traders  gen- 
erally sail  under  the  Portuguese  flag. 

FLORIiK,  Jean  Pierre  Claris  de,  a  French  au- 
thor, bom  at  the  ch&teau  de  Ilorian  in  Lan- 
guedoc,  March  6,  1756,  died  in  Sceanx,  Sept. 
18,  1794.  His  uncle,  the  marquis  de  Florian, 
placed  him  when  18  years  old  at  Femey  with 
Voltaire,  where  he  remained  three  years,  when 
he  became  page  to  the  duke  de  Penthi^vre, 
who  subsequently  procured  him  a  commission 
in  a  regiment  of  cavalry.  He  left  his  troop  to 
attach  himself  as  a  gentilhomme  de  eoitr  to  the 
duke,  at  whose  reddence  he  pursued  his  lite- 
rary avocations.  Several  of  his  dramas  were 
performed  at  the  theatre  of  D'Argental,  and 
on  these  occasions  Florian  often  played  the 
part  of  harlequin.  Though  not  the  best  of  his 
works,  some  of  his  plays,  as  Les  deux  JAUeUy 
Le  hon  pirej  La  honne  mere^  &c.,  have  con- 
siderable merit,  and  the  first  still  holds  its 
place  on  the  French  stage.  In  1783  he  pro- 
duced his  Oalatee^  a  novel  in  imitation  of  the 
"Galatea"  of  Cervantes;  and  in  1786  his  Nu- 
ma  Pampiliuiy  a  classic  romance  in  the  style 
of  F^nelon's  Telhnaque.  After  these  appeared 
Estelley  a  pastoral  tale,  Gonzahe  de  Cordaue, 
with  a  preliminary  sketch  of  Moorish  history, 
and  a  collection  of  fables,  which  are  deemed 
the  best  that  have  been  produced  in  France 
since  La  Fontaine^s.  He  wrote  also  several 
poems.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  revolution  he 
was  consigned  to  a  dungeon,  where  he  finished 
his  poem  of  £phraim,  and  wrote  his  romance 
of  Uuillaume  Tell.  He  was  liberated  after  the 
9th  Thermidor,  but  soon  fell  a  victim  to  grief. 
After  his  death  appeared  his  translation  of 
"  Don  Quixote."  The  best  uniform  edition  of 
his  works  is  that  of  Paris  in  1820,  16  vols. 

FLORIAH,  SalBt,  a  German  martyr,  bom  at 
Zeiselmauer,  Lower  Austria,  about  the  year 
190,  served  as  a  captain  in  the  Roman  army, 
and  was  drowned  for  his  adherence  to  Chris- 
tianity, near  Lorch  on  the  Enns,  in  280.  Ac- 
cording to  a  legend,  he  presented  himself  im- 
mediately after  his  death  to  a  pious  woman, 
whom  he  requested  to  bury  his  remains  on  the 
site  of  the  present  Augustinian  monastery  near 
the  village  of  St.  Florian,  in  the  vicinity  of 
Linz.  His  bones  were  sent  to  Rome,  and  in 
1183  to  Poland,  of  which  country  he  became 
the  patron  saint.  His  anniversary  is  celebrated 
Aug.  4 ;  and  on  account  of  the  emblems  by 
which  he  is  represented,  his  protection  is  often 


invoked  agi^natconflagrationi.  The  monastery 
of  St.  Florian,  said  to  have  been  founded  in  4S6 
b7  St.  Severin.  contains  a  magnificent  church, 
organ,  and  bell,  a  librarj  of  40,000  volumes,  a 
nnmismatio  and  other  collections,  and  a  pleasant 
garden  and  horticaltaral  school.  The  a^join- 
iag  T1II7  castle  has  belonged  to  it  since  1S86. 

FLOKIDl,  the  Bonthemmost  8tat«  of  the 
Amerioaa  Union,  and  the  14th  admitted  under 
the  federal  conatitation,  Bituat«d  between  lat. 
!4°  SC  and  81°  N.,  and  Ion.  80°  and  87°  45' 
W. ;  bounded  N.  bj  Alabama  and  Georgia,  £. 
bv  tbe  Atlantic  ocean,  S.  and  W.  by  the  gulf 
of  llexico  and  the  Perdido  river,  the  latter 
dividing  W.  Florida  from  the  gulf  section  of 
Alabama;  area,  69,2S8  sq.  m.,  or  37,981,S20 
teres.  The  state  is  divided  tola  S9  coanties, 
viz. :  Alachaa,  Baker,  Bradford,  Brevard,  Cal- 
hoan,  C\»j,  Coiambio,  Dade,  Dnvsl,  Escam- 
bisi,  Franklin,  Gadsden,  Hamilton,  Hernando, 
Hillsborough,  Holmes,  Jackson,  Jefferson,  La- 
fiijett«,  Leon,  I^evy,  Liberty,  Madison,  i£sna- 
tee,  Marion,  Monroe,  Naasan,  Orange,  Folk, 


StUe  Sar  of  FlortdL 

Putnam,  St.  John's,  Santa Rosn,  Snmter,  Buwa- 
uee,  Taylor,  Volusia,  Wakulla,  Walton,  and 
Washington.  The  eitiss  of  the  state  are:  Jack- 
sonville, which  had  0,913  inhabitants  in  1870 ; 
Pensscola,  S,843;  Tallahassee,  the  capital, 
2,023:  and  8L  Aognstine,  1,7!7.  Key  West 
(railed  by  the  Spaniards  Uayo  Hueto  or  Bone 
Key)  is  a  place  of  great  commercial  and  mili- 
tary importance.  Pensacola,  Appalaohicola 
(1,129  inhabitants),  and  St.  Mark's  are  porta 
of  W,  Florida.  Cedar  Keys,  Tampa,  and  Char- 
lotte Harbor  are  the  principal  outlets  on  the 
W.  side  of  peninsular  Florida.  St.  Augustine, 
on  the  Atlantic  coast,  is  the  oldest  town  in 
the  United  States,  and  is  much  resorted  to  by 
iDTalids  on  acconnt  of  its  equable  climate. 
Jacksonville  is  a  thriving  commercial  city  on 
St.  John's  river,  and  likewise  a  resort  of  in- 
valids. Fernandina  (1,738  inhabitants)  is  a 
town  at  tbe  N.  end  of  Amelia  island,  and  is 
the  Atlsntio  terminus  of  the  railroad  which 
has  its  gulf  terminus  at  Cedar  Keys.    It  has 


one  of  the  best  harbors  on  the  sontheni  coast 
The  population  of  Florida  has  been  as  follows ; 


-  1- 

811 

eat 

^^ 

Trtd. 

193SE 

WIT 
B8.S10 

In  1870  the  state  ranked  38d  in  point  of  pop- 
ulation. Of  the  total  population,  94,648  were 
males  and  63,800  females;  182,791  were  of 
native  birth,  of  whom  109,564  were  bom  in 
the  state,  and  4,6S7  were  foreign  bom,  inclu- 
ding 1,169  bom  in  Cuba  and  1,101  in  other 
parts  ot  the  West  Indies.  The  density  of  pop- 
ulation was  S'lT  to  a  square  mile.  There  were 
89,894  families  with  ao  average  of  4'7T  persona 
to  each,  and  41,047  dwellings  with  an  average 
of  4'57  persons  to  each.  Between  1860  and 
1870  there  was  an  increase  of  83*7  per  cent,  in 
tbe  total  population :  23-66  per  cent,  in  the 
white,  and  4S'29  per  cent,  in  the  colored.  The 
number  of  male  citizens  21  years  old  and  np- 
ward  in  1870  was  88,8fi4.  Tber«  were  in  the 
state  68,897  persons  between  the  ages  of  S  and 
18  years,  including  80,990  colored ;  the  total 
number  attending  school  was  12,778,  of  whom 
4,624  were  colored;  6S,8S8  persons  10  yeara 
old  and  upward  were  unable  to  read,  and  71,- 
eOS  could  not  write.  Of  the  latter,  84,668  were 
males  and  ST,13S  females ;  18,904  were  white, 
and  62.894  colored ;  12,796  were  from  10  to 
16  years  of  age,  14,678  from  16  to  21,  and  44,- 
834  were  31  or  over,  of  whom  8,876  were 
white  males,  S,600  white  females,  16.806  col- 
ored males,  and  18,062  colored  females.  The 
number  of  paupers  supported  during  the  year 
ending  June  SO,  1870,  was  147,  at  a  cost  of 
$9,830.  Of  the  total  number  (142)  receiving 
support  June  1,  1670,  60  were  white  and  63 
Qolored.  The  number  of  [icrsons  convicted  of 
crime  during  the  year  was  836.  Of  the  total 
number  (179)  in  prison  June  1,  1870,  28  were 
white  and  166  colored.  Tbe  state  contained  68 
blind,  48  deaf  and  dumb,  89  insane,  and  100 
idiotic.  Of  the  total  population  10  years  of 
aee  and  over  (181,119),  there  were  engaged  in 
all  occupations  60,708  persons,  of  whom  60,677 
were  males  and  9,626  females ;  in  agriculture, 
43,492,  including  81,088  agricultural  laborers, 
and  11,166  farmers  end  planters;  in  profes- 
sional and  personal  services,  10,697,  of  whom 
197  were  clergymen,  4,008  domestic  servants, 
4,066  laborers  not  specified,  149  lawyers,  248 
physicians  and  surgeons,  and  260  teachers  not 
specified;  in  trade  and  transportation,  3,028; 
in  manufactures  and  mechanical  and  mining 
indostrieB,  4,291.  Tbe  totel  number  of  deaths 
during  the  yearwas  8,264.  Of  these,  730  were 
from  general  diseases,  including  107  frOm  ente- 
ric fever,  46  from  yellow  fever,  130  from  in* 
termittent  fever,  84  iVom  remittent  fever,  26 
from  typho-malarial  fever,  ISl  from  consnrap- 


280 


FLORIDA 


tion,  and  71  from  dropsy ;  883  from  diseases 
of  the  nervoas  system,  of  which  82  were  from 
encephalitis  and  138  from  meningitis;  129 
from  diseases  of  the  circulatory  system ;  885 
from  diseases  of  the  respiratory  system,  in- 
cluding 268  from  pneumonia;  and  393  from 
diseases  of  the  digestive  organs. — Florida,  ex- 
clusive of  islands,  consists  of  a  long  narrow 
strip  of  territory  extending  S.  from  Georgia 
and  Alabama  from  30  to  90  m.,  and  from 
the  Atlantic  ocean  to  the  Perdido  river  about 
860  m. ;  and  of  a  peninsula  extending  from 
the  mainland  S.  through  ^yq  degrees  of  lati- 
tude between  the  Atlantic  and  the  gulf  of 
Mexico.  Its  coast  line  is  of  much  greater 
extent  than  that  of  any  other  state,  having  a 
length  of  472  m.  on  the  Atlantic  and  674  m.  on 
the  gulf;  but  this  immense  stretch  of  sea  front 
is  almost  inaccessible  on  account  of  shallow 
soundings,  and  has  few  good  harbors.  S.  from 
the  mainland  a  chain  of  small  rocky  islands, 
called  cays  or  keys,  extends  S.  W.,  ending  in  a 
cluster  of  rocks  and  sand  banks  called  the  Tor- 
tugas.  S.  of  the  bank  upon  which  these  keys 
rise,  and  separated  from  them  by  a  navigable 
channel,  is  a  long  narrow  coral  reef  known  as 
the  Florida  reef^  which  here  constitutes  the 
left  bank  of  the  Gulf  stream.  The  most  im- 
portant of  the  keys  is  Key  West.  For  a  long 
period  the  haunt  of  smugglers  and  pirates,  it  is 
now  a  naval  station  of  great  importance,  and 
the  seat  of  a  band  of  wreckers  whose  business 
it  is  to  assist  vessels  in  distress.  This  key  is 
about  6  m.  long  and  2  broad,  with  a  large, 
well  sheltered  harbor.  The  extensive  ponds 
there  yield  annually  a  large  amount  of  salt. 
The  Tortugas  derive  their  name  from  the  vast 
number  of  turtles  found  in  the  neighboring 
waters.  The  most  important  harbors  are :  on 
the  gulf  coast,  Pensacola,  Appalachicola,  St. 
Mark's,  Cedar  Keys,  Tampa,  Oharlotte,  and 
Key  West;  and  on  the  Atlantic  coast,  St. 
Augustine  and  Femandina.  Jacksonville  on 
St  John's  river  has  also  a  good  harbor. — The 
rivers  of  Florida  are  numerous,  and  many  of 
them  afford  great  facilities  for  internal  naviga- 
tion. St.  John's  river  rises  in  the  great  south- 
em  marsh,  and  reaches  the  ocean  after  a  N. 
course  of  800  m.  in  lat.  80"*  20'  N. ;  for  nearly 
100  m.  from  its  mouth  it  is  a  wide  sluggish 
sheet  of  water,  more  resembling  a  lagoon  than 
a  river.  It  is  navigable  to  Lake  George,  about 
100  m.,  for  vessels  drawing  8  ft.  of  water,  and 
nearly  to  its  head  for  smaller  craft.  Indian 
river  is  a  long  lagoon  on  the  £.  side  of  the 
peninsula,  and  communicates  with  the  ocean 
by  an  outlet  in  lat.  27®  80'.  It  is  proposed  to 
connect  these  two  waters  by  a  short  canal,  and 
by  this  means  secure  an  inland  navigation  from 
the  mouth  of  the  St.  John's  to  Jupiter  inlet,  a 
distance  of  about  250  m.  Oharlotte  and  Amax- 
ura  are  the  principal  rivers  on  the  W.  side,  the 
whole  of  which  S.  of  the  Suwanee  contains 
only  small  streams.  The  Suwanee  is  formed 
by  the  Withlacoochee  and  Allapaha  from 
Georgia,  and  reaches  the  gulf  at  Wacasasa  bay. 


The  Ockloconee  also  rises  in  Georgia.  Tlie 
Appalachicola,  formed  on  the  N.  frontier  by 
the  junction  of  the  Chattahoochee  and  Flint, 
falls  into  the  bay  of  the  same  name  after  a  navi- 
gable course  of  about  75  m.  The  Choctawhat- 
chee,  Escambia,  and  Perdido  rise  in  Alabama 
and  flow  S.,  the  first  into  Choctawhatchee  bay, 
the  second  into  Pensacola  bay,  and  the  last 
into  Perdido  bay,  arms  of  the  gulf  of  Mexico. 
The  St  Mary's  in  the  N.  £.  is  common  also  to 
Georgia;  it  flows  into  the  Atlantic  in  about 
lat.  80°  40'  N.,  and  is  navigable  for  steamers 
to  the  town  of  St.  Mary,  and  much  further  for 
sloops.  The  surface  of  Florida  is  dotted  with 
numerous  lakes,  some  of  which  are  navigable 
for  large  steamers.  Lake  Okeechobee,  in  the 
Everglades,  is  about  40  m.  long  and  80  m. 
wide, — The  S.  portion  of  peninsular  Florida, 
from  about  lat  28°,  is  mostly  an  extensive 
swamp  or  marsh,  called  the  Everglades,  which 
during  the  rainy  season  between  June  and 
October  is  impassable.  N.  of  this  tract  to 
Greorgia  the  surface  is  generally  a  dead  level, 
but  in  some  parts  it  is  undulating,  and  occa- 
sionally hilly.  W.  of  the  neck  of  the  peninsu- 
la the  ground  is  more  uneven  and  rugged ;  but 
still  the  elevations  are  inconsiderable  and  of 
very  limited  extent.  The  substratum  of  the 
E.  part  of  the  peninsula  is  clay  mixed  with 
sand,  and  that  of  the  W.  a  kind  of  rotten 
limestone,  which  in  many  places  is  undermined 
by  subterranean  streams.  The  central  district 
is  the  most  productive,  but  even  here  a  large 
portion  is  comp>08ed  of  poor  pine  barrens ;  yet 
m  the  midst  of  these  are  found  gentle  eminences 
(called  hummocks)  of  fertile  land,  supporting  a 
vigorous  growth  of  oaks  and  hickories,  while 
numerous  rivulets  of  pure  water  flow  through 
the  country  or'  expand  into  beautiful  lakes. 
Further  W.  the  land  is  more  generally  poor. 
The  warmth  and  humidity  of  the  climate  com- 
pensate in  a  great  measure  for  the  inferior  char- 
acter of  the  soil,  and  give  it  a  vegetation  of 
great  variety  and  luxuriance. — The  productions 
of  Florida  are  chiefly  those  which  require  a 
tropical  sun.  Sea  island  cotton  (the  produc- 
tion of  which  was  formerly  confined  to  a  few 
small  islands  off  the  coasts  of  South  Carolina 
and  Georgia)  will  grow  luxuriantly  even  in  the 
centre  of  the  peninsula,  and  a  fine  quality  of 
this  staple  has  been  produced  on  the  Suwa- 
nee. The  soils  are  also  adapted  to  the  suc- 
cessful cultivation  of  the  coffee  plant,  the 
cocoa  palm,  the  sugar  cane,  cotton,  tobacco, 
rice,  indigo,  arrowroot.  Sisal  hemp.  New  Zea- 
land flax,  &o. ;  and  the  climate  is  suitable  for 
the  cochineal  insect  and  the  silkworm.  The 
principal  forest  trees  are  red,  live,  and  water 
oaks,  mahogany,  palmetto,  magnolia,  dogwood, 
and  in  the  swamps,  pines,  cedars,  and  cypresses. 
Oranges,  lemons,  limes,  pineapples,  olives,  and 
grapes  flourish  luxuriantly ;  and  garden  vege- 
tables are  produced  in  the  greatest  abundance. 
The  driest  seasons  are  relieved  by  heavy  dews, 
and  the  sun  that  would  bake  the  earth  in  other 
parts,  and  wither  vegetation,  is  so  tempered  by 


FLORIDA 


281 


the  x^ervading  moisture  as  to  cover  the  surface 
with  perennial  verdure.  The  prairies  afford 
excellent  pasture.  Oattle  reqnire  little  care 
from  their  owners,  and  no  housing  in  winter ; 
and  in  most  parts  of  the  state  hogs  fatten  with- 
out any  other  support  than  that  which  they  de- 
rive from  the  roots  and  mast  of  the  forests. 
Deer  of  various  kinds  ahonnd,  and  smaller  game 
is  found  in  all  parts  of  the  country.  The  coast 
watera  produce  the  finest  fish,  including  the 
sheepshead,  grouper,  redfish,  and  muUet,  he- 
sides  green  turtle  and  oysters ;  and  the  numer- 
ous lakes  and  rivers  of  the  interior  teem  with 
fresh-water  species.  On  many  parts  of  the 
coast  sponge  is  found,  and  the  trade  in  it  is 
constantly  increasing.  Among  the  mineral  pro- 
ductions are  amethysts,  turquoises,  lapis  lazuli, 
ochre,  coal,  and  rich  iron  ore. — Among  the  most 
remarkahle  natural  curiosities  are  the  hollows 
called  '*'  sinks, ^^  worn  in  tiie  soft  limestone  hy 
snhterranean  streams,  and  varying  in  size  from 
a  few  yards  to  several  acres.  The  great  sink 
of  Alaichua  county,  hy  which  the  waters  of 
the  Alachua  savanna  are  supposed  to  flow  into 
Orange  lake,  is  a  large  basin  almost  surrounded 
by  hills,  into  which  the  drainage  of  the  savanna 
is  conveyed  by  several  conduits,  uniting  before 
they  reach  the  basin  in  a  single  stream.  From 
the  basin  the  waters  descend  slowly  by  three 
great  vent  holes  into  the  earth,  and  are  carried 
by  nnderground  channels  to  other  basins.  Nu- 
merous springs,  bursting  from  great  depths, 
some  of  them  with  sufiUcient  force  to  turn  a 
mill,  are  found  in  different  parts  of  the  state, 
and  have  led  to  the  supposition  that  the  parts 
of  the  country  in  which  they  exist  may  be  un- 
dermined by  vast  caverns  through  whose  roofs 
the  springs  well  up  wherever  an  opening  can 
be  found.  About  12  miles  from  Tallahassee  is 
a  lake  of  icy  cold  transparent  water,  which  is 
fed  by  a  subterranean  source  of  this  kind. — 
The  climate  of  Florida  is  one  of  the  finest  in 
the  world.  The  following  meteorological  sum- 
mary from  observations  made  at  Jacksonville, 
lat.  80°  15',  is  reported  by  the  chief  signal 
ofiicer  of  the  United  States : 


TEAR. 


1671. 


IST8. 


MoBtb. 


October. 

November. 

December 

January 

February 

Marrta 

Aiwil 

Way 

June 

July 

August 

September 


Mmb 

faMfOUMlCT. 


Annual  mean.  80-101 


80-181 
80-091 
80-220 
80  174 
29-998 
80-lOS 
80-118 
80-069 
80-073 
80-089 
80-003 
80-0«5 


M«u 

Total 

thermoin* 

nlBbll, 

CMfa 

Inclw*. 

78-5 

8-83 

66-4 

8-68 

^5-4 

2-66 

62-7 

8*44 

68-» 

2-70 

591 

7-83 

78-5 

8-89 

78-8 

1-26 

81-0 

«'97 

88-4 

2-98 

81-4 

6-41 

77-7 

10-66 

69-6 

58-96 

PiVTalltnf 
wimL 


Northeast. 

Northeast 

NHhwest 

N'thweat 

B'thwest 

Northeast 

Northeast 

B'thwest 

S'thwest 

Southeast 

Northeast. 

Northeast. 


Northeast 


In  the  south  the  temperature  scarcely  changes 
the  year  round,  and  summer  is  only  dis- 
tinguished by  the  copiousness  of  its  showers. 
The  average  mean  temperature  of  the  state  is 


about  78^  F.,  and  the  difference  between  sum- 
mer and  winter  does  not  generally  exceed  25^, 
while  at  Key  West  it  is  not  more  than  11°.  The 
thermometer  seldom  rises  above  90°  in  summer, 
and  rarely  falls  below  80°  in  winter.  Frost  is 
unknown  in  southern  Florida,  and  very  little 
ice  is  formed  in  the  northern  part  of  the  state. 
The  atmosphere  is  generally  dry  and  clear. 
Owing  to  the  evenness  and  salubrity  of  its 
climate,  Florida  has  long  been  a  popular  resort 
for  invalids,  and  especially  those  aifiicted  with 
pulmonary  complaints.  Of  the  total  deaths 
from  all  causes  in  Florida  in  1870,  as  reported 
by  the  federal  census,  only  181  were  from  con- 
sumption. There  were  17*3  deaths  from  all 
causes  to  one  from  consumption.  The  advan- 
tages of  the  climate  in  this  respect  are  further 
shown  by  a  comparison  of  the  statistics  rela- 
ting to  consumption  as  reported  by  the  census 
of  1670,  from  which  it  appears  that  the  ratio 
of  deaths  from  consumption  to  those  from  all 
causes  was  less  in  Florida  than  in  any  other 
state  except  Nevada;  and  this  advantage  be- 
comes still  greater  when  it  is  considered  that 
Florida  being  a  popular  resort  for  consump- 
tives, a  large  proportion  of  those  who  die  there 
from  that  cause  came  with  the  disease  from 
other  states. — According  to  the  census  of  1870, 
the  state  contained  in  tarms  786,172  acres  of 
improved  land,  1,425,786  of  woodland,  and 
211,588  of  other  unimproved  land.  The  total 
number  of  farms  was  10,241 ;  cash  value  of 
farms,  $9,947,920 ;  of  farming  implements  and 
machinery,  $505,074 ;  total  amount  of  wages 
paid  during  the  year,  including  value  of  board, 
$1,587,060;  total  (estimated)  value  of  all  farm 
productions,  including  betterments  and  addi- 
tions to  stock,  $8,909,746;  value  of  orchard 
products,  $58,689 ;  of  produce  of  market  gar- 
dens, $81,988;  of  forest  products,  $7,965; 
of  home  manufactures,  $181,698 ;  of  animals 
slaughtered  or  sold  for  slaughter,  $520,966 ;  of 
all  live  stock,  $5,212,157.  There  were  on 
farms  11,902  horses,  8,885  ipules  and  asses, 
61,922  milch  cows,  6,292  working  oxen,  822,- 
701  other  cattle,  26,599  sheep,  and  158,908 
swine.  The  chief  productions  were  2,226,056 
bushels  of  Indian  com,  114,204  of  oats,  64,- 
846  of  peas  and  beans,  10,218  of  Irish  and 
789,456  of  sweet  potatoes^  89,789  bales  of  cot- 
ton, 401,687  lbs.  of  rice,  157,406  of  tobacco, 
37,562  of  wool,  100,984  of  butter,  50,884  of 
honey,  6,052  of  wax,  95'2  hogsheads  of  sugar, 
and  844,339  gallons  of  molasses.  The  total 
number  of  manufacturing  establishments  in 
1870  was  659,  having  126  steam  engines  of 
8,172  horse  power  ana  79  water  wheels  of  528 
horse  power,  and  employing  2,749  hands,  of 
whom  2,670  were  males  above  the  age  of  16. 
The  capital  invested  amounted  to  $1,679,930 ; 
wages  paid  during  the  year,  $989,592 ;  value 
of  materials  used,  $2,880,873 ;  of  products,  $4,- 
685,403.  The  leading  industries  were  1 38  flour- 
ing and  grist  mills,  which  had  $119,075  capital 
invested,  and  from  $411,857  of  materials  yield- 
ed products  valued  at  $508,888 ;  104  establish- 


282 


FLORIDA 


ments  for  sawing  lamber,  with  69  steam  en- 
gines of  2,487  iiorse  power  and  1,116  hands; 
capital,  $755,090;  wages  paid,  $421,820;  valne 
of  materials  $1,168,288,  of  products  $2,285,780. 
There  were  27  establishments  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  molasses  and  sugar,  whose  products 
were  valued  at  $41,510.  The  fisheries  of  Flor- 
ida might  be  of  great  value,  but  as  yet  this  in- 
dustry has  been  but  slightly  developed.  Ac- 
cording to  the  census  of  1870,  the  value  of  the 
fisheries  for  that  year  was  $101,528. — Florida 
has  seven  ports  of  entry :  Appalachicola,  Fer- 
nandina, Key  West,  Pensacoia,  St.  Augustine, 
St  John^s,  and  St.  Mark^s.  The  value  of  the 
imports  from  foreign  countries  for  the  year 
ending  June  30, 1878,  was  $505,671,  and  of  the 
domestic  exports  $2,984,975.  Of  the  former 
$389,054  were  entered  at  Key  West,  and  of  the 
latter  $1,591,532  were  from  the  port  of  Pen* 
sacola.  The  chief  articles  of  export  are  lum- 
ber, cotton,  tobacco,  and  fish.  The  number 
and  tonnage  of  vessels  entering  from  and  clear- 
ing for  foreign  countries,  and  of  those  regis- 
tered, enrolled,  and  licensed  at  the  difierent 
ports,  were  as  follows : 


FORTS. 

srmBBD. 

CUABSD. 

Bvoia- 

TBRKD,  SO. 

No. 

Toiu. 

No. 

Tom. 

No. 

22 

10 

108 

90 

8 
82 

6 

Tom. 

Appalachicola . . 
Fernandina. .... 

Key  West 

Pensacoia 

St.  Aujfustino.. 

St.  John's 

St.  Mark's. 

16 

62 

S84 

200 

•  ■ 

26 
4 

2,666 

14.789 

6S,82S 

179,772 

*  •  «  ■  ■  • 

8,456 
9S0 

21 

69 

8S8 

266 

■  ■ 

40 
2 

4,149 

22,217 

6a.661 

178,690 

6,456 
122 

1,998 
1,670 
8,874 
6,607 
82 
8,668 
609 

The  coasting  trade  is  also  very  extensive,  em- 
ploying numerous  steamers,  which  with  other 
craft  carry  immense  freights  to  Savannah, 
Charleston,  Baltimore,  Philadelphia,  and  New 
York.  But  a  large  portion  of  the  material 
exported  from  Pensacoia  and  Appalachicola 
originates  in  southern  Alabama  and  southwest- 
ern Georgia.  TJie  great  bulk  of  foreign  mer- 
chandise consumed  in  the  state  is  also  entered 
coastwise,  chiefly  from  the  northern  ports. 
The  number  of  vessels  that  entered  and  cleared 
in  the  coastwise  trade  during  the  year  ending 
June  80,  1878,  was  as  follows: 


PORTS. 


Appalachicola, 
Fernandina. . . 
Key  Woat.... 

Pensacoia 

St  Auinistine. 

St.  John's. 

St.  Mark's..., 


SNTEBBD. 

CLB 

No. 

Toni. 

No. 

64 

12,982 

48 

218 

106,268 

217 

887 

201,942 

278 

284 

48,870 

294 

60 

9,518 

48 

446 

186,0S6 

484 

143 

68,846 

168 

12,286 
102.878 
198.617 

61.268 

U,678 
14^628 

70,046 


Ship  building  is  carried  on  at  all  of  these 
ports.  During  the  year  14  vessels  of  241  tons 
were  built. — In  1878  there  were  466  m.  of 
railroad  in  Florida.  The  Jacknon,  Pensacoia, 
and  Mobile  railroad  extends  W.  from  Jack- 
sonville across  the  N.  part  of  the  state,  and  is 


intended  to  afibrd  direct  communication  with 
Pensacoia  and  Mobile.  In  1873  it  was  in  opera- 
tion from  Jacksonville  to  the  Ohattahoochee 
river,  209  m.  The  Florida  branch  extends 
from  Live  Oak  N.  to  Lawton,  Ga.,  on  the  At- 
lantic and  Gulf  railroad,  and  another  branch 
extends  S.  ftom  Tallahassee  to  St.  Mark^s. 
The  Atlantic,  Gulf,  and  West  India  Transit 
company's  railroad  connects  Fernandina  on  the 
Atlantic  and  Cedar  Keys  on  the  gulf,  155  m. 
The  St.  John's  River  railroad  extends  from  St. 
Augustine  to  Tocoi  on  St.  John's  river,  14  m., 
where  connection  is  made  with  steamers  to  Jack- 
sonville. The  Pensacoia  and  Louisville  railroad 
extends  from  Pensacoia  to  Pollard,  Ala.,  on 
the  Mobile  and  Montgomery  railroad,  45  m. — 
The  legislative  authority  is  vested  in  a  senate 
and  assembly,  designated  the  **  legislature  of 
the  state  of  Florida."  There  are  now  58  rep- 
resentatives and  24  senators.  The  sessions  are 
annual,  beginning  on  the  first  Tuesday  after 
the  first  Monday  of  January,  and  m&j  extend 
to  60  days.  Members  of  the  assembly  are 
chosen  for  two  years  and  senators  for  four 
years.  The  governor  is  elected  for  four  years. 
He  is  required  to  be  a  qualified  elector,  and  to 
have  been  a  citizen  of  the  United  States  nine 
years  and  of  Florida  three  years  next  preceding 
the  time  of  his  election.  A  lieutenant  governor 
is  elected,  whose  term  of  ofiSce  ejnd  eligibility 
are  the  same  as  those  of  the  governor.  The 
governor  is  assisted  by  a  cabinet  of  adrainistrap 
tive  officers,  consisting  of  a  secretary  of  state, 
attorney  general,  comptroller,  treasurer,  sur- 
veyor general,  superintendent  of  public  instruc- 
tion, adjutant  general,  and  commissioner  of 
immigration.  These  officers  are  appointed  by 
the  governor  and  confirmed  by  the  senate,  and 
hold  office  the  same  time  as*  the  governor,  or 
until  their  successors  shall  be  qualified.  The 
governor  is  required  to  appoint  in  each  county, 
with  the  consent  of  the  senate,  an  assessor 
of  taxes  and  collector  of  revenue,  a  county 
treasurer,  county  surveyor,  superintendent  of 
common  schools,  and  five  county  commission- 
ers, each  of  whom  shall  hold  office  for  two 
years.  Such  officers  are  subject  to  removal  by 
the  governor,  but  only  for  wilful  neglect  of 
duty,  a  violation  of  the  criminal  laws  of  the 
state,  or  for  incompetency.  The  governor  and 
cabinet  constitute  a  board  of  commissioners  of 
state  institutions,  with  supervision  of  all  mat- 
ters connected  therewith.  The  judicial  power 
is  vested  in  a  supreme  court,  circuit  courts, 
county  courts,  and  justices  of  the  peace.  All 
judges  are  appointed  by  the  governor  and  con- 
firmed by  the  senate ;  justices  of  the  peace  are 
also  appointed  by  the  governor.  The  supreme 
court  judges  hold  office  for  life  or  during  good 
behavior;  those  of  the  circuit  courts  for  eight 
and  of  the  county  courts  for  four  years.  The 
supreme  court  consists  of  a  chief  justice  and 
two  associates,  and  holds  three  terms  annually 
in  Tallahassee.  There  are  seven  circuit  courts, 
each  having  one  judge.  In  'addition  to  the 
usual  functions,  the  county  courts  have  full 


FLORIDA 


283 


enrrogate  or  probate  powers,  bnt  subject  to 
appeal.  Besides  the  above  mentioned,  tbe 
legislatare  may  establish  courts  for  municipal 
purposes  only  in  incorporated  towns  and  cities. 
A  state  attorney  in  each  judicial  district  is  ap- 
pointed by  the  governor  with  the  consent  of 
the  senate ;  also  in  each  county  a  sheriff  and 
clerk  of  the  circuit  court,  who  shall  also  be 
clerk  of  the  county  court  and  board  of  county 
commissioners,  recorder,  and  ex  officio  auditor 
of  the  county,  each  of  whom  shful  hold  office 
for  four  years.  The  right  of  suffi*age  is  con- 
ferred upon  every  male  person  of  the  age  of 
21  years  and  upward,  provided  he  be  a  citizen 
of  the  United  States  or  has  declared  his  inten- 
tion to  become  such,  and  has  resided  in  Florida 
for  one  year,  and  in  the  county  where  his  vote 
is  offered  for  six  months  next  preceding  the 
election.  The  salary  of  the  governor  is  $5,000 
a  year ;  of  the  lieutenant  governor,  $2,600 ; 
of  cabinet  officers,  $8,000 ;  of  justices  of  the 
supreme  court,  $4,000,  and  of  the  circuit  court, 
$3,500.  Florida  is  entitled  to  two  senators 
and  two  representatives  in  congress.  Provision 
is  made  for  a  state  census  to  be  taken  in  1875 
and  every  tenth  year  thereafter.  The  consti- 
tution provides  that  *' institutions  for  the  bene- 
fit of  the  insane,  blind,  and  deaf,  and  such  other 
institutions  as  the  public  good  may  require, 
shall  be  fostered  and  supported  by  the  state ;" 
but  no  such  institutions  have  yet  been  estab- 
lished. The  penitentiary  at  Chattahoochee 
contained  in  1878  an  average  of  48  convicts; 
they  are  employed  under  contract  outside  the 
prison.  The  total  cost  of  maintaining  the 
prison  in  1872  was  $20,078.  The  total  assessed 
value  of  real  estate  in  1870  was  $20,197,691, 
and  of  personal  estate  $12,283,152.  The  true 
value  of  real  and  personal  estate  was  $44,163,- 
655.  The  total  taxation  not  national  was 
$496,166,  including  $248,768  state,  $168,389 
county,  and  $79,009  town,  city,  &o.  The  total 
receipts  into  tbe  state  treasury  during  the  fiscal 
year  were  $192,489,  of  which  $175,467  were 
from  general  taxes,  $14,096  from  licenses,  and 
$2,926  from  miscellaneous  sources.  The  dis- 
bursements amounted  to  $295,078,  of  which 
$23,942  were  for  the  executive  department, 
$78,837  for  the  legislature,  $82,697  for  the 
judiciary,  $18,559  for  schools  and  educational 
purposes,  $7,668  for  interest,  $14,838  for  print- 
ing, $16,982  for  the  penitentiary,  $4,928  for 
the  militia,  and  $47,642  for  contingent  and 
miscellaneous  expenses.  The  bonded  debt, 
Jan.  1,  1873,  was  $5,619,978,  including  bonds 
to  the  amount  of  $4,000,000  issued  to  the  Jack- 
sonville, Mobile,  and  Pensacola  railroad.  In 
addition  to  this  there  was  a  floating  debt  of 
$224,827.  The  constitution  requires  the  legis- 
lature to  provide  a  uniform  system  of  common 
schools  and  a  university  for  the  free  education 
of  all  children.  The  general  supervision  of  the 
educational  interest  of  tbe  state  is  intrusted 
to  a  superintendent  of  public  instruction,  who 
with  the  secretary  of  state  and  attorney  gen- 
end  constitutes  the  board  of  education  for  the 


state.  The  common  school  fund  is  derived 
from  the  proceeds  of  all  lands  granted  to  the 
state  by  the  United  States  for  educational  pur- 
poses ;  gifts  by  individuals,  and  the  appropria- 
tions by  the  state ;  escheated  and  forfeited  lands; 
money  paid  for  exemption  from  military  duty ; 
all  fines  coUected  under  the  penal  laws  of  the 
state;  such  portion  of  the  per  capita  tax  as 
may  be  prescribed  by  law  for  educational  pur- 
poses ;  and  25  per  cent,  of  the  sales  of  public 
lands  by  the  state.  In  addition  to  the  other 
means  provided,  a  special  tax  of  not  less  than 
one  mill  on  the  dollar  of  all  taxable  property 
in  the  state  is  required  to  be  levied.  The  com- 
mon school  fund  must  be  distributed  among 
the  several  counties  in  proportion  to  the  num- 
ber of  children  between  the  ages  of  4  and  21 
years.  Each  county  is  required  to  raise  an- 
nually by  tax  a  sum  not  less  than  one  half  the 
amount  apportioAed  for  the  common  school 
fund.  Any  school  district  neglecting  to  es- 
tablish and  maintain  for  at  least  three  months 
in  the  year  such  schools  as  are  required  by 
law,  forfeits  its  portion  of  the  common  school 
fund.  The  amount  of  the  school  fund  in  1878 
was  $281,785.  The  whole  number  of  schools 
in  the  state  was  444,  and  of  pupils  16,258. 
About  one  fourth  of  the  school  population 
were  enrolled  in  the  public  schools.  The 
average  duration  of  school  was  four  and  two 
thirds  months.  Florida  is  singularly  deficient 
in  institutions  for  advanced  instruction.  Lands 
have  been  granted  by  the  general  government, 
amounting  in  1878  to  85,714  acres,  for  the  sup- 
port of  two  seminaries  in  East  and  West  Florida. 
In  1872  the  Florida  state  agricultural  college 
was  incorporated,  which  is  designed  to  afford 
educational  facilities  to  the  working  classes  and 
prepare  them  for  agricultural  and  mechanical 
pursuits.  According  to  the  census  of  1870, 
the  whole  number  of  libraries  was  258,  with  an 
aggregate  of  112,928  volumes.  Of  these  178, 
with  87,554  volumes,  were  private.  There 
were  in  the  state  28  newspapers  and  periodi- 
cals, with  a  total  circulation  of  10,545 ;  annu* 
ally  issued,  649,220  copies :  2  were  tri-weekly, 
circulation  820;  1  semi-weekly,  circulation 
800 ;  and  28  weekly,  circulation  9,425.  The 
total  number  of  religious  organizations  was 
420,  having  890  edifices,  with  78,920  sittings, 
and  property  valued  at  $426,520,  as  follows : 


DENOMINATION. 


Baptist 

EpiBcopal  (Protestant) 

Methodist 

Mormon 

Presbyterian 

Soman  Catholic 

Total 


Organl- 
tationi. 

Edl- 
128 

Sittlagi. 

12T 

21.100 

17 

18 

4,fi00  ' 

285 

215 

42,CO0 

1 

1 

50 

29 

29 

6.020 

10 

9 

8,050 

419 

890 

78,920  , 

Pfopcrty* 


158,460 
71.100 

140,700 

ICO 

70,810 

90,S00 


— The  name  of  Florida  (winch  signifies  the 
florid  or  flowery,  and  was  given  by  the  Span- 
iards in  allusion  to  the  aspect  of  the  country, 
and  partly  also  because  it  was  first  visited  by 


284 


FLORIDA 


them  on  Pascua  Florida,  or  Easter  Sunday) 
was  originally  not  confined  to  the  present  state 
limitSf  bat  extended  over  an  indefinite  region 
northward,  and  to  the  Mississippi.  The  first 
visitant  to  the  actual  territory  of  Florida  was 
Ponce  de  Leon,  who  landed  near  St.  Augustine 
in  1518.  It  was  subsequently  visited  in  1520 
by  Vasquez,  a  Spaniard ;  in  1628  by  Verrazzano, 
a  Florentine;  and  in  1624  by  De  Geray,  a 
Spaniard.  Two  years  later  Pamfilo  de  Nar- 
vaez  obtained  a  grant  from  Oharles  V.  of  all 
the  lands  from  Cape  Florida  to  Rio  Panuco. 
In  1528  he  landed  with  a  numerous  army  at 
Appalachee,  but  met  with  a  formidable  resist- 
ance from  the  Indians,  and  at  last  perished  on 
the  coast  near  the  Panuco  by  shipwreck,  only 
10  of  his  followers  returning  to  Spain.  In  1639 
Fernando  de  Soto  explored  Florida.  About  the 
middle  of  the  16th  century  many  Protestants 
of  France  sought  refuge  in  Florida,  but  only  to 
experience  greater  evils  than  they  had  endured 
at  home.  In  1566  they  were  attacked  by  the 
Spaniards,  and  many  were  hanged  on  the  trees 
with  an  inscription  purporting  that  they  were 
destroyed  "not  as  Frenchmen,  but  as  heretics." 
This  barbarity  was  soon  afterward  avenged  by  a 
party  of  Frenchmen,  who  attacked  the  Spanish 
fort,  and  hung  up  the  garrison  on  the  same 
trees  that  sustained  the  mouldering  bones  of 
their  countrymen,  inscribing  over  them  that 
they  were  executed  "  not  as  Spaniards,  but  as 
cutthroats  and  murderers."  The  Spaniards, 
persevering  in  their  attempts  to  obtain  a  foot- 
hold in  Florida,  established  a  fort  at  St.  Au- 
gustine in  1666,  which  they  held  till  1686, 
when  it  was  captured  by  Sir  Francis  Drake. 
Two  years  earlier  Captains  Barlow  and  Amidas 
had  taken  nominal  possession  in  right  of  Eng- 
land of  the  northern  portion  of  the  coast  and 
the  a^oining  country.  From  this  period  for 
nearly  a  century,  history  is  silent  in  relation 
to  this  country.  In  1682  La  Salle  visited 
West  Florida  or  Louisiana.  In  1696  Pensa- 
cola  was  settled  by  Spaniards.  In  1702  the 
Carolinians  made  an  unsuccessful  attack  on 
St.  Augustine,  but  in  1704  captured  Fort  St. 
Mark.  The  subsequent  expedition  of  Ogle- 
thorpe against  the  Spanish  settlements  will 
be  spoken  of  in  the  article  Georgia.  In 
1768  the  whole  province  of  Florida  was  ceded 
to  Great  Britain  in  exchange  for  Cuba,  which 
the  English  had  then  recently  taken.  Soon 
after  the  British  divided  the  territory  into  two 
provinces,  the  river  Appalaohicola  being  the 
boundary  between  them,  and  by  a  proclama- 
tion invited  settlers.  Many  Carolinians  emi- 
grated thither;  and  about  1,600  Greeks,  Ital- 
ians, and  Minorcans  were  brought  from  the 
Mediterranean  and  settled  at  New  Smyrna, 
about  60  m.  S.  of  St.  Augustine,  where  they 
began  the  cultivation  of  indigo  and  the  sugar 
cane.  Being  badly  treated  by  their  employers, 
tliey  removed  to  St.  Augustine.  During  the 
revolutionary  war  privateers  were  fitted  out  at 
the  ports  of  Florida,  by  which  the  trade  of  the 
southern  provinces  was  severely  harassed,  and 


the  Indians  were  encouraged  to  a  barbarous 
hostility  against  the  Americans.  In  1778  G«n. 
Prevost  marched  from  Florida  into  Georgia, 
and  captured  Savannah  and  other  towns. 
While  engaged  on  this  expedition  he  left  his 
province  open  to  incursions  from  Louisiana. 
In  1779  the  Spaniards  invested  the  garrison 
and  settlement  of  Baton  Rouge,  and  compelled 
them  to  surrender,  and  in  May,  1781,  Pensacola 
was  captured.  By  the  treaty  of  1788  Florida 
was  retroceded  to  Spain,  and  the  greater  part 
of  the  inhabitants  deserted  the  country  and  set- 
tled in  the  United  States.  When  Louisiana 
was  ceded  to  the  United  States  by  France  in 
1808,  it  was  declared  to  be  ceded  with  the 
same  extent  that  it  had  in  the  hands  of  Spain, 
and  as  it  had  been  ceded  by  Spain  to  France. 
The  term^  of  this  cession  gave  rise  to  a  claim 
on  the  part  of  the  United  States  to  the  country 
west  of  the  Perdido  river ;  and  to  prevent  the 
occupation  of  this  territory  by  any  other  pow- 
er, the  government  took  possession  in  1811  of 
the  principal  posts.  The  rest  of  Florida  re- 
mained unmolested  until  the  second  war  be- 
tween the  United  States  and  Great  Britain.  In 
1814,  a  British  expedition  having  been  fitted 
out  from  Pensacola,  Gen.  Jackson  marched 
against  thBt  town  and  captured  it.  In  1818  it 
was  again  taken  by  Jackson,  and  also  Fort  St. 
Mark,  but  they  were  subsequently  restored  to 
Spain.  Finally  in  1819  Spain  ceded  the  whole 
province  to  the  United  States,  and  possession 
was  surrendered  to  the  Americans  in  July, 
1821.  Immigration  now  set  in  to  the  territory, 
but  the  lack  of  surveys,  the  uncertainty  of 
titles,  &c.,  prevented  its  rapid  settlement ;  and 
the  Seminoles,  a  fierce  and  warlike  Indian  race, 
occupied  the  best  lands.  Yet  in  spite  of  these 
obstacles,  a  considerable  population  settled 
in  the  country.  In  1886  a  deadly  war  be- 
tween the  Indians  and  settlers  broke  out,  and 
suspended  what  progress  had  hitherto  been 
efibcted.  A  long  contest  ensued  between  the 
savages  and  the  United  States  troops,  which 
is  known  as  the  Seminole  war,  and  resulted  in 
1842  in  the  subjection  of  the  Indians,  of  whom 
the  greater  part  were  removed  west  of  the 
Mississippi,  llie  few  remaining  Indians  con- 
tinued to  be  troublesome,  and  on  several  occa- 
sions committed  great  depredations  on  the  set- 
tlers; but  on  May  4,  1868,  the  whole  body 
was  removed,  and  on  the  8th  Gen.  Loomis. 
then  commanding  in  Florida,  issued  a  procla- 
mation declaring  the  war  closed.  Florida  was 
admitted  into  the  Union,  March  8,  1846.  An 
ordinance  of  secession  from  the  Union  was 
passed  Jan.  10,  1861,  by  a  convention  which 
had  assembled  on  the  8d.  On  the  7th  Fort 
Marion,  the  arsenal  at  St.  Augustine,  and  the 
Chattahoochee  arsenal  were  seized  by  order 
of  the  state  authorities;  and  on  the  12th  the 
navy  yard  and  forts  at  Pensacola  were  taken. 
Femandina,  Jacksonville,  St.  Augustine,  and 
other  places  on  the  E.  coast  were  retaken  by 
the  national  forces  early  in  1862,  and  held. 
Restrictions  on  commercial  intercourse  with 


FLORIDA  BLANCA 


FLOTOW 


285 


Florida  were  removed  by  proclamation  of 
President  Johnson  dated  April  29,  1865,  and 
on  July  13  William  Marvin  was  appointed  pro- 
visional governor.  "On  Oct.  10  was  held  an 
election  of  delegates  to  a  state  convention, 
which  assembled  in  Tallahassee  on  the  25th, 
and  on  the  28th  repealed  the  ordinance  of  se- 
cession. Subseqaently  a  legislature  and  state 
officers  were  elected,  to  whom  the  civil  an- 
thoritj  was  transferred  in  Jannarj,  1866. 
Under  the  reconstruction  measores  of  con- 
gress in  1867  Florida  was  made  a  part  of  the 
third  military  district,  of  which  Maj,  Gen. 
Pope  was  appointed  commander.  A  conven- 
tion to  reorganize  the  state  government  was 
authorized  by  vote  of  the  people  in  Novem- 
ber. It  assembled  in  Tallahassee  Jan.  20, 
1868,  and  subsequently  framed  a  new  consti- 
tution, which  was  ratified  by  the  people  in 
May.  The  legislature  convened  June  1,  and 
adopted  the  14th  amendment  to  the  federal 
constitution,  in  consequence  of  which  Florida 
was  recognized  as  a  state  by  the  general  gov- 
ernment. On  July  4  the  government  was 
transferred  to  the  state  authorities.  (See  sup- 
plement.) 

FLORIDA  BLiirCA,  Jm6  MMm^  count  o^  a 
Spanish  statesman,  bom  in  Murcia  about  1728, 
died  in  Seville,  Nov.  20,  1808.  His  family  was 
noble,  but  poor.  He  became  an  advocate, 
was  appointed  fiscal  to  the  tribunal  of  the 
council  of  Oostile,  and  made  a  report  on  the 
suppression  of  the  Jesuits,  which  led  to  his 
appointment  as  ambassador  to  Rome.  In  1777 
he  became  premier  to  Charles  III.  In  his 
administration  of  15  yeara  he  built  extensive 
roads,  canals,  bridges,  and  conduits;  created 
more  than  60  agricultural  societies  and  numer- 
ous philanthropic  institutions ;  founded  the 
national  bank  of  St.  Charles,  and  the  Spanish 
company  of  the  Philippines ;  made  treaties  of 
commerce  with  the  Porte,  and  concluded  a 
treaty  with  Portugal  which  quieted  the  dis- 
putes about  the  South  American  colonies,  and 
treaties  with  the  emperor  of  Morocco  and  Ily- 
der  Ali ;  sought  to  avert  the  war  against  Spain 
by  England  in  1778,  and  made  its  burdens 
lighter  on  the  people  than  those  of  any  pre- 
vious one  of  equal  duration ;  made  a  treaty 
witb  Tripoli;  punished  the  Algerine  pirates; 
opened  the  trade  with  America  to  the  world ; 
reduced  direct  taxes  and  imposts  ;  and  intro- 
duced great  tind  valuable  reforms  in  the  ad- 
ministration of  justice.  In  1792,  after  having 
been  for  three  years  the  premier  of  the  im- 
becile Charles  IV.,  he  was  imprisoned  in  the 
castle  of  Pamplona,  where  but  for  his  brother 
he  would  have  perished  from  starvation.  He 
u-a^i  at  length  permitted  to  retire  to  Murcia. 
When  the  Spaniards  rose  agunst  Napoleon  in 
1808  he  was  called  to  the  presidency  of  the 
central  junta  of  the  kingdom,  but  soon  sank 
under  his  onerous  duties.  Among  his  pub- 
lished works  are:  Re^puetta  fiscal  §ohre  la 
lihre  dUposUion^  patronato  y  proteccion  inme- 
diato  de  S.  M,  en  los  hUnei  ocupado*  d  lo$ 


JemitoB  (Madrid,  1768),  and  Juieio  imparcial 
Bohre  las  Cetras  en  forma  de  hreve  pvhlicadas 
par  la  euria  rofnana,  &o.  (1768-'9). 

FLORIDA  KET89  a  series  of  islands,  extending 
in  the  form  of  a  crescent  220  m.  S.  W.  along  the 
S.  coast  of  Florida,  beginning  near  Cape  Flori- 
da, and  ending  in  the  Dry  Tortugaa,  belonging 
partly  to  Dade  and  partly  to  Monroe  county ; 
pop.  in  1870,  5,568.  They  lie  between  the 
mainland  and  the  Florida  reefs,  and  from  3  to 
5  m.  from  the  Gulf  stream.  They  are  very 
numerous,  and  vary  in  extent  from  a  few  acres 
to  25  sq.  m.  Cayo  Largo  (Long  Key)  is  the 
largest  of  these  islets  (about  80  m.  long  and 
i  m.  to  5  m.  wide),  and  Key  West  the  most  im- 
portant. They  lie  but  a  few  feet  above  tide 
water,  are  of  a  uniform  coral  formation,  very 
rocky,  and  mostly  covered  with  a  growth  of 
hard  wood. 

FLORIN  (Lt.fiorino%  a  gold  coin  first  issued 
in  Florence  in  the  11th  century,  of  about  the 
value  of  a  ducat,  bearing  an  impression  on 
the  obverse  of  a  lily,  and  on  the  reverse  of 
John  the  Baptist.  It  was  soon  imitated  in 
other  cities  of  Italy  and  in  France  and  Spain* 
and  in  Germany  gave  origin  to  the  mediffival 
Ooldgulden  and  the  later  Oulden^  which  are 
still  diatinguished  by  the  abbreviation  (Fl.). 
Florin  is  now  the  appellation  both  of  gold  and 
silver  coins  in  Europe,  which  vary  in  value  in 
different  countries.    (See  Coins.) 

FL0RI8,  Fnms,  a  Flemish  painter,  whose 
real  name  was  De  Vriendt,  born  in  Antwerp 
about  1520,  died  there,  Oct.  1,  1570.  He  first 
studied  sculpture  and  then  painting,  and  es- 
tablished a  school  which  brought  forward 
many  eminent  artists.  He  ei^foyed  great  pop- 
ularity owing  to  his  rapid  and  prolific  pencil, 
and  to  the  boldness  of  his  designs.  He  was 
one  of  the  most  successful  painters  and  one 
of  the  greatest  drunkards  of  his  day.  His 
masterpiece,  *^The  Fall  of  the  Rebel  Angels," 
is  in  the  Louvre.  His  other  principal  works 
are  *'*'  The  Last  Judgment,"  in  the  church  of 
Notre  Dame  at  Brussels,  and  *^The  Assump- 
tion," in  the  Antwerp  cathedral. 

FLORPS,  Lidis  iiuisiB,  a  Roman  historian, 
probably  of  Spanish  birth,  lived  under  the  em- 
perors Tr^an  and  Hadrian.  He  is  the  author 
of  an  epitome  of  Roman  history,  in  four  books, 
extending  from  the  foundation  of  the  city  to 
the  time  when  Augustus  closed  the  temple  of 
Janus.  The  work  is  believed  by  some  to  have 
been  compiled  from  the  lost  books  of  Livy  and 
other  historians.  The  style  is  declamatory, 
abounding  in  extravagant  conceits  and  meta- 
phors, and  panegyrics  of  the  Romans.  The 
Pervigilium  Veneris  and  three  other  short 
poems  are  with  little  authority  ascribed  to  this 
writer,  and  the  Fpitoma  of  the  books  of  Livy 
have  also  been  attributed  to  him. 

FLOTOW,  FiMrick  VM,  a  German  composer, 
bom  in  Teutendorf,  Mecklenburg-Schwerin, 
April  27,  1812.  A  fondness  for  music  led  him 
in  early  youth  to  Paris,  where  he  was  instruct- 
ed in  composition  by  Roicha.    In  consequence 


286  FLOTSAM 

of  the  reTolution  of  1880  he  returned  to  Ger- 
tnaDf,  but  Hoon  after  went  again  to  Paris  with 
the  operas  Pierre  et  Colombine,  Roh-Roy,  and 
La  duehtttt  de  GuUe,  composed  in  the  mean 
while.  He  tried  ia  vain  to  tiave  these  pro- 
duced st  one  of  the  theatres  of  Paris,  and  it 
was  onlj  After  their  performance  in  private 
had  excited  the  attention  of  amateurs  tbat  he 
received  a  commission  in  18S8  to  furnish  the 
music  for  Le  naiifToge  de  la  Mediae.  The 
opera  was  performed  S4  nights  at  the  Th^tre 
de  la  Reniuasance,  and  it  was  afterward  pro- 
duced with  eqoal  success  in  I^ondon  and  other 
cities.  He  mncb  increased  his  reputation  bj 
the  ForettUr  (1640),  L'EKlame  da  Caraoin* 
(1643),  AUuandro  Stradella  (1844),  and  L'Amt 
en  peine  (1846).  After  remuuing  some  jrears 
in  Paris,  in  1665  he  took  np  his  permanent 
residence  at  Schwerin,  and  became  director  of 
the  coart  theatre.  There  he  composed  Alhin 
(lese),  Martha  (1858).  and  Zilda  (1866).  Of 
all  bis  operas  Martha  is  the  most  popular,  be- 
ing sung  in  several  langoages. 

ILOnU,Bn  old  word,  ased  in  connection  with 
others  equally  barbaroas,  as  Jetsam  and  legan 
(or  ligan),  to  designate  diSerent  lands  of  wreck- 
ed goods.  Whether  kwjers  made  them,  or 
adopted  them  ftom  seamen,  is  not  certainlj 
known;  but  the  latter  is  supposed  to  be  the 
ease.  Goods  flotsam  were  goods  which  floated 
away  when  a  sliip  was  wrecked.  Goods  jet- 
sam were  those  oast  over  from  a  ship  in  peril. 
Goods  legan  were  goods  which  were  cast  ont, 
bnt,  because  they  would  sink  and  be  lost,  were 
Ued  to  wood  or  a  cask  or  some  other  substance 
which  would  float.  These  words  are  now  sel- 
dom if  over  used;  bat  the  word  jettison,  form- 
ed probably  tVom  jetsam,  is  often  used  in  in- 
surance law  and  practice.  It  means  properly 
the  act  of  casting  goods  overboard;  thus  goods 
are  said  to  be  jettisoned,  and  a  lossissaid  to  be 
hy  Jettison ;  and  more  rarely  and  inaccurately, 
the  goods  cast  over  are  called  the  Jettison ;  as, 
"  the  Jettison  consisted  of  such  and  such  goods." 

FLOlfNDS,  a  flat  flsh  of  the  family  p{«uro- 
neetida  or  planida,  which  also  inclades  the 
halibut,  sole,  and  turbot.  This  family,  con- 
taining about  ISO  species,  is  found  generally  in 
comparatively  ahfillow  water,  where  the  bot- 
tom is  Bandy ;  but  the  halibut  and  turbot  are 
caught  in  deep  water.  The  body  is  flat,  com- 
pressed vertically,  so  that  the  dorsal  and  ven- 
tral surfaces  are  mere  fin-bearing  edges,  the 
sides  forming  ovate  disks  variously  colored,  the 
darker  being  popularly  called  the  back  and  the 
white  side  the  belly,  while  in  reality  these  sur- 
faces  are  the  sides.  The  most  remarkable  char- 
acter of  the  family  is  the  want  of  symmetry 
in  the  month  and  head,  both  eyes  being  turned 
to  that  Me  which  is  uppermost  when  the  ani- 
mal swims,  and  which  is  always  the  darker; 
the  bones  of  the  head,  especially  the  prespbe- 
Doid  and  the  middle  frontal,  are  distorted  to 
allow  this  arrangement  of  the  parts;  behind 
the  scapular  arch  there  is  no  want  of  symmetry 
in  the  vertebral  column.    The  dorsal  fln  fringes 


FLOUNDER 

the  whole  back,  from  near  the  tail  to  as  far 
forward  as  the  nostrils,  the  analMnging  the 
lower  edge  in  a  similar  manner;  the  Jaws  and 
the  ventials  are  generally  nnsym metrical,  the 
latter  being  smaller  on  the  pale  side.  The 
hranchiostegal  rsys  are  six ;  the  air  bladder  is 
absent,  and  the  vent  is  very  far  forward. — The 
flounder  belongs  to  the  genne  plateua  (Cuv.); 
in  this  the  eyes  are  generally  on  the  right  side, 
one  above  the  other ;  the  teeth  are  broad  and 
cutting,  and  in  a  single  series  in  the  jaws,  bnt 
gener^ly  pavement-like  on  the  pharyngeals; 
uie  dorwl  commences  over  tlie  upper  eye,  and 
neither  it  nor  the  anal  extends  to  the  caudal ; 
there  are  three  pancreatic  cteoa.  The  common 
floonderof  Massaohasetts  (P.  p^ana,  Mitch.)  va- 
ries in  length  from  10  to  22  in.,  and  in  color  (on 
the  right  side)  from  doll  slate  to  rusty  and  black- 
ish brown ;  the  scales  are  small,  and  the  surface 
smooth.  This  species  is  considered  excellent 
for  the  table  in  summer  and  autumn,  and  ia 
caught  in  considerable  nnnibers  from  wharves 


Amtrieni  Fkntader  (TliUMt  pknii). 

and  bridges.  Another  species  is  the  rusty  dab 
(P.  ferruginea,  Storer),  fiwn  12  to  30  in.  long, 
of  a  reddish  slate  color,  with  rusty  spots,  aad 
the  lower  surface  tinged  with  yellow.  The 
New  York  flounder  is  the  P.  dentata  (Mitch.), 
reddish  brown,  of  about  the  same  size,  but  coq' 
sidered  inferior  for  the  table.  Among  the  spe- 
cies with  eyes  on  the  left  side  are  the  P.  ob- 
longa  (Hitch.),  growing  to  a  length  of  SO  in., 
and  the  P.  ttellata  (Psllas),  an  arctic  flounder, 
of  a  liver-brown  color,  about  a  foot  long. 
These  species  are  said  to  be  "  reversed  "  when 
the  eyes  are  on  the  left  side  in  The  first  series, 
and  on  the  right  in  the  second ;  they  are  said 
to  be  "  doubled  "  when  both  sides  are  colored ; 
according  to  De  Kay,  the  P.  mahmogatttr 
(Mitch.)  is  a  doubled  variety  of  the  P.  dentata. 
Flounders  extend,  though  in  diminished  num- 
bers and  of  smaller  size,  into  high  northern 
latitudes;  they  are  very  abundant  on  the  coasts 
of  New  Brunswick  and  Nova  Scotia  in  sum- 
mer. Like  all  the  family,  flounders  are  very 
tenacious  of  life,  may  be  transported  conud- 
erable  distances,  and  may  be  natureliied  in 
brackish  and  even  in  fteab  water.  The  distor- 
tion of  the  flounder  family  admirably  adapts 


them  Tor  ewiniinlng  od  the  bottom,  where  the 
sitDation  of  both  eyes  on  tha  upper  Barfac«  of 
the  head  allowa  an  eitensire  range  of  viaioo; 
the  coloration  of  one  side,  reaemblmg  the  bot- 
tom on  which  they  swim,  serres  as  a  protec- 
tion agoiaat  enemies.  The  food  oonsistfi  of 
minnows  and  other  smnll  fry,  young  fish,  soft- 
bodieil  marine  animalx,  and  aqoatic  insects. 
There  are  16  species  in  the  British  ulands, 
which  are  (rradaolly  reduced  to  18  in  the  Bal- 
tio,  10  on  the  coast  of  Norway,  C  at  Iceland, 
and  3  in  Greenland.  The  English  plaice  (P. 
vulgarU,  Flem.),  called  also  Quke  in  Scotland, 
19  mnch  esteemed^  the  spawning  tirae  is  in 
February  or  March,  and  it  is  in  the  best  condi- 
tion for  the  table  at  the  end  of  May.  The  Eng- 
lish flounder  ia  the  P.JUtta  (Flem.),  and  may 


Eugllih  noDBder  (TlatMU  fleam). 

be  distinguished  from  the  plaice  bj  the  rongh 
lateral  line.  The  common  dab  (P.  limanda, 
Flem.)  derives  the  specific  name  from  the  rough- 
ness of  its  scaly  surface,  and,  with  other  spe- 
cies, is  considered  excellent ;  they  are  taken  by 
hook,  spear,  and  net. 

lUKRENS.  I.  Blarie  J«U  Pkm,  a  French 
physiologist,  bom  In  Manreilhan,  Il^rault, 
April  15,  1794,  died  at  Montgeron,  near  Paris, 
Dee.  6,  1867.  He  received  the  degree  of 
doctor  of  medicine  when  only  19  years  old, 
4nd  went  to  Paris,  where  he  became  acquaint- 
ed with  Chaptol,  the  Cnviers,  and  Geoffroy 
Soint-Hilaire.  In  1821  he  delivered  a  course 
of  public  lectures  on  the  physiological  theory 
of  lensaCion,  and  presented  to  the  academy  of 
•cienees  a  series  of  papers  on  the  organization 
of  men  and  animals.  He  was  already  a  con- 
tributor to  the  RtBue  tneycloprdique  and  to  the 
J)irliennaire  cliusique  d'hiMtoiTe  naturtlU.  In 
1822  his  essay  on  the  BiUrmination  de*  pro- 
priitii  du.  tyatime  nerteax  was  lughly  praised 
by  Covier  fur  accuracy  and  originality.  His 
reputation  wns  further  enhanced  by  his  Se- 
eherehei  lur  Ua  cojiditiont  fondamentalr*  dt 
Fauditian  et  sar  lei  dherte*  cautet  de  turdiU 
(1824),  and  by  his  Reckerehet  experimentala  itir 
UtproprieU*  et  letfonetiont  du  tuitimt  nerteux 
dant  Us  animavj;  terUhrei,  which  he  completed 
in  1825  by  his  ExperieTiea  rur  U  lyiUiae  jier- 
teux.  The  last  two  papers  present  a  very  in- 
genious and  ihorongh  method  of  determining 
the  relationa  of  the  individnal  organs  to  the 
828  TOL.  Tn.— 19 


BENS  287 

varions  phenomena  of  intellect,  sensation,  and 
motion.  In  1628  he  was  admitted  to  the 
academy  of  sciences,  end  appointed  assistant 
professor  of  natural  history  in  the  college  de 
Two  years  later  he  became  assistant 


;  and  in  1635  professor  of  natural  history 
in  the  coiMga  de  Franca.  From  1841  to  1654  he 
published  a  series  of  small  works,  giving  in  a 
condensed  formandperspicnouBstyle  the  history 
and  philosophy  of  several  branches  of  science. 
His  Court  lur  la  giiiialogie,  Vovologu  et  Ptm- 
bryologie,  delivered  at  the  museum  of  natural 
history  and  published  in  183B  by  Deschamps, 
and  his  Court  de  phyiiaUyU  comparea:  d« 
ronlologU,  ou  etude  dei  itre*,  are  eqaallj  re- 
markable  for  perspicuity  and  fulness.  His 
Anatomie  ginirale  de  la  peau  et  det  membratut 
muqueutei  (4to,  1848)  is  intended  to  demon- 
strate anatomically  the  physical  unity  of  man- 
kind; and  his  Theorie  experiTitentale  da  la  for- 
matiim  du  o*  (1 847)  contains  a  demonstration  of 
the  principle  that  "  matter  changes  and  is  ren- 
ovated incessantly,  while  form  and  force  per- 
sist." His  most  popular  book  is  De  la  longeviti 
hitinaine  et  de  la  quantite  de  tie  lur  la  globe 
(1864).  In  1853-'5  he  published  an  annota- 
ted edition  of  the  complete  works  of  Bu&bn. 
Among  his  later  works  arer  OnloUtgie  natu- 
relle  (12mo,  1661);  Examen  du  livre  de  M, 
Banein  »w  Vorigine  dee  etnice*  (18S4);  and 
De  Vuniti  de  cempoailion  et  du  debat  entre  Cu- 
tter et  Qeoffroy  Saint-Hilaire  (l6mo,  186S). 
In  163?  be  was  a  member  of  the  chamber  of 
deputies  for  B6ciera;  in  1646  Lonis  Philippe 
made  him  a  peer  of  France ;  and  in  1864  he 
was  a  member  of  the  mnnlcipal  oonncil  of 
Paris;  but  he  never  took  an  active  part  in 
politics.  At  the  time  of  his  death  ha  was  per- 
petual secretary  of  the  academy  of  sciences. 
IL  GHtaTt,  a  French  agitator,  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, bom  in  Paris,  Aag.  4,  1888,  killed  at 
Chatou,  near  that  city,  April  3,  1671.  He 
filled  in  1868  his  father's  chair  at  the  college 
de  France,  and  published  Seienea  de  Vhomme 
(186G)  and  other  works.  In  lS6C->8  he  partici- 
pated in  the  Cretan  insurrection  in  the  field 
and  oa  a  member  of  the  Ci'ctan  assembly,  and 
became  involved  in  difficulties  with  the  French 
minister  at  Athens.  On  his  return  to  Paris  his 
denunciations  of  Napoleon  III.  caused  him  to 
be  arrested  in  April,  1860 ;  and  on  his  release 
three  months  afterward  he  was  severely  wound- 
ed in  a  duel  with  Foul  Granier  de  Casaagnac, 
who  hod  attacked  him  in  his  journal.  H* 
warmly  supported  the  election  of  Rochefort 
as  a  deputy  in  November,  became  one  of  the 
founders  and  the  chief  editor  of  the  MarteillaUe 
newspaper,  and  was  the  master  spirit  of  the 
demonstration  at  tha  funeral  of  Victor  Noir, 
who  had  been  shot  by  Prince  Pierre  Bona- 
parte. When  Rochefort  was  arrested  early  in 
16T0,  Flourens  attempted  an  armed  resistance, 
and  was  senteuoed  to  three  years'  imprison- 
ment.   He  fied  to  England,  returned  to  Paris 


288 


FLOY 


FLOYD 


on  the  eye  of  the  revolation  of  Sept.  4,  and  as 
a  commander  in  the  national  guard  took  a  con- 
Bpicnone  part  in  subsequent  outbreaks.  Early 
in  1871  he  was  again  arrested  and  sentenced  to 
death,  but  escaped.  He  reappeared  in  Paris 
after  the  insurrection  of  March  18,  when  he 
was  elected  member  of  the  commune  and  the 
military  commission,  and  commander  of  a  regi- 
ment. At  the  disastrous  termination  of  the 
march  on  Versailles,  in  which  he  commanded 
one  of  the  three  divisions,  he  was  attacked  by 
a  body  of  gendarmes  in  a  house  in  which  he 
bad  taken  refuge,  and  killed. 

FU>T,  JuMSy  an  American  clergyman,  bom 
in  New  York,  Aug.  20,  1806,  died  there,  Oct 
14,  1863.  He  was  educated  in  Oolumbia  col- 
lege, and  studied  three  years  in  Europe.  He 
was  received  into  the  New  York  conference 
of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  church  in  1836  and 
appointed  to  Riverhead,  and  was  afterward 
for  18  years  pastor  of  important  churches  in 
Middletown,  New  Haven,  Brooklyn,  and  New 
York.  By  the  general  conference  of  1848  he 
was  placed  on  the  committee  to  revise  the 
Methodist  hymn  book.  To  his  energy,  culture, 
and  taste  are  largely  due  the  excellences  of 
this  collection.  In  1854  he  was  appointed  pre- 
siding elder  of  the  New  York  district  of  the 
New  York  east  conference.  In  1856  he  was 
elected  by  the  general  conference  editor  of  the 
"National  Magazine^'  and  corresponding  sec- 
retary of  the  tract  society ;  but  in  1861  he  re- 
turned to  the  pastorate,  in  which  he  continued 
till  his  death.  Dr.  Floy  was  noted  as  being 
among  the  earliest  and  most  able  anti-slavery 
men  of  the  Methodist  church.  Bejndes  editing 
the  posthumous  works  of  the  Rev.  Dr.  Stephen 
Olin,  he  contributed  largely  to  periodical  and 
Sunday  school  literature. 

FU>TD,  the  name  of  counties  in  five  of  the 
United  States.  I.  A  S.  W.  county  of  Virginia, 
drained  by  Little  river ;  area,  280  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
In  1870,  0,824,  of  whom  997  were  colored.  The 
surface  is  mountainous,  the  county  being  in  the 
Blue  Ridge  region.  It  is  well  adapted  to  pas- 
turage. Oopper  and  iron  ore  are  found.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  29,410  bushels 
of  wheat,  41,616  of  rye,  112,789  of  Indian  co|*n, 
93,692  of  oats,  16,033  of  potatoes,  3,646  tons 
of  hay,  119,180  lbs.  of  butter,  and  167,467  of 
tobacco.  There  were  1,846  horses,  3,769  milch 
cows,  4,169  other  cattle,  7,966  sheep,  and  7,820 
swine.  Capital,  Jacksonville.  11.  A  N.  W. 
county  of  Georgia,  bordering  on  Alabama,  and 
traversed  by  Ooosa  river  and  its  branches; 
area,  640  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 17,230,  of  whom 
5,768  were  colored.  The  surface  is  diversified, 
and  in  some  parts  mountainous ;  the  soil  of  the 
valleys  and  nver  bottoms  is  good.  Iron,  plum- 
bago, galena,  and  other  minerals  are  found. 
In  the  S.  W.  part  is  a  mineral  spring.  The  Sel- 
ma,  Rome,  and  Dalton  railroad  passes  through 
the  county.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  96,464  bushels  of  wheat,  24,091  of  Indian 
com,  43,229  of  oats,*14,249  of  sweet  potatoes, 
and  8,182  bales  of  cotton.    There  were  1,086 


horses,  1,142  mules  and  asses,  2,146  milch  cows, 
3,642  other  cattle,  3,854  sheep,  and  11,879 
swine ;  7  manufactories  of  carriages  and  wag- 
ons, 6  of  bricks,  4  of  iron  and  products  of  the 
same,  2  of  sashes,  doors,  and  blinds,  4  of  tin, 
copper,  and  sheet-iron  ware,  2  fiour  mills,  and 
6  saw  mills.  Capital,  Rome.  Ill*  An  E.  county 
of  Kentucky,  intersected  by  the  W.  fork  of  the 
Big  Sandy  river ;  area,  600  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
7,877,  of  whom  171  were  colored.  The  surface 
is  broken  and  affords  good  pasturage.  Stone 
coal  abounds.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  8,621  bushels  of  wheat,  388,009  of  Indian 
com,  26,826  of  oats,  and  7,796  of  potatoes. 
There  were  1,406  horses,  2,394  milch  cows, 
6,112  other  cattle,  11,283  sheep,  and  12,788 
swine.  Capital,  Prestonburg.  IT.  A  S.  E. 
county  of  Indiana,  bordering  on  the  Ohio  river, 
which  separates  it  from  Kentucky ;  area,  148 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  23,800.  The  surface  is 
diversified,  and  the  soil  fertile.  Iron  ore,  lime- 
stone, sandstone,  and  slate  abound.  The  Louis- 
ville, New  Albany,  and  Chicago  railroad  passes 
through  it.  The  chief  prod  uctions  in  1 870  were 
47,442  bushels  of  wheat,  124,807  of  Indian  com', 
66,110  of  oats,  71,634  of  potatoes,  4,609  tons 
of  hay,  and  93,243  lbs.  of  butter.  There  were 
1,780  horses,  2,002  milch  cows,  1,101  other 
cattle,  2,816  sheep,  and  5,976  swine ;  3  manu- 
factories of  boots  and  shoes,  7  of  carriages  and 
wagons,  1  of  cars,  6  of  clothing,  10  of  barrels 
and  casks,  2  of  cutlery  and  edge  tools,  3  of  fur- 
niture, 2  of  window  glass,  7  of  iron  and  its  pro- 
ducts, 5  of  machinery,  3  of  saddlery  and  nar- 
ness,  2  of  soap  and  candles,  6  of  tin,  copper, 
and  sheet-iron  ware,  1  of  woollen  goods,  4  pla- 
ning mills,  4  breweries,  8  tanneries,  7  currying 
establishments,  and  7  flour  mills.  Capital,  New 
Albany.  V.  A  N.  E.  county  of  Iowa,  inter- 
sected by  Red  Cedar  and  Shell  rivers;  area, 
650  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  10,768.  The  Bur- 
lington, Cedar  Rapids,  and  Minnesota,  and  the 
McGregor  and  Missouri  River  railroads  pass 
through  it.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
666,990  bushels  of  wheat,  310,119  of  Indian 
corn,  29;d69  of  oats,  42,606  of  potatoes,  18,617 
tons  of  hay,  251,718  lbs.  of  butter,  and  24,938 
of  wool.  There  were  4,023  horses,  3,472  milch 
cows,  6,383  other  cattle,  6,244  sheep,  and  6,960 
swine ;  4  flour  mills,  3  saw  mills,  and  2  manu- 
factories of  agricultural  implements.  Capital, 
Charles  City. 

FLOTD9  Jeki  BiduuuM,  an  American  states- 
man, bom  in  Montgomery  (now  Pulaski)  co., 
Va.,  in  1805,  died  at  Abingdon,  Va.,  Aug.  26, 
1868.  He  was  a  son  of  Governor  John  Floyd. 
He  graduated  at  South  Carolina  college  in  1826, 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1828,  and  in  1886 
removed  to  Helena,  Ark.,  where  he  practised 
for  three  years.  In  1839  he  settled  in  Wash- 
ington CO.,  Va.,  and  in  1847-^9  held  a  seat  in 
the  lower  house  of  the  state  legislature.  In 
December,  1849,  the  general  assembly  chose 
him  governor  of  the  state  for  the  term  ending 
Jan.  1,  1863.  In  1866  he  was  again  elected  to 
the  legislature.    In  1866  he  was  chosen  a  pre- 


FLOYD 


FLUORESOENOE 


289 


ddential  elector,  and  voted  for  James  Buchanan, 
for  whoae  nomination  he  had  exerted  himself 
at  the  democratic  national  convention,  and  in 
whose  favor  during  the  canvass  he  had  made 
many  speeches  in  different  parts  of  the  coontry. 
In  March,  185T,  he  was  appointed  by  President 
Baohanan  secretary  of  war.  When  Mi^or  An- 
derson moved  his  garrison  from  Fort  Monltrie 
to  Fort  Bomter,  Dec.  26,  1860,  and  President 
Baohanan  refosed  to  withdraw  the  United 
States  troops  from  Charleston  harbor,  Floyd 
resigned  and  retired  from  Washington.  Daring 
the  latter  part  of  his  administration  of  the  war 
department  he  had  dispersed  the  army  to  re- 
mote parts  of  the  coantry,  and  transferred 
lld,000  mnskets  and  many  cannon  from  north- 
em  to  sonthem  arsenals.  He  was  indicted  by 
the  grand  jnry  of  the  District  of  Oolambia  as 
being  privy  to  the  abstraction  of  $870,000  in 
bonds  from  the  department  of  the  interior,  in 
the  winter  of  1860,  bat  failed  to  appear  for 
trial.  Soon  after  the  beginning  of  the  civil  war 
he  was  made  a  brigadier  general  in  the  con- 
federate army,  and  commanded  with  Generals 
Wise  and  Henningsen  in  Western  Virginia.  On 
Sept.  10, 1861,  he  was  defeated  and  driven  from 
Gwiley  bridge  by  Gen.  Gox,  with  the  loss  of 
baggage,  ammonition,  and  camp  eqaipage.  He 
commanded  a  brigade  at  Fort  Donelson  when 
it  was  besieged  by  Gren.  Grant,  and  the  night 
before  the  sarrender,  Feb.  16, 1862,  h^  with 
Gen.  Pillow  and  aboat  8,000  men  of  the  garri- 
son, escaped  into  Tennessee.  For  this  retreat 
he  was  officially  censored  bj  the  confederate 
government.  He  never  again  held  a  command. 
ILDTD,  WIHIaBy  an  American  general,  and 
one  of  the  signers  of  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence, bom  in  Suffolk  co.,  N.  Y.,  Dec.  17, 
1734^  died  in  Western,  Oneida  co.,  Aag.  4^ 
1821.  He  was  the  son  of  an  opulent  land 
owner,  whose  ancestors  had  emigrated  from 
Wales  and  settled  on  Long  Island.  On  the 
outbreak  of  the  differences  between  Great 
Britain  and  her  American  colonies,  Floyd  ar- 
dently esponsed  the  cause  of  the  latter,  and 
was  appointed  to  the  command  of  Suffolk 
county,  and  a  delegate  to  the  first  continental 
congress  in  Philadelphia.  During  his  absence 
the  British  assembled  a  naval  force  in  Gardi- 
ner's bay,  with  the  intention  of  invading  Long 
Island  and  levying  contributions;  but  Gen. 
Floyd  returned,  assembled  the  Suffolk  militia, 
and  displayed  so  much  energy  and  daring  that 
the  enemy  abandoned  their  enterprise.  He 
was  rejected  a  delegate  to  the  general  colo- 
nial congress,  and  continued  a  member  by 
successive  elections  for  eight  years.  In  1777 
he  was  chosen  a  senator  of  the  state  of  New 
York,  retaining  his  seat  in  congress.  He  was 
a  member  of  the  first  congress  under  the  con- 
stitution, and  declined  a  reflection.  He  was 
one  of  the  presidential  electors  in  1801,  giving 
his  vote  to  Mr.  Jefferson.  In  the  same  year 
he  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  convention  to 
revise  the  constitution  of  New  York,  and  was 
afterward  tvrice  presidential  elector. 


nJ^ClELy  fiistav  LebrMkt,  a  German  orientalist, 
bom  in  Bautzen,  Feb.  18,  1802.  He  studied 
philology,  and  especially  the  oriental  languages, 
at  Leipsic,  Vienna,  and  Parb,  and  in  1882 
obtained  a  professorship  at  Meissen,  which 
he  held  till  1850,  when  he  resigned  it  on 
account  of  his  feeble  health.  His  most  im- 
portant work  is  an  edition  of  Ha^i  Khalfa^s 
bibliographic  and  encyclopesdic  lexicon  in  Ara- 
bic, with  a  Latin  translation  and  commentary, 
published  at  Leipsic  and  London,  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  oriental  translation  fund  (7  vols., 
18d5-'68).  In  1884  he  published  an  edition  of 
the  Koran,  and  in  1842  Ccneordantim  Carani 
Ardbica.  His  recent  works  are  Mani  und 
aeine  Lehre  (1862),  and  Die  ardbuehen^  tHrki" 
iehen  undpvnUchen  ffandsehrifUn  (1866-^7). 

ViXOELf  Jskaaa  GsttfrM,  a  German  lexicog- 
rapher, bom  at  Barby,  near  Magdeburg,  Nov. 
92, 1788,  died  in  Leipsic,  June  24,  1865.  He 
was  employed  as  a  merchant's  clerk  till  1810, 
when  he  went  to  the  United  States.  He  re^ 
turned  to  Germany  in  1819,  and  was  professor 
of  the  English  language  at  the  university  of 
Leipsic  from  1824  to  1888,  when  he  was  ap- 
pointed United  States  consul  in  Leipsic.  He 
IS  the  author  of  Triglotts,  oder  hmtfmdnnisches 
Wart&rhueh  in  drei  Spraehen  (German,  Eng- 
lish, and  French,  2d  ed.,  1854),  Frdktischa 
Handbuch  der  engli$chen  HandeUoorretpondenz 
(6th  ed.,  1868),  and  other  writings.  His  ^^  Com- 
plete Dictionary  of  the  English  and  German, 
and  German  and  English  Languages"  has 
passed  through  several  editions,  and  is  exten- 
sively used  in  Germany,  England,  and  the 
United  States. 

fLVOliSCEBrCE,  a  peculiar  appearance  ex- 
hibited by  certain  bodies,  either  solid  or  in  so- 
lution, which  is  due  to  a  change  of  refrangi- 
bility  in  the  rays  of  light.  Sir  David  Brew- 
ster in  1888,  having  thrown  a  beam  of  sunlight 
concentrated  by  a  lens  through  an  alcoholic 
solution  of  chlorophyl  in  a  transparent  vessel, 
found  that  while  the  emergent  beam  was,  as 
should  be  expected,  of  tiie  color  of  the  solu- 
tion— a  fine  emerald  green — the  path  of  the 
beam  through  the  liquid  was  marked  to  a  cer- 
tain depth  by  a  bright  blood-red  light,  emitted 
in  all  directions.  Supposing  this  effect  due 
to  a  reflection  of  part  of  the  admitted  light 
by  minute  solid  particles  suspended  in  the 
liquid,  he  termed  the  phenomenon  one  of  in- 
ternal dispersion.  He  discovered  similar  re- 
sults in  fiuor  spar  and  some  other  media;  the 
new  colors,  however,  not  l>eing  always  the 
same.  In  1846  Sir  John  Hersohel  found  that 
a  weak  solution  of  bisulphate  of  quinine,  .about 
1  part  of  the  salt  to  200  of  water,  acidulated 
by  addition  of  a  littie  sulphuric  acid,  when 
viewed  by  transmitted  solar  light,  appeared 
colorless ;  but  that,  at  the  same  time,  it  emitted 
from  a  thin  stratum  at  the  surface  at  which 
the  beam  entered  a  beautiful  sky-blue  light, 
which  in  various  other  directions  was  seen 
as  if  emanating  from  the  liquid.  Beyond  the 
thin  stratum  thus  seen,  the  peculiar  blue  rays 


290 


FLUORESCENCE 


no  longer  marked  the  coarse  of  the  beam,  nor 
did  they  appear  in  a  second  or  third  medium 
of  the  same  kind  into  which  the  beam  was 
successively  passed;  whence  it  was  evident 
that  at  a  certain  depth  the  beam  had  lost  the 
power  of  exciting  them.  Herschel  therefore 
proposed  for  the  phenomenon  the  name  of 
epipolic  (surface)  dispersion.  The  character 
of  the  change  was  not  understood  until  in 
1852  Prof.  Stokes  submitted  tlie  subject  to  a 
more  careful  investigation.  He  reasoned  that 
the  facts  observed  by  Brewster  and  Herschel 
were  the  same,  the  rays  which  produced  the 
red  dispersed  light  possessing  the  power  of 
penetrating  to  a  greater  depth  before  being 
exhausted  than  did  those  producing  the  blue. 
The  latter  he  found  to  bo  exhausted  within  a 
film  about  ^  of  an  inch  thick,  but  the  blue 
light  to  which  they  gave  rise  traversed  the 
liquid  with  perfect  freedom  ;  hence  there  must 
be  a  difference  of  nature  between  the  produ- 
cing and  the  produced  rays.  Such  differences 
could,  probably,  only  be  explained  by  polariza- 
tion or  change  of  refrangibility ;  but  the  sup- 
position of  polarization  was  found  untenable, 
and  the  case  was  not  one  of  phosphorescence. 
In  order  to  test  the  remaining  hypothesis, 
Stokes  obtained  a  pure  luminous  spectrum  by 
means  of  an  achromatic  lens  and  two  or  more 
flint-glass  prisms,  and  in  place  of  receiving  the 
colors  on  a  screen  held  the  quinine  solution 
in  these  successively.  In  the  less  refrangible 
colors  no  effect  was  observed  ;  but  about  the 
middle  of  the  violet  space  the  blue  diffused 
light  made  its  appearance  at  the  entering  sur- 
face, as  if  the  liquid  medium  had  there  become 
self-luminous.      This  result   appeared   in   all 

Earts  of  the  upper  violet,  and  until  the  tube 
ad  been  carried  to  some  distance  into  the  or- 
dinarily dark  space  beyond,  occupied  by  the 
chemical  rays.  The  depth  of  the  stratum 
thus  luminous  at  first  exceeded  the  thickness 
of  the  vessel  use^  but  it  rapidly  diminished 
in  the  upper  parts  of  the  space  to  a  minute 
fraction  of  an  inch.  The  blue  light,  turned 
aside  and  again  dispersed  by  a  prism  held 
obliquely  in  its  course,  yielded  in  some  degree 
rays  having  various  refrangibilities,  with  color 
corresponding,  the  higher  colors  being  most 
abundant.  By  other  experiments,  also,  the 
blue  dispersed  light  was  separated  from  the 
inducing  violet  rays ;  and  it  was  found  that 
the  former  always  corresponded  to  a  band  of 
colors  below  the  place  of  the  latter.  The 
light  thus  acted  on,  then,  had  its  refrangibility 
always  lowered.  Thus  the  remarkable  con- 
clusion was  arrived  at,  that  by  passing  light 
through  particular  media  certain  rays  belong- 
ing to  the  violet  space  have  their  refrangi- 
bility, and  of  course  their  color,  let  down  in 
the  scale,  while  portions  of  the  invisible  chemi- 
cal rays  in  like  manner  become  let  down  so  as 
to  fall  within  the  range  of  visibility,  and  to 
appear  as  colored  light.  In  the  undulatory 
theory,  these  results  are  explicable  only  by  an 
increase  of  the  wave  length  and  time  of  vi- 


bration, with  a  consequent  diminution  of  the 
velocity  of  the  rays  thus  affected.  The  case  is 
one  of  degradation  of  light :  in  the  chlorophyl 
solution  Uiere  is  a  fall  from  higher  colors  to 
red ;  in  the  quinine  solution,  from  invisible  or 
violet  to  a  mixture  whose  predominant  hue  b 
blue ;  in  canary  glass,  colored  yellow  by  oxide 
or  salts  of  uranium,  from  invisible  or  violet  to 
green.  The  striking  feature  in  these  results  is 
the  conversion  of  the  unseen  ray  power,  which 
ordinarily  induces  chemism  only,  as  in  the  de- 
composition of  carbonic  acid  and  fixation  of 
carbon  within  the  green  leaves  of  plants,  and 
in  the  blackening  of  the  photographic  plate, 
into  common  light,  thus  proving  the  intimate 
relation,  if  not  the  identity,  of  the  two.  Stokes 
gave  to  the  phenomenon  the  name  of  fluor- 
escence, as  having  been  seen  in  fluor  spar ;  and 
this  name,  conveying  no  theory  of  the  case,  is 
preferred.  It  is  conveniently  observed  by  pen- 
cilling over,  by  candle  light,  a  sheet  of  white 
paper  with  the  quinine  solution,  or  by  tracing 
with  it  letters  on  the  paper :  nothing  unusual 
is  observed  on  the  paper,  which  is  as  white  as 
before,  until  it  is  brought  into  some  light  well 
supplied  with  chemical  rays,  and  not  too 
brightly  luminous  for  witnessing  the  efiect  (as 
into  a  beam  in  an  otherwise  dark  room),  when 
fluorescence  appears ;  and  when  in  such  a 
room  the  beam  is  decomposed,  the  luminous 
spectn^n  hidden  from  the  view,  and  the  paper 
brought  into  the  ultra-violet  space  (which  is 
of  itself,  of  course,  dark),  its  sudden  lighting 
up  with  a  pale  blue  radiance  is  an  effect  ap- 
paren  tly  little  short  of  the  supernatural.  Other 
fluorescent  media  are  infusion  of  horse-chest- 
nut bark,  or  its  active  principle,  sesculine,  the 
infusion  of  seeds  of  datura  stramonitim^  tinc- 
ture of  turmeric,  &c.  Gas  and  candle  light 
excite  little  or  no  visible  fluorescence ;  hence 
these  are  poor  in  actinic  rays.  The  flames  of 
hydrogen  and  of  sulphur  burning  in  alcohol 
give  very  distinct  results ;  hence  these  abound 
in  those  rays.  But  so  rich  in  this  respect 
is  the  light  of  the  voltaic  arc  from  metallic 
points,  that  it  produces  fluorescence  through  a 
space  six  or  eight  times  the  length  of  the  lu- 
minous spectrum.  It  is  worthy  of  remark, 
however,  that  the  fluorescent  space  can  be  de- 
tected to  any  considerable  distance  above  the 
violet  only  when  the  prisms  employed  are  of 
quartz.  Glass  at  once  cuts  down  the  effect 
within  narrow  limits,  proving  that  it  is  highly 
opaque  to  the  chemical  rays,  for  which  quartz 
serves  as  the  true  glass.  In  1858  Mr.  Robin- 
son of  Arm^h  found  the  light  of  the  aurora 
borealis  to  produce,  for  its  intensity,  very 
marked  fluorescence;  another  fact  favoring 
the  electric  origin  of  that  phenomenon. — M. 
.Niepce  the  younger  claimed  in  1859  that  ho 
had  preserved  during  six  months  the  photo- 
genic power  of  light,  in  card  paper  impreg- 
nated with  tartaric  acid  or  nitrate  of  uranium, 
exposed  for  half  an  hour  to  sunlight,  and  then 
at  once  sealed  up  in  a  tin  tube.  It  is  certain 
that  at  the  end  of  thia  time  this  card,  removed 


FLUORINE 


FLUOR  SPAR 


291 


in  the  dark,  placed  over  sensitized  or  photo- 
graphic paper,  with  a  partially  translucent 
drawing  or  printed  sheet  interposed,  and  left 
so  for  many  hoars,  gives  a  very  good  negative 
picture  on  the  sensitized  paper,  the  latter 
heing  darkened  through  the  lights  and  pro- 
tected by  the  shades  of  the  interposed  figure. 
But  it  is  still  a  question  whether  this  effect  is 
due  to  preserved  light,  or  rather  actinism,  or 
to  the  effect  of  hydrogen  gas  set  free  from 
compounds  in  the  prepared  card,  and  acting 
chemically  on  the  photographic  paper.  Invis- 
ible drawings  in  fluorescent  substances,  exposed 
to  the  sun  and  immediately  or  soon  after  ap- 
plied in  the  dark,  acted  more  powerfully ;  but 
interposed  fluorescent  bodies,  as  weU  as  glass, 
arrested  the  action. — At  a  session  of  the  Ameri- 
can academy  of  sciences  held  at  the  Stevens 
institute,  Hoboken,  Oct  80,  1878,  President 
Morton  of  that  institution  related  some  investi- 
gations recently  made  upon  a  new  body  which 
he  has  discovered  by  means  of  spectrum  analy- 
sis, associated  with  anthracene.  This  new 
body,  which  he  has  succeeded  in  isolating  and 
subjecting  to  the  action  of  the  solar  spectrum, 
possesses  remarkable  fluorescent  properties. 
It  is  isomeric  with  anthracene,  but  differs 
from  it  in  its  chemical  reactions,  particularly 
with  chlorine,  bromine,  and  sulphuric  and  pic- 
ric acid^  requiring  twice  as  many  equivalents 
of  the  latter  bodies  to  form  a  compound  as  an- 
thracene does.  Its  action  upon  actinic  light 
is  unlike  that  of  all  other  fluorescent  bodies 
yet  experimented  upon.  Its  continuous  spec- 
trum IS  banded,  and  if  a  strong  solution  is 
placed  in  a  bright  sunlight  and  kept  hot  to 
maintain  the  solution,  it  undergoes  a  definite 
change  and  has  all  its  bands  moved  upward  to 
higher  positions  in  the  spectrum.  In  its  first 
or  normal  condition  its  fluorescence  produces 
a  green  light,  but  in  its  second  condition  it  is 
blue.  To  the  substance  in  the  first  condition 
President  Morton  has  given  the  name  thallene, 
and  to  the  modified  form  the  name  petrolucene 
in  reference  to  its  origin  and  its  brightness. 

FUJOKIBTE,  a  gaseous  body,  regarded  as  an 
elementary  substance,  the  chemical  equivalent 
of  which,  calculated  from  the  combination  of 
calcium  and  fluorine  in  fluor  spar,  is  19.  It 
is  found  in  the  teeth  and  bones  of  animals, 
in  sea  and  some  mineral  waters,  and  in  many 
phosphates  and  other  minerals.  On  account 
of  the  great  difliculty  of  preventing  fluorine, 
when  driven  from  its  combination  with  one 
substance,  from  immediately  combining  with 
any  other  with  which  it  comes  in  contact,  it 
has  been  impossible  to  investigate  its  qualities 
in  its  isolated  state,  and  hence  the  slight  un- 
certainty as  to  its  elementary  nature.  Louyet 
obtained  it  by  decomposing  dry  fluoride  of  sil- 
ver by  means  of  chlorine  gas  in  vessels  of  fluor 
spar.  He  found  the  dry  gas  possessed  affinities 
analogous  to  those  of  oxygen  and  sulphur ;  it 
acted  upon  almost  all  metals,  but  attacked  glass 
feebly  or  not  at  all.  Prat  prepared  it  from 
fluoride  of  lead,  and  says  that  it  decomposes 


water  with  intensity.  Combined  with  hydro- 
gen in  the  form  of  hydrofluoric  acid,  however, 
its  most  remarkable  property  is  its  rapidly  cor- 
roding glass ;  and  for  this  reason  it  is  employed 
for  etching.  Its  presence  is  detected  in  any 
body  that  contains  it,  by  submitting  this  in  a 
vessel  of  platinum  or  lead,  which  are  but  slight- 
ly affected  by  the  acid,  to  the  action  of  con- 
centrated sulphuric  acid,  and  placing  a  plate 
of  glass  across  the  mouth  of  the  vessel  to  re- 
ceive the  vapors  evolved  on  the  application  of 
a  gentle  heat.  This  is  the  process  by  which 
hydrofluoric  or  fluohydric  acid  is  obtained  from 
fluor  spar,  the  metallic  vessel  being  a  retort, 
furnished  with  a  crooked  neck  of  lead,  in  which 
the  vapor  condenses  in  the  water  placed  in  the 
bend  to  receive  it,  and  which  is  kept  cool  by 
being  surrounded  with  ice.  It  may  also  be  ob- 
tained by  condensing  the  vapors  without  the 
use  of  water  in  the  lead  tube ;  in  this  state  it 
is  called  anhydrous  fluohydric  acid.  The  by- 
drated  acid  is  a  colorless  fluid,  of  specific  gravity 
1'06,  boils  at  86**,  and  cannot  be  made  to  con- 
geal at  any  temperature.  It  has  a  strong  af- 
finity for  water,  its  vapor  rising  and  forming 
thick  white  fumes  as  it  combines  with  the 
moisture  in  the  air,  until  by  dilution  this  action 
at  last  ceases.  Dropped  into  water,  a  sound  is 
produced  with  the  fall  of  each  drop,  as  if  it  had 
been  red-hot  iron.  When  diluted  with  water 
it  is  highly  corrosive,  and  according  to  its 
strength  may  produce  injury  by  touching  the 
skin.  A  single  drop  of  the  anhydrous  acid  may 
produce  acute  inflammation  accompanied  with 
fever.  The  marks  made  by  the  gaseous  acid 
when  used  for  etching  are  flne  and  visible  on 
account  of  their  opacity,  while  those  produced 
by  the  liquid  are  transparent,  and  must  be 
deeply  etched.  The  product  of  this  action  of 
the  hydrofluoric  acid  upon  silicious  substances 
is  the  gaseous  compound  known  as  fluosilicic 
acid  or  fluoride  of  silicium ;  and  thus  is  a  means 
afforded  of  volatilizing  silica  and  removing  it 
from  some  of  its  combinations,  by  which  their 
analysis  is  facilitated. 

FLrOR  SPAR,  fluoride  of  calcium,  a  mineral 
species  consisting  of  fluorine  48-7  and  calcium 
61*8  per  cent.,  named  from  the  Latin  Jluere,  in 
reference  to  its  property  of  flowing  when  used  * 
as  a  flux.  It  is  met  with  in  cubical  crystals, 
which  easily  cleave  into  octahedrons  and  te- 
trahedrons by  removal  of  the  solid  angles. 
These  crystals,  collected  in  groups,  their  faces 
presenting  a  fine  splendent  lustre,  and  some 
brilliant  shade  of  red,  blue,  green,  or  purple, 
constitute  some  of  the  most  beautiful  minera- 
logical  specimens.  They  are  sometimes  trans- 
parent, but  commonly  translucent,  and  are 
brittle,  breaking  into  splintery  and  conchoidid 
fragments.  The  hardness  of  the  mineral  is  4; 
its  specific  gravity  3'14  to  8*19.  Coarsely  pul- 
verized and  heated,  it  emits  phosphorescent 
light  of  various  colors.  Before  the  blowpipe  it 
decrepitates  and  fuses  to  an  enamel.  It  is  met 
with  in  veins  in  the  metamorphic  rocks,  and  in 
the  lunestones  of  formations  as  recent  as  the 


292 


FLUSHING 


FLUTE 


ooal.  In  the  north  of  England  it  is  a  common 
gangne  of  the  lead  yeins  which  are  found  in 
the  strata  of  the  coal  formation ;  and  it  is  there 
most  conveniently  applied  as  a  flux  for  the  re- 
duction of  these  ores,  for  which  it  is  peculiar- 
ly adapted.  The  most  famous  locality  of  fluor 
spar  is  at  Castleton,  in  Derbyshire,  England, 
whence  the  name  of  Derbyshire  spar  has  been 
given  to  the  mineral.  It  is  there  found  in  the 
Assures  of  the  lunestone  of  deep  blue  and  purple 
colors,  in  specimens  so  large  and  beautiful  that 
they  are  wrought  into  vases,  inkstands,  cups, 
tables,  &c.,  which  present  fine  colors  and  polish, 
but  which  from  their  softness  ai^  liable  to  be 
soon  defaced.  The  blue  color  is  often  so  in- 
tense that  the  articles  cannot  be  worked  thin 
enough  to  exhibit  the  shade;  but  by  heating 
the  stone  nearly  red-hot,  the  intensity  is  dimin- 
ished and  the  blue  changes  to  amethystine. 
If  the  heat  is  continued,  the  color  disappears. 
The  workmen  call  the  stone  blue  John.  They 
chip  the  block  into  a  rude  shape,  and  then  heat 
it,  so  that  on  appl3ring  rosin  over  its  surface 
this  will  fuse  and  penetrate  slightly  into  the 
mass,  the  object  of  which  is  to  check  the  ten- 
dency to  cleave  as  the  stone  is  afterward 
worked  in  the  lathe ;  and  as  the  particles  are 
removed  in  this  operation,  the  rosining  is  oc- 
casionally repeated.  The  manufacture  is  diffi- 
cult, from  the  crystalline  structure  with  Its 
fourfold  cleavage  causing  the  laminaa  to  split 
up  in  unexpected  places.  The  best  workmen 
often  fail  in  turning  very  thin  hollow  articles. 
Flaor  spar  is  found  at  many  localities  in  the 
United  States,  and  is  now  largely  used  for 
practical  purposes.  Fine  crystals,  commonly 
green  and  very  large,  are  found  in  diffjprent 
nlaces  in  Jefferson  and  St.  Lawrence  counties, 
^,  T.,  and  at  Rossie  they  have  been  used  as  a 
flux  in  smelting  lead  ores.  In  lUmois,  below 
Shawneetown  on  the  Ohio,  it  is  found  in  large 

ale  crystals,  with  the  same  associations  of 
ores  and  coal  that  accompany  it  in  the 
north  of  England.  The  lead  veins  of  the  meta- 
morphic  rocks  of  New  England  often  contain 
it  as  one  of  the  gangues.  From  fluor  spar  is 
obtained  fluorine,  which,  combined  with  hy- 
drogen in  the  form  of  hydrofluoric  acid,  is  used 
to  etch  glass.  A  variety  of  fluor  spar  has  been 
discovered  in  Geimany,  which  on  the  applica- 
tion of  heat  gives  off  an  odor  which  SchOnbein 
attributed  to  a  modified  oxygen,  called  anto- 
zone ;  the  mineral  is  called  antozonite. 

fLVSHING,  a  village  and  town  of  Queens  co.. 
New  York,  about  8  m.  N.  E.  of  Brooklyn ; 
pop.  of  the  village  in  1870,  6,228;  of  the  town, 
14,660.  The  village  is  at  the  head  of  a  bay  of 
the  same  name  opening  into  Long  Island  sound, 
and  has  daily  communication  with  New  York 
by  the  Flushing  and  the  Flushing  and  North 
Side  railroads  and  connecting  ferries.  It  is 
noted  for  its  magnificent  avenues,  lined  with 
elegant  residences,  many  of  which  are  owned 
by  New  York  merchants,  and  for  its  extensive 
gardens  and  nurseries,  which  are  resorted  to 
by  numerous  visitors.    It  is  the  seat  of  the 


Flushing  institute,  an  academy  which  in  1872 
had  7  instructors  and  104c  pupils;  the  Flush- 
ing female  seminary;  St.  Joseph^s  academy 
for  young  ladies,  with  100  pupils;  St  Mary^s 
seminary  for  boys ;  and  St.  Joseph^s  convent, 
containing  118  sisters.  One  daily  and  two 
weekly  newspapers  are  published.  There  are 
eight  churches.  Baptist,  Congregational,  Dutch 
Reformed,  Episcopal,  Methodist  (three),  and 
Roman  Catholic.  Two  of  the  Methodist 
churches  are  for  colored  people. — ^The  town 
also  contains  the  villages  of  College  Point 
(pop.  8,652)  and  Whitestone  (pop.  1,907). 

FLUSHING  (Dutch,  Vlimngen),  a  fortified 
town  and  seaport  of  Holland,  in  the  island  of 
Walcheren,  province  of  Zealand,  on  the  N.  shore 
of  the  estuary  of  the  W.  Scheldt,  50  m.  S.  W. 
of  Rotterdam ;  pop.  in  1867,  11,521.  It  is  well 
built,  and  contains  several  churches,  schools, 
and  charitable  institutions,  an  academy  of 
sciences  founded  in  1765,  a  school  of  naviga- 
tion, five  market  places,  extensive  dockyards, 
a  town  hall,  a  theatre,  and  an  exchange,  near 
which  is  a  statue  of  Admiral  de  Ruyter,  who 
was  bom  here.  The  principal  manufactures 
are  beer,  soap,  and  oil ;  but  the  inhabitants  are 
chiefly  engaged  in  commerce,  and  branches  of 
industry  subsidiary  thereto.  The  port  of  Flush- 
ing is  formed  by  two  moles  which  break  the 
force  of  the  sea.  The  town  is  connected  with 
the  sea  by  two  large  and  deep  canals,  naviga- 
ble for  first-class  merchant  ships,  which  enter 
the  town  and  unload  at  the  quays  close  to  the 
warehouses.  The  number  of  vessels  entering 
and  clearing  is  about  100  annually.  Like  Briel 
it  was  called  a  '*  cautionary  tovm,''  having 
been  given  to  Queen  Elizabeth  as  security  for 
the  subsidy  and  soldiers  sent  to  assist  the  Dutch, 
under  Sir  Philip  Sidney.  The  French  took 
possession  of  the  town  in  1795,  and  made  it  a 
principal  station  for  their  fieet«.  In  1809  it 
was  bombarded  and  taken  by  the  British  under 
Lord  Chatham,  but  was  soon  after  evacuated. 
The  new  docks,  completed  in  1878,  have  made 
Flushing  a  rival  of  Antwerp  in  maritime  and 
commercial  activity.  It  is  the  only  continen- 
tal port  east  of  the  English  channel  which  will 
admit  the  largest  ships  at  all  seasons. 

FLUTE,  a  wind  instrument,  which  under  dif- 
ferent forms  and  names  has  been  in  use  for 
more  than  4,000  years.  It  was  familiar  to  the 
Egyptians  from  a  remote  period,  and  among 
the  Greeks  and  Romans  was  a  favorite  pastor^ 
instrument,  employed  also  on  sacred  and  festive 
occasions,  in  military  bands,  and  at  funerals. 
Its  present  name  is  derived  from  the  Latin 
fluta-y  an  eel  caught  in  the  Sicilian  waters, 
whose  side  is  marked  with  seven  spots  like 
fiute  holes.  The  Egyptian  fiute  was  from  2  to  8 
ft.  long,  and  the  periformer  generally  sat  on  the 
ground;  while  that  of  the  Greeks  probably 
did  not  exceed  a  foot  in  length.  At  Athens  it 
was  once  in  great  repute,  but  was  superseded 
by  the  lyre,  the  use  of  which  did  not  distort 
the  face,  while  it  allowed  the  accompaniment 
of  the  voice.    In  Thebes,  Sparta,  and  other 


FLUTE 


FLY 


293 


places,  however,  it  continued  a  favorite.  The 
Spartan  flndats  were  a  hereditary  order,  and 
the  Spartan  soldiers  marclied  to  battle  to  the 
soond  ^*  of  Dorian  tiates  and  soft  recorders/* 
The  Egyptians  appear,  from  their  ancient  pic- 
tures and  sculptures,  to  have  blown  the  instru- 
ment through  a  lateral  opening  near  one  end, 
prodticing  the  modulations  by  means  of  holes 
on  the  sides ;  hence  it  differed  little  from  the 
modem  fife.  The  flute  of  the  Greeks  and 
Romans  was  probably  more  in  the  nature  of 
the  pipe,  and  was  often  composed  of  two  per- 
forated tubes  of  reed  or  wood,  played  togeth- 
er. Until  the  early  part  of  the  18th  century 
the  instrument  retained  the  form  of  the  nipe, 
and  was  called  the  English  or  common  flute, 
and  sometimes  theflUte  d  bee^  from  the  resem- 
blance of  the  mouthpiece  to  the  beak  of  a  bird. 
It  was  played  in  the  manner  of  the  clarinet, 
and  had  seven  finger  holes,  but  no  keys.  This 
gave  place  somewhat  more  than  a  century  ago 
to  the  German  flute,  which  in  its  most  perfect 
form  consists  of  a  tube  of  hard  wood  or  ivory 
about  27  in.  long,  separable  into  four  joints, 
and  having  from  six  to  twelve  flnger  keys  for 
semitones.  It  is  blown  through  a  lateral  hole 
at  one  end,  and  has  a  compass  of  nearly  three 
octaves,  from  0  below  the  treble  staff  to  0  in 
altissimo.  The  modem  flute  is  highly  effective 
in  an  orchestra,  but  has  fallen  into  some  disre- 
pute for  the  performance  of  solos,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  flimty  and  tasteless  cnaracter  of 
the  music  too  frequently  written  for  it,  and 
which  serves  to  exhibit  the  skill  of  the  player 
rather  than  the  capacity  of  the  instrament 
— ^The  octave  flute,  called  also  the  piccolo,  is 
a  small  shrill  instrament,  an  octave  higher  than 
the  common  flute.  Its  piercing  sounds  are  only 
effective  in  a  large  orchestra  or  in  military 
bands. — The  flute  stop,  on  the  organ,  is  a  range 
of  pipes  tuned  in  unison  with  the  diapason,  and 
intended  to  imitate  the  sounds  of  the  flute. — 
One  of  the  best  German  flutists  of  the  16th 
centory  was  Quanz,  the  flutist  of  Frederick  II. 
of  Prussia;  Francois  Devienne  (died  in  1802) 
and  Berbiguier  (bom  in  1781)  acquired  a  high 
reputation  in  France;  and  among  the  great 
flutists  of  the  present  century  in  Germany  were 
Ftirstenau  and  his  son  (died  respectively  in 
1819  and  1852),  and  in  England  Oharles  Nichol- 
son, whose  father  had  also  been  celebrated  in 
the  preceding  century.  Among  celebrated 
flutists  are  the  following:  Theobald  Bdhm, 
flutist  of  the  king  of  Bavaria,  bom  about  1802, 
who  invented  about  1888  a  new  flute  known  as 
the  Bohm  flute,  which  is  said  to  combine  im- 
provements in  nearly  every  part  of  the  instrn- 
ment,«and  wrote  in  1847  a  treatise  on  recent 
improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  flutes, 
which  was  translated  into  French  (Paris,  1848) ; 
Jean  Louis  Tulou,  bom  in  Paris,  1786,  and  for 
some  years  professor  of  the  conservatory  there; 
and  Louis  Drouet,  born  in  Amsterdam  in  1792, 
who  was  for  some  time  Tulou^s  rival  in  Paris, 
and  removed  in  1881  to  Belgium  and  engaged 
in  manufacturing  musical  instruments. 


FLUVAHNA)  a  central  county  of  Virginia, 
bounded  S.  by  the  James  river  and  intersected 
by  Rivanna  river ;  area,  170  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
9,876,  of  whom  5,097  were  colored.  The  sur- 
face is  partly  level  and  partly  broken.  In  parts 
the  soil  is  fertile  and  in  other  places  barren. 
The  James  River  canal  extends  along  the  S. 
bordei*.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
77,486  bushels  of  wheat,  126,448  of  Indian 
corn,  67,247  of  oats,  and  894,028  lbs.  of  tobac- 
co. There  were  1,188  horses,  1,648  milch 
cows,  2,122  other  cattle,  7,248  swine;  marble 
works,  and  a  flour  mill.    Capital,  Palmyra. 

FLUX  (Lat.  fluere^  to  flow),  a  substance  used 
to  facilitate  the  Aision  of  minerals,  and  fre- 
quently their  decomposition.  A  great  variety 
of  materials  serve  this  purpose,  and  one  or  an- 
other is  used  according  to  the  nature  of  the 
body  to  be  treated,  and  the  chemical  action 
desired.  Some  by  their  ready  fusibility  induce 
the  same  condition  in  bodies  in  contact  with 
them  which  are  diflcult  to  melt;  others,  though 
they  may  be  as  infusible  as  the  compounds  they 
are  brought  in  contact  with,  present  ingredients' 
which  possess  affinities  for  some  of  those  in 
the  body  to  be  acted  upon,  and  fusion  then 
takes  place,  with  mutual  decomposition  and 
recombination  of  elements.  Thus  in  treating 
the  common  silicious  ores  of  iron,  which  are 
extremely  difficult  to  melt,  limestone,  still  more 
infusible,  is  employed,  and  the  lime  uniting 
with  the  silica  enters  at  once  into  fusion,  while 
the  oxide  of  iron,  freed  from  its  original  com- 
bination, is  at  the  same  time  decomposed  by 
the  carbon  of  the  fuel  combining  with  its  oxy- 
gen, and  the  iron  flows  free.  The  carbon  it- 
self may  be  regarded  idso  as  a  flux,  its  action 
being  to  facilitate  this  process  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  the  limestone  does.  Should  the  iron 
ores  be  calcareous,  the  mineral  flux  to  aid  their 
decomposition  must  be  silicious,  that  the  same 
fusible  silicates  may  be  produced.  Borax  is  a 
flux  of  very  general  application,  fh>m  the  readi- 
ness with  which  it  forms  fusible  compounds 
with  silica  and  other  bases.  Hie  subject  will 
be  considered,  as  to  the  application  of  particu- 
lar fluxes,  in  describing  the  metallurgic  treat- 
ment of  the  ores  of  the  various  metals.  (See 
also  BLA.OE  Flux,  and  Bobax.) 

FLUXIONSt    See  Galoulus. 

fLT)  the  popular  name  of  the  diptera,  or 
two- winged  insects,  of  which  a  familiar  exam- 
ple is  the  common  hodse  fly.  They  have  a 
sucking  proboscis,  two  veined  and  membranous 
wings,  and  two  poisers  behind  the  wings;  they 
undergo  a  complete  transformation.  The  char- 
acters of  the  order  have  been  sufficiently  de- 
tailed in  the  article  Dipteba,  and  therefore 
only  some  of  the  most  common  flies  of  the 
family  mmeida  will  be  noticed  here.  The 
house  fly  (mtuca  domeBtiea,  Linn.)  of  Europe 
is  considered  distinct  from  the  American  species 
by  Dr.  Harris,  who  calls  the  latter  M,  ha/rpyia; 
it  begins  to  appear  in  houses  in  July,  sometimes 
a  little  earlier,  becomes  very  abundant  toward 
the  end  of  August,  and  does  not  disappear  until 


294  f: 

killed  hj  cold  weather;  the  eggt  are  deposited 
In  dung,  Id  which  tlie  Hesh;  krvm  undergo 
their  trBDaformatioas ;  cODaeqaentl;  this  spe- 
cies is  most  BumerooB  in  the  vicinity  of  stables 
and  nnclean  places.  The  swarma  of  aumiuer 
are  doubtless  the  progeof  of  a  few  individnols 


HoDH  Fir  (Hum  domutJci),  nii(Diaed. 

which  have  sarviced  the  winter  in  some  pro- 
tected nook,  and  are  not  produced  from  eggs 
laid  the  preceding  season;  it  is  possible  that  a 
few  mar  pass  the  winter  in  the  pupa  state,  and 
bedevelopedbj'the  warmth  of  spring.  Among 
the  thoouitds  of  domestic  flies,  all  are  of  tlie 
same  alza,  those  larger  or  smaller  being  of  dif- 
ferent speciea,  and  neither  verj  old  nor  very 
jonng  individuals  of  the  M.  domatUa.  The 
house  Sj  is  sach  a  constant  companion  of  raan, 
that  its  presence  in  a  coral  or  other  island  is 
BnfBcient  evidence  that  hnman  inhabitanta  are 
not  or  have  not  been  far  distant.  Its  two 
coroponnd  ojea  contain  4,000  facets,  each  the 
cornea  of  a  eeparate  oeellu*;  the  spiracles 
through  which  air  enters  the  trachcK  are  pro- 
vided with  a  kind  of  sieve  formed  by  minute 
interlaced  fibres,  which  prevent  the  introduc- 
tion of  dust  and  foreign  substancea.  The  hard 
parts  of  the  proboscis  are  undeveloped,  in  their 

flace  being  a  fleshy  tongue-like  or^nm,  or  la- 
iam,  bent  ondomeath  the  head  when  at  rest 
Its  knob-like  end  may  be  extended  into  two 
flat,  broad,  fan-shnped  muscular  leaves,  by 
whose  sucker-like  surface  the  fly  laps  up  liquid 
sweets,  as  sugar  dissolved  by  its  own  saliva. 
The  leaves  are  supported  on  a  framework  of 
tracheB,  which  end  in  projecting  hairs,  acting 
OS  a  rasp  on  delicate  surfaces,  and  causing  a 
tingling  on  the  naked  skin  of  man.  It  is  well 
known  that  flies,  like  many  other  inaects,  have 
the  power  of  creeping  op  smooth  perpendicular 
surfaces,  and  of  walking  on  ceilings  with  their 
backs  downward.  The  last  joint  of  the  tarsus 
has  two  strong  books,  and  a  pur  of  membra- 
noDseipansiouB(7'u/ft//i),  beset  with  numerous 
hairs,  each  having  a  minute  disk  at  the  ex- 
tremity. Tliere  has  been  considerable  differ- 
ence (^  opinion  as  to  the  precise  mode  in  which 
this  apparatus  ennbles  the  fly  to  walk  in  op- 

g>sition  to  tlie  force  of  gravity.  Derham, 
ome,  Kirby,  and  Spence  believed  that  the 
pulvilli  act  as  suckers,  a  vacuum  being  formed 
beneath,  and  that  the  insect  is  held  up  by  the 
preasure  of  the  atmosphere  against  their  upper 


sarfoce;  others  have  maintained  that  the  ad- 
hesion is  due  to  a  viscid  liquid  secreted  from 
the  bottom  of  the  foot.    Dr.  Ilooke  and  Mr. 
Ulackwall  assert  that  the  soles  of  the  feet  are 
so  closely  beset  with  minute  bristles  that  they 
cannot  be  brought  in  contact  with  any  surface 
so  as  to  produce  a  vacuum,  and  believe  that 
the  support  is  owing  to  the  strictly  mechanical 
action  of  these  hooka.     Mr.  Hepworth  ("Jour- 
nal of  Microscopical  Science,"  vols.  ii.  and  iii.) 
reconciles  these  apparently  contradictory  opin- 
ions by  the  conclusion  that  the  minute  disks  at 
the  end  of  the  individual  hairs  act  an  suckers, 
each  of  them   secreting   a  non-viscid  liquid, 
which  renders  the  adhesion  perfect ;  a  strnctnre 
which  exisU  on  a  larger  scale  in  the  feet  of 
dytuctu  and  other  beetles.     Mr.  White,  in  bis 
"  Natural  History  of  Selbome,"  observes,  in 
conflrmation  of  the  views  of  Derham,  that  to- 
ward the  close  of  the  year,  when  flies  crowd 
the  windows  in  a  sluggish  and  torpid  condi- 
tion, they  are  hardly  able  to  lift  their  legs, 
and  many  are  actually  glued  to  the  glass,  and 
there  die  from  inability  to  overcome  the  pres- 
sure of  the  atmosphere.     It  is  well  known 
that   some   lizards  possesa   h  similar  faculty, 
and   a   similar   apparatus  to    account  for   it 
A  dish  of  strong  green  tea,  well  sweetened, 
will  be  eagerly  tasted  by  fliea.  and  prove  a  cer- 
tain poison ;  according  to  Mr.  Spence,  a  netting 
of  large  meshes  stretched  across  a  window  of 
a  room  ligbted  only  on  ond  side  will  not  be 
passed  by  flies.— The  blue-bottle  or  blow  fly 
(if.  [ealiiphoTa]  romiforto,  Linn.)  is  o  large, 
buzdng    species,   blue-black,   with   a  broad, 
steel- blue,  hairy  hind 
body;     it   is   found 
in     summer     about 
slaughter  houses  and 
all     jilaees     where 
meata       are      kept, 
which    it    frequents 
for  the  purpose  of 
depositing  its  e^^  on 
animal     substances. 
The    eggs,    nsnally 
called  fly  blows,  are 
batched  in  two   or 
[j^         three  hours;  thelar- 
Bioe-Boiiie  (Mma  Tomttorii>  '^^  increase  SO  rapld- 
Uin  ud  Pupi,  ly  in  three  or  four 

days,  and  are  so  vo- 
racious, that  Linneeus  did  not  greatly  eia^e- 
rate  when  he  said  that  the  larvce  of  three  fe- 
males of  tliis  species  will  devour  the  carcasa 
of  a  horse  aa  quickly  as  would  a  lion;  they 
pass  the  puna  state  in  the  ground  or  in  soma 
crevice,  the  larval  skin  not  being  cast  ofl^,  but 
changed  into  on  e^-Blia|)ed  ease;  from  this 
tbey  emerge  as  flies  in  a  few  days,  or,  if  hatched 
late  in  the  season,  remain  unchanged  through 
the  winter.  A  smaller,  brilliant,  blue-green 
fly,  with  black  legs,  much  resembling  the  M, 
{Iveilia)  Ca»ar  of  Europe,  lays  its  eggs  on 
meat  and  the  carcasses  of  animals. — The  flesh 
fly  {tarecpluiga  eamaria,  Meig.),  soKewhai 


larger  tfaan  th«  blow  9j,  u  ovo-viTiparons ;  it 
drops  the  living  larvie  on  dead  and  dec&ying 
animal  matter,  and  these  active  little  soavcn- 
gen  corameaee  at  once  their  work  of  purifi- 
cation. A  eiugle  female  will  produce  about 
90,000  joQDg,  which  have  been  ascertained  b; 
Bedi  to  increase  in  weight  nearlj  200-fold  in 
24  honra;  Reaumur  found  the  aasemblaite  of 
embrjo  flies  in  this  insect  to  be  coiled  like  a 
watch  spring,  about  2i  in.  long  when  nn- 
rolled;  the  larvte  arrive  at  matoritj  in  sncces- 
sion,  and  the  mother  oa  asnal  dies  soon  aAer 
the  brood  i«  hntched.  Tbia  European  species 
is  black,  with  ]ii;liter  stripes  on  the  ahoolders, 
and  graviah  bla«k  abdomen  checkered  with 
lighter  squares.  Another  specie*  of  Europe  ia 
the  S.  mortuorura  (Lion.),  Ave  or  six  lines 
long,  with  a  golden  bead,  grajiab  black  thorax, 
ateel-blue  abdomen,  and  white  wing  scales. 
Both  of  these  sometimes  deposit  tbeir  young 
on  woanda  and  ill-conditioned  nlcen  of  the 
living  human  body.  The  largest  American 
apeciea  is  the  S.  Oeorgina  (Wiedemann),  the 
females  of  which  are  abont  half  on  inch  long ; 
the  &ce  is  silvery  white,  with  a  blaok  spot 
between  the  copper- colored  eyes;  the  thorai 
light  gray,  with  seven  black  atripes;  the  hind 
bodj,  conical  and  satiny,  is  checkered  with 
block  and  white ;  they  appear  about  the  end 
of  June,  and  continue  till  after  the  middle  of 
Angnat.  In  thia  genus  the  briatles  on  the  an- 
tennte  are  plumose. — The  dung  fly  {Kotophaga 
ttereoraria,  Meig,),  of  a  yellowish  olive  color, 
deposita  ita  eggs  in  soft  dung;  at  the  upper 
end  they  have  two  diver^nt  procesaea  wliich 
prevent  their  sbking  too  far  into  the  nidus. 
The  S.  fureata  (Harris)  of  the  United  States 
has  the  same  habits,  and  has  been  erroneously 
obarged  with  producing  the  potato  rot,  simply 
because  the  larvffi  are  found  upon  the  stalks  of 
this  plant,  developed  from  eggs  laid  in  the  sar- 
rounding  manure.  The  malea  are  yellow,  with 
h^y  body  and  lega,  and  long  narrow  wings, 
And  are  abont  half  aa  large  aa  a  honey  bee;  the 
females  are  smaller,  less  hairy,  and  olive-col- 
ored ;  both  young  and  adult  insects  live  upon 
dung,  and  do  not  injnre  plants. — The  stable  fly 
(itomoii/i  ealeilrans,  Meig.)  ia  a  well  known 
tormentor  of  animals  and  man,  whose  skin  it 
perforates  by  a  pwnful  bite  in  anltry  weather 
and  just  before  rains ;  it  resembles  very  closely 
the  honae  fly,  except  that  the  antennfe  are 
feathered,  the  proboscis  very  long  and  slender, 
and  the  size  smaller;  it  attacks  the  legs,  pierc- 
ing through  thick  stockings  and  the  thickest 
hair,  rotarning  to  the  attack  as  soon  as  driven 
away;  it  is  solitary,  not  social  like  the  house 
fly,  and  seldom  enters  houses  unless  driven  in 
by  bod  weather ;  it  is  most  abundant  in  Angust 
and  September,  when  it  is  a  great  pest  to 
horses  and  cattle;  it  is  abont  one  third  of  an 
inch  long,  and  lays  ita  eggs  in  dnng,  in  which  the 
yonng  are  hatched  and  undergo  their  transfor- 
mations.— The  clieese  fly  (piopkila  auH,  Fal- 
len,) is  only  ^  of  an  inch  long,  shining  black, 
with  transparent  wings  and  yellowish  hind 


legs.  By  ita  long  ovipoutor  It  penetrates  the 
cracks  of  cheese,  and  deposita  about  S50  eggs, 
which  are  developed  in  a  lew  days  iuto  mag- 
gots or  skippers;  these  larvto  have  two  horny 


CtiHM  Fir  (Flaidilk  etiel\ 

hooked  mandibles,  which  they  use  for  digging 
into  the  cheese,  and  for  locomotion  instep  of 
feet    This  larva  leaps  20  or  80  times  its  own 


Lim  of  Flophlla  (ud. 

length,  ilrst  erecting  itself  on  the  tail,  then 
bending  into  a  circle  and  seizing  the  skin  near 
the  tail  with  its  hooked  jaws,  and  finally  pro- 
jecting itself  forward  by  suddenly  throwing 
Itself  into  a  straight  line.  The  droppings  and 
decay  caused  by  these  larvas  give  a  flavor  to 
old  dieese  which  ia  much  relished  by  epicures. 
The  wine  fly,  living  in  old  casks  and  bottles,  ia 
also  a  piopkila. — There  are  several  s])ecies  of 
flower  flies,  of  the  genus  anthomyia^  of  small 
aize  and  feeble  flight,  which  sport  in  the  air 
in  swarms  like  gnats,  and  which  in  the  larva 
state  are  very  injurious  to  vegetation ;  siime  of 
these  maggots  are  like  those  of  common  fiiea, 
others  are  fringed  on  the  sides  with  bnir.  The 
A.  eeparnm  (Meig.),  of  an  ash-gray  color,  with 


black  dorsal  stripes,  and  about  half  the  size  of 
the  house  fly,  lays  its  eggs  on  the  leaves  of  the 
onion  close  to  the  earth ;  its  smooth  white  lar- 
va bore  into  the  bnlb,  and  entirely  destroy  it 
The  A.  bramett  and  A.  lactveanim  are  equally 
destructive  to  the  cabbage  and  lettuce;  the.i. 


296 


FLYCATCHER 


FLYING  FISH 


raphani  (Harris)  attacks  in  the  same  way  the 
radish.  The  A,  sealarU  and  canicularis  give 
rise  to  fringed  maggots,  which  have  heen  not 
nnfrequently  ejected  from  the  human  hody, 
having  probably  been  swallowed  with  vegeta- 
bles in  which  decay  had  commenced ;  as  the 
eggs  in  many  instances  belong  to  species  de- 
positing in  the  ordure  of  privies,  the  larvss 
might  remain  alive  for  a  considerable  period  in 
the  intestines  of  man;  eggs  of  other  muacida 
might  be  introduced  on  meats,  fruits,  salads, 
vegetables,  and  in  impure  water.  In  the 
*^  Transactions ''  of  the  entomological  society 
of  Londoi^  (vol.  ii.,  1837),  Mr.  Hope  gives  a 
tabular  account  of  87  cases  in  which  maggots 
of  the  muscidm  infested  the  human  body,  many 
of  which  were  recognized  as  belonging  to  M. 
domeatica,  C.  vomitoria,  and  3.  camaria;  and 
many  cases  have  since  been  recorded  in  medi- 
cal joumals^^ 

fLTCATCHER,  the  popular  name  of  many 
dentirostral  or  tooth-billed  birds,  of  the  order 
paeserea  and  subfamily  mtiseieapinai.  They 
nave  bills  of  various  lengths,  generally  broad 
and  flattened  at  -the  base,  with  the  culmen 
curved  and  the  sides  compressed  to  the  emar- 
ginated  tip;  the  gape  is  furnished  with  long 
and  strong  bristles,  for  the  easier  securing  of 
their  flying  prey ;  the  wings  are  usually  long, 
as  also  is  the  tail ;  the  tarsi  short  and  weak ; 
the  toes  long,  the  outer  generally  united  at  the 
base.  The  subfamily  mtmcapincs  includes  the 
following  genera:  eonophctga  (Vieill.)»  with  7 
species,  found  in  the  thick  woods  of  tropical 
America ;  platyrhynehus  (Desm.),  with  about 
20  species,  in  the  brushwood  and  trees  of 
tropical  America ;  platysteira  (Jard.  and  Sel- 
by),  African,  with  a  dozen  species ;  todiroatrum 
(Less.),  with  16  species,  South  American ;  mtis- 
eiwra  (Cuv.),  8  species.  South  American ;  rhi- 
pidura  (Vig.  and  Horsf.),  40  species,  found  in 
India  and  its  archipelago.  New  Zealand,  and 
Australia;  tchitrea  (Less.),  20  species,  in  Af- 
rica, India,  and  its  archipelago;  nwnareha 
(Vig.  and  Horsf.),  10  species,  in  Australia  and 
the  islands  of  the  Indian  ocean ;  aeisura  (Vig. 
and  Horsf  A  8  Australian  species;  myiagra 
Vig.  and  Horsf.),  14  species,  in  Australia  and 
India ;  hemichelidan  (Hodgs.),  2  species,  in  the 
hills  of  Nepaul;  niltava  (Hodgs.),  20  species, 
in  India  and  its  archipelago ;  muscieapa  (Linn.), 
with  70  species,  in  most  parts  of  the  old  conti- 
nent ;  and  aetopha^a  (Swains.),  nearly  20  spe- 
cies, in  North  and  South  America.  The  last 
is  a  very  active  genus,  pursuing  swarms  of  flies 
from  the  top  to  the  bottom  of  a  tree  in  a  zig- 
zag but  nearly  perpendicular  direction,  the 
clicking  of  the  bills  being  distinctly  heard  as 
they  snap  up  the  insects  in  the  course  of  a  few 
seconds ;  the  American  redstart  (S.  ruticilla^ 
Swains.),  placed  in  the  family  ayhicolida  by 
Prof.  Baird  (in  his  Pacific  railroad  report),  is 
a  good  example  of  the  genus. — There  is  prob- 
ably no  family  of  birds  about  which  syste- 
matic writers  on  ornithology  differ  more  than 
on  that  of  the  flycatchers.    Prof.  Baird  follows 


Burmeister  in  adopting  the  order  inaeaaorei, 
and  Cabanis  in  placing  most  of  them  in  the 
suborder  elamatorea ;  he  calls  the  whole  family 
eoleopteridcB^  of  which  the  subfamily  tyranninm 
is  what  chiefly  interests  us  here.  The  fork- 
tailed  and  swallow-tailed  flycatchers  belong  to 
the  genus  miUnUua  (Swains.) ;  the  Arkai^as, 
Cassin's,  and  Conchas  flycatchers  to  the  genus 
tyrannui  (Cuv.) ;  the  great  crested,  Mexican, 
Cooper's,  and  Lawrence's,  to  the  genus  myiar- 
ehua  (Cab.) ;  the  black,  pewee,  and  Say's,  to 
the  genus  aayomia  (Bonap.) ;  the  olive-sided 
to  the  genus  contopua  (Cab.)  ;  TrailPs,  the  least, 
the  small  green-crested,  and  the  yellow-bcdUed, 
to  the  genus  empidonax  (Cab.) ;  the  last  four 
genera  are  included  in  the  genus  mytohiua  of 
Gray.  The  Canada  and  Bonaparte's  flycatchers 
are  warblers,  belonging  to  the  genus  myiodioe- 
tea  (And.)  or  aetoplutga  (Swains.) ;  the  solitary, 
white-eyed,  warbling,  yellow-throated,  red- 
eyed,  Hutton's,  and  the  black-headed  flycatch- 
ers are  vireos ;  the  blue-gray  flycatcher  belongs 
to  the  family  of  titmice,  and  to  the  genus  po- 
lioptila  (Sclater).  The  flycatchers  are  active 
and  fearless,  ana  very  beneficial  to  man  by  de- 
stroying flies,  moths,  and  various  insects  and 
grubs  injurious  to  vegetation  and  to  animals. 

FLTINCl  FISH  (exocoBttia,  Linn.),  a  genus  of 
fishes  belonging  to  the.  order  pharyngcgnathi 
and  the  family  aeonibereaocidm  (Mnller),  con- 
taining, according  to  Valenciennes,  88  q>eoie8. 
This  genus  is  at  once  recognizable  by  its  large 
pectoral  fins,  capable  of  being  used  as  para- 
chutes, and  to  a  certain  extent  as  wings ;  other 
fishes  have  the  faculty  of  leaping  out  of  the 
water  and  of  sustaining  themselves  in  the  air 
for  a  short  time,  but  the  exoeceti  far  excel  these, 
and  approach  much  nearer  in  this  act  the  true 
flight  of  birds  than  does  the  flying  dragon  or  the 
fiying  squirrel.  Navigators  in  all  tropicid  seas 
are  familiar  with  these  sprightly  fishes,  which 
relieve  the  monotony  of  ocean  life  as  birds  do 
the  silence  of  the  woods.  The  characters  of 
the  long  pectorals,  the  strength  of  the  muscles 
which  move  them,  and  the  size  of  the  bony 
arch  to  which  they  are  attached,  are  the  essen- 
tial conditions  of  their  flight.  Numerous  ob- 
servations prove  that  these  shining  bands  pur- 
sue their  flights  when  no  danger  threatens,  in 
the  {till  enjoyment  of  happiness  and  security, 
for  mere  sport,  and  probably  as  a  necessity  of 
their  structure.  Their  lot  indeed  would  be  far 
from  enviable  were  their  flights  the  frantic  at- 
tempts to  escape  from  pursuing  bonitos  and 
dolphins  (caryphcena),  for  in  the  air  their  dan- 
ger is  quite  as  great  from  the  albatross,  frigate 
pelicans,  petrels,  and  other  ocean  birds.  This 
habit  belongs  to  the  same  class  of  phenomena 
as  the  flying  of  the  dragon  and  squirrel,  the 
climbing  of  trees  by  the  anabas,  and  the  travel- 
ling across  the  land  by  the  common  eel.  Hum- 
boldt drew  attention  to  the  great  muscular  force 
necessary  for  the  flight  of  these  flshes ;  he  rec- 
ognized that  the  nerves  supplying  the  pectorals 
are  three  times  as  large  as  those  going  to  the 
yentrals;  the  muscular  power  is  sufficient  to 


FLYING  nSH 


Sd7 


nieo  them  10  or  80  ft.  Above  the  snrfaoe,  and 
to  Bast^n  them  with  a  velocity  greater  than 
tbftt  of  the  fastest  ahip  for  a  dutance  of  wreral 
hmidred  foot  The  pectorals  strike  the  air  with 
rapid  impulses,  acorcelj  more  perceptible  tbaa 
tlie  qnick  Tibrations  of  the  humming  bird's 
vr'iDg.  Humboldt  says  they  move  in  a  right 
hne,  in  a  direction  opposite  to  that  of  the  waves, 
bnt  other  observers  assert  poratively  that  tliej 
can  tnm  nearly  to  a  rieht  angle  from  thisoourse 
before  settling  into  the  water  again ;  though 
they  generally  come  out  on  the  top  of  a  wave, 
they  can  pass  over  several  of  their  sammits 
before  descending.  The  size  of  the  swimming 
bladder  is  enormous,  occupying  more  than  half 
the  length  of  the  body ;  thongh  this,  not  com- 
mnnicating  with  the  intestine,  is  of  no  advan* 
tage  in  making  the  exit  from  the  water,  it  con- 
tributes to  prolong  the  flight  by  rendering  the 
body  more  buoyant.  The  flying  facnity  of  these 
fishes,  the  pleasing  spectacle  of  their  troops 
qiorting  around  the  bows  of  vessels,  the  glit- 
tering of  their  beaatifol  colors  in  the  tropical 
sun,  the  delicate  flavor  of  their  flesh,  and  the 
fact  of  their  frequently  leaping  on  board  ships, 
have  attracted  the  attention  of  mariners  from 
early  times ;  but  until  a  comparatively  recent 
period  only  two  species  were  admitted  by  natu- 
ralists, who  gave  them  a  distribution  as  wide 
as  the  tropical  and  temperate  seas.  The  order 
to  which  the  flying  Ssb  belongs  is  oharaoterized 
by  having  the  lower  pharyngeal  bones  nnited 
to  form  a  single  bone.  The  generic  characters 
of  taoealut  are ;  a  head  and  body  covered  with 
scales,  with  a  scaly  keel  on  each  flank ;  the 
pectoral  fins  nearly  as  long  as  the  body ;  the 
dorsal  over  the  anal ;  tke  head  flattened,  with 
Ui^eyes;  both  jaws  with  small  pointed  teeth, 
and  the  pharyngeals  w  ith  nnmerons  compressed 
ones;  npper  lobe  of  the  tail  smaller  tiian  the 
lower;  the  flns  without  spines;  the  intestine 
straight,  without  pyloric  o»oft.— The  common 
flying  fish  of  the  Mediterranean  (E.  veHtant, 
lann.)  i»  recognized  by  its  long  white  ventral 


ZHTOpeiui  Ttjlof  Tlah  (Exocociu  Tolltuu)- 

fins;  the  body  is  generally  short  and  thick, 
robust  in  the  pectoral  region,  rounded  above, 
flattened  on  the  sides ;  the  head  is  large,  the 
mnzile  obtuse,  the  lower  jaw  the  Itniger,  the 


month  small,  the  teeth  in  the  anterior  part  of 
the  Jaw,  the  palate  smooth,  the  tongue  free, 
the  gill  openings  large,  and  the  branchial  rays 
10  to  12  I  the  humeral  bones  are  large  and 
flrmly  articulated  to  the  bead,  and  the  pecto- 
rals, which  are  attached  to  tliem,  are  so  arranged 
that  when  the  flexors  contract  Ae  fins  are 
spread  horizontally,  and  are  applied  along  the 
udeswben  the  wings  ore  shut ;  the  movements 
do  not  diff'er  from  those  of  other  fishes  except 
in  the  freedom  permitted  by  the  articulation ; 
the  fin  rays  are  very  long,  and  not  deeply  di- 
vided ;  the  ventrals,  inserted  in  front  of  the 
middle  of  the  body,  are  completely  abdominal 
and  well  developed  ;  the  dorsal  is  small,  low, 
and  triangular;  the  anal  very  short,  and  the 
caudal  deeply  forked ;  the  swimming  bladder 
extends  along  the  spine  even  under  the  last 
caudal  vertebrte,  protected  by  their  lower  bony 
arches,  a  disposition  found  in  no  other  fish. 
The  general  color  is  a  leaden  gray,  with  green- 
ish tinU  on  the  upper  half  of  the  body,  and 
silvery  white  below  ;  the  pectorals  have  a  wide 
whitish  border ;  the  dorsal  is  gray,  the  caudal 
brown,  the  anal  bluish,  and  the  ventrals  whi- 
tish. The  largest  specimens  are  rarely  more 
than  16  in.  long,  and  they  are  found  in  all 
parts  of  the  Mediterranean.  The  E.  etolan* 
(Linn.)  is  found  in  so  many  parta  of  the 
world,  that  it  may  be  called  cosmopolitan. 
Tbe  average  length  is  between  8  and  9  in. ; 
the  eyes  are  of  moderate  ate,  the  teeth  very 
small,  the  dorsal  and  anal  flns  long  and  low, 
tlie  pectorals  extending  to  the  caodal,  the 
ventrals  very  abort  and  attached  to  the  ante- 
rior third  of  the  body  ;  tbe  color  is  rich  ultra- 
marine blue  on  the  back,  and  nlvery  on  the 
abdomen ;  the  flns  ore  of  a  darker  blue,  the 
pectorals  being  nnspotted.  There  are  five 
species  on  tlie  coast  of  North  America,  which 
have  been  divided  into  three  genera  by  Dr. 
Weinland.  The  common  species  (£*.  azilimti, 
Qmel.),  found  from  the  golf  of  Mexico  to  the 
coast  of  New  Jersey,  is  from  IS  te  16  in.  long, 
with  dusky  pectorals  and  ventrals,  band^ 
with  brown  in  young  specimens;  the  ventrals 
are  longer  than  the  anal,  and  nearer  the  vent ; 
the  dorsal  and  lower  lobe  of  the  caudal  are 
spotted  with  brown  and  black.  The  New 
York  flying  fish  (E.  NovAoraeentu,  Miteh.), 
abont  a  foot  long,  has  been  foand  from  the 
middle  states  to  Newfoundland;  the  color 
above  is  dark  green,  the  pectorals  brown  with 
the  end  bordered  with  white;  the  ventrals  are 
very  long,  nearest  to  the  vent,  and  the  wings 
reach  to  the  taU. — Some  species  have  thelower 
lip  much  developed,  with  one  or  two  tough 
appendages  banging  from  the  chin ;  these  have 
been  separated  as  the  genus  eypnlunu,  and 
include  two  species  of  oor  coast.  The  G.  eo- 
matia  (Miteh.)  has  a  black  cirrhns  on  the  chin 
extending  half  the  length  of  the  body,  which 
is  abont  G  in. ;  the  pectorals  do  not  extend 
to  the  end  of  the  ventrals,  the  latter  touching 
the  candal ;  it  has  been  fbnnd  ttara  New  York 
I  to    the    southern    states.      The    C.   /iireatug 


298  FLYING  LEMUR 

(Mitch.)  haa  two  appendages  from  the  lower 
JBw  ;  it  is  3  to  6  id.  loDg,  and  extends  from 
New  York  to  the  gulf  of  Mexico ;  the  pecto- 
ioIb  are  large,  ani]  the  ventrals  very  long.  The 
middling  flying  fiah  Dr.  Weioland  has  made 
the  tvpe  of  a  new  genus  kaloeypgeltu ;  t 

ries  (H.  me*ogatter,  Weinlaad)  is  found 
West  ladies,  varying  in  length  from  i  ti 
in. ;  the  ventrals  are  very  abort,  about  c 
quarter  as  long  as  the  pectorals,  anterior  to  the 
middle  of  the  body,  between  the  anus  and  the 
peclorals ;  the  lower  jaw  is  angular, — The  fly- 
ing gurnard  {dactyiopUmt  volitan*,  Cuv.),  a 
spiny  fish  of  the  family  triglida  or  Klerogtnida, 
has  also  been  called  Dying  fish  by  navigators. 
The  species  has  been  described  aa  occurring  in 
the  Mediterranean,  in  the  tropical  seas,  in  the 
West  Indies,  and  the  gulf  of  Mexico,  and  along 
the  American  coast  from  Nevfoundland  south- 
ward ;  probably  more  than  one  B|)ecies  will  be 
found  over  such  an  extended  range.  These 
flying  flsb  or  sea  awallows  behave  very  much 
like  the  txoeati^  swimming  in  immense  shoals, 
leaping  out  of  the  water  for  sport  and  for 
safety,  preved  apon  by  marine  and  aSrial  ene- 
mies, and  falling  in  consequence  into  eqnally 


FlTlng  Goroord  (Dielrloplenu  Tolitent). 

cmel  hands  on  board  vessels  which  come 
within  their  ranf^e.  From  the  rapid  drying 
of  their  pectorals  and  their  less  moscular 
power,  they  fall  into  the  water  again  sooner 
than  do  the  true  flying  fiah;  their  pectorals 
aerve  merely  as  parachutes.  They  vary  from 
G  to  8  in.  in  length. 

FLTING  LEHCB,  MMgt,  or  Cat  MHkcy,  the 
common  name  of  animals  of  the  family  galeopi- 
theeidm,  elevated  into  the  aiAer pteropleuTa  or 
dermoptera  by  some  authors;  they  evidently 
constitute  the  connecting  link  between  the 
qionkeys  and  the  bats.  In  the  single  genus 
galtopitheeua  (Pall.)  the  dental  formula,  ac- 
cording to  Owen,  is:  incisors  j~{,  canines  \Z\ 
premolars  |r#,  and  molars  |if;  the  feet  are  nil 
flve-toed,  witfiout  opposable  thumbs,  united  by 
a  small  membrane,  armed  with  clawa,  and 
adapted  for  climbing.  The  body  is  surrounded 
by  a  hairy  lateral  membrane,  extending  from 
the  sides  of  the  neck  to  the  base  of  the  feet, 
embracing  the  wrisln,  and  continued  between 
the  legs,  involving  the  tail  as  in  many  bats; 
this  membrane,  like  that  of  the  flying  squirrel, 
serves  as  a  parachute  to  snstain  the  animal 
in  its  astonishing  leapa  from  tree  to  tree,  llie 
edges  of  the  lower  incisors  are  serrated  like 


FLYING  SQUIRREL 

the  teeth  of  a  comb ;  the  eyes  lai^e  and  promi- 
nent, the  ears  moderate;  there  are  two  paira 
of  pectoral  mamms.  They  are  nocturnal  ani- 
mals, passing  the  day  suspended  from  trees  bj 
the  bind  claws  like  oats ;  they  are  very  actiro 
at  night,  climbing  with  facility,  and  sprinpng 


Firing  Loniu  tOileoplthKiu  tsIui). 

tram  tree  to  tree  for  a  distance  of  100  yards; 
the  females  carry  the  young  in  the  fold  of  ab- 
dominal integument,  when  travelling  among 
the  trees;  their  food  consists  principally  of 
fruits,  insects,  small  birds,  and  eggs;  their 
movements  on  the  ground  are  rather  awk- 
ward. The  largest  species  {O.  tariegatvM, 
Geofir.)  ia  about  the  Size  of  a  cat,  but  slim- 
mer ;  the  color  varies  frem  light  gray  to  russet, 
spotted  and  striped  with  black  and  light  colors. 
All  the  species  live  in  the  East  Indian  archi- 
pelago. Though  emitting  a  disagreeable  odor, 
the  flesh  is  considered  palatable  by  the  natives. 
FLTIHC  SQCIBREl.  {pteromyt,  Cuv.;  Gr. 
nTlpov,  wing,  and  /ivf,  mouse),  a  genus  of  the 
family  leiurtda,  differing  from  common  sqnir- 
rels  principally  in  the  expansion  of  the  skiti 
between  the  fore  and  hind  feet,  by  means  of 
which  the  animal  sails  in  a  descending  line 
from  one  tree  to  another,  supported  as  by  a 
parachute.  There  are  two  subdiviMons  of  the 
genus:  pteromyt,  with  rounded  tail  and  com- 
plicated molar  teeth;  and  triaropteni*  (F. 
Cuv.),  with  flattened  tail  and  molars  simple  aa 
in  other  squirrels.  The  species  of  the  United 
States  and  the  single  one  found  in  Eurojie  be- 
long to  the  last  subgenus.  The  dentition  and 
general  appearance  are  like  those  of  squirreb; 
the  head  and  ears  are  round,  and  the  eyes 
large ;  there  are  four  elongated  toes  with  sharp 
claws,  and  the  rudiment  of  a  thumb,  on  the 
fore  feet ;  five  long  toes,  fitted  for  climbing,  on 
the  hind  feet ;  the  sailing  membrane  ia  attached 
in  front  to  a  slender  movable  bone  about  an 
inch  long,  extending  at  a  right  angle  from  the 
hand;  the  membrone  ia  hairy  on  both  sides, 
flying  squirrel  (P.  or  S.  voluctlla. 


FLYING  SQUIRREL 

Pallas)  U  about  lOin.  tong,  of  which  one  half 
U  the  tAil;  the  color  above  ix  light  jellowish 
brown,  the  tail  being  rstber  sraoke-colored, 
and  white  beneath ;  the  fur,  as  in  all  the  spe- 
cies, is  very  soft  and  fine.  It  ia  a  noctariuil 
aniinnt,  rarely  appearing  nntil  sunset,  at  which 
time  its  gambols  aud  graceful  flights  maj  be 
often  seen  in  places  freqnented  bj  it ;  the  large 
eyes  indicate  its  habits,  which  make  it  rather 
an  nninte resting  pet,  aa  it  is  lively  only  at 
night;  it  is  harmless  and  gentle,  and  soon  be- 
comes tame,  eatiag  the  Dsool  food  of  sqairrels. 
There  is  nothing  resembling  the  act  of  Hying 
in  its  movements,  as  wa  see  in  the  flying  fish ; 
it  sails  from  a  high  to  a  lower  point,  a  distance 
of  40  or  60  yards,  and  when  it  wishes  t«  alight 
the  impetus  of  its  course  enables  it  to  ascend 
in  a  curved  line  to  about  one  third  of  the 
height  frnm  which  it  descended ;  running 
qaickly  to  the  top  of  the  tree,  it  redescends  in 
a  similar  manner,  and  will  thus  travel  B 
quarter  of  a  mile  in  the  woods  in  a  few  min- 


njiog  SqDlml  (Seionpleros  Qadwnloi), 

at«s  withont  teaching  the  earth.  Flying  squir- 
rels are  gregarions,  six  or  seven  being  found  in 
a  nest,  and  considerable  numbers  in  the  aanie 
hollow  or  artificial  cavity,  associating  with 
bats  and  other  nocturnal  animals;  the  food 
CMisista  of  nnts  and  seeds,  bnds,  and  even  meat 
and  young  birds.  They  produce  from  three  to 
six  young  ot  a  time,  and  have  two  litters  in 
the  southern  states,  in  May  and  September. 
This  species  extends  from  Upper  Canada  and 
northern  New  York  to  the  extreme  southern 
limits  of  the  United  States,  east  of  the  Missis- 
sippi. The  northern  flying  squirrel  (P.  or  S. 
BadKmiai,  Gmel.),  found  frgm  Maine  to  Min- 
nesota and  to  the  north,  is  considerably  larger ; 
the  length  of  tlie  head  and  body  is  8  in.  and 
the  tail  5^;  the  color  above  is  yellowish  brown, 
miied  with  cinereous,  the  hair  lead-colored  at 
the  rooU  beneath  white.  It  is  common  in 
Lower  Canada;  in  the  Lake  Superior  copper 
regioo,  in  the  new  and  remote  mining  loca- 


FOG  299 

tions,  where  rats  and  mice  have  not  yet  pene- 
trated, this  species  lives  familiarly  in  the  walla 
of  the  log  cabins,  coming  out  at  night  in  quest 
of  food,  and  sometimes  committing  sad  havoc 
among  the  miner's  scanty  stores.  Other  Ameri- 
can species  are  the  J",  or  S.  alpinui  (Kivh.), 
from  the  Kucky  mountains,  resembling  the 
last,  but  a  little  larger,  and  the  membrane 
having  a  straight  border;  and  the  F.  or  S. 
OregoaentU  (Bach.),  in  Oregon  and  California, 
about  the  size  of  the  northern  species,  with  a 
very  broad  membrane. — ^The  European  species 
(P.  or  S.  volant,  Linn.),  found  in  Siberia,  Po- 
land, and  Russia  proper,  is  a  little  larger  than 
the  S.  VBliieeila,  whitish  gray  or  cinereous 
above,  and  white  below ;  it  lives  wholly  on 
trees,  eating  the  tender  shoots  of  resinous  and 
other  trees.  The  species  of  pteromy*  inhabit- 
ing India  and  its  archipelago  attain  a  larger 
size  than  any  of  the  preceding.  The  taguan 
{P. petawrUta,  Pall.)  is  as  large  aaahalf-grown 
cat;  the  mole  is  bright  chestnat  above,  and 
red  beneath ;  the  female  brown  above,  whitish 
below.  There  are  several  species  in  Java,  of 
wliich  the  best  known  are  the  P.  genibarbii 
(Horsf.)  and  P.  tagitta  (Penn.).  The  former 
is  remarkable  for  the  radiated  disposition  of 
long  slander  bristles  on  the  sides  of  the  head ; 
though  living  in  a  hot  climate,  the  fur  is  thick 
and  downy ;  the  general  color  is  gray  above, 
with  a  tawny  tint  on  the  back,  and  white  be- 
neath ;  it  is  about  as  large  as  the  common  red 
squirrel  The  second  species,  like  the  flrst,  is 
rare,  and  lives  principally  on  fruits ;  the  color 
is  brown  above  and  wliite  below.  Several 
other  species  are  described. 

FOEESTER,  WUhelH,  a  German  astronomer, 
bom  Xt  GrOnberg,  Silesia,  Dec.  16,  1832.  He 
studied  in  Berlin  and  in  Bonn,  where  lie 
graduated  in  1854.  He  became  second  assis- 
tant at  the  Berlin  observatory  in  1865,  first  as- 
sistant in  18S0,  professor  in  1863,  and  direc- 
tor of  the  observatory  in  March,  18Ro.  He  is 
prominently  connected  with  the  most  impor- 
tant astronomical  periodicals,  and  secretary  of 
the  astronomical  society,  and  since  the  close  of 
1868  has  been  at  the  head  of  the  com 
for  establishing  German  weights  and  n 
upon  a  metrical  basis. 

FIETIISi    Bee  Ehbbtoloot. 

FOS,  a  body  of  aqueous  vapor  in  the  atmos- 
phere, like  the  clouds  seen  in  the  sky  above, 
bnt  distingnished  from  them  both  by  its  posi- 
tion and  by  the  manner  of  its  formation.  A 
large  class  of  clouds  result  from  the  diminu- 
tion of  temperature  produced  by  the  elevation 
and  expansion  of  moist  air,  and  a  small  class 
is  due  rather  to  the  cooling  of  the  air  by 
radiation  in  a  liorizontal  direction  to  bodies 
of  cooler  air ;  while  again  a  very  important 
class  arise  from  the  radiation  of  heat  verti- 
cally into  the  cold  interstellar  regions.  To 
these  simple  causes  also  must  be  attributed 
the  formation  of  a  large  class  of  fogs.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  peculiar  featnro  in  the  origin 
of  a  nomW,  and  especially  of  the  heaviest 


300 


FOG 


FOGGIA 


fogs  that  ooonr,  consists  in  this,  that  the  moist 
air  radiates  its  heat  downward  to  a  compara- 
tively cold  body  of  either  water,  earth,  or  air. 
The  former  case  occurs  when  the  earth,  after 
a  period  of  low  temperature,  becomes  qaite 
cold,  and  the  winds  then  wafb  warm  moist 
air  over  the  cold  regions,  while  the  small  con- 
ducting power  of  the  earth,  ice,  or  snow  does 
not  allow  its  surface  at  once  to  follow  the 
change  in  temperature.  Fogs  of  the  second 
class  occur  only  during  very  clear  nights ;  the 
radiation  from  the  earth  then  takes  place  with 
great  freedom,  and  the  moist  air  by  this  means 
coming  into  contact  with  the  cold  earth  be- 
comes greatly  reduced  in  temperature,  and 
after  depositing  a  heavy  dew  lies  still  in  the 
valleys  over  the  whole  surface  of  the  ground. 
To  this  body  of  cold  air  the  superincumbent 
atmosphere  radiates  heat  as  freely  as  to  the 
outer  regions  of  the  air,  and  even  more  rapid- 
ly because  of  its  nearness.  When  by  this  pro- 
cess the  temperature  is  reduced  to  the  dew 
point,  the  aqueous  vapor  begins  to  condense 
as  fog,  the  particles  of  which  attach  them- 
selves to  neighboring  solid  bodies,  such  as 
leaves  and  branches  of  trees,  but  in  a  manner 
slightly  different  from  the  formation  of  dew. 
The  third  class  of  fogs,  that  produced  by  the 
radiation  of  atmospheric  heat  to  a  body  of 
cold  water,  may  occur  in  two  ways:  either 
warm  air  may  be  wafted  over  bodies  of  cold 
water,  or  currents  of  cold  water  may  under- 
run  bodies  of  warm  moist  air.  The  fogs  on 
the  coasts  of  New  England,  Nova  Scotia,  and 
Newfoundland,  and  those  of  the  Gulf  stream, 
belong  in  great  measure  to  the  former  class, 
as  the  motion  of  the  cold  ocean  currents  must 
be  conndered  quite  slight  in  comparison  with 
the  rapidly  moving  winds.  To  the  latter  class 
belong  fogs  over  rivers  whose  cold  waters  are 
flowing  rapidly  toward  warmer  regions.  These 
are  important  features  of  the  lower  portions 
of  the  Mississippi,  and  have  been  well  studied 
by  Dr.  W.  M.  Oarpenter.  (See  *' American 
Journal  of  Science"  for  1848.) — Concerning 
the  exact  condition  of  the  vapor  when  in  the 
state  that  constitutes  a  fog,  much  has  been 
written  since  the  flrst  announcement  by  Ejratz- 
enstein  of  his  theory  of  the  existence  of  fog 
vesicles  as  distinct  from  rain  or  dew  drops. 
Notwithstanding  the  labors  of  E&mtz  (1886), 
Meissner  (1867),  Muhry  (1878),  and  others,  it 
must  be  admitted  that  this  theory  is  still  sup- 
ported by  too  few  minutely  accurate  observa- 
tions to  allow  its  unqualified  adoption ;  and  it 
is  safer  to  presume  that  the  particles  of  a  fog 
are  maintained  floating  in  the  air  simply  by 
the  resistance  offered  by  the  atmosphere  to  the 
fall  of  minute  spherical  bodies. — ^The  dry  fog 
that  constitutes  a  characteristic  feature  of  the 
North  American  Indian  summer  is  not  essen- 
tially different  from  the  moor  smoke  {Moor- 
ranch)  of  Europe,  and  has  been  satisfactorily 
traced  to  the  burning  of  extensive  tracts  of 
forest  and  prairie  land.  From  such  fires  the 
diluted  smoke  spreads  with  the  winds  over  im* 


mense  areas.  The  progress  of  these  masses 
of  smoke  in  the  United  States  and  Canada  has 
of  late  years  been  very  closely  followed  by  the 
officers  of  the  weather  bureau  of  the  army 
signal  office,  who  have  frequently  been  able  to 
predict  this  phenomenon.  The  great  fires  of 
1871  in  the  northwest,  and  inde^  throughout 
the  whole  country,  gave  rise  to  remarkable 
exhibitions  of  this  haze.  An  extraordinary 
dry  fog  is  recorded  to  have  covered  the  whole 
of  Europe  in  1788  for  nearly  two  months. 

FOGELBEKG,  Bcngt  Eriuid,  a  Swedish  sculp- 
tor, bom  at  Gothenburg  about  1787,  died  in 
Trieste,  Deo.  21,  1854.  He  was  the  son  of 
a  bronze  founder,  studied  in  Stockholm  and 
Paris,  and  spent  upward  of  80  years  in  Rome, 
taking  rank  next  to  Thorwaldsen.  The  sub- 
jects of  his  most  celebrated  works  are  from 
Greek  and  Scandinavian  mythology,  many  of 
which  are  in  the  museum  and  in  the  private 
galleries  of  Stockholm.  He  also  made  bronze 
statues  of  Gustavus  Adolphus  and  Charles  XI Y. 
(Bemadotte). 

FOClAKiSy  a  market  town  of  Transylvania, 
capital  of  a  district  of  the  same  name,  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Aluta,  82  m.  W.  N.  W.  of  Kron- 
stadt;  pop.  in  1867,  4,714.  It  has  a  strongly 
fortified  castle,  built  at  the  beginning  of  the 
14th  century  and  restored  in  the  early  part  of 
the  17th  by  Bethlen  G4bor.  Fogaras  gives 
title  to  the  United  Greek  archbishop  of  the 
Roumans  in  the  lands  of  the  Hungarian  crown ; 
but  his  residence  is  at  Blasendorf.  On  July  1 2, 
1849,  Bem  was  defeated  here  by  the  Russian 
generals  Engelhardt  and  Ltlders. 

FOfiCilA.  !•  Also  called  Capitanata,  a  proT- 
ince  of  southern  Italy,  bounded  N.  and  £.  by 
the  Adriatic,  and  bordering  on  the  provinces 
of  Bari,  Potenza,  Avellino,  and  Campobasso ; 
area,  2,955  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1872,  819,164.  It 
comprises  the  three  districts  of  Bovino,  Fog- 
gia,  and  San  Severe.  The  Gargano  peninsula 
forms  in  the  southern  part  the  gulf  of  Man- 
fredonia,  on  which  opens  the  vast  plain  of 
Foggia.  The  Gargano  range  extends  over  800 
sq.  m.  on  the  S.  £.  side  of  the  province,  and 
the  branches  of  the  main  Apennines  rise  on 
the  S.  W.  Between  the  barren  mountainous 
regions  are  exceedingly  fertile  valleys.  The 
chief  rivers  are  the  Ofanto,  Fortore,  Candela- 
ro,  Cervaro,  and  Carapella.  The  vine  and  the 
olive  are  extensively  cultivated,  and  among 
the  other  products  are  grain,  tobacco,  licorice, 
hemp,  and  flax.  The  breeding  of  cattle,  par- 
ticularly of  sheep,  is  extensively  pursued.  II* 
A  city,  capital  of  the  province,  in  the  plain 
of  Apulia  (La  Puglia),  80  m.  N.  £.  of  Na- 
ples, connected  by  rail  with  Ancona,  Naples, 
and  Bari;  pop.  i^  1872,  88,188.  It  is  well 
built,  with  wide  dean  streets,  handsome  houses 
and  gateways,  but  no  walls.  It  has  about 
20  churches,  a  cathedral  originaUy  Gothic,  but 
rebuilt  in  a  dififerent  style  after  its  partial  de- 
struction by  an  earthquake  in  1781,  several 
antiquities,  a  public  library,  and  a  theatre. 
The  main  streets  and  public  squares  are  under- 


FOIX 


fOldvAr 


301 


mined  bj  oapacioasyanlts  called /(wm,  in  which 
quantities  of  grain  are  stored  from  year  to 
year.  There  are  many  schools,  inolading  one 
of  agricalture  and  a  seminary  for  girls.  The 
city  is  surrounded  by  fine  plantations  and  vine* 
yards,  but  the  climate  is  unhealthy.  It  has  a 
oonffiderable  trade  in  cattle,  cheese,  capers, 
wine,  oil,  and  other  agricultural  products,  and 
is  a  staple  market  for  com  and  wool.  One 
of  the  principal  fairs  in  the  kingdom  is  held 
here  in  May.  Foggia  is  supposed  to  have  been 
founded  about  the  9th  century,  and  peopled 
from  the  ancient  Arpi  or  Argyrippa,  6  m.  dis- 
tant, the  ruins  of  which  are  still  visible.  It 
was  one  of  the  favorite  residences  of  the  em- 
peror Frederick  II.,  who  built  a  palace  here 
in  1223.  A  gateway  of  this  palaoe  and  a 
large  well  sunk  by  Frederick  still  remain. 
Under  the  waUs  of  the  city,  Manfred,  Frede- 
rick's natural  son,  defeated  the  legate  of  Pope 
Innocent  IV.  and  compelled  him  to  sue  for 
peace.  Charles  I.  of  Aigon  built  a  fortified 
palaoe  here,  in  which  he  and  his  son  Philip  died. 

FODL9  a  town  of  S.  France,  capital  of  the 
department  of  Ari^ge,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
river  Ari6ge  at  its  junction  with  the  Arget,  in 
a  narrow  valley  at  the  foot  of  the  Pyrenees, 
404  m.  S.  of  Paris,  and  48  m.  B.  by  £.  of 
Toulouse,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  rail ; 
pop.  in  1866,  6,746.  It  has  considerable  trade 
and  various  manufactures,  the  principal  of 
which  is  iron.  It  was  founded  probably  about 
the  2d  century,  and  in  the  11th  century  be- 
came the  capital  of  a  county,  and  was  a  strong- 
bold  of  importance.  The  county  of  Foiz  near- 
ly corresponded  to  the  department  of  Ari6ge. 

IOIX9  Csuto  ef,  a  French  family  conspicuous 
from  the  11th  to  the  beginning  of  the  16th  cen- 
tary. — Raymond  Roger  reigned  from  1188  to 
1228.  He  engaged  in  the  third  crusade  among 
the  followers  of  Philip  Augustus,  and  distin- 
guished himself  by  his  bravery  at  the  taking 
of  Acre.  After  his  return  to  France  he  sided 
with  the  count  of  Toulouse  and  the  Albigenses 
against  the  crusading  forces  led  by  Simon  de 
Montfort,  and  contributed  to  the  raising  of  the 
siege  of  Toulouse,  during  which  Montfort  was 
killed. — ^His  son,  Roqbb  Bebvasd  II.,  styled 
the  Great,  who  succeeded  him  in  1228,  followed 
his  example,  but  in  1229  was  forced  into  sub- 
mission to  the  king  and  the  pope. — Rogbb 
Bkbhabd  III.  (1265-1802)  gamed  considerable 
repatation  as  a  troubadour,  but  was  unsuccess- 
ful in  his  wars  with  the  kings  of  France  and 
Aragon;  he  was  several  times  imprisoned. — 
Gaston  II.  (1315-1848)  did  good  service  to 
Philip  VI.  of  France  in  his  war  with  the  Eng- 
lish, and  assisted  Alfonso  XI.  of  Castile  against 
the  Moors. — Gaston  III.,  son  of  the  preceding, 
succeeded  his  father  in  1848,  when  only  12 
years  old.  He  was  called  Phoebus  on  account 
either  of  his  light  hair  or  of  a  sun  he  bore  on 
his  escutcheon.  He  signalized  himself  against 
the  English  in  Guienne  and  Languedoc,  and  in 
1856  was  imprisoned  for  a  while  at  Paris  for 
complicity  in  the  intrigues*  of  Oharles  the  Bad 


of  Navarre,  his  brother-in-law.  On  his  release 
he  fought  bravely  in  the  ranks  of  the  Teutonic 
knights  against  the  Prussians.  Returning  to 
France  in  1868,  he  contributed  to  the  defeat 
and  destruction  of  the  rebellious  Jacquerie, 
who  were  besieging  the  royal  ch&teau  at  Meauz. 
In  1862,  by  victory  over  the  count  d^Armagnac, 
he  secured  for  himself  possession  of  B^am; 
and  the  magnificence  of  his  court  at  Orthez 
and  afterward  at  Pan  was  admired  by  Froissart. 
In  1880  he  was  appointed  governor  of  Langue- 
doc by  Oharles  V.,  but  his  dignity  was  contest- 
ed by  the  duke  of  Berry,  whom  he  defeated 
at  Revel.  Gaston  Phoebus  was  a  famous  hunts- 
man, and  left  a  book  entitled  Miroir  de  FhSbuSy 
de$  dSduiets  de  la  ehasse  dee  heetes  sauvaigee  et 
dee  oyseaux  de  praie  (fol.,  Paris,  1607).~%^as- 
TON  IV.  (died  in  1472)  jmade  himself  conspic- 
uous by  services  as  well  as  hostility  to  botii 
Oharles  VII.  and  Louis  XI.  He  married  Eleo- 
nora,  prinoees  and  afterward  queen  regnant  of 
Navarre,  who  died  in  1479;  and  her  heiress 
Oatherine  de  Foix  marrying  Jean  d^Albret  in 
1484,  the  county  of  Foix  was  henceforth  united 
with  Navarre  under  that  house.  Her  rights 
to  the  county  were,  however,  long  disputed 
by  her  uncle,  Jean  de  Foix,  viscount  of  Nar- 
bonne.  A  son  of  the  latter  was  the  hero  and 
victim  of  the  battie  of  Ravenna  (April  11, 
1512).    (See  Gaston  db  Foix.) 

FOKIM.  a  maritime  province  of  Ohina, 
bounded  N.  by  Ohekiang,  W.  and  N.  W.  by.Ki- 
angsi,  S.  by  Ewangtung,  and  8.  £.  by  the  (3hina 
sea ;  area,  68,480  sq.  m. ;  pop.  estimated  in  1842 
at  26,000,000.  It  abounds  in  bays  and  islands, 
including  Amoy,  Haitan,  and  part  of  Formo- 
sa. The  Min  and  its  tributaries  are  the  prin- 
cipal nvers.  The  country,  though  generally 
mountainous,  is  exceedingly  well  cultivated. 
The  hills  are  cut  in  terraces,  and  the  valleys  are 
beautiful  and  fertile ;  and  agriculture  is  greatiy 
promoted  by  artificial  irrigation.  The  products 
are  excellent  black  tea,  rice,  wheat,  barley, 
sweet  potatoes,  camphor,  sugar,  iron,  indigo, 
tobacco,  and  alum.  Porcelain  and  cloth  are 
made.  The  chief  imports  are  corn,  drugs, 
fruits,  and  salted  meats.    Oapital,  Foochow. 

FOKSHUn,  a  frontier  town  of  Roumania,  104 
m.  N.  E.  of  Bucharest,  divided  by  the  river 
Milkov  between  the  provinces  of  Wallachia 
and  Moldavia,  the  smaller  part  belonging  to 
the  latter ;  pop.  estimated  at  20,000.  The  best 
Moldavian  wine  is  produced  in  its  vicinity.  A 
congress  of  Russian  and  Turkish  diplomatists 
was  held  here  in  1772.  Near  the  town  the 
Russians  and  Austrians  defeated  the  Turks, 
July  21,  1789. 

roLDViR,  or  DujkFniffr  (F6ldv4r-on-the- 
Danube),  a  town  of  Hungary,  in  the  county 
of  Tolna,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Danube,  47 
m.  S.  of  Buda ;  pop.  in  1869,  12,882.  It  com- 
mands the  communication  between  the  upper 
and  lower  Danube,  and  is  a  depot  for  salt.  The 
surrounding  district  is  fertile,  producing  grains 
and  wine;  and  the  town  has  a  considerable 
sturgeon  fiishery. 


302 


FOLEY 


FOLLEN 


FOLEY,  JotaB  Henry,  an  Irish  scalptor,  born 
In  Dnblin,  May  24,  1818,  died  in  London,  Aug. 
28,  1874.  At  an  early  age  he  entered  the 
school  of  the  royal  DnbUn  society,  and  in  1884 
became  a  stadent  at  the  royal  academy  in  Lon- 
don. In  1839  he  first  appeared  as  an  exhibitor 
there,  with  his  models  of  *^  Innocence  *'  and  the 
**Deatli  of  Abel."  Among  the  most  popular 
of  his  imaginative  works  are:  "Ino  and  the 
Infant  Bacchus  "  (1840),  "  Lear  and  Cordelia'' 
and  the  "  Death  of  Lear  "  (1841),  *'  Venus  res- 
cuing iEneas"  (1842),  and  '^Prospero  relating 
his  Adventures  to  Miranda"  (1848).  For  sev- 
eral years  he  was  kept  busy  with  commissions 
for  portrait  statues,  producing,  among  many 
others,  those  of  Edmund  Burke  and  Oliver 
Goldsmith,  for  Dublin,  One  of  his  latest 
works  was  the  colo8e|l  statue  of  Prince  Al- 
bert, for  the  memorialin  Hyde  Park,  of  which 
also  he  executed  the  group  "  Asia.." 

F0LI6N0  (anc  Fulginium  or  Fulginid)^  a 
walled  city  of  central  Italy,  in  the  province 
and  20  m.  S.  £.  of  the  city  of  Perugia,  in  a 
beautiful  valley  of  the  Apennines ;  pop.  in 
1872,  21,686.  It  is  large,  but  poorly  built, 
and  is  famous  'for  its  manufactures  of  silks, 
woollens,  soap,  bleached  wax,  and  playing 
cards.  In  1831-'2  it  was  nearly  destroyed  by 
earthquakes.  The  celebrated  picture  of  Ra- 
phael, La  Madonna  di  Foligno^  took  its  name 
from  this  place.  A  monument  to  the  painter 
Alunno  was  erected  here  in  1872. 

FOLKESTONE,  a  market  town,  seaport,  and 
parish  of  Kent,  England,  built  partly  on  the 
level  shore  and  partly  on  a  cliff  on  the  straits 
of  Dover,  7  m.  S.  W.  of  Dover,  of  which  it  is 
a  sub-port,  and  88  m.  S.  E.  of  London  by  the 
Southeastern  railway;  pop.  in  1871,  12,694. 
It  was  anciently  a  place  of  importance,  and 
still  has  traces  of  Roman  defences.  In  the  1 8th 
century  it  was  the  seat  of  extensive  fisheries, 
and  drew  still  greater  wealth  from  various 
branches  of  the  smuggling  trade,  on  the  sup- 
pression of  which  it  fell  into  decay.  Since 
the  opening  of  the  railway,  however,  which 
connects  at  this  port  with  a  line  of  steam  pack- 
ets for  Boulogne,  it  has  recovered  its  prosperity. 
The  harbor  has  been  improved,  a  fine  pier  has 
been  built,  a  custom  house  established,  new 
warehouses  and  hotels  have  been  erected,  and 
streets  opened.  It  is  said  that  the  town  for- 
merly contained  five  churches,  four  of  which 
were  swept  away  by  the  sea ;  there  are  now 
two.  An  old  castle,  founded  by  the  Saxon 
kings  of  Kent  and  rebuilt  by  the  Normans,  has 
been  almost  totally  destroyed,  together  with 
the  height  on  which  it  was  erected,  by  the 
encroachment  of  the  sea.  It  is  much  resorted 
to  for  sea  bathing. 

FOLLEBT,  Aignst,  afterward  Adolf  Lniwlg,  a  Ger- 
man poet,  born  in  G lessen,  Hesse-Darmstadt, 
Jan.  21,  1794,  died  in  Bern,  Switzerland,  Dec. 
26,  1855.  After  studying  philology  and  the- 
ology in  his  native  town,  he  served  in  the  cam- 
Eaign  of  1814  against  France.  On  his  return 
e  studied  law  for  two  years  at  Heidelberg,  in 


1817  began  to  edit  the  Allgemeine  Zeitnng  at 
Elberfeld,  in  1819  was  involved  in  political 
agitations  for  which  he  was  imprisoned  two 
years  in  Berlin,  went  thence  to  Switzerland, 
and  subsequently  became  a  citizen  of  Zurich. 
In  1847  he  purchased  the  castle  of  Liebenfels  in 
Thurgau,  whence  in  1854  he  removed  to  Bern. 
He  traneiated  the  Homeric  hymns  (1814),  and 
a  volume  of  old  Latin  ecclesiastical  hymns 
(Elberfeld,  1819),  and  published  other  works. 
FOLLEBT.  !•  Cliarlcs,  an  American  clergyman^ 
brother  of  the  preceding,  bom  at  Romrod  in 
Hesse-Darmstadt,  Sept.  4, 1795,  perished  in  the 
conflagration  of  the  steamboat  Lexington  in 
Long  Island  sound,  on  the  night  of  Jan.  18, 
1840.  He  was  educated  at  Giessen,  where  hu 
was  distinguished  for  his  liberal  sentiments,  and 
attached  himself  to  the  Bunchenaehaft^  which 
fell  under  suspicion  as  aiming  at  political  revo- 
lution. He  wrote  a  defence  of  the  Bunchen- 
acJiafty  and  many  patriotic  songs,  which,  with 
others  by  his  brotner  August,  were  published 
at  Jena  in  1819.  In  1818  he  received  his  de- 
gree as  doctor  of  civil  and  ecclesiastical  law 
from  the  university  at  Giessen,  where  he  re- 
mained for  some  time  as  a  lecturer  on  juris- 
prudence. He  then  went  to  Jena  to  lecture  at 
the  university,  and  w^os  accused  of  complicity 
in  the  assassination  of  Kotzebue.  He  was 
twice  arrested,  but  after  a  rigid  examination 
was  honorably  acquitted.  About  the  same 
time  he  was  arrested  on  a  charge  of  being  the 
author  of  the  "Great  Song,"  which  was  con- 
sidered seditious,  but  no  evidence  was  found 
against  him,  though  in  fact  he  was  one  of  its 
composers.  He  was,  however,  forbidden  to 
continue  his  lectures  at  Jena.  He  returned  to 
Giessen,  but  learning  that  he  was  again  to  be 
put  under  arrest,  he  fied  to  Paris,  and  thence 
went  to  Switzerland,  and  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  Latin  and  history  in  the  cantonal 
school  of  the  Orisons  at  Coire.  His  lectures 
having  given  ofiTence  by  their  Unitarian  ten- 
dency to  some  of  the  Calvinistic  ministers  of  the 
district,  he  asked  a  dismissal  and  obtained  it, 
with  a  testimonial  to  his  ability,  learning,  and 
worth.  The  university  of  Basel  then  appointed 
him  lecturer  upon  law  and  metaphysics.  While 
he  was  at  Coire  and  Basel  a  demand  was  made 
by  the  German  governments  for  his  surrender  as 
a  revolutionist.  It  was  twice  refused,  but  ok 
its  renewal  a  third  time  in  a  threatening  form, 
Basel  yielded,  and  a  resolution  was  passed  for 
his  arrest.  He  escaped  from  the  city,  and  at  the 
close  of  1824  sailed  for  New  York.  He  soon 
learned  the  English  language,  and  in  December, 
1825,  he  received  the  appointment  of  teacher  of 
German  at  Harvard  college.  In  1828  he  was 
appointed  teacher  of  ecclesiastical  history  and 
ethics  in  the  divinity  school,  having  in  the  mean 
time  been  admitted  as  a  candidate  for  the  minis- 
try. In  1830  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
German  literature  at  Harvard,  which  post  he 
held  for  five  years.  In  1 836-*7  he  was  pastor  of 
the  first  Unitarian  society  in  New  York,  and  in 
1839  he  took  charge  of  a  church  in  East  Lexing- 


FONBLANQUE 


FONSECA 


803 


ton,  Mass.  In  1886  he  published  **  Psychology  " 
and  an  ^*  Essay  on  Religion  and  the  Ghnrch/^ 
]Ie  was  a  oontribntor  to  reviews,  and  occa- 
sionally gave  courses  of  lectures.  Ills  ser- 
mons and  lectures,  and  an  unfinished  sketch 
of  a  work  on  psychology,  with  a  memoir  of 
Lis  life  by  Mrs.  FoUen,  have  been  published 
(5  vols.,  Boston,  1841).  II.  EHn  Lee,  an  Ameri- 
can authoress,  wife  of  the  preceding,  and  daugh- 
ter of  Samuel  Cabot,  born  in  Boston,  Aug.  15, 
1787,  died  at  Brookline,  Mass.,  Jan.  26,  1860. 
She  married  Dr.  Follen  in  1828.  Her  princi- 
pal publications  are:  *^ Selections  from  F6- 
nelon "  and  the  "  Well  Spent  Hour  "  (1828) ; 
"  The  Skeptic  "  (1835) ;  "  Married  Life,"  "  Little 
Songs,"  and  "  Poems  "  (1839)  ;  "  Twilight  Sto- 
ries"  (1850);  and  a  second  series  of  "Little 
Songs"  (1859). 

FOUrBLANQUE*  h  AlVaay  WUlkw,  an  English 
joamalist,  bom  in  1797,  died  in  London,  Oct. 
13,  1872.  He  was  the  son  of  an  eminent  law- 
yer, and  studied  for  that  profession,  but  soon 
became  a  political  writer.  After  contributing 
to  the  '^  Morning  Chronicle,"  he  became  editor 
of  the  "  Examiner  "  in  1820,  succeeding  Leigh 
Ilunt,  and  conducted  it  with  great  ability  till 
1846.  In  1837  he  published  ''England  under 
8even  Administrations"  (3  vols.),  a  collection 
of  his  contributions  to  the  *'  Examiner."  In 
1852  he  became  director  of  the  statistical  de- 
Dartment  in  the  board  of  trade.  His  *'  Life  and 
Labors,"  edited  by  his  nephew,  E.  B.  de  Fon- 
blanque,  was  published  in  1874.  IL  Jilia  San- 
id  Hartfa,  an  English  lawyer,  brother  of  the 
preceding,  bom  in  London  in  March,  1787, 
died  there,  Nov.  8, 1865.  He  was  educated  at 
tiie  Charterhouse  and  at  Caius  college,  Cam- 
bridge. He  obtained  a  commission  in  the  army, 
and  served  in  Spain,  Italy,  and  the  United 
States,  and  was  taken  prisoner  in  the  battle 
of  New  Orleans.  In  1816  he  was  called  to  the 
bar,  and  the  year  after  was  made  a  commis- 
sioner of  bankruptcy,  in  which  position  he 
worked  and  wrote  vigorously  for  a  reform  in 
the  system.  In  1823,  in  connection  with  Dr. 
Paris,  he  published  a  valuable  treatise  on  **  Med- 
ical Jurisprudence,"  and  in  1826,  with  Sutton 
Thorpe  and  Richard  Goff,  he  started  the  *^  Ju- 
rist," to  advocate  amendment  of  the  laws. 

FOID  DP  LAC,  a  S.  £.  county  of  Wisconsin, 
at  the  S.  end  of  Lake  Winnebago ;  area,  764  sq. 
m.;  pop.  in  1870,  46,273.  It  is  drained  by 
Fond  du  Lac  river  and  other  streams.  A  steep 
ledge  of  limestone,  running  from  N.  E.  to  S.  W., 
divides  the  county  into  two  unequal  portions, 
the  easternmost  of  which  is  heavily  timbered, 
while  the  other  contains  extensive  prairies. 
The  soil  is  calcareous  and  generally  fertile. 
The  Wisconsin  division  of  the  Chicago  and 
Northwestern  railroad,  the.  Sheboygan  and 
Fond  dn  Lac,  and  the  Northern  division  of  the 
Milwaukee  and  St.  Paul,  pass  through  the 
coanty.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
1,615,266  bushels  of  wheat,  287,400  of  Indian 
com,  879,  615  of  oats,  60,735  of  barley,  242,961 
vf  i>otatoe8,  76,027  tons  of  hay,  1,095,482  lbs. 
827  VOL.  VII.— 20 


of  butter,  274,137  of  wool,  and  49,825  of  hops. 
There  were  11,621  horses,  14,273  milch  cows, 
13,350  other  cattle,  66,084  sheep,  and  12,917 
swine ;  4  manufactories  of  agricultural  imple- 
ments, 8  of  boots  and  shoes,  28  of  carriages  and 
wagons,  7  of  cheese,  9  of  clothing,  7  of  furniture, 
4  of  iron  castings,  10  of  engines  and  boilers,  1  of 
linseed  oil,  12  of  saddlery  and  harness,  9  of  sash- 
es, doors,  and  blinds,  12  of  tin,  copper,  and  sheet- 
iron  ware,  5  of  cigars,  3  planing  and  18  saw 
mills,  4  tanneries,  2  currying  establishments, 
and  19  flour  mills.    Capital,  Fond  du  Lac. 

FOND  DO  LAC,  a  city  and  the  capital  of  Fond 
du  Lac  county,  Wisconsin,  situated  at  the  S. 
end  of  Lake  Winnebago,  60  m.  N.  by  W.  of 
Milwaukee;  pop.  in  1860,  5,460;  in  1870,  12,- 
764,  of  whom  4,029  were  foreigners.  It  is  built 
on  ground  ascending  gradually  from  the  lake, 
and  interspersed  with  groves.  An  interesting 
feature  of  the  city  is  the  numerous  artesian 
wells,  which  supply  water  of  great  punty  and 
excellence.  One  of  these  yields  magnetic 
water,  and  is  noted  for  its  curative  properties. 
The  buildings  are  partly  of  wood  and  partly  of 
brick.  The  chief  public  edifices  are  an  exten- 
sive hotel,  a  fine  hall,  a  large  high  school  build- 
ing, and  a  fine  post  office  building.  Fond  du 
Lac  is  surrounded  by  a  rich  agricultural  coun- 
try, and  ships  large  quantities  of  hay  and  many 
horses  and  cattle  to  the  Lake  Superior  mining 
region.  It  has  communication  by  steamboat 
with  Green  bay  and  with  points  on  the  Fox 
and  Wolf  rivers,  and  by  rail  with  all  points 
through  the  Wisconsin  division  of  the  Chicago 
and  Nortli western  nulroad  and  the  Sheboygan 
and  Fond  du  Lac  railroad,  and  there  is  also  an 
air-line  road  to  Milwaukee.  The  manufactories 
include  16  saw  mills,  2  shingle  mills,  4  sash  and 
door  factories,  3  grist  mills,  8  founderies,  1 
manufactory  of  agricultural  implements,  15  or 
20  carriage  and  wagon  factories,  and  1  blast 
furnace.  The  car  shops  of  the  Chicago  and 
Northwestern  railroad  employ  about  400  men. 
There  is  a  national  bank  with  a  capital  of 
$100,000,  and  two  savings  banks  having  each 
$60,000  capital.  The  city  is  divided  into  five 
wards.  In  1872  there  were  47  public  schools, 
viz.,  1  high,  4  grammar,  and  42  primary,  hav- 
ing 50  teachers  and  an  average  attendance 
of  8,020  pupils.  The  total  expenditure  for 
school  purposes  was  $92,569,  of  which  $18,871 
were  for  teachers'  wages.  There  are  15 
churches,  and  2  daily,  1  semi- weekly  (German), 
and  5  weekly  (2  German)  newspapers. 

FONSECA9  EtoMtra  Pl«rald  de,  marchioness, 
an  Italian  martyr,  bom  in  Naples  in  1758,  ex- 
ecuted July  20,  1799.  She  belonged  to  an 
illustrious  family,  and  was  celebrated  for  her 
beauty,  poetical  talent,  and  learning.  In  1784 
she  became  the  wife  of  the  marquis  Fonseca 
and  a  lady  in  waiting  of  Queen  Caroline  of  Na- 
ples, whose  favor  she  soon  forfeited  by  her  re- 
marks on  her  m^esty's  intimate  relations  with 
the  minister  Acton.  After  the  fiight  of  the 
royal  family  in  1798,  the  marchioness  was 
prominent  as  a  partisan  of  the  French,  and 


304 


FONTAINE 


CODspicuoua  hj  eloquent  pablio  addresses;  and 
on  the  restoration  uf  the  Neapolitan  monaroh^ 
in  1TB9  Bhe  was  sentenced  to  death  on  the 
gallows  at  the  instJKation  of  Queen  Caroline, 
upon  the  ground  of  her  having  contributed  to 
tlio  anti-royalist  MoniUrre  NapoUtano.  Her 
eiecntioD  beaame  the  signal  of  wholesale  mas- 
sacres and  imprisonments. 

FONTiUVE,  Jcu  d«  U.    See  La  FoirrAntz. 

fOHTllNEBLEllI,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  de- 
partment of  8eine-et-Mame,  86  m.  8.  S.  £.  of 
Paris,  on  the  Soatheastem  railwaj,  in  the  midst 
of  the  forest  to  which  it  gives  its  name ;  pop, 
in  1866,  10,787.  It  has  a  college,  a  public  li- 
hrar;,  three  handsome  barracks  for  cavalry 
and  infantry,  a  hospital  founded  by  Anne  of 
Anstria,  an  asylum  for  girls  establishod  bj  Mme. 
de  Montespan,  an  obelisk  erected  on  the  mar- 
riage of  Louis  XVI.  with  Marie  Antoinette,  end 
the  old  residence  of  Gabrielle  d'Estr^es.  Its 
manufactures  of  porcelain  and  earthenware 
have  Bome  reputation ;  and  the  delicious  griipes 


Cfalwau  nr  Fafltslnebkuiu. 

gathered  in  the  vicinity,  especially  at  Thomory, 

and  oelobrated  under  the  name  of  that*fla*  d« 
FontainthUav.  are  the  object  of  a  brisk  and 
profitable  trade.  But  the  town  owes  its  celeb- 
rity to  its  royal  chAteau,  a  magnificent  pile  of 
various  kinds  of  architectnre,  which  has  been 
the  residence  of  several  monarchs.  This  oh4- 
teaa,  originnlly  founded  bj  Robert  the  Pious 
toward  the  end  of  the  10th  century,  was  re- 
built by  Louis  VIL  tn  the  12th,  and  embel- 
lished by  Philip  Allgn9tn^  Louis  IX.,  and  oth- 
ers. Francis  I,  had  it  entirely  rennvated  and 
enlarged  by  artists  brought  from  Italy.  Rosso, 
Primaticcio,  Nicold  dell'  Abbate,  l«onardo  da 
Vinci,  Andrea  del  Sarto,  and  Benvenuto  Cel- 
lini ornamented  it  with  their  works,  important 
remains  of  which  may  still  be  seen.    It  was  im- 

S roved  by  Henry  IV.  and  all  bis  SDCcessors. 
apoleon  I.  spent  here  6,000,000  francs  be- 
tween 1804  and  1813.  Louis  Philippe  com- 
pletely restored  it  and  put  it  in  splendid  order 


FONTANA 

fl-om  1837  to  1840,  and  Napoleon  III.  did  not 
neglect  it.    It  is  in  fact  a  collection  of  palaces 
of  diflbrent  epochs  and  styles,  and  its  orna- 
ments, pictures,  and  statuary  are  of  the  highest 
excellence.   Its  library  is  invaluable.    This  chi- 
tenn  has  been  the  scene  of  many  historical 
events.    PhilipIV.,  Henry  IIL,  and  Louis  XIIL 
were  bom  in  it.    Christina  of  Sweden  inhabited 
it  duringher  sojonrn  in  France ;  and  it  was  here 
that  in  1H67  her  favorit«  Monaldeschi  was  pnt 
to  death  by  Santinelli.    Here  an  alliance  with 
Sweden  was  signed  in  ISUl,  and  here  in  168II 
Louis  XIV.  signed  the  revocation  of  the  edict 
of  Nantes.     Pope  Pins  VII,  was  confined  with- 
in its  walls  for  19  months  (I812-'14);   and 
Napoleon,   who  had  signed   here  his  abdica- 
tion, April  11,  1814,  bade  farewell  on  the  SOth 
to  his  old  guard  at  the  principal  entrance  of 
the  palace,  known  as  la  cour  an  ehnal  blane. 
He  signed    his   second   and   final    abdication 
here,  June  22,  181B.— The  forest  of  Fontaine- 
bleau  (area,  41,000  acres),  which  was  originally 
called    the    forest    of 
Bifre  or  BiSvre  {Sj/lra 
Bitria),  isasfineaeany 
in  France,  and  ebonnds 
in  game.    It  is  adorned 
with  statnea,   temples, 
Likes,   waterfulls,    and 
fonntainn.      Its    varied 
and  picturesque  scenery 
ia    highly    appreciated 
by  travellers  and  land- 
sen  jie    punters,    while 
its  quarries  supply  the 
capital  with  most  of  its 
paving  stones.   An  I!U- 
toiredela  forit  de  Fon- 
tainebUav  wa*  publish- 
ed by  Paul  Donner  in 
1873. 

FONTINA,  the  name 
of  many  Italian  paint- 
ers of  the  16th  and  17th 
centuriefl,  prominent 
among  whom  was  Pbobpkro  (1612-'B7),  the 
instructor  of  the  Carracci.  He  was  one  of  the 
most  prolific  painters  of  the  Bolognese  school, 
bnt  was  hasty  and  reckless  in  his  work.  His 
masterpiece  is  ti>e  "  Adoration  of  the  Hagi "  in 
the  church  of  Santa  Maria  delle  Grazie  in  Bo- 
logna, which  has  been  described  as  approach- 
ing the  style  of  Paul  Veronese.  His  daughtAT 
Lavinia  (1562-1614)  attained  almost  the  ex- 
cellence of  Guido  in  some  of  her  portraita, — 
Famous  among  the  architects  of  the  Fontan« 
family  was  DoMEsico  (1548-1 807),  whofinished 
the  cupola  of  the  basilica  of  St.  Peter,  placed 
the  stupendoQs  obelisk  which  bad  been  brought 
from  Egypt  in  the  reign  of  Caligula  on  the 


rewarded  by  the  pope.  He  also  designed  the 
library  of  the  Vatican  and  completed  the  pon- 
tifical palace  of  Monte  Cavallo.  Clement  VIII. 
having  disgraced  him  on  account  of  a  false 


FONTANES 


FONTENOY 


305 


charf^e  of  bis  having  acquired  his  fortune  dis- 
honestly, he  spent  the  latter  part  of  his  life  in 
Naples. — Another  eminent  architect,  Cablo 
(1634-1714),  was  employed  in  Rome  under 
seven  successive  popes.  Among  his  best  known 
works  are  the  Cibu  and  Ginetti  chapels  and 
the  Grimani  and  Bolognetti  palaces,  the  latter 
since  known  as  the  palazzo  Torlonia. 

FOXTANES,  Leais,  marquis  de,  a  French  wri- 
ter, bom  in  Niort,  March  6,  1767,  died  in 
Pari**,  March  17,  1821.  Going  to  Paris  when 
still  very  young,  he  contributed  some  poetical 
pieces  to  the  Mereure  de  France  and  the  Alma- 
nath  des  tmiseSj  but  his  reputation  began  with 
his  translation  of  Pope^s  ^^  Essay  on  Man,^' 
published  in  1783.  On  the  breaking  out  of  the 
revolution  he  joined  the  moderate  party,  and 
in  1793  wrote  the  petition  which  the  citizens 
of  Lyons  presented  to  the  convention  against 
the  bloody  tyranny  of  Gollot  d^Herbois.  After 
the  9th  Thermidor  he  became  one  of  the  con- 
tributors to  the  ModerateuVy  a  newspaper  in  the 
royalist  interest.  After  the  16th  Fructidor  he 
took  refuge  in  England,  where  he  met  Chateau- 
briand, and  a  ksting  friendship  grew  up  be- 
tween them.  Allowed  to  return  to  France 
after  the  18th  Brumaire  (November,  1799),  he 
was  appointed  by  tlie  first  consul  to  deliver  a 
panegyric  on  Washington.  He  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  legislative  body  in  1802,  and  was 
chosen  its  president  in  1804.  On  the  reestab- 
lish ment  of  the  French  university  in  1808, 
Napoleon  placed  him  at  its  head  w^ith  the  title 
of  grand  master,  and  in  1810  appointed  him 
senator.  Fontanes,  who  had  always  been  a 
royalist  at  heart,  deserted  his  protector  in  1814, 
voted  against  him  in  the  senate,  and  joined  the 
new  king.  He  thus  secured  the  tenure  of  his 
offices  and  dignities,  and  was  promoted  to  the 
peerage.  During  his  later  years  he  devoted  his 
leisure  hours  to  an  epic,  La  Gr^edelivres^  which 
be  did  not  complete.  His  adopted  son  having 
been  killed  in  a  duel,  he  died  broken-heart- 
ed. His  finished  style  of  oratory  and  the  purity 
and  terse  elegance  of  his  poetry  have  given 
him  the  title  of  ^^Racine^s  last  descendant.'* 
A  collection  of  his  speeches  was  published  in 
1821,  and  his  works  were  edited  by  Sainte- 
Benve,  with  a  biography  (2  vols.  8vo,  1837). 

FOSTIHGIS,  Harie  AneliqM  de  S<tnUle  de 
EfuiOe,  duchess  de,  a  mistress  of  Louis  XIV., 
bom  in  the  district  of  Rouergue  in  1661,  died 
in  Paris,  June  28,  1681.  A  member  of  a  no- 
ble but  impoverished  family,  she  went  to  the 
French  court  as  a  maid  of  honor  of  the  queen 
dowager,  and  became  through  her  remarka- 
ble beauty  Mme.  de  Montespan's  successor  as 
chief  favorite  of  the  king.  Her  discarded  rival 
characterized  her  as  a  provincial  statue.  Her 
extravagance  knew  no  bounds ;  the  king  sup- 
plied her  with  500,000  francs  a  month,  which 
was  hardly  sufiicient  for  her  wants.  She 
brought  into  fashion  a  head  dress  arranged 
with  leaves  and  ribbons,  which  was  adopted 
all  over  Europe  under  her  name.  Louis  XIV. 
conferred  upon  her  the  rank  of  duchess,  but 


became  indifferent  to  her  after  the  loss  of  her 
beauty  in  childbed.  She  retired  to  the  abbey 
of  Port  Royal,  where  the  king  paid  her  a  visit 
in  her  last  moments. 

FONTARABIi.    See  Fuektebbabia. 

FONTENAY-Lfi-COHTE,  a  town  of  France,  for- 
merly the  capital  of  a  department  in  Poitou, 
now  in  the  department  of  Vendue,  33  m.  S.  £. 
of  Napol^on-Vend^e ;  pop.  in  1866,  8,062.  It 
has  several  remarkable  churches,  a  college,  four 
convents,  a  fine  theatre,  and  three  yearly  fairs, 
and  carries  on  a  considerable  trade  in  wine, 
staves,  charcoal,  leather,  linen,  coarse  cloth, 
cordage,  and  timber.  During  the  French  rev- 
olution its  name  was  changed  to  Fontenay-le- 
Peuple.  In  a  public  square  is  an  ancient  foun- 
tain, from  which  the  town  takes  its  name. 

FONTEBTELLE,  Benufd  le  Bsvler  or  Is  Bsayw 
de^  a  French  writer,  born  in  Rouen,  Feb.  11, 
1657,  died  in  Paris,  Jan.  9,  1757.  He  was  the 
nephew  of  Comeille  by  his  mother.  He  stu- 
died law,  but  not  succeeding  in  his  first  suit 
devoted  himself  to  literature.  His  first  per- 
formances were  light  poems,  pastorals,  and 
plays;  his  tragedy  of  Axpar^  which  appeared 
in  1680,  was  hissed  by  the  public,  and  ridiculed 
by  Racine  and  Boileau.  In  1683  he  published 
the  Dialogues  dee  mortSy  which  mode  the  be- 
ginning of  his  reputation.  His  Entretiens  eur 
lapluralite  des  mondes  (1686)  and  Histoire  des 
oracles  (1687),  the  latter  an  abridgment  of  a 
Latin  work  by  Van  Dale,  a  Dutch  author,  ren- 
dered him  popular  among  those  who  were  fond 
of  scientific  matters  expounded  in  an  elegant 
and  somewhat  affected  style.  In  1688  he  pub- 
lished Poesies  pastorelUs,  His  Histoire  de  Vaca- 
demie  des  sciences  (1696-^99)  and  J^loges  des 
academiciens  (1708-^19)  are  still  admired  for 
their  clearness  and  elegance.  In  1699  he  was 
elected  perpetual  secretary  of  the  academy. 

FOMTENOY,  a  village  of  Belgium,  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Hainaut,  5  m.  S.  £.  of  Tournay ;  pop. 
800.  It  is  noted  for  a  victory  of  the  French 
over  the  English,  Dutch,  and  Austrians,  May 
11,  1745,  fought  by  the  latter  for  the  relief  of 
Tournay,  then  besieged  by  the  French.  The 
French,  76,000  strong,  led  by  Marshal  Saxe 
and  animated  by  the  presence  of  Louis  XV. 
and  the  dauphin,  were  posted  on  a  hill  with 
Fontenoy  before  them,  the  village  of  St.  An- 
toine  and  the  river  Scheldt  on  the  right,  and  a 
small  wood  on  the  left.  Their  naturally  strong 
position  was  so  fortified  as  to  be  deemed  almost 
impregnable.  The  allies,  numbering  50,000, 
more  than  half  of  whom  were  English,  were 
under  the  duke  of  Cumberland.  They  attacked 
the  French  outposts  on  the  10th,  and  early  the 
next  morning  began  the  engagement  by  a  fierce 
cannonade.  The  Dutch  undertook  to  carry 
St.  Antoine  and  Fontenoy  by  assault,  but  were 
driven  back  in  disorder.  Gen.  Ingoldsby,  who 
had  been  ordered  to  pierce  the  wood  with  a 
British  division,  retired  with  dishonor,  while 
the  duke  of  Cumberland,  with  14,000  British 
and  Hanoverian  infantry  marching  in  columns 
of  30  or  40  front,  led  the  assault  upon  the 


806 


FONTEVRAULT 


FOOCHOW 


main  body.  With  bayonets  fixed  they  plunged 
down  a  ravine  which  separated  them  from  the 
French  line,  and,  while  artillery  mowed  down 
their  ranks  from  right  and  left,  marched  stead- 
ily forward  with  rapidly  diminishing  numbers 
but  unflinching  courage.  They  gained  the  hill 
in  a  solid  mass,  cut  down  everything  before 
them,  and  had  nearly  won  the  day  by  inter- 
cepting the  French  retreat  to  the  Scheldt, 
when  Saze,  having  in  vain  urged  the  king  to 
fly,  collected  his  force  for  a  last  eflfort.  Four 
pieces  of  cannon  were  brought  to  bear  upon 
the  British  front,  while  the  household  troops, 
the  reserve,  and  foremost  of  all  the  brigade  of 
Irish  exiles,  charged  on  either  flank.  Exhausted 
and  unsupported,  the  English  fell  back.  Their 
cavalry  came  to  the  rescue,  and  they  reached 
the  alUed  position  with  unbroken  ranks,  having 
twice  out  through  more  than  five  times  their 
number.  The  allies  retreated  to  Ath,  leaving 
about  8,000  killed,  wounded,  and  prisoners, 
while  the  French  acknowledged  an  almost 
equal  loss.  The  young  duke  de  Gramont  was 
one  of  those  who  fell.  The  speedy  fall  of  Tour- 
nay  and  the  conquest  of  Ghent,  Bruges,  Ostend, 
and  Dendermonde  were  the  fruits  of  Marshal 
Saxe's  victory. 

FONTEVRAULT  (Lat.  Fan*  EhraUt),  Order  of, 
amonastic  order  in  the  Roman  Catholic  church, 
founded  about  the  year  1100  by  Robert  of 
Arbrissel.  The  abbey  of  La  Roe,  in  the  forest 
of  Craon,  was  an  establishment  of  regular  can- 
ons, which  also  owed  its  origin  to  Robert  of 
Arbrissel.  It  had  ceased  for  some  time  to 
be  governed  by  him  when  he  withdrew  with 
three  other  renowned  preachers  to  the  desert 
vale  of  Fontevrault,  on  the  Vienne,  near  its 
junction  with  the  Loire.  There,  beside  the 
burial  place  of  the  Plantagenets,  he  laid  the 
foundation  of  four  distinct  establishments : 
Grand  Moutier  for  nuns,  St.  Lazare  for  lepers, 
St.  Magdalen  for  penitent  women,  and  a  mon- 
astery for  men.  To  the  inmates,  called  for  a 
long  time  "the  poor  of  Christ,"  he  gave  the 
rule  of  St.  Benedict,  somewhat  modified.  This 
foundation,  as  well  as  the  modified  rule,  was 
approved  in  1106  by  the  council  of  Poitiers, 
and  the  bishop  of  that  city  obtained  from  Pope 
Pascal  II.  the  confirmation  of  the  new  order 
on  March  26  of  the  same  year.  The  most  re- 
markable feature  in  its  constitution  was  that 
the  whole  order  was  governed  by  a  woman, 
the  founder  himself  vowing  obedience  with  all 
his  followers  to  Herlande  de  Champagne,  the 
first  abbess  general.  Robert  then  devoted  liim- 
self  exclusively  to  the  extension  of  the  order, 
which  soon  spread  over  the  continent  of  Eu- 
rope and  had  several  houses  in  England.  It 
numbered  8,000  monks  and  nuns  at  the  death 
of  the  founder  in  1117.  The  severe  discipline 
maintained  at  Fontevrault  had  obtained  for 
the  order  many  privileges  from  the  popes. 
The  most  rigorous  of  its  observances  were 
abolished  by  Eugenius  III.  In  1459  dissensions 
arose  in  the  order  about  some  contemplated 
reforms ;  and  the  monks,  casting  aside  the  rule 


of  St.  Benedict,  adopted  that  of  St.  Augustine, 
and  called  themselves  canons  regular.     The 
26th  abbess  general,  Mary  of  Brittany,  in  1475 
drew  up  a  new  constitution  combining  the 
statutes  of  the  founder  with  what  was  most 
appropriate  in  the  rules  of  St.  Benedict  and 
St.  Augustine ;  and  it  was  approved  by  Sixtus 
IV.     After  much  opposition,  this  constitution 
was  adopted  by  the  order  in  1507,  the  recu- 
sants forming  an  independent  congregation. 
The  monks,  having  endeavored  in  1520  to  sub- 
mit the  authority  of  the  abbess  to  the  control 
of  a  council,  were  condemned  by  the  local 
authorities,  and  the  sentence  was  ratified  in 
1528  by  Clement  VII.    A  new  efibrt  to  shake 
off  this  female  yoke  was  made  under  the  pon- 
tificate of  Urban  VIII.,  who  favored  such  a 
reform.    But  an  ordinance  of  Louis  XIII.,  en- 
joining the  strict  observance  of  the  bull  of 
Sixtus  IV.,  put  an  end  to  all  hopes  of  change. 
The  order  was  suppressed  during  the  French 
revolution,  and  has  not  been  revived. — ^The 
title  of  abbess  of  Fontevrault  was  always  con- 
ferred on  a  lady  of  royal  blood.    The  mem- 
bers were  mainly  recruited  from  the  npper 
classes ;  and  to  the  nuns  were  intrusted  the  ed- 
ucation of  the  royal  princesses,  filUa  de  France, 
At  its  most  flourishing  period  the  order  of 
Fontevrault  was  divided  into  four  provinces: 
that  of  France,   composing  5  priories ;   that 
of  Aquitaine,  14;  that  of  Auvergne,  13 ;  and 
that  of  Brittany,  18.    Within  the  central  es- 
tablishment at  Fontevrault  were  five  churches, 
the  vast  courts  and  buildings  forming  a  little 
city  in  themselves.    Four  of  the  churches  and 
several  of  the  outbuildings  were  destroyed  in 
the  French  revolution.    The  remaining  church 
edifice,  one  of  the  largest  in  France,  and  what 
remains  of  the  monasteries,  are  now  used  as  a 
central  prison  for  2,000  men  and  boys,  from 
11  neighboring  departments.     Kapoleon  III. 
in  1867  offered  to  Queen  Victoria  the  statues 
of  Henry  II.,  Richard  I.,  Eleanor  of  Aquitaine, 
and  Isabel  of  Angoul^nie,  which  adorn  their 
tombs  in  the  a^oining  mausoleum;  but  the 
director  of  the  establishment  refused  to  give 
them  up  to  the  English  agent,  and  all  France 
protested  against  tlie  spoliation. 

FONYIELLE,  Wilfrid  de,  a  French  author, 
born  in  Paris  in  1828.  He  taught  mathematics 
and  devoted  himself  to  the  popularization  of 
scientific  subjects,  to  journalism,  and  to  aero- 
nautics. His  principal  works  are :  V Homme 
foMile  (1865),  Les  merteilles  dxi  monde  intieible 
(1866),  iiclairs  et  tonnerres  (1867),  and  ZM»- 
tronomie  modeme  (1868),  some  of  which  have 
been  translated  into  English.  He  published 
in  1870  a  narrative  of  his  aeronautic  voyages, 
which  is  included  in  Glaisher^s  **  Travels  in 
the  Air  "(London,  1871). 

FOOCHOW,  Fnhehai,  Foofhoo,  or  F«Ofhow-foo 
(called  also  by  the  inhabitants  Hok-cttin,  "  Hap- 
py Region"),  a  city  of  China,  capital  of  the 
province  of  Fokien,  and  one  of  the  ports  open 
to  foreign  trade,  in  lat.  26*^  5'  N.,  Ion.  119"  20' 
E.,  150  m.  N.  N.  E.  of  Amoy,  420  m.  N.  E.  cf 


FOOOHOW 


FOOL 


307 


Canton,  and  875  m.  S.  S.  W,  of  Shanghai ;  pop. 
variouslj  estimated  from  600,000  to  1,250,000. 
It  stands  on  a  plain  about  2^  m.  from  the  N. 
bank  of  the  Min  and  25  m.  from  its  mouth, 
sarrounded  hj  an  amphitheatre  of  hills  about 
4  m.  distant,  and  defended  by  a  wall  7  m.  in 
circuit)  20  to  25  ft.  high,  and  12  to  20  ft. 
thick.  The  city  has  seven  gates,  over  which 
are  high  towers.  Outside  of  each  gate  are 
large  suburbs.  The  most  extensive  are  those 
on  the  south,  known  by  the  name  of  Nanti, 
which  extend  for  4  m.  southward,  and  along 
both  sides  of  the  river.  They  communicate  by 
two  bridges  resting  on  a  small  densely  popu- 
lated island  called  Chungchow  (Middle  island). 
The  northern  bridge,  called  the  bridge  of 
10,000  ages,  or  big  bridge,  said  to  be  800  years 
old,  is  about  a  quarter  of  a  mile  long  and  sup- 
ported by  nearly  40  piers  placed  at  unequal 
distances.  Across  these  piers  are  immense 
stones,  3  ft.  square  and  about  45  ft.  long,  and 
over  these  a  granite  platform.  The  sides  are 
lined  with  shops.  The  city  proper  is  regular- 
ly built,  but  the  streets,  though  paved  with 
granite  and  in  many  instances  planted  with 
trees,  are  exceedingly  filthy,  narrow,  and  in- 
fested with  beggars  whose  squalid  and  loath- 
some appearance  is  beyond  description.  The 
houses  are  usually  of  wood,  one  story  high, 
with  tiled  roofs.  A  semi-transparent  shell  in- 
geniously arranged  in  rows  is  sometimes  used 
for  windows.  Great  numbers  of  the  inhabi- 
tants live  in  boats  on  the  river.  There  are 
some  handsome  buildings,  among  which  are 
the  residences  of  the  civil  and  military  offi- 
cials of  the  province.  The  temples  are  nu- 
merous, the  largest  being  that  known  as  the 
Ohing-hwang-miau ;  the  most  popular  deities 
are  the  god  of  war  and  the  goddess  of  mercy. 
The  numerous  shops  are  stocked  with  a  profu- 
sion of  goods  of  rather  poor  quality.  They  are 
qaite  open,  and,  with  the  full  display  of  their 
contents,  the  jostling  and  noise  of  the  huck- 
sters, and  the  crowded  state  of  the  streets,  give 
tlie  thoroughfares  much  the  appearance  of  a 
market  place.  One  of  the  most  singular  fea- 
tures of  Foochow  is  the  great  number  of  towers 
erected  in  all  parts  of  the  city,  on  the  walls,  over 
the  streets,  and  even  on  the  housetops,  some 
of  them  covered  with  grotesque  ornaments. 
The  town  has  three  principal  hills  within  its 
walls,  two  in  its  southern  and  one  in  its  north- 
ern quarter.  A  part  of  the  £.  and  S.  quarters 
of  the  city  is  inhabited  by  the  Mantchoo  Tartars, 
who  number  between  10,000  and  15,000  souls. 
They  are  of  larger  build  and  finer  form  than 
the  Chinese,  and  their  women  do  not  compress 
their  feet.  The  men  professedly  belong  to  the 
army,  though  the  number  receiving  pay  and 
rations  does  not  exceed  1,000.  The  entrance 
to  the  river  is  marked  by  bold  peaks  and  high- 
lands. Foreign  pilots  take  charge  of  vessels  as 
far  as  themoiith,  whence  native  pilots  navigate 
them  up  to  the  pagoda  anchorage,  where  the 
Chinese  have  an  immense  arsenal  and  dock- 
yard, built  in  foreign  style  by  officers  of  the 


French  navy.  Above  this  place  the  water  is 
too  shallow  for  large  vessels  to  proceed  safely. 
The  foreign  settlement  and  consulates  are 
about  S  m.  from  the  city  down  the  river.  Foo- 
chow is  a  city  of  the  first  class  (fao)^  and  is  the 
seat  of  a  viceroy  or  governor  general,  whose 
jurisdiction  extends  over  Fokien  and  Chekiang, 
its  adjacent  northern  province ;  of  a  governor, 
a  Tartar  general  of  the  same  rank  as  the  vice- 
roy ;  of  the  provincial  criminal  judge,  two  dis- 
trict magistrates,  the  provincial  treasurer,  com- 
missioner of  the  salt  and  provision  department 
for  the  whole  province,  and  the  literary  chan- 
cellor. A  board  of  trade,  consisting  of  three 
members,  for  the  arrangement  of  affairs  arising 
out  of  intercourse  with  foreigners,  was  estab- 
lished here  after  the  treaty  of  Tientsin.  Foo- 
chow is  a  great  literary  centre.  Numerous 
gentry  who  have  retired  from  office  in  other 
parts  of  the  empire,  and  men  of  high  literary 
attainments,  reside  here.  There  is  a  large  pro- 
vincial examination  hall,  which  contains  about 
10,000  cells,  where  the  literary  graduates  of  the 
first  degree  who  desire  to  compete  assemble. 
The  examinations  take  place  twice  every  five 
years.  There  are  several  cotton,  paper,  and 
hardware  manufactories,  also  several  hundred 
furnaces  for  making  porcelain,  and  factories  of 
blue  cloth,  screens,  combs,  &o.  There  are  lead 
mines  near  by,  and  a  great  tea-growing  district 
lies  within  70  m.  The  commerce  of  the  city  is 
chiefly  with  Japan  and  the  maritime  provinces 
of  China.  The  principal  exports  are  black  teas, 
which  can  be  purchased  cheaper  than  at  Can- 
ton, timber,  bamboo,  fruits,  orange  peel,  to- 
bacco, potash,  spices,  grain,  copper,  and  lead. 
The  imports  are  opium  (sometimes  to  the  value 
of  $5,000,000  per  annum),  salt,  sugar,  and 
European  manufactures.  The  port  is  much 
frequented,  the  channel  of  the  river  and  a 
sheet  of  water  called  Li-hu,  or  West  lake,  on 
the  W.  side  of  the  city,  being  crowded  with 
all  kinds  of  vessels  and  floating  habitations. 

FOOD.  See  Aliment,  Cobpulence,  and 
Dietetics. 

FOOL,  or  Jester^  a  character  in  medieval 
courts  and  noble  families,  whose  business  it 
was  to  entertain  the  household  by  amusing  sal- 
lies. Somewhat  similar  were  the  parasites  of 
antiquity,  who  were  wont  to  pay  for  their  din- 
ners by  jests  and  flatteries.  Court  fools  do 
not  appear  distinctly  and  officially  till  after  the 
crusades.  They  were  at  first  either  misshapen, 
half-imbecile  dwarfs,  who  were  themselves 
ridiculous  objects,  and  whose  senseless  replies 
were  welcomed  with  laughter;  or  quick-witted, 
half-mad  fellows;  or  poor  and  merry  poets. 
Among  the  insignia  of  the  office  were  the  fooPs 
cap,  party-colored,  adorned  with  three  asses' 
ears  and  a  cock's  comb,  and  worn  on  a  shorn 
head;  the  variously  shaped  fool's  sceptre  or 
bauble ;  the  bells,  which  decorated  the  cap  an<l 
most  other  parts  of  the  costume ;  and  a  wide 
collar.  Besides  the  ordinary  fools,  there  was 
a  more  refined  class,  called  merry  counsellors, 
who  had  higher  privileges  and  considerable 


inflnence,  but  who  are  commonlr  oonfoDnded 
with  the  coort  foola  proper.  One  of  the  most 
celebrated  foola  was  Tribonlet,  a  favorite  of 
Francis  I.  of  France,  who  amnsed  hia  master 
o!t«n  bj  giving  him  moat  impertiueat  counsels. 
He  carried  tablets  on  which  he  inscribed  ttie 
namesof  courtiers  who  liad  committed  any  act 
of  fully.  His  succesaor  was  Brusqoet,  who 
cornbioed  other  offices  with  that  of  fool,  who 
suffered  much  from  the  tricks  of  the  courtiers 
whom  he  mjatifiod,  and  whose  bon-mota  have 
been  often  repeated.  Earlier  French  fools  of 
renown  were  Catllette,  Thony,  Sibilot,  Chicot, 
and  the  female  Mathnrine;  and  the  annala  of 
the  oBice  in  France  terminate  with  Angel;, 
who  was  the  titular  fool  of  I.ouis  XIII.,  and 
who  became  hy  his  refined  and  cynical  pleas- 
sntr;  one  of  the  most  formidable  personages 
at  court.  Jodel  der  Narr,  who  was  taken  by 
the  emperor  Ferdinand  II.  to  t)ie  diet  in  1622, 
and  Klaas  Narr  of  Saxony,  are  famous  among 
German  fools.  The  office  ceased  in  most  Euro- 
pean countries  aboat  the  close  of  the  17th  cen- 
,  tnrf,  hut  continued  longer  in  Russia,  where 
Peter  the  Great  often  had  twelve  fools,  whom 
he  classified,  and  the  empress  Anne  six,  among 
whom  were  the  Portognese  Da  Oosta  and  the 
Italian  Pedrillo.  In  England  tlie  fools  were 
long  distinguished  by  a  calf-skin  coat,  which 
had  the  buttons  down  the  back.  By  the  illu- 
minators of  the  ISth  century  they  are  repre- 
sented as  squalid  idiots,  wrapped  in  a  blanket, 
and  holding  a  stick  with  an  inflated  bladder  at- 
tached to  it,  which  served  as  a  bauble.  From 
the  16th  ceDtnry  they  were  often  men  of  abil- 
ity, and  their  entertainment  consisted  in  witty 
retorts  and  sarcastic  reflectjons.  Thongh  their 
license  was  extensive,  they  were  liable  to  cor- 
rection or  discharge  from  office. — See  FlBgel's 
OeteAichte  der  Uofttarren  (Leipsic,  1TS9}. 

FOOUBB,  riike  (sing.  PnUo),  FeUiil,  or  FH- 
lilali,  a  people  of  west  and  central  Africa,  com- 
prising many  tribes  scattered  along  the  Niger 
valley,  between  Timbuctoo  and  the  kingdom 
of  Dahomey,  and  Bondoo  and  Darfonr.  Origi- 
nally they  were  nomadic,  their  chief  occnpa- 
tion  being  cattle  breeding;  but  about  the 
middle  of  the  ISth  century,  most  of  them  be- 
coming converts  to  Islamism,  they  began  Xn 
found  independent  states,  end  to  conquer  the 
a^acent  tribes.  About  1B02  one  of  their 
chiefs,  called  Othman  or  Danfodio,  undertook 
to  emulate  the  career  of  Mohammed,  and  laid 
the  foundation  of  an  empire  at  Sackatoo.  He 
died  in  a  sort  of  fanatical  ecstasy  in  IBIS.  Tlis 
successors  a  few  years  ago  could  bring  into  the 
field  about  2  S,  000  cavalry.  Gando,  aboot40ra. 
from  Sackatoo,  is  the  seat  of  another  power- 
ful Foolah  prince ;  and  at  Timbo,  the  capital 
of  Foota  Jallon,  resides  a  third.  The  aggre- 
gate area  of  these  Foolali  countries  is  estima- 
ted at  over  800,000  sq.  m. ;  the  population  at 
about  6,000,000.  It  is  the  opinion  of  modem 
travellers  that  the  Foolahs  are  destined  to  be- 
come the  dominant  people  of  Negroland,  and 
they  have  excited  more  interest  and  scientific 


research  than  almost  any  other  African  raeo. 

In  language,  appearance,  and  history  they 
present  striking  differences  from  the  neigh- 
boring tribes,  to  whom  they  are  superior  in 
intelligence,  but  inferior,  according  to  Borth, 
in  physical  development  Goth^ry  describes 
them  as  rohuat  and  courageous,  of  a  reddish 
black  color,  with  regular  features,  hair  longer 
and  less  woolly  than  that  of  the  common 
negroes,  and  high  mental  capacity.  Lander, 
who  saw  them  near  Borgoo,  says  that  they 
differ  little  in  feature  or  color  fVom  the  negroes; 
other  travellers  speak  of  them  as  having  tawny 
complexions  and  soft  hair.  Dr.  Barth  found 
great  local  differences  in  their  physical  char- 
acteristics, and  Bowen  describes  the  Foolaha 
of  Yoruba  as  being  some  black,  some  almost 
white,  and  many  of  a  mulatto  color  varying 
from  dark  to  very  bri^t.  Their  features  aad 
skalls  were  cast  in  the  European  mould.    They 


have  a  tradition  that  their   ancestors  were 

whites,  and  certain  tribes  call  themselves  white 
men.  Some  of  them  relate  that  they  came 
from  the  country  around  Timbuctoo,  and  the 
prevailing  opinion  has  been  that  their  course  of 
oonqnest  was  from  central  or  east  Africa  west- 
ward ;  but  Dr.  Barth  agrees  with  Clapperton 
in  thinking  that  they  mode  a  second  migration 
from  the  Senegal  toward  their  birthplace,  in 
the  course  of  which  they  absorbed  or  oonquer- 
ed  the  tribes  in  their  march.  Their  language 
is  neither  African  nor  Semitic,  Foolahs  are 
found  in  the  suburbs  of  most  of  the  towns  of 
Soodan,  pursuing  the  avocation  of  dairymen  and 
cattle  breeders.  Most  of- them  are  Mohamme- 
dans. The  nsoal  dress  of  the  men  is  a  red  cap 
with  a  white  tarban,  a  short  white  shirt,  a 
large  white  robe,  white  trousers  trimmed  with 
red  or  green  silk,  and  eandala  or  boots.    The 


FOOLS 


FOOTA  JALLON 


309 


women  wear  a  striped  garment  falling  as  low 
as  the  ankles.  The  children  of  both  sexes  of 
the  better  classes  are  taught  to  read  and  write 
Arabic.  The  men  wear  swords  at  all  times, 
and  even  go  armed  with  bows  and  arrows 
on  horseback.  The  sovereign  of  each  Foolah 
state  appoints  governors  of  the  provinces  at 
pleasure,  and  on  their  death  succeeds  to  all  their 
effects.  The  Foolahs  are  in  continual  hostility 
with  the  Arabs. — See,  besides  the  narratives 
of  the  travellers  above  mentioned,  and  the 
ethnological  works  of  Prichard  aud  Latham, 
Jffistoirs  0t  origins  des  Foulhcu  ou  FellaM^  by 
Gustave  d'Eichthal  (Paris,  1842). 

FOOLS)  Feast  9ij  a  medissval  grotesque  reli- 
gious ceremony,  celebrated  for  several  celntu- 
riea,  chiefly  in  France,  at  the  festivals  of  the 
Nativity,  the  Circumcision,  the  Epiphany,  the 
Murder  of  the  Innocents,  and  especially  at 
Christmas  and  Easter.  The  custom  and  amuse- 
ments usually  connected  with  the  pagan  Satur- 
nalia had  continued,  in  spite  of  prohibitions,  to 
be  observed  among  Christians  both  in  the  East 
and  West,  and  gradually  attached  themselves  to 
the  Christian  festivals  occurring  in  December 
and  January,  which  had  been  the  months  of  the 
pagaa  celebrations.  The  /e$tum  /atuarum  or 
follorum  was  a  mixture  of  farce  and  piety,  and  a 
sportive  travesty  of  the  offices  and  rites  of  the 
ohnrch.  The  priests  and  clerks  elected  a  pope, 
archbishop,  or  bishop,  and  conducted  him  in 
great  pomp  to  the  church,  which  they  entered 
dancing,  masked,  disguised  as  women,  animals, 
and  merry-andrews ;  they  sang  infamous  songs, 
converted  the  altar  into  a  buffet,  where  they 
ate  and  drank  during  the  celebration  of  the 
holy  mysteries,  played  with  cards  and  dice, 
burned  old  sandals  instead  of  incense,  ran 
about  leaping,  and  amused  the  populace  by  in- 
decent sallies  and  postures.  The  feast  of  fools 
was  prohibited  by  the  papal  legate  Peter  of 
Capua  in  the  diocese  of  Paris  in  1108,  and  was 
condemned  by  the  Sorbonne  in  1444,  but  did 
not  entirely  disappear  till  toward  the  end  of 
the  16th  century.  It  was  known  in  Germany 
only  in  the  cities  on  the  Rhine. 

FOOT,  a  measure  of  length  indicating  fts 
origin  by  its  name,  m  general  use  in  all  civilized 
countries,  and  supposed  to  be  adopted  from  the 
length  of  the  human  foot,  possibly  at  first  of 
some  reigning  sovereign.  The  length  is  very 
variable  within  moderate  limits  in  different 
countries.  The  Roman  pe$  has  been  calculated 
from  several  sources,  as  ancient  measures,  meas- 
nrements  of  recorded  distances  along  roads,  and 
measurements  of  buildings  of  recorded  dimen- 
sions. From  the  first  source  their  foot  appears 
to  have  been  0*9718  of  the  English  foot,  from 
the  second  0*97082,  and  from  the  third  0'96994; 
the  average  of  which  would  be  11*6502  inches. 
The  Greek  vw^  as  used  at  Athens  is  believed 
to  have  been  to  the  Roman  foot  as  25  is  to  24, 
making  it  12*185  English  inches.  The  English 
standard,  after  a  prolonged  effort  to  recover  the 
standard  of  1760,  which  had  been  destroyed 
by  fire,  is  now  referred  to  the  **  straight  line 


or  distance  between  the  centres  of  the  two 
gold  plugs  or  pins  in  the  bronze  bar  deposited 
in  the  office  of  the  exchequer."  This  bar  is 
designated  as  '^bronze  19,  No.  1,"  and  the 
'length  is  to  be  measured  when  its  temperature 
is  62''  F.  This  is  declared  to  be  the  standard 
yard,  and  the  standard  foot  is  its  third  part 
The  twelfth  part  of  the  foot  is  the  standard 
inch.  The  United  States  standard  is  a  brass 
rule  made  for  the  coast  survey  by  Troughton 
of  London,  from  the  old  English  standard.  The 
following  are  a  few  of  the  principal  feet,  with 
their  value  in  decimals  of  the  English  foot: 
The  French  old  pUd  du  Toy  equals  1*07,  the 
modern  pied  u$uel,  1*094;  German,  0*971 ; 
Amsterdam  old  foot^  0*98,  since  1820,  if  used, 
1*094;  Denmark  Rhineland  foot,  108;  Ham- 
burg, 0*94 ;  Stockholm,  0*97 ;  St.  Petersburg, 
1*146;  Riga,  0*89;  Canton,  1*06;  Lisbon,  0*927, 
or  according  to  others,  0*72;  Turkey,  1*16; 
Constantinople,  1*23.  As  used  by  surveyors 
and  engineers,  the  foot  is  decimally  divided. 
Architects  and  artificers  employ  it  with  these 
divisions,  and  their  scales  are  also  made  with 
inch  divisions,  and  these  subdivided  into  eighths 
and  sixteenths  of  an  inch. 

FOOTA,  a  territory  of  Senegambia,  west  Af- 
rica, extending  from  the  Senegal  on  the  )iorth- 
west  to  North  Gangara  on  the  southeast,  be- 
tween lat.  15'  and  16**  26'  N.,  and  Ion.  12^  86' 
and  16°  36'  W.;  area  about  15,000  sq.  m.; 
pop.  estimated  at  400,000.  It  is  a  Ifertile,  well 
watered  country,  producing  rice,  gum,  tama- 
rinds, cotton,  tobacco,  and  various  kinds  of 
grain.  Large  forests  are  spread  over  the  sur- 
face, pasture  lands  support  sheep  and  cattle, 
and  there  are  several  mines  of  iron.  The  in- 
habitants are  mostly  negroes,  active  and  indus- 
trious, but,  like  most  of  their  race,  extrava- 
gantly superstitious.  They  profess  Moham- 
medanism, and  are  firm  believers  in  witchcraft. 
They  cultivate  the  ground  with  considerabb 
skill,  and  are  active  fishermen.  Their  manu- 
factures are  confined  to  cotton  cloth  and  earth- 
enware. The  country  is  divided  into  three  parts 
or  provinces,  viz.:  Foota  Tora  on  the  north, 
Foota  proper  in  the  middle,  and  Foota  Damga 
on  the  east.  Each  of  these  has  its  chief^  sub- 
ject to  the  almamy  or  sovereign,  who  is  chosen 
from  a  few  privileged  families  by  a  council  of 
l^ve.  His  authority  is  both  secular  and  sacer- 
dotal, but  the  council  has  the  right  of  repri- 
manding, deposing,  or  in  some  cases  putting 
him  to  death.  The  fanaticism  of  the  people  is 
a  great  impediment  to  European  commerce, 
but  in  1857  the  French  erected  a  fort  at  Podoi, 
on  the  Senegal,  for  the  protection  of  traders. 

FOOTA  JALLON9  or  FitiatUoi,  a  large  terri- 
tory of  Senegambia,  W.  Africa,  situated  about 
the  sources  of  the  Gambia,  Rio  Grande  or  Jeba, 
and  Joliba  or  Ni^er,  and  intersected  by  lat  12° 
N.  and  Ion.  18°  W.  It  is  mountainous  and 
rocky,  but  about  one  third  of  it  is  extremely 
fertile,  producing  rice,  maize,  oranges,  bananas, 
dates,  honey,  wax,  wine,  and  oil,  while  large 
flocks  of  sheep  pasture  on  the  highlands.    Iron 


310 


FOOTE 


ore  is  wrought  and  manufactured  into  a  very 
malleable  species  of  metal.  The  inhabitants 
are  Mohammedans  of  the  Foolah  raco,  remark- 
able for  their  fanatical  hatred  of  all  infidels  ex- 
cept the  whites,  from  whom  they  claim  descent.* 
Their  houses  are  neat  and  well  built;  the  prin- 
cipal towns  contain  manufactories  of  articles  of 
dress,  of  iron,  silver,  wood,  and  leather.  Trade 
is  carried  on  with  Timbuctoo  and  other  places, 
and  the  merchants  often  make  long  commercial 
journeys.  Timbo,  the  capital,  is  said  to  <;on- 
tain  7,000  inhabitants,  and  there  are  several 
other  towns  with  a  population  of  between 
8,000  and  6,000.  The  government  is  elective. 
FOOTE,  Andrew  HbII,  an  American  naval  offi- 
cer, bom  in  New  Haven,  Conn.,  Sept.  12, 
1806,  died  in  New  York,  June  26,  1868.  He 
entered  the  navy  in  1822  as  acting  midship- 
man, became  passed  midshipman  in  1827,  and 
lieutenant  in  1880.  In  1833  he  was  flag  lieu- 
tenant of  the  Mediterranean  squadron,  and  in 
1888  circumnavigated  the  globe  as  first  lieu- 
tenant of  the  sloop  of  war  John  Adams,  par- 
ticipating in  an  attack  on  the  pirates  of  Su- 
matra. While  stationed  at  the  naval  asylum 
in  1841-^8  he  prevailed  upon  many  of  the  in- 
mates to  give  up  their  spirit  rations,  and  du- 
ring the  cruise  in  the  Cumberland  in  1843-^5 
he  not  only  induced  the  crew  to  forego  the 
use  of  spirits,  but  personally  superihtended 
their  religious  instruction,  delivering  every 
Sunday  an  extemporaneous  sermon.  In  1849, 
in  command  of  the  brig  Perry,  he  joined  the 
squadron  on  the  African  coast,  where  during 
the  next  2i  years  he  was  actively  engaged  in 
suppressing  the  slave  trade.  After  serving  on 
the  naval  retiring  board,  he  was  appointed  in 
1856  to  the  command  of  the  sloop  Portsmouth, 
and  ordered  to  proceed  to  the  China  station. 
Arriving  at  Canton  just  previous  to  the  com- 
mencement of  hostilities  between  the  English 
and  Chinese,  he  exerted  himself  in  protecting 
the  property  of  American  citi2ens ;  and  hav- 
ing been  fired  upon  from  the  Canton  barrier 
forts  while  in  the  discharge  of  this  duty,  he 
demanded  an  apology.  This  being  refused,  he 
attacked  the  forts,  four  in  number,  w^ith  the 
Portsmouth,  supported  by  the  Levant,  breached 
the  largest  and  strongest,  and,  landing  with  a 
force  of  280  sailors  and  marines,  carried  the 
work  by  storm.  The  remaining  forts  were 
successively  carried,  with  a  total  loss  of  40  to 
the  attacking  party.  The  works  were  mass- 
ive granite  structures,  mounting  176  guns  and 
garrisoned  by  5,000  men,  of  whom  400  were 
killed  and  wounded.  At  the  commencement 
of  the  civil  war  in  1861,  Commander  Foote 
was  executive  officer  at  the  Brooklyn  navy 
yard.  In  July  he  was  commissioned  a  captain, 
and  in  September  was  appointed  flag  officer 
of  the  flotilla  fitting  out  in  the  western  waters. 
He  personally  superintended  the  completion 
of  this  work,  and  on  Feb.  4,  1862,  sailed  from 
Cairo  with  a  fleet  of  seven  gunboats,  of  which 
four  were  iron-clad,  to  attack  Fort  Henry  on 
the  Tennessee  river.    Without  waiting  for  the 


arrival  of  the  land  force  under  Gen.  Grant, 
which  was  to  coSperate  with  him,  he  opened 
fire  upon  the  fore  at  noon  of  the  6tli,  and  after 
an  action  of  one  hour  compelled  its  surrender. 
Returning  to  Cairo,  he  sailed  soon  after  for  the 
Cumberland  river,  and  on  the  14th  attacked 
Fort  Donelson.  The  action  was  sustained  with 
great  vigor  on  both  sides  for  an  hour  and  a 
quarter,  when  the  fleet  w^as  obliged  to  haul  off, 
in  consequence  of  two  of  the  gunboats  becom- 
ing unmanageable  by  having  their  steering  ap- 
paratus shot  away.  Capt.  Foote  was  severely 
wounded  in  the  ankle,  and  his  ship,  the  St. 
Louis,  was  struck  61  times.  Though  suffering 
from  his  wound,  he  proceeded  down  the  Mis- 
sissippi with  his  fleet,  and  commenced  the  siege 
of  Island  No.  Ten.  After  the  reduction  of  that 
place,  he  received  leave  of  absence.  Upon 
being  restored  to  health,  he  was  appointed 
chief  of  the  bureau  of  equipment  and  recruit- 
ing. In  July,  1862,  he  was  appointed  rear 
admiral,  and  in  May,  1868,  was  ordered  to 
take  command  of  the  South  Atlantic  smiad- 
ron,  but  died  while  preparing  to  leave  i^ew 
York  for  Charleston.  He  was  the  author  of 
*' Africa  and  the  American  Flag"  (1854),  and 
a  series  of  "Letters  on  Japan"  (1857).  His 
'*  Life  "  is  announced  as  being  in  preparation 
by  Prof.  James  Hoppin. 

FOOTE,  Henry  Ktmtrt,  an  American  politician, 
born  in  Fauquier  co.,  Va.,  Sept.  20,  1800.  He 
graduated  at  Washington  college,  Lexington, 
Ya.,  in  1819,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1822, 
and  in  1824  removed  to  Tuscumbia,  Ala., 
where  he  edited  a  democratic  newspaper.  In 
1826  he  removed  to  Jackson,  Miss.  In  1847 
he  was  elected  to  the  United  States  senate, 
and  was  made  chairman  of  the  committee  on 
foreign  relations.  In  1850  he  took  an  active 
part  in  favor  of  the  compromise  measures,  and 
in  1851,  in  a  hotly  contested  election,  was 
chosen  governor  of  Mississippi,  his  competitor 
being  Jefferson  Davis.  In  1854  he  removed 
to  California,  but  in  1858  returned  to  Missis- 
sippi, taking  up  his  residence  at  Vicksburg. 
In  the  southern  convention  at  Knoxville  in 
1859  he  spoke  warmly  in  opposition  to  dis- 
union. During  a  great  part  of  the  civil  war 
he  was  a  member  of  the  confederate  congress 
from  Tennessee,  and  distinguished  himself  by 
his  personal  and  political  hostility  to  Jefferscm 
Davis.  Not  long  after  the  close  of  the  war  he 
resumed  the  practice  of  law.  He  has  been 
engaged  in  several  duels,  in  two  of  which  he 
was  slightly  wounded.  He  has  published 
"Texas  and  the  Texans"  (Philadelphia,  1841) 
and  **The  War  of  the  Rebellion,  or  Scylla 
and  Charybdis"  (New  York,  1866). 

FOOTE,  Samiel,  an  English  dramatist  and 
actor,  bom  in  Truro,  Cornwall,  in  1720,  died 
in  Dover,  Oct.  21,  1777.  He  was  entered  at 
Worcester  college,  Oxford,  but  his  powers  of 
mimicry  involved  him  in  indiscretions  which 
led  to  the  severance  of  his  connection  with 
the  university  when  he  was  20  years  old.  He 
soon  afterward  became  a  student  at  law  in 


FORAMINIFERA 


FORBES 


311 


iho  Temple,  and,  plunging  into  a  career  of 
pleasure,  in  less  than  four  years  dissipated  at 
the  gaming  table  and  by  reckless  extravagance 
two  fortanes  which  he  had  successively  inher- 
ited from  his  uncle  and  his  father.  He  there- 
upon became  an  actor,  and  in  1744  made  his 
debut  at  the  Uaymarket  theatre  in  the  charac- 
ter of  Othello.  He  attracted  little  attention 
in  tragedy  or  in  comedy,  and  it  was  not  until 
he  brought  the  political  and  social  notabilities 
of  the  day  upon  the  stage  by  his  wonderful 
gift  of  mimicry  that  he  discovered  his  true 
road  to  success.  In  the  spring  of  1747  he 
opened  the  Haymarket  theatre  with  a  piece 
called  *^The  Diversions  of  the  Morning," 
written  by  himself,  and  in  which  he  was  the 
principal  actor.  The  piece  was  successful  al- 
most beyond  precedent  The  licensing  act 
having  been  applied  against  him  by  those 
whose  foibles  he  had  thus  publicly  portrayed, 
he  made  his  piece  a  rooming  entertainment, 
and  onder  the  title  of  '*  Mr.  Foote  taking  Tea 
with  his  Friends,"  it  was  repeated  for  more 
than  60  successive  mornings.  A  similar  piece, 
entitled  *^The  Auction  of  Pictures,*^  proved 
equally  successful,  and  the  author  was  com- 
plimented with  the  title  of  the  English  Aristo- 
phanes.' He  kept  the  Haymarket  theatre  open 
without  a  license  for  ten  years  (during  which 
he  found  time  to  dissipate  a  third  fortune), 
furnishing  a  constant  supply  of  new  plays  to 
replace  the  old  ones,  and  became  the  admira- 
tion of  the  town,  and  also  its  terror,,  as  no 
person  whose  character  possessed  any  vulner- 
able points  was  safe  from  his  mimicry.  In 
1767  a  fall  from  his  horse  occasioned  the  am- 
putation of  one  of  his  legs ;  and  the  duke  of 
York,  who  witnessed  the  accident,  procured 
him  a  regular  patent  to  open  a  theatre.  He 
still  wrote  and  acted,  but  less  frequently  than 
before;  and  in  1777,  with  a  constitution  under- 
mined by  ill  health  and  mental  suffering,  he 
undertook  a  journey  to  France,  and  died  on 
the  w^ay  at  Dover.  He  wrote  about  25  plays, 
of  which  20  have  been  published,  and  some 
others  have  been  attributed  to  him.  Those 
which  have  kept  the  stage  longest  are  ^^The 
Minor,''  in  which  the  Methodists  are  satirized, 
**The  Englishman  returned  from  Paris,"  "The 
Bankrupt,"  which  attacks  the  newspapers, 
**The  Orators,"  "The  Lame  Lov^r,"  "The 
Liar,"  and  "The  Mayor  of  Garratt."  His 
dramatic  works  have  never  been  published  in 
a  complete  edition.  William  Cooke  published 
his  memoirs,  and  some  of  his  writings  (3  yds. 
8vo,  London,  1805). 

FOBlMUflFERA  (Lat.  foramen^  an  opening, 
and  firre^  to  carry),  an  order  of  the  protozoa, 
of  the  class  of  rhizopods,  having  the  power  of 
projecting  and  retracting  through  openings  in 
their  calcareous  shell  temporary  tiiread-like 
prolongations  (pseudopodia)  of  sarcode,  or  the 
gelatinous  protoplasmic  substance  of  which  the 
body  is  composed ;  by  these  processes  they  move 
and  obtain  food ;  they  differ  from  amoeba  in 
having  a  shell,  and  very  long  slender  pseado- 


1.  Textlraria  globuloaa. 

2.  Botalia  globulosa. 

i'.  Bide  view  of  Kotalia 
fioaeana. 


podia,  interlacing  with  each  other ;  they  have 
no  nucleus  nor  contractile  vesicle,  like  the  amoe- 
ba. The  shell  is  often  very  complex  and  beau- 
tiful, enclosing  the  sarcode  body,  which  has 
no  structure  nor  definite 
organs,  and  yet  has  the 
power  of  making  a  cal- 
careous or  sandy  shell. 
The  shell  may  be  single 
or  many-chambered,  the 
latter  produced  by  the 
budding  of  the  former. 
Placed  very  near  the  bot- 
tom of  the  animal  scale, 
structureless  and  with- 
out permanent  organs, 
they  yet  perform  all  the  great  physiolo^- 
cal  functions  of  life,  digestion,  growth,  repro- 
duction, secretion,  and  locomotion.  They  are 
mostly  microscopic,  though  the  nummulite  at- 
tained the  diameter  of  an  inch.  They  are  all 
marine,  and  are  distributed  all  over  the  world ; 
they  have  been  dredged  from  a  depth  of  nearly 
three  miles  in  the  yicinity  of  Spitzbergen.  They 
were  among  the  earliest  created  animals,  and 
the  oldest  known  fossil,  eozodn^  is  a  foraminifer ; 
the  great  chalk  deposit  of  Europe,  wide  as  the 
continent,  and  sometimes  nearly  1,000  ft.  deep, 
is  almost  entirely  made  up  of  the  foraminiferous 
globigerinoj  not  to  be  distinguished  from  forms 
now  living  in  the  deepest  Atlantic  basin ;  the 
building  stone  of  Paris  is  largely  composed  of 
fbraminifera. 

FORBACHy  a  town  of  Alsace-Lorraine,  Ger- 
many, on  the  railroad  near  the  frontier  of  Prus- 
sia, 11  m.  N.  W.  of  SaargemQnd ;  pop.  in  1871, 
5,428.  Near  the  town  are  the  coal  mines  of 
Petite  Rosselle,  Urselsbach,  Schdnecke,  and 
Stiring-Wendel,  which  annually  yield  about 
50,000  tons.  After  the  battle  at  the  heights  of 
Spichem  (Aug.  6,  1870),  in  which  Gen.  Fros- 
sard  was  defeated  by  several  divisions  of  the 
armies  commanded  by  Gen.  Steinmetz  and 
Prince  Frederick  Charles,  and  which  is  called 
by  the  French  the  battle  of  Forbach,  the  town 
was  occupied  by  the  German  troops,  and  was 
afterward  annexed  to  Germany  with  the  rest 
of  Lorraine.  It  was  previously  the  capital  of 
a  canton  in  the  French  department  of  Moselle. 

FORBiS,  ArcUbald.    See  supplement. 

FOniS)  DiDcan,  a  Scottish  statesman,  bom 
at  Buchrew,  near  Inverness,  Nov.  10,  1685, 
died  Dec.  10,  1747.  He  was  educated  at  In- 
verness and  Edinburgh,  and  at  the  university 
of  Leyden,  and  in  1709  became  an  advocate. 
He  had  already  won  the  friendship  of  John, 
duke  of  Argyll ;  and  in  1715  he  took  an  active 
part  in  suppressing  the  rebellion.  He  was  ap- 
pointed to  aid  in  prosecuting  the  captured 
rebels,  but  it  does  not  appear  that  he  acted  in 
the  office,  and  he  was  prominent  in  aiding  the 
Scotch  prisoners  in  England.  In  1716  he  was 
appointed  advocate  depute,  in  1722  was  returned 
to  the  British  house  of  commons  for  Inverness, 
and  in  1725  became  lord  advocate.  The  office 
of  secretary  of  state  for  Scotland  being  at  this 


312 


FORBES 


time  discontinned,  its  daties  devolved  on  the 
lord  advocate,  who  was  thus  temporarilj  at 
the  head  of  the  government.  The  office  of  lord 
president  of  the  court  of  session  was  conferred 
on  him  in  1737.  He  still  paid  regard  to  politi- 
cal affairs,  and  proposed  that  government  should 
raise  several  regiments  of  Highlanders,  to  he 
officered  by  the  chiefs  of  the  disaffected  dans, 
'  and  employed  in  the  threatened  Spanish  war. 
Several  leading  men,  including  Walpole,  ap- 
proved the  plan,  but  nothing  was  done.  When 
the  second  rebellion  broke  out,  in  1745,  he  ex- 
erted himself  strenuously  to  prevent  its  spread, 
withheld  several  highland  chiefs  from  joining 
the  pretender,  and  was  more  efficient  than  any 
other  man  in  restraining  the  rebels.  After  the 
battle  of  Oulloden,  which  took  its  name  from 
Forbes^s  family  estate,  he  sought  to  moderate 
the  ferocity  of  the  victors,  but  his  remonstrances 
were  treated  with  the  utmost  scorn  and  con- 
tempt. He  was  insulted  by  Cumberland,  who 
called  him  ^^  that  old  woman  who  talked  to  me 
about  humanity."  The  government  used  him 
with  baseness.  He  had  advanced  and  borrowed 
large  sums  of  money  in  aid  of  it,  but  none  of 
his  advances  were  returned,  and  the  borrowed 
money  was  repaid  from  his  estate,  after  his 
death,  by  his  son.  Forbes  saw  the  changes 
that  were  forced  upon  Scotland  after  the  re- 
bellion with  regret,  and  his  death,  which  hap- 
pened 20  months  after  the  battle  of  Golloden, 
IS  supposed  to  have  been  caused  by  the  humil- 
iation of  himself  and  his  country.  He  was  a 
Hebrew  scholar,  and  wrote  **  Thoughts  on  Re* 
ligion.  Natural  and  Revealed,"  ^^  Reflections  on 
the  Sources  of  Incredulity  in  regard  to  Reli- 
gion," and  **  A  Letter  to  a  Bishop  concerning 
some  important  Discoveries  in  Philosophy  and 
Religion."  His  correspondence  in  relation  to 
Scottish  affairs  was  published  under  the  title 
of  "The  Culloden  Papers"  (London,  1815); 
and  his  biography  has  been  written  by  John 
Hill  Burton  (London,  1847). 

FORBES,  Edward,  an  English  naturalist,  bom 
in  Douglas,  isle  of  Man,  early  in  1815,  died  at 
Wardie,  near  Edinburgh,  Nov.  18,  1854.  In 
his  17th  year  he  went  to  London  with  some 
idea  of  becoming  a  painter,  and  acquired  a  fa- 
cility in  drawing  which  afterward  proved  of 
great  assistance  in  his  scientifio  explorations. 
In  1881  he  Went  to  Edinburgh,  where  he  studied 
medicine,  but  devoted  himself  especially  to  in- 
vestigations in  natural  history,  and  never  took 
the  degree  of  M.  D.  Dredging  in  the  waters 
for  specimens  of  submarine  zo5logy,  which  at 
the  commencement  of  his  studies  was  a  com- 
paratively new  occupation  to  naturalists,  be- 
came under  his  hands  the  means  of  opening  a 
new  field  of  research ;  and  the  results  of  his 
labors,  published  in  the  ^*  Magazine  of  Natural 
History,"  under  the  title  of  "  Records  of  the 
Results  of  Dredging,"  were  among  his  earliest 
contributions  to  scientific  literature.  In  his 
18th  year  he  made  a  summer  excursion  to  Nor- 
way, bringing  back  abundant  specimens  of  its 
rocks,  plants,  and  mollusca.   He  remained  con- 


nected with  the  university  of  Edinburgh  till 
1839,  varying  his  residence  there  by  excursions 
to  southern  Europe,  the  Mediterranean,  and 
Algeria.  The  greater  part  of  1887  he  passed 
in  Paris  studying  geology,  mineralogy,  and 
zo5logy,  and  working  in  the  museum  and  col- 
lections of  the  jardin  des  plantes.  During  this 
period  he  published  also  papers  on  the  *^  Mol- 
lusca of  the  Isle  of  Man,"  tlie  *^  Land  and  Fresh- 
Water  Mollusca  of  Algiers,"  on  the  ^^  Distribu- 
tion of  the  Pulmonifera  of  Europe,"  &c.  In 
1841  he  published  his  ''  History  of  British  Star 
Fishes,"  with  120  illustrations.  In  the  spring 
of  1841  he  went  as  naturalist  on  the  surveying 
ship  Beacon,  destined  for  the  coast  of  Asia  Mi- 
nor, where  she  was  to  receive  the  Xanthian 
marbles,  the  existence  of  which  had  recently 
been  made  known  by  the  explorations  of  Sir 
Ohai'les  Fellows.  During  the  18  months  that 
Mr.  Forbes  remained  on  board  the  vessel  he 
established  by  dredging  operations  in  various 
depths  of  water  the  fact  that  the  distribution 
of  marine  life,  like  that  of  terrestrial  animals 
and  v^etables,  is  determined  by  certain  fixed 
laws,  and  that  the  zones  which  the  different 
species  inhabit  are  as  distinctly  marked  in  tiie 
one  case  by  the  climate  and  the  depth  and 
composition  of  the  water,  as  in  the  other  by 
temperature,  altitude,  and  other  influences. 
The  results  of  these  researches  were  given  in  a 
paper  entitled  "  Report  on  tlie  Mollusca  and 
kadiata  of  the  ^Egean  Sea,  and  on  their  Dis- 
tribution, considered  as  bearing  on  Geology," 
which  was  read  before  the  meeting  of  the  Brit- 
ish association  in  Cork  in  1848.  He  also  as- 
sisted in  the  excavations  of  the  cities  on  the 
Lycian  Xanthus,  the  ruins  of  20  of  which  he 
was  instrumental  in  discovering.  In  1846  he 
published,  in  conjunction  with  Lieut.  Spratt, 
*'*'  Travels  in  Lycia,  Milyas,  and  the  Cibyratis." 
In  the  latter  part  of  1842  he  was  recalled  to  Eng- 
land by  his  appointment  as  professor  of  botany 
in  King^s  coUege,  London,  and  was  soon  after- 
ward appointed  curator  of  the  museum  of  the 
geological  society,  and  palsdontologist  of  the 
new  museum  of  practical  geology,  established 
in  connection  with  the  ordnance  geological 
survey.  He  subsequently  bec^one  professor  of 
natural  history  at  this  institution.  Among  tlie 
first  fruits  of  his  labors  was  a  treatise  **  On  the 
Gonnectioh  between  the  Distribution  of  the 
Existing  Fauna  and  Flora  of  the  British  Isles, 
and  the  Geological  Changes  which  have  af- 
fected their  Area"  (1846),  in  which  the  con- 
clusions arrived  at,  after  investigations  in  an 
unusually  wide  field  of  speculative  research, 
are  that  the  fauna  and  flora  of  Britain,  both 
terrestrial  and  marine,  are  members  of  families 
inhabiting  a  contiguous  continent,  which  at  no 
very  remote  period  existed  in  the  Atlantic, 
whence  they  migrated  before,  during,  or  after 
the  glacial  epoch.  Of  papers  on  zodlogy  and 
geology  he  prepared  previous  to  1850  upward 
of  89,  exclusive  of  his  botanical  papers  or  those 
published  after  that  date,  which  are  numerous ; 
and  his  note  books  and  collections  contained 


FORBES 


313 


the  materials  for  many  more.  One  of  the 
most  important  works  in  which  he  took  part 
after  his  connection  with  the  geological  society 
was  the  preparation  of  the  paleontological  and 
geological  map  of  the  British  isles,  to  which  he 
appended  an  explanatory  dissertation  and  a 
map  of  the  ^'  Distributioir  of  Marine  Life."  In 
1852  he  was  elected  president  of  the  geological 
society,  and  in  the  succeeding  year  obtained 
the  professorship  of  natural  history  in  the  uni- 
versity of  Edinburgh.  He  delivered  a  course 
of  lectures  in  Edinburgh  in  the  sunmier  of 
IdoA,  but  was  soon  after  attacked  by  a  disease 
of  the  kidneys,  which  ultimately  proved  fatal. 
In  addition  to  the  works  enumerated,  Prof. 
Forbes  assisted  Mr.  Hanley  in  the  preparation  of 
the  ^^  History  of  British  MoUusca  "  (4  vols.  8vo, 
1853),  the  descriptions  in  which  were  written 
by  himself^  and  contributed  important  infor- 
mation respecting  the  distribution  of  plants 
and  animals  to  a  revised  edition  of  Johnston's 
**  Physical  Atlas.''  He  also  possessed  a  con- 
siderable knowledge  of  general  literature, 
which  in  the  intervals  of  his  scientific  labors 
he  assiduously  cultivated ;  and  after  his  death 
his  friends  were  surprised  to  learn  that  for  a 
number  of  years  he  had  been  a  regular  contrib- 
utor of  miscellaneous  articles  to  the  columns 
of  the  London  ^^AthenflBum"  and  ^-Literary 
Gazette,"  a  collection  of  which  was  published 
under  the  title  of  ^*  Literary  Papers  by  the 
late  Edward  Forbes,"  with  a  Memoir  by  Hux- 
ley ri2mo,  1855).  His  other  posthumous  pub- 
lications are :  "  Zo5logy  of  the  Voyage  of  H. 
M.  Ship  Herald"  (8  vols.  4to),  and  '*Mol- 
losca  and  Radiata  of  the  Voyage  of  H.  M.  Ship 
Herald/'  the  latter  written  in  conjunction  with 
Prof.  Huxley. 

fWBES,  Janes  David,  a  Scottish  physicist, 
bom  in  Edinburgh,  April  20,  1809,  died  at 
Clifton,  Eng.,  Dec.  81,  1868.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  the  university  of  Edinburgh,  and  at 
the  age  of  17  he  began  a  correspondence  on 
scientific  matters  with  Dr.  (afterward  Sir 
David)  Brewster,  which  continued  for  some 
years,  and  Forbes's  papers  were  published  in 
Brewster's  *' Journal."  In  the  summer  of 
1826  he  visited  the  continent;  he  ascended 
Vesuvius,  publishing  his  observations,  and  du- 
ring this  tour  made  his  first  visit  to  Ohamouni. 
In  June,  1830,  he  passed  as  an  advocate,  but 
immediately  abandoned  the  bar  to  devote 
hunself  to  scientific  pursuits.  In  the  ensuing 
winter  he  became  a  member  of  the  royal  so- 
ciety of  Edinburgh.  In  September,  1881,  he 
asnsted  in  founding  the  British  association. 
In  January,  1883,  at  the  age  of  24,  he  waa 
elected  professor  of  natural  philosophy  in  the 
university  of  Edinburgh,  and  entered  upon  the 
datiea  in  November  following.  In  1887  he 
was  appointed  dean  of  the  faculty  of  arts. 
His  summer  vacations  were  devoted  to  travel. 
He  passed  the  summers  of  1887  and  1888  in 
an  extended  tour  through  north  Germany  and 
Austria;  from  May  to  August,  1839,  he  was 
in  the  south  of  France,  and  was  more  or  less 


among  the  Alps ;  and  in  July,  1841,  in  com- 
pany with  Prof.  Agassiz,  he  ascended  the 
Jungfrau.  His  first  Alpine  experiences  ap- 
peared in  an  article  on  glaciers  in  the  ^^  Edin- 
burgh Review,"  April,  1842,  though  the  year 
before  he  had  published  in  the  proceedings  of 
the  royal  society  his  views  on  the  peculiar 
structure  of  the  ice  in  glaciers,  and  in  August, 
1840,  he  had  crossed  the  southern  spurs  of 
Monte  Rosa  from  valley  to  valley,  exploring 
the  glaciers  as  he  went.  In  September,  1842, 
he  was  again  at  Ghamouni,  and  numerous  geo- 
logical excursions  to  Vesuvius  in  the  vicinity 
of  Naples  occupied  him  till  the  end  of  the 
year.  In  1848  he  published  "  Travels  through 
the  Alps  of  Savoy,"  and  in  April  of  that  year 
he  visited  Mt.  Etna.  The  summers  of  1844 
and  1846  he  devoted  to.  the  measurement  of 
the  rate  of  motion  in  the  Swiss  glaciers.  In 
the  summer  of  1845  h^  made  a  tour  of  the 
western  highlands,  explored  Coolin  mountain 
in  the  isle  of  Skye,  in  company  with  M. 
Necker,  and  found  indisputable  traces  of  gla- 
ciers. In  September  of  that  year  Sir  Robert 
Peel  conferred  upon  him  a  government  pen- 
sion of  £200  a  year.  He  passed  his  vacation 
in  1850  at  Ohamouni,  not  specially  occupied 
with  glacier  observations,  but  correcting  and 
extending  his  survey.  He  crossed  from  the 
Glacier  du  Tour,  descending  into  the  Swiss 
Val  Ferret  by  the  Glacier  de  Salena,  making 
the  most  interesting,  most  difficult,  and  last  of 
his  expeditions  among  the  higher  glaciers  of 
the  Alps.  His  survey  of  the  Mer  de  Glace  was 
the  last  of  his  Alpine  work.  His  last  scien- 
tific journey  was  in  June,  1851,  to  Bergen, 
Norway,  to  observe  an  eclipse  of  the  sun  visi- 
ble only  in  northern  latitudes ;  and  on  his  way 
to  Christiania  he  visited  the  glaciers  of  the 
Hardangerfield.  In  1868  he  published  ^*  Nor- 
way and  its  Glaciers,"  and  in  1855  "  Tour  of 
Mont  Blanc  and  Monte  Rosa."  In  December, 
1859,  he  succeeded  Sir  David  Brewster  as 
principal  of  the  United  college  in  St.  Andrews, 
and  in  April  following  he  resigned  his  chair  at 
Edinburgh.  His  health  had  been  failing  since 
1852,  and  he  resigned  his  principalship  in  Oc- 
tober, 1868,  two  months  before  nis  death.  He 
had  received  the  degree  of  D.  0.  L.  from  Ox- 
ford university  in  1855.  Besides  the  works 
above  enumerated.  Dr.  Forbes  printed  from 
1827  to  1867  in  the  "Edinburgh  Journal  of 
Science  "  the  proceedings  of  the  royal  society 
of  Edinburgh  and  of  the  British  association, 
the  "Edinburgh  New  Philosophical  Journal," 
and  other  publications,  more  than  100  im- 
portant scientific  papers  on  geology,  meteorol- 
ogy, electricity,  magnetism,  refraction  and  po- 
larization of  heat,  volcanic  formations,  tem- 
perature and  conducting  powers  of  difierent 
strata,  excessive  rainfall,  and  many  other 
subjects.  Among  his  origuoial  contributions  to 
physical  science  is  the  polarization  of  radiant 
heat,  which  he  confirmed  by  a  variety  of  in- 
genious experiments.  Besides  his  works  on 
the  Alps  and  Norway,  he  published  15  letters 


314 


FORBES 


FORCIBLE  ENTRY 


and  several  papers  on  glaciers.  He  claimed 
the  discovery  of  the  real  structure  of  glacier 
ice;  the  treatment  of  glacier  motion  as  a 
problem  of  mechanical  forces  and  its  examina- 
tion as  sach ;  and,  generally,  the  first  attempt 
to  explain  the  leading  phenomena  of  glaciers. 
These  claims  involved  him  in  a  controversy 
with  Prof.  Tyndall  and  others. — See  his  "Life 
and  Letters/^  by  Shairp,  Tait,  and  Adams- 
Reilly  (London,  1878). 

FORBES,  Sir  Joha,  a  British  physician  and 
writer  on  medical  science,  bom  at  Cuttlebrae, 
Banffshire,  Scotland,  in  1787,  died  in  London, 
Nov.  13,  1861.  lie  was  edncated  at  Marischal 
college,  Aberdeen,  served  in  the  medical  de- 
partment of  the  navy,  practised  his  profes- 
sion at  Penzance  and  Chichester,  and  finaUy 
removed  to  London.  In  1624  he  published 
translations  of  the  works  of  Auenbrugger  and 
Laennec  on  auscultation,  following  them  up  by 
an  original  work  of  hu\  own  on  the  subject. 
He  was  instrumental  in  founding  the  British 
medical  association,  to  the  "  Transactions''  of 
which  he  contributed  a  paper  on  the  "  Medical 
Topography  of  the  Hundred  of  Penrith."  He 
was  also  the  chief  editor  of  the  "  CyclopaBdia 
of  Practical  Medicine,"  and  for  12  years  con- 
ducted the  *^  British  and  Foreign  Medical  Re- 
view," retiring  in  1848.  He  wrote  "  Observa- 
tions on  the  Climate  of  Penzance  and  Land's 
End"  (1828);  "A  Manual  of  Select  Medical 
Bibliography  "  (1836) ;  **  Illustrations  of  Modem 
Mesmerism  "  (1846) ;  *^  Treatise  on  Diseases  of 
the  Chest,"  and  "Nature  and  Art  in  the  Cure 
of  Disease  "  (1857)  ;  "A  Physician's  Holiday, 
or  a  Month  in  Switzerland  during  the  year 
1848"  (1849);  <^  Memoranda  made  in  Ireland 
in  1852"  (1852);  and  "Sight-seeing  in  Ger- 
many," &c.  (1865).  He  was  physician  in  ordi- 
nary to  the  household  of  the  queen,  by  whom 
he  was  knighted  in  1853. 

FOKCADE,  Eng^ae,  a  French  author,  bora  in 
Marseilles  in  1820,  died  at  Billancourt,  near 
Paris,  Nov.  8,  1869.  He  founded  in  1887  the 
Semaphorey  the  principal  newspaper  at  Mar- 
seilles, and  edited  it  till  1840.  In  that  year  he 
went  to  Paris,  and  subsequently  became  the  po- 
litical editor  of  the  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes; 
Overwork  brought  on  insanity,  the  first  symp- 
toms appearing  in  1868,  while  be  was  attend- 
ing the  funeral  of  Manin  at  Venice,  and  he 
never  fully  recovered  his  reason.  He  published 
£tudes  historiquee  (1853),  and  HUtoire  dee 
eausea  de  la  guerre  d*  Orient  (1854). 

FORCE,  Peter,  an  American  journalist  and 
historian,  bom  at  Passaic  Falls,  N.  J.,  Nov.  26, 
1790,  died  in  Washington,  Jan.  23,  1868.  He 
removed  to  New  York  when  a  child,  became  a 
printer,  and  in  November,  1815,  removed  to 
Washington.  In  1820  he  began  the  publica- 
tion of  the  "National  Calendar,"  an  annual 
volume  of  national  statistics,  which  he  contin- 
ued till  1836.  From  Nov.  12,  1828,  to  Feb.  2, 
1830,  he  published  the  *^  National  Journal,"  a 
political  newspaper,  which  was  the  oflicial 
journal  during    the  administration  of   John 


Quincy  Adams.  From  1836  to  1840  he  was 
mayor  of  Washington,  and  was  afterward  pres- 
ident of  the  national  institute  for  the  promotion 
of  science.  In  1833  he  made  a  contract  with 
the  government  for  the  preparation  and  publi- 
cation of  a  documentary  history  of  the  Ameri- 
can colonies,  of  which  nine  folio  volumes  were 
published,  under  the  title  of  "  American  Ar- 
chives." This  work  occupied  Mr.  Force  for  30 
years,  and  in  its  prosecution  he  gathered  a 
large  and  valuable  collection  of  books,  manu- 
scripts, maps,  and  papers  relating  to  American 
history.  In  1867  this  collection  was  purchased 
by  the  government  for  $100,000,  and  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  library  of  congress.  He  also  pub- 
lished four  volumes  of  historical  tracts,  rela- 
ting chiefly  to  the  origin  and  settlement  of  the 
American  colonies;  "Grinnell  Land"  (8vo, 
Washington,  1852);  and  "Record  of  Auroral 
Phenomena"  (4to,  Washington,  1856). 

FQRCEULINI,  Egldlo,  an  Italian  lexicographer, 
bom  near  Padua,  Aug.  26, 1688,  died  April  4, 
1768.  Admitted  into  the  seminary  of  Padua, 
his  progress  in  the  ancient  languages  induced 
his  master  Facciolato  to  make  him  his  assis- 
tant. In  1718  they  conceived  the  project  of 
publishing  a  universal  dictionary  of  tlie  Latin 
language ;  but  Forcellini  being  sent  in  1724  to 
Ceneda  as  professor  of  rhetoric  and  director  of 
the  seminary,  the  execution  of  the  task  was 
suspended  till  his  return  in  1731.  This  great 
work  was  almost  wholly  executed  by  ForceUini, 
and  for  it  he  read  with  pen  in  hand  not  only 
the  whole  Latin  literature,  but  all  the  collec- 
tions of  inscriptions  and  medals.  He  died  be- 
fore the  work  appeared  in  1771,  under  the  title 
of  Totiue  Latinitatie  Lexicon^  eonsilio  et  eura 
Jaeobi  Faceiolati^  opera  et  studio  ^gidii  For- 
cellini  lueubratum. 

FOKCHHiMMES,  Johain  Gcoif,  a  Danish  geol- 
ogist and  chemist,  bom  at  Husum,  Schleswig, 
July  26,  1794,  died  in  Copenhagen,  Dec.  18, 
1865.  He  became  secretary  of  Oersted,  ac- 
companied him  on  a  mineralogieal  expedition 
to  the  island  of  Bomholm  (1818-'19),  and 
subsequently  made  several  journeys  in  Great 
Britain,  France,  and  Denmark  at  the  expense 
of  the  Danish  govemment.  He  was  professor 
of  geology  at  Copenhagen,  and  in  1851  suc- 
ceeded Oersted  as  secretary  of  the  academy 
of  sciences.  His  principal  works  are  Dane- 
marks  geognostishe  Forhold  (1835),  and  Shan- 
dinaviens  geognostisie  Natur  (1848).  He  also 
excelled  as  a  lecturer  on  chemistry  and  min- 
eralogy, and  wrote  a  manual  of  universal 
chemistry  (Leerebog  i  Stoffemes  almindelige 
Chemie,  1834-'5). 

FOKCIBLE  EKIVT.  In  law,  the  phrase  for- 
cible entry  and  detainer  means  the  unlawful 
and  violent  entry  upon  and  taking  possession 
or  keeping  of  lands  or  tenements,  with  actual 
or  threatened  force  or  violence.  In  nearly  all, 
and  indeed,  in  some  form,  in  all  our  statess 
there  are  laws  respecting  this,  which  are  usn- 
ally  very  stringent.  1.  It  is  regarded  gener- 
ally as  an  offence  and  made  indictable,  or 


FORD 


FORDHAM 


315 


treated  as  being  so  at  common  law.  2.  An 
action  is  given  for  damages,  or  remedial  pro- 
cess provided,  by  means  of  which  the  partj 
entitled  to  possession  maj  have  it  with  the 
least  delay  compatible  with  sufficient  inquiry 
into  questions  of  right  and  title.  The  entry 
and  detainer  are  usually  spoken  of  together ; 
but  it  seems  to  be  settled  that  they  are  dis- 
tinct offences.  The  Roman  civil  law,  in  its 
anxiety  to  preserve  the  peace  of  the  commu- 
nity, made  it  a  punishable  offence  even  in  an 
owner  of  an  estate  to  take  forcible  and  vio- 
lent possession  of  it. 

FORD.  1.  A  y.  £.  county  of  Illinois,  drained 
by  the  middle  fork  of  Vermilion  river ;  area, 
450  sq.  m.;  pop.  in  1870,9,103.  The  surface 
is  level  and  the  soil  fertile.  The  Chicago 
branch  of  the  Illinois  Central,  and  the  Toledo, 
Peoria,  and  Warsaw  railroad  pass  through  it. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  43,579 
bushels  of  wheat,  565,671  of  Indian  com, 
154,589  of  oats,  89,686  of  potatoes,  28,446 
tons  of  hay,  and  262,646  lbs.  of  butter.  There 
were  4,889  horses,  8,069  milch  cows,  6,000 
other  cattle,  and  9,621  swine.  Capital,  Pax- 
ton.  II«  A  S.  W.  county  of  Kansas,  inter- 
sected by  the  Arkansas  river;  area,  900  sq. 
m.;  pop.  in  1870,  427. 

FORD,  Johi,'  an  English  dramatist,  bom  at 
Ilsington,  Devonshire,  April  17,  1586,  died 
there  about  1640.  At  the  age  of  16  he  was 
entered  a  student  of  law  in  the  Middle  Temple, 
and  having  been  regularly  called  to  the  bar, 
practised  law  until  1688  or  1689,  when  he  is 
supposed  to  have  retired  to  his  native  place,  as 
all  trace  of  him  ceases  after  this  date.  After 
his  professional  labors  had  secured  him  an  in- 
dependent position,  he  became  indifferent  to 
the  pecuniary  profit  of  his  plays,  but  finished 
them  carefully,  making  little  effort  to  court 
the  popular  taste.  He  is  said  to  have  assisted 
Webster  in  "A  late  Murther  of  the  Sonne 
upon  the  Mother,^'  a  play  which  has  been  lost, 
and  Decker  in  "  The  Fairy  Knight "  and  "  The 
Bristowe  Merchant,^'  which  have  likewise  dis- 
appeared. He  join^  with  Decker  in  writing 
"the  Sun^s  Darling,'*  a  moral  masque  acted 
in  162S-'4,  and  published  in  1657;  and  of 
"  The  Witch  of  Edmonton,"  written  in  con- 
junction with  Rowley  and  Decker,  the  last 
act  is  ascribed  to  Ford.  His  own  plays  are : 
"  The  Lover's  Melancholy  "  (1 629) ;  "  'Tis  Pity 
she's  a  Whore,"  **The  Broken  Heart,"  and 
"Love's  Sacrifice"  (1688);  "Perkin  War- 
bee*"  (1634);  "The  Fancies  Chaste  and 
Noble"  (1638);  and  "The  Ladie's  Triall" 
(1639).  He  was  entirely  destitute  of  comic 
ability.  "  The  Broken  Heart "  and  "  Perkin 
Warbeck  "  are  commonly  esteemed  his  finest 
plays.  His  complete  dramatic  works  were 
first  published  in  1811,  in  2  vols.,  edited  by  H. 
Weber.  In  1827  appeared  Gifford's  edition  in 
2  vols.  8vo,  and  in  1847  an  expurgated  one 
in  Murray's  "Family  Library."  The  most 
recent  edition  is  that  published  in  Moxon's 
series  of  the  old  English  dramatists. 


FORD,  Richard,  an  English  author  and  trav- 
eller, bom  in  London  in  1796,  died  at  Heavi- 
tree,  near  Exeter,  Sept.  1,  1858.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Winchester  and  at  Trinity  college, 
Cambridge,  and  was  called  to  the  bar  at  Lin- 
coln's Inn,  but  never  practiced.  In  1830  he 
visited  8pain,  where  he  spent  several  years  in 
the  study  of  the  country  and  the  people.  From 
1886  to  1867  he  was  a  regular  contributor  to 
the  "Quarterly  Review,"  in  which  his  articles 
on  the  life,  literature,  and  art  of  Spain  attract- 
ed much  attention.  He  was  the  author  of 
Murray's  "Handbook  for  Spain,"  first  pub- 
lished in  1845,  and  rewritten  and  enlarged  in 
1855.  His  remaining  publications  are  "  Gath- 
erings in  Spain"  (1848),  and  " Tauromachia, 
the  Bull  Fights  of  Spain,  with  26  illustrations  " 
(1852).  His  collection  of  books,  prints,  and 
pictures  was  one  of  the  choicest  in  England. 

FORDHAn,  formerly  a  village  in  the  town 
of  West  Farms,  Westchester  co..  New  York, 
but  since  Jan.  1,  1874,  included  in  the  24th 
ward  of  New  York  city,  situated  on  the  New 
York  and  Harlem  railroad,  about  12  m.  N.  of 
the  city  hall  and  2  m.  from  the  Hudson  river ; 
pop.  in  1870,  2,151.  It  is  the  seat  of  several 
Roman  Catholic  institutions,  of  which  the 
most  prominent  is  St.  John^s  college,  standing 
on  a  slight  eminence,  surrounded  by  magnifi- 
cent grounds.  It  was  founded  by  the  Rev. 
John  Hughes,  first  archbishop  of  New  York, 
and  was  opened  for  students  June  24,  1841, 
most  of  the  professors  being  secular  clergy- 
men, and  the  Rev.  John  McCloskey,  now 
archbishop  of  New  York,  first  president.  The 
college  was  chartered  as  a  university  in  1846; 
the  first  commencement  for  conferring  de- 
grees was  held  in  July  of  the  same  year,  and 
immediately  afterward  the  place  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  Jesuits,  who  broke  up  their  es- 
tablishment at  Bardstown,  Ey.,  and  took 
charge  of  the  institution  at  Fordham  in  Sep- 
tember, 1846.  The  college  buildine^s,  9  or  10 
in  number,  cover  about  an  acre,  and  the  play 
grounds,  lawn,  &c.,  embrace  about  20  acres. 
Immediately  adjoining  are  the  college  farm 
and  garden,  embracing  about  80  acres.  The 
college  library  contains  over  20,000  volumes, 
besides  which  the  students  have  the  use  of 
two  other  libraries,  containing  about  4,000 
volumes.  There  are  valuable  chemical  and 
philosoj>hical  apparatus,  and  a  geological  and 
mineralogical  cabinet,  with  about  2,500  speci- 
mens. The  college  combines  the  ordinary 
features  of  preparatory,  grammar,  and  com- 
mercial schools  with  those  of  a  university.  In 
the  commercial  course  the  degree  of  bachelor 
of  science  is  conferred.  Tliere  are  also  several 
supplementary  classes.  Students  are  received 
at  any  age.  The  younger  students  are  kept 
apart  from  the  elder ;  the  three  divisions  into 
which  the  pupils  are  separated,  according  to 
age  and  proficiency,  are  allowed  to  have  no 
communication  with  one  another,  each  having 
its  separate  gymnasium  and  play  grounds.  In 
the  senior  class  Latin  is  altogether  spoken  in 


316 


FORDYOE 


FORFAR 


the  lectures  and  recitations.  During  the  scho- 
lastic year  1872~'8  there  were  18  professors 
and  tutors,  of  whom  8  were  not  Jesuits;  10 
other  officers,  of  whom  2  were  not  Jesuits; 
and  267  students.  The  whole  number  of  grad- 
uates is  300.  The  college  year  is  divided  into 
two  terms,  the  first  beginning  on  the  first 
Wednesday  in  September  and  ending  Jan.  81, 
and  the  second  beginning  Feb.  1  and  ending 
on  the  last  Wednesday  in  June.  There  are 
two  vacations,  from  Dec.  21  to  Jan.  3,  and 
from  tiie  last  Wednesday  in  June  to  the  first 
Wednesday  in  September.  St.  Joseph*B  acad- 
emy for  young  ladies  in  1872  had  4  instructors 
and  21  pupils.  There  is  also  an  asylum  for 
female  deaf  mutes.  St.  Joseph^s  theological 
seminary,  formerly  established  here,  has  been 
removed  to  Troy.  The  village  is  a  favorite 
summer  residence. — In  October,  1776,  imme- 
diately after  the  evacuation  of  New  York  by 
the  British  troops,  the  American  army  occu- 
pied a  series  of  intrenched  camps  on  the  hiUs 
from  Fordham  heights  to  White  Plains.  Sev- 
eral pieces  of  cannon  have  been  dug  up  here, 
and  the  remains  of  earthworks  and  other  forti- 
fications are  still  seen  in  the  vicinity. 

FOKDYCE,  Daviil,  a  Scottish  philosopher,  bom 
in  Aberdeen  in  1711,  died  in  1751.  He  was 
educated  for  the  church  at  the  university  of 
his  native  city,  where  in  1742  he  became  pro- 
fessor of  moral  philosophy.  He  afterward 
travelled  through  France,  Italy,  and  other 
countries  of  Europe,  but  was  lost  in  a  storm 
off  the  coast  of  Holland.  His  most  important 
works  are :  **  Dialogues  concerning  Education  ^' 
(2  vols.  8vo,  London,  1746-8);  "Theodorus, 
a  Dialogue  concerning  the  Art  of  Preaching  ^' 
(12mo,  1752);  and  *' Elements  of  Moral  Phi- 
losophy" (12mo,  1754). 

FOKECLOSURE.    See  Mostoagb. 

FOREST,  a  K  W.  county  of  Pennsylvania; 
area,  876  sq.  m. ;  ^pop.  in  1870,  4,010.  The 
Clarion  river  runs  along  the  S.  £.  border,  and 
the  Alleghany  intersects  the  N.  W.  part.  The 
surface  is  hilly  and  irregular.  Some  of  the 
land  is  too  rocky  for  cultivation.  The  chief 
articles  of  export  are  pine  timber  and  hard 
coal,  the  former  of  which  is  very  abundant. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  5,802  bush- 
els of  rye,  17,588  of  Indian  com,  88,465  of 
oats,  6,946  of  buckwheat,  15,260  of  potatoes, 
and  2,665  tons  of  hay.  There  were  2  flour 
and  18  saw  mills.    Capital,  Marion ville. 

FOREST  GROVE,  a  poet  village  of  Washing- 
ton CO.,  Oregon,  on  the  Oregon  Central  rail- 
road, 23  m.  W.  of  Portland ;  pop.  in  1870,  922. 
It  is  the  seat  of  Pacific  university,  which  has 
preparatory,  normal,  scientific,  and  collegiate 
courses,  and  a  three  years*  course  for  young 
ladies.  It  was  organized  in  1859,  and  in  1872 
had  7  professors  and  instructors,  160  students, 
and  a  library  of  5,000  volumes. 

FOREST!,  E.  FeUre,  an  Italian  patriot,  bom 
at  Conselice,  near  Ferrara,  about  1798,  died  in 
Genoa,  Sept.  14, 1858.  He  took  the  degree  of 
doctor  of  laws  at  the  university  of  Bologna, 


and  practised  aa  a  criminal  lawyer  before  the 
tribunals  of  Ferrara.  In  1816  he  was  appoint- 
ed prtetor  of  Crespino  in  the  Austrian  do- 
minions. He  entered  into  a  conspiracy  to 
deliver  Italy  from  Austrian  rule;  but  this 
being  betrayed  by  an  associate,  Foresti  and 
several  others  were  arrested  and  thrown  into 
prison  in  Venice  in  1819.  After  two  years' 
confinement  they  were  brought  (o  trial  and 
condemned  to  death,  but  the  sentence  was 
commuted  to  20  years'  imprisonment.  They 
were  kept  until  January,  1822,  on  the  island 
of  St  Michael,  when  they  were  taken  to  the 
fortress  of  Spielberg  in  Moravia.  The  hard- 
ships which  they  here  endured  have  been  nar- 
rated by  Silvio  Pellico  in  Le  mie  prigioni.  In 
1885  their  punishment  was  commuted  by  the 
emperor  Ferdinand  to  perpetual  exile  in  Ameri- 
ca. They  landed  at  New  York  near  the  end 
of  October,  1886,  where  Foresti  soon  became 
a  favorite  in  society,  was  appointed  professor 
of  the  Italian  language  and  literature  in  Co- 
lumbia college,  and  for  more  than  20  years 
was  a  popular  teacher  in  academies  and  pri- 
vate circles.  For  the  use  of  his  pupils  he 
published  a  Crestomasia  italiana  (12mo,  New 
York,  1847).  In  1848  he  went  to  Europe,  but 
returned  in  1849.  Failing  health  having  im- 
pelled him  to  seek  a  milder  clitAate,  he  sailed 
for  Genoa,  where  he  was  appointed  United 
States  consul,  in  the  spring  of  1858. 

FORET,  fine  Frfd^rlc,  a  French  soldier,  bom 
in  Paris,  Jan.  10, 1804,  died  in  Besan^on,  June 
20,  1872.  He  was  a  graduate  of  the  military 
school  at  St.  Cyr,  and  accompanied  the  first 
expedition  to  Algeria,  whence  he  returned  in 
1844  with  the  rank  of  colonel.  He  became 
general  in  1848,  in  1851  commander  of  the 
legion  of  honor  in  reward  for  his  reckless  firing 
on  the  opponents  of  the  coup  d'etat^  and  in 
1852  he  was  made  general  of  division.  In  1854 
he  commanded  for  a  short  time  before  Sebas- 
topol.  In  the  Italian  war  of  1859  he  was  the 
first  to  inflict  a  heavy  blow  upon  the  Anstrians, 
at  Montebello.  He  distinguished  himself  also 
in  other  engagements,  es^cially  at  Solferino, 
after  which  he  was  made  a  senator.  In  1862 
he  served  in  Mexico  at  first  under  Bazaine, 
and  was  afterward  invested  with  the  civil  and 
military  administration  as  minister  plenipo- 
tentiary. He  confiscated  the  property  of  Mex- 
icans hostile  to  the  invasion,  compelled  the 
surrender  of  Puebla,  May  17,  1863,  entered 
the  city  of  Mexico,  June  10,  and  was  appointed 
marshal.  In  the  autumn  he  was  recalled  to 
France,  owing  to  his  dictatorial  and  ambitious 
disposition,  and  in  December  became  com- 
mander of  the  second  army  corps.  In  1867  he 
directed  the  exercises  in  the  camp  of  Ch&lons, 
and  then  retired  on  account  of  ill  health. 

FORFAR,  a  royal  and  parliamentary  burgh 
of  Scotland,  capital  of  Forfarshire,  situated  in 
the  valley  of  Strathmore,  near  a  small  loch  of 
the  same  name,  18  m.  N.  by  £.  of  Dundee; 
pop.  of  the  town  in  1871,  11,086.  It  consists 
of  two  principal  streets,  with  well  built  sub- 


FORFARSHIRE 


FORGE 


317 


stantial  houses.  Among  its  pnblio  buildings 
are  a  handsome  county  hall,  a  court  hoase,  a 
library  and  reading  room,  and  a  mechanics* 
institate.  Its  staple  manufacture  is  linen,  chief- 
ly sheetings,  osnaburgs,  and  dowlas.  Shoes 
called  brogues  are  also  made  largely  for  ex- 
port. Foifar  is  connected  by  railway  with 
Aberdeen,  Arbroath,  and  the  south.  It  has 
been  a  royal  burgh  since  the  reign  of  David 
I.,  and  its  castle,  destroyed  by  Robert  Bruce 
in  1807,  was  once  a  royal  residence. 

FORFiKSHIKE,  or  Aiigu,  an  E.  county  of 
Scotland,  on  the  coast  of  the  North  sea,  ahd 
bordering  on  the  counties  of  Kincardine,  Aber- 
deen,  and  Perth,  with  the  frith  of  Tay  on 
the  south;  area,  675  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871, 
237,567.  It  has  about  45  m.  of  coast.  The 
surface  is  irregular  and  intersected  by  hills, 
the  Benchennin,  a  part  of  the  Grampians,  in 
the  N.  W.,  and  S.  of  and  parallel  to  them  tlie 
Sidlaw.  The  valley  of  Strathmore,  which  lies 
between  these  ranges,  is  celebrated  for  its 
beauty  and  fertility;  and  the  part  bordering 
on  the  sea  is  level,  fruitful,  and  highly  cultiva- 
ted. The  principal  rivers  are  the  Tay,  N.  Esk, 
S.  Esk,  and  lala.  Agriculture  is  in.  a  very 
advanced  state.  Wheat,  oats,  barley,  pota- 
toes, and  turnips  are  raised  largely ;  and  sheep 
and  cattle  are  bred  to  some  extent.  There  are 
valuable  deep-sea,  herring,  and  salmon  fish- 
eries along  the  coast  and  in  the  rivers.  The 
principal  minerals  are  limestone  and  slate. 
Forfarshire  is  the  seat  of  the  coarse  linen 
manufactures  of  Scotland.  Its  chief  towns 
are  Forfar,  the  capital,  and  Dundee,  Montrose, 
Arbroath,  and  Brechin. 

FORFEITURE,  in  law,  the  loss  of  property  as 
a  consequence  of  some  act  which  the  law  for- 
bids and  attaches  this  penalty  to,  or  which  the 
party  has  agreed  not  to  do  under  the  same 
penalty.  Forfeiture  is  defined  by  Blackstone 
as  a  punishment  which  the  law  inflicts.  It  is 
so  undoubtedly  in  all  cases  of  foifeiture  by 
crime ;  but  we  apprehend  that  it  can  be  called 
punishment  in  the  ordinary  cases  of  civil  for- 
feiture only  as  all  consequences  of  wrong  doing 
may  be  called  punfshment.  Forfeiture  was 
annexed  by  the  law  of  England  to  many  offen- 
ces, as  treason,  felony,  misprision  of  treason, 
prsamunire,  drawing  a  weapon  upon  a  Judge, 
or  striking  any  person  in  the  presence  of  any 
of  the  king^s  courts  of  Justice.  Lands  and 
hereditaments  were  forfeited  only  upon  at- 
tainder or  corruption  of  blood ;  but  forfeiture 
of  goods  and  chattels  took  place  upon  convic- 
tion. Attainder,  and  the  consequent  forfeiture, 
were  the  most  powerful  instruments  by  which 
the  greatest  tyrants  among  the  English  mon- 
archs  endeavored  to  confirm  and  increase  their 
power.  Our  fathers  held  them  in  so  much 
dread  and  detestation,  that  the  constitution 
of  the  United  States  (art.  iii.,  sec.  8)  declares 
that  no  attainder  of  treason  shall  work  cor- 
ruption of  blood  or  forfeiture,  except  during 
the  life  of  the  person  attainted ;  and  now  in 
England,  by  statute  8  and  4  William  lY.,  c. 


106,  forfeiture  for  crime,  where  it  exists  at  all, 
is  only  for  the  life  of  the  person  attainted. — 
Civil  forfeiture  may  occur  in  three  ways:  1. 
By  operation  of  law,  the  principal  instance  of 
which  at  common  law  was  the  forfeiture  of 
estates  which  were  less  than  a  fee,  which  was 
incurred  when  the  holder  made  a  conveyance 
of  a  greater  estate  than  he  held ;  as  for  ex- 
ample, if  a  tenant  of  land  for  life  or  years  con- 
veyed the  land  in  fee,  the  grantee  took  nothing, 
but  the  whole  estate  of  the  grantor  was  for- 
feited to  the  remainderman,  or  reversioner. 
In  the  United  States,  however,  a  more  just  and 
rational  rule  prevails.  With  some  diversity  in 
its  details,  it  may  be  generally  expressed  thus: 
A  grant  of  more  than  the  grantor  has  operates 
as  a  grant  of  all  he  has,  and  as  to  all  that  is 
more  it  is  void.  2.  When  certain  conditions 
are  annexed  to  an  estate,  either  in  the  deed  or 
devise  or  otherwise,  at  the  original  creation, 
the  penalty  of  forfeiture  may  be  annexed  to 
those  conditions,  and  will  take  effect  if  they 
be  broken ;  as  if  A  grants  to  B  land,  on  con- 
dition that  n'either  he  nor  any  one  claiming  by 
or  through  him  shall  put  up  a  certain  building, 
or  any  building  within  a  certain  distance  of 
one  of  the  boundaries,  or  any  other  thing  of 
like  kind,  then  if  anything  is  done  which  vio- 
lates the  condition,  the  land  is  forfeited.  It 
may  be  remarked,  however,  that  the  law  does 
not  favor  conditions  of  this  kind ;  and  courts 
would  construe  them,  where  it  could  properly 
be  done,  either  as  giving  a  right  to  the  grantor 
to  abate  and  remove  whatever  thus  violates 
the  agreement,  or  as  an  injury  for  which  com- 

Kensation  may  be  had  in  damages,  leaving,  in 
oth  cases,  the  estate  undisturbed.  8.  One 
may  agree  to  pay  a  certain  sum  in  case  a  less 
sum  be  not  paid,  or  some  other  certain  thing 
be  not  done,  at  a  certain  time.  Tliis  is  usually 
done  by  a  bond ;  and  the  sum  thus  agreed  to 
be  paid  is  a  penalty,  which  the  courts  of  Eng- 
land and  of  the  United  States  will  reduce  to 
the  amount  actually  due.  So  one  who  becomes 
surety  for  another  in  a  certain  sum  that  this 
other  shall  appear  at  a  certain  time,  forfeits 
the  sum  if  that  other  does  not  appear.  But  on 
good  cause  being  shown,  courts  have  the  power, 
and  are  usually  willing  to  exercise  it,  to  miti- 
gate the  penalty,  and  remit  the  forfeiture  in 
whole  or  in  part. 

FORCiE,  a  manufactory  in  which  iron  or  steel 
is  softened  by  heat  and  worked  under  the 
hammer.  The  term  is  also  applied  to  works  in 
which  the  native  oxides  of  iron  are  reduced 
without  .fusion  to  a  metallic  state,  and  then 
forged  into  blooms  or  bars.  Several  forms  of 
these  are  noticed  in  the  article  Bloomabt. 
Forges  differ  from  founderies  and  blast  fur- 
naces in  their  products  being  articles  of  wrought 
iron,  while  those  of  the  latter  are  castings. 
The  works  in  which  the  pig  iron,  obtained 
from  the  blast  furnaces,  is  converted  into  mal- 
leable iron  by  the  process  termed  puddling  (see 
Ibon),  are  commonly  called  puddling  furnaces 
from  one  department  of  the  operation;  but 


318 


FORGE 


FORGERY 


they  are  also  called  forges  from  the  hammering 
or  rolling  which  succeeds  the  reduction  pro- 
cess in  the  furnace.  The  term  forging  is 
equally  applicable  to  the  working  of  other  mal- 
leable metals,  as  gold,  silver,  and  copper,  when 
these  are  heated  and  hammered  into  desired 
shapes. — The  immense  variety  of  articles  into 
which  iron  is  fashioned  requires  forges  of  va- 
rious dimensions,  and  many  of  them  adapted 
for  special  uses.  Tbey  agree,  however,  in  the 
general  character  of  the  apparatus  with  which 
they  are  furnished.  The  smithes  forge,  fitted 
for  all  sorts  of  small  work,  is  the  best  repre- 
sentative of  the  smaller  forges.  It  is  provided, 
tirst,  with  a  small  open  fireplace  or  hearth, 
upon  a  sort  of  table  in  brickwork,  2  to  2^  ft. 
high.  A  chimney,  open  at  the  base,  stands  at 
one  end,  and  a  hood  of  sheet  iron  prevents  the 
escape  into  the  room  of  the  vapors  from  the 
fire.  Two  fires  are  sometimes  arranged  under 
the  same  hood,  and  a  double  hearth  is  again 
obtained  by  building  two  hearths  back  to 
back,  the  same  chimney  having  a  fine  for  each 
fire.  In  the  back  wall  of  each  hearth  is  fitted 
a  cast-iron  plate  or  back  through  which  the 
perforated  nozzle  of  the  tuyere,  or  piece  form- 
ing the  extremity  of  the  blast  pipe,  projects 
into  the  fire.  The  pipe  connects  with  the  bel- 
lows, which  is  so  placed  that  the  smith  can 
work  it  with  one  hand,  as  he  attends  to  the 
fire  upon  the  hearth  and  the  articles  heating 
in  it  with  the  other.  The  fuel  may  be  char- 
coal, bituminous  coal,  coke,  or  anthracite. 
Good  hard-wood  charcoal  is  an  excellent  ma- 
terial, not  only  for  its  great  calorific  property, 
but  more  particularly  for  its  freedom  from  sul- 
phur, the  presence  of  which  in  the  mineral 
fuels  often  results  in  serious  detriment  to  the 
iron  exposed  to  its  action.  Upon  the  hearth 
are  laid  the  various  kinds  of  tongs  required 
for  holding  the  dififerently  shaped  pieces  of 
iron.  At  the  end  opposite  the  chimney  is  a 
trough  for  water,  into  which  the  tools  and 
work  are  dipped,  as  may  be  convenient,  to 
cool  them.  It  serves  also,  if  kept  scrupulously 
free  from  grease,  for  tempering  articles  of 
steel ;  and  the  water  is  also  frequently  sprin- 
kled with  a  broom  di])ped  in  it  over  the  fire, 
to  check  the  combustion  of  the  fuel  at  the  sur- 
face. A  stock  of  fuel  is  kept  on  the  hearth  by 
the  trough,  and  as  wanted  it  is  drawn  forward 
upon  the  fire.  Conveniently  near  the  hearth, 
and  at  the  same  height,  is  set  the  anvil,  upon 
which  the  smith  places  the  heated  iron  as  he 
takes  it  from  the  fire.  As  the  smith  holds  the 
hot  iron  upon  the  anvil  with  his  left  hand,  he 
hammers  it  with  the  right,  directing  his  blows 
and  turning  the  work  to  receive  the  precise 
elFect  in  a  manner  to  be  acquired  only  by  long 
practice.  If  the  work  is  heavy,  he  requires  an 
assistant  to  aid  the  forging  by  striking  with  a 
heavy  sledge,  while  he  turns  the  piece  to  re- 
ceive the  blows,  and  strikes  himself  in  turn 
with  his  hand  hammer,  tapping  it  at  last  upon 
the  face  of  the  anvil  as  the  signal,  universally 
adopted,  for  the  blows  to  cease.    Hammers  are 


employed  of  a  great  variety  of  shapes  and  sizes 
adapted  to  the  different  kinds  of  work.  1  here 
are  also  punches  for  driving  holes  through  the 
soft  iron,  chisels  of  numerous  shapes,  and 
swaging  tools,  which  are  generally  in  pairs, 
and  called  top  and  bottom  tools,  the  latter  fit- 
ting by  a  tang  into  a  hole  in  the  anvil. — ^The 
great  forges  in  which  are  fabricated  the  im- 
mense wronght-iron  shafts  for  ocean  steamers 
present  the  same  class  of  operations,  with  some 
new  appliances,  however,  adapted  to  the  gi- 
gantic scale  upon  which  the  work  is  done.  The 
fires  in  these  forges  are  either  large  reverbera- 
tories  or  close  furnaces,  blown  by  a  powerful 
fan  blast.  The  work  is  commenced  by  intro- 
ducing 15  to  20  pieces  of  square  iron  bound  to- 
gether, making,  it  may  be,  a  bundle  6  ft.  long 
and  2  ft.  square,  into  Uie  furnace.  When  one 
end  is  brought  to  a  welding  heat  the  mass  is 
swung  out  suspended  in  chains  from  the  great 
crane  and  subjected  to  the  blows  of  a  heavy 
hammer,  of  5  or  10  tons  weight,  moved  by  its 
own  gravity,  or  a  lighter  hammer  is  used, 
moved  by  steam.  One  long  rod  is  left  pro- 
jecting on  the  line  of  the  axis  of  the  mass,  and 
serves  when  swung  in  the  crane  as  a  guide  rod, 
or  porter,  as  it  is  called.  By  means  of  the 
pulleys  which  sustain  the  load  running  forward 
and  back  upon  the  jib  of  the  crane,  the  mass 
is  brought  to  any  desired  point  within  the  area 
traversed  by  the  swing  of  the  crane ;  and  by 
means  of  a  cross  lever  or  handle  fixed  to  the 
end  of  the  porter  the  men  are  enabled  to  turn 
the  mass  of  iron  while  the  other  end  of  it  is 
receiving  upon  the  anvil  the  blows  of  the  ham- 
mer. When  the  iron  has  been  sufiiciently 
hammered,  it  is  returned  to  the  furnace  to  be 
again  heated,  so  as  to  extend  the  weld  through- 
out the  whole  mass.  After  this  a  slab  of 
wrought  iron,  called  by  the  workmen  a  use,  is 
welded  on  one  side  at  the  end  of  the  piece,  and 
under  the  hammer  the  shaft  thus  built  up  is 
drawn  down  to  the  required  size.  New  addi- 
tions are  repeatedly  made  in  this  way  until  the 
desired  length  is  obtained.  Only  the  end  of 
the  shaft  is  thrust  into  the  furnace,  and  the 
aperture  which  remains  open  aroimd  it  is 
stopped  during  the  heating  by  fire  brick  and 
clay.  The  end  outside  remains  supported  in 
the  chains  from  the  crane.  The  weight  of  the 
intermediate  paddle  shaft  of  the  Great  Eastern, 
which  was  launched  at  the  end  of  January, 
1858,  is  upward  of  22  tons,  and  that  of  thv 
cranks  11  tons.  Its  length  is  28  ft.,  and  its 
diameter  2  ft.  2  in.,  and  it  is  2  ft.  in  diameter 
at  the  main  bearings.  The  cranks  are  7  ft.  long 
between  the  centres.  The  screw  shaft  is  2  ft. 
in  diameter  and  about  178  ft.  long,  and  its 
whole  weight  about  185  tons. 

FOKGEKY,  in  general,  the  illegal  falsification 
or  counterfeiting  of  a  writing.  Although  this 
offence  is  the  subject  of  a  great  variety  of 
cases  in  England  and  the  United  States,  the 
definitions  do  not  quite  agree.  That  given  in 
East's  "  Pleas  of  the  Crown  "  (vol.  ii.,  p.  852) 
is :  ^'  A  false  making  of  any  written  instrument 


FORGEEY 


FORGET-ME-NOT 


319 


fbr  the  purpose  of  frand  and  deceit.*'  This 
definitioik,  he  says,  results  from  a  comparison 
of  all  the  antborities.  Bat  by  making  we  must 
nnderstand  also  addition,  subtraction,  or  other 
material  alteration,  which  indeed  East  himself 
admits;  and  by  instrument,  some  paper  or 
document  which  is  intended  to  have  and  ap- 
parently may  have  some  efficacy  in  law  as  the 
foundation  of  legal  right  or  liability.  A  better 
definition  is  that  in  Bishop^s  *^  Criminal  Law," 
vol.  iL,  sec.  482 :  *^  Forgery  is  the  false  making, 
or  materially  altering,  with  intent  to  defraud, 
of  any  writing,  which,  if  genuine,  might  appa- 
rently be  of  legal  efficacy  in  the  foundation  of  a 
l^al  liability."  For  it  is  not  every  falsification 
of  writing  which  constitutes  forgery  in  a  legal 
sense.  If  one  writes  letters  and  signs  them 
with  the  name  of  another,  which  may  be  very 
iigurious  not  only  to  the  feelings  of  some  other 
party  but  to  his  interests,  he  is  not  in  law 
a  forger,  if  no  pecuniary  rights,  obligations, 
or  engagements  are  or  are  intended  to  be  di- 
rectl/  affected  by  this  falsehood.  The  falsifi- 
cation need  not  be  of  a  name,  nor  of  the  whole 
of  an  instrument.  It  is  forgery  if  it  relate  to 
a  single  word,  or  even  to  a  part  of  a  word,  as 
a  letter,  whereby  the  legal  operation  of  it  is 
materially  changed ;  nor  do  we  know  why  the 
some  rule  should  not  include  a  change  only  in 
the  punctuation.  Forgery  may  consist  in  the 
application  of  a  false  name  to  a  true  instru- 
ment, or  of  a  true  name  to  a  false  instrument, 
or  even  of  a  genuine  name  to  a  genuine  instru- 
ment, if  the  name  thus  appended  gives  rights 
or  imposes  liabilities  which  the  party  append- 
ing it  had  no  right  to  give  or  impose,  and  he 
appended  the  name  falsely  for  the  purpose  of 
fraud  and  deception.  If  one  employed  to  draw 
a  will  at  the  dictation  of  the  testator,  wrote  it 
all  as  dictated,  ezceptiug  that  he  inserted  one 
or  more  legacies  without  direction,  or  one  or 
more  material  provisions  of  any  kind,  and  then, 
presenting  t^e  will  to  the  testator  as  written 
agreeably  to  his  direction,  thus  obtained  his 
signature,  it  has  been  held  that  this  is  a  forgery. 
To  constitute  the  forgery  of  a  name,  it  must 
be  the  name  of  some  person  actually  existing, 
or  represented  as  actually  existing;  and  if  a 
name  be  written  which  belongs  to  a  living  man, 
but  with  an  addition  or  description  which  cor- 
responds to  none  that  exists  and  prevents  the 
name  from  attaching  or  belonging  to  any  one, 
this  is  said  not  to  be  a  forgery.  The  instru- 
ment need  not  be  such  that  if  genuine  it  would 
be  certainly  valid  in  law ;  but  it  must  purport 
and  appear  on  the  face  of  it  to  have  legal  valid- 
ity and  eflScacy ;  thus,  in  England,  one  may  be 
convicted  for  ike  forgery  of  an  unstamped  note, 
although  such  a  note  could  not  be  enforced 
any  more  than  blank  paper.  It  is  said,  how- 
ever, that  the  falsification  of  an  instrument 
which  if  genuine  would  be  wholly  illegal,  that 
is,  not  merely  void,  but  prohibited  and  itself  an 
offence,  is  not  forgery.  When  one  forged  the 
wiU  of  a  living  person,  and,  falsely  represent- 
ing him  to  be  dead,  obtained  the  money,  this 
828  VOL.  VII.— 21 


was  held  to  be  forgery ;  and  when  one  falsely 
and  fraudulently  appended  to  a  will  the  name 
of  a  person  who  never  had  existed,  this  was 
also  held  to  be  forgery. — ^At  common  law,  the 
publication  or  uttering  of  the  forged  instru- 
ment, or,  in  common  phraseology,  the  making 
of  any  use  of  it,  is  not  necessary  to  constitute 
forgery ;  thus,  a  man  was  convicted  of  forgery 
of  a  note,  which  he  had  made  with  fraudulent 
intent,  but  still  retained  in  his  pocket.  In  the 
United  States,  however,  the  statutes  generally 
make  the  uttering  or  using  the  forged  instru- 
ment essential  to  the  offence ;  but  the  uttering 
is  complete  if  an  attempt  is  made  to  use  the 
fraudulent  instrument  as  intended,  though  the 
forgery  be  detected  in  season  to  defeat  the 
fraud  designed.  It  may  be  well  to  remark 
that  it  is  a  well  settled  rule  of  law,  that  while 
an  intent  to  deceive  and  defraud  is  an  essential 
element  of  forgery,  yet  this  intent  is  often  con- 
clusively presumed  from  the  forgery  itself; 
thus,  if  one  forge  a  note,  or  any  name  upon  a 
note,  and  cause  it  to  be  discounted,  it  is  no  de- 
fence whatever  to  the  charge  of  forgery  that 
he  intended  to  pay  the  note  himself,  and  had 
actually  made  adequate  provision  to  take  it  up 
so  that  no  person  should  be  injured. — The 
crime  of  forgery  was  so  easily  committed,  and 
detected  with  so  much  difficulty,  and  attended 
in  some  instances  with  such  ruinous  conse- 
quences, that  it  was  not  only  a  capital  offence 
in  England,  but  it  was  one  of  those  offences 
for  which  it  is  very  difficult  to  obtain  a  pardon. 
But  it  is  not  now  a  capital  offence  in  England 
or  in  any  part  of  the  United  States. 

FMLGET-M&NOT,  the  common  name  in  seve- 
ral languages  (Ger.  Vergissmeinnieht^  Fr.  ne* 
tn'oubliet^as)  of  the  plant  mpasotit  paluatrtB 

(With.),  of  the  famUy 
horraginacecB ;  other 
species  of  the  genus 
are  called  scorpion 
grass.  The  forget- 
me-not  is  common 
throughout  Europe, 
and  is  sparingly  nat- 
uralized in  tliis  coun- 
try. It  assumes  a 
varied  aspect  accord- 
ing to  its  situation, 
being  dwarf,  rough, 
and  hairy  in  dry 
places,  as  on  old 
walls,  but  becoming 
larger  and  smoother 
in  muddy  ditches.  It 
does  well  when  plant- 
ed in  shady  places  in 
the  garden,  or  even 
if  cultivated  in  pots, 
and  is  a  charming 
plant  in  spring  and 
early  summer.  Its  flowers  are  borne  in  slender 
curving  racemes,  bending  at  the  top  like  a 
scorpion's  tail,  whence  it  was  formerly  called 
M.  icorpioides.     Its  bright  blue  flowers  are  in 


Foiget-ma-not  (Mjoeotls 
^       palastris). 


320 


FORK 


FOREEL 


many  ootintries  considered  the  emblem  of 
friendship.  The  variety  laxa^  which  differs 
from  the  type  in  having  smaller  flowers  npon 
longer  stalks,  is  a  native  of  this  country,  and 
common  in  wet  places  at  the  north.  M.  wma 
rNuttall),  a  little,  grayish,  pubescent  annual, 
from  6  to  12  in.  high,  with  a  very  small  whitish 
corolla,  is  quite  common  upon  drj  rocks,  where 
the  soil  is  very  thin  and  parched,  the  plant  dis- 
appearing on  the  approach  of  hot  weather,  if. 
aroensia  is  sometimes  found,  and  supposed  to 
be  introduced ;  and  M.  versicolor,  another  Eu- 
ropean species,  grows  in  fields  in  Delaware. 
Several  species  beMdes  M.  palustris  are  in  cul- 
tivation, as  well  as  some  garden  varieties; 
among  the  most  conspicuous  of  these  are  M, 
dimtiflora,  M.  Aeortea,  and  M.  alpestre.  The 
generic  name  (Gr.  fivoaarlc)  means  mouse-ear, 
and  this  is  the  popular  name  of  some  of  the 
species  in  England. — It  is  a  singular  fact  in  the 
history  of  popular  nomenclature,  that  about 
200  years  ago  the  name  forget-me-not  was 
used  for  a  species  of  <:0uga  (bugle),  for  the 
reason  that  this  plant  when  chewed  left  such 
an  unpleasant  taste  in  the  mouth  that  it  was 
not  likely  to  be  9oon  forgotten. 

FOUL,  an  implement  consisting  of  a  handle 
and  two  or  more  prongs,  used  to  lift  certain 
substances.  Table  forks  do  not  seem  to  have 
been  known  in  antiquity,  though  archsdologists 
have  found  articles  among  the  rubbish  in  tlie 
Appian  way  and  in  the  ruins  of  a  Roman 
town  in  Champagne,  which  they  considered 
to  be  table  forks.  The  Jews  and  Etruscans 
did  not  use  any  at  table,  though  they  had 
forks  for  other  purposes.  The  ancient  Egyp- 
tians used  a  large  fork  for  stirring  the  Are  or 
water  in  the  kitchens,  and  forks  of  wood  were 
used  by  Egyptian  peasants.  The  Greek  word 
Kpedypa  signifies  a  fork,  but  merely  a  fiesh  fork, 
employed  to  take  meat  from  a  boiling  pot,  and 
not  one  used  at  table.  The  Latin  words  furct^ 
fuscina,  fu/rcUla,  and  fiueinula  are  equally  in- 
applicable to  our  modern  forks.  The  first  two 
were  probably  instruments  which  approached 
nearly  to  our  furnace  and  hayforks.  The/ttr- 
cilta  was  large  enough  for  a  weapon.  The 
word  fu^nula,  which  in  modem  times  is  used 
chiefiy  for  a  table  fork,  is  not  to  be  found  in 
that  sense  in  any  of  the  old  Latin  writers. 
The  old  translations  of  the  Bible  only  explain 
the  Greek  Kpe6ypa  hj'/uscinula.  According 
to  some  records,  the  use  of  table  forks  seems 
to  have  been  known  in  the  12th  century,  but 
only  exceptionally.  They  are  mentioned  in 
the  inventory  of  a  princess  plate  in  1879,  but 
they  did  not  come  into  more  general  use  in 
Italy  till  tlie  end  of  the  15th  century.  Ga- 
teotns  Martins,  in  a  book  which  he  wrote  upon 
Matthias  Corvinus,  king  of  Hungary  (14^6- 
1490),  at  whose  court  he  resided,  praises 
the  king  for  eating  without  a  fork,  yet  con- 
versing at  the  same  time,  and  never  soiling 
his  clothes.  Martins  states  that  forks  were 
used  at  that  time  in  many  parts  of  Italy,  but 
wMb  in  Hungary.    He  adds  that  meat  was  ta- 


ken hold  of  with  the  fingers,  which  on  that 
account  were  much  stained  with  safiron,  a 
condiment  then  put  into  sauces  and  soups.  In 
the  16th  century  forks  were  not  yet  used  in 
Sweden,  and  at  the  end  of  that  centnry  they 
were  novelties  even  at  the  court  of  France. 
In  the  convent  of  St.  Maur  in  France,  the  in- 
troduction of  forks  was  opposed  as  sinful  by 
the  old  and  conservative  monks,  and  advocated 
by  the  young  and  progressive  brethren.  In 
other  monasteries,  too,  the  use  of  forks  was 
for  a  considerable  time  forbidden,  and  consid- 
ered a  superfiuous  luxury.  Thomas  Ooryat, 
who  traveUed  in  1608  on  the  continent,  and 
published  in  1611  an  account  of  his  travels 
under  the  title  of  "Crudities,"  says:  "J  ob- 
served a  custome  in  all  those  Italian  cities  and 
townes  through  the  which  j  passed,  that  is 
not  used  in  any  otlier  country  that  j  saw  in 
my  travels,  neither  do  j  thinke  that  any  other 
nation  of  Christendome  doth  use  it,  but  only 
Italy.  The  Italians,  and  also  most  strangers 
that  are  commorant  in  Italy,  do  alwaies  at 
their  meales  use  a  little  forke  when  thej  cut 
their  meate.  This  form  of  feeding  j  under- 
stand is  generally  used  in  all  places  of  Italy ; 
their  forkes  for  the  most  part  being  made  of 
yronn  or  Steele,  and 'some  of  silver,  but  these 
are  used  only  by  gentlemen.  The  reason  of 
this  their  curiosity  is,  because  the  Italian  can- 
not by  any  means  indure  to  have  his  dish 
touched  with  fingers,  seeing  all  men^s  fingers 
are  not  alike  cleane.  Hereupon  j  myself 
thought  good  to  imitate  the  Italian  fashion  by 
this  forked  cutting  of  meate,  not  only  while  j 
was  in  Italy,  but  also  in  Grermany,  and  often- 
times in  England  since  j  came  home ;  being 
once  quipped  for  that  frequent  using  of  my 
forke  by  a  certain  learned  gentleman,  a  famil- 
iar friend  of  mine,  one  Mr.  Laurence  Whita- 
ker,  who  in  his  merry  humour  doubted  not  to 
call  me  at  tMe  fureifer  only  for  using  a  forke 
at  feeding,  but  for  no  other  cause."  The  use 
of  forks  was  at  first  much  ridiculed  in  Eng- 
land; in  one  of  Beaumont  and  Fletcher^s 
plays  **  your  fork-carving  traveller  "  is  spoken 
of  very  contemptuously ;  and  Ben  Jonson  has 
also  ridiculed  them  in  his  "  Devil  is  an  Ass : " 

The  landable  use  of  forks, 
Broni^t  into  cuBtom  here  u  they  are  in  Italj, 
To  the  sparing  of  napkins. 

Dr.  Johnson  asserts  that  among  the  Scotch 
highlanders  even  knives  have  been  intro- 
duced at  table  only  since  the  revolution  of 
1688.  The  English,  Dutch  (f>ork),  and  French 
(fourehe)  have  adopted  the  Italian  nomea/orM 
and  forehetta  for  table  forks,  though  these 
names  were  probably  used  at  an  earlier  period 
to  denote  pitchforks,  fiesh  forks,  and  other 
large  instruments,  for  which  formerly  the  Low 
German  name  was  Forke,  The  Chinese  use 
no  forks,  but  have  instead  small  sticks  of  ivory, 
which  are  often  of  fine  workmanship  inlaid 
with  silver  and  gold. 

FOEKEL,  JohaiiB  Nlkelau,  a  German  com- 
poser and  author,  bom  at  Meeder,  near  Oo- 


FORLI 


FORMIC  ACID 


S21 


burg,  Feb.  2S,  1749,  died  in  6<>ttiB^en,  March 
17^  1818.  He  was  more  distingaiahed  as  a 
writer  upon  musical  subjects  than  as  a  com- 
poser. His  musical  works  were  numerous,  and 
chiefly  valuable  in  that  thej  have  preserved 
many  excellent  compositions  of  the  older  mas- 
ters, carefully  edited  and  enriched  with  added 
vocal  and  orchestral  parts.  At  the  age  of  20 
he  devoted  himself  to  an  exhaustive  study  of 
the  history  of  music  in  various  nations  and 
from  the  earliest  times,  visiting  for  that  pur- 
pose the  great  libraries  of  Leipsio,  Dresden, 
Berlin,  Halle,  and  Prague,  an^  collecting  many 
works.  The  results  of  these  studies  were  giv- 
en to  the  world  from  time  to  time  in  a  se- 
ries of  volumes  treating  of  the  theory  of  music, 
the  general  history  of  music,  the  music  of  the 
Hebrews  and  Egyptians,  a  life  of  Johann  Se- 
bastian Bach  with  a  critical  notice  of  his 
works,  &c.  Forkel  left  a  great  mass  of  valu- 
able material.  He  was  for  nearly  40  years  di- 
rector of  music  at  the  university  of  GOttingen. 
FMLI.  L  A  province  of  Italy,  formerly  part 
of  the  Papal  States,  bordering  on  the  Adriatic, 
the  republic  of  San  Marino,  and  the  provinces 
of  Pesaro  ed  Urbino,  Florence,  and  Kavenna; 
area,  716  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1872,  288,969.  It 
comprises  the  three  custricts  of  Oesena,  Forli, 
and  Rimini.  On  the  coast  and  for  some  dis- 
tance inland  the  surface  is  low  and  level,  but 
the  W.  part  is  traversed  by  branches  of  the 
Apennines.  The  principal  productions  are 
wine,  grain,  hemp,  flax,  madder,  saifron,  anise, 
bees,  and  silk.  No  mineral  of  much  value  is 
foand  except  sulphur,  which  is  abundant. 
Earthquakes  happen  frequently.  Tiie  interior 
saffers  much  from  drought,  while  the  inhabi- 
tants of  the  N.  E.  part  are  perhaps  equally 
afflicted  by  unwholesome  marshes,  which  oc- 
cupy a  large  proportion  of  the  land,  especially 
near  the  coast.  Manufactures  have  made  more 
progress  than  in  any  other  part  of  the  former 
Papal  States.  IL  A  city  (anc.  Forum  Livii), 
capital  of  the  province,  on  the  ancient  ^mil- 
ian  way,  and  on  the  railway  between  Bologna 
and  Rimini,  88  m.  S.  E.  of  the  former,  and  80  m. 
N.  W.  of  the  latter ;  pop.  of  the  commune  in 
1871, 88,480 ;  of  the  city  proper,  about  18,000. 
It  is  a  handsome  town,  surrounded  by  walls, 
and  situated  in  a  fertile  plain  at  the  foot  of 
the  Apennines,  between  the  rivers  Ronco  and 
Montone.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop  and  of 
the  prefect.  It  has  a  gymnasium  and  other 
schools,  and  a  public  library.  Its  cathedral 
contains  the  tomb  of  Torricelli.  Of  the  nine 
other  churches,  the  most  interesting  is  that  of 
San  Girolamo,  where  rests  the  hodj  of  King 
Manfred.  The  town  hall  is  remarkable  for  its 
council  chamber,  decorated  with  frescoes  by 
Raphael.  There  are  several  handsome  palaces, 
one  of  which,  the  Palazzo  Guersini,  is  built  af- 
ter designs  by  Michel  Angelo.  The  gallery 
of  paintings  contains  many  fine  works.  The 
manufactures  are  silk  ribbons,  silk  twist,  oil 
doth,  woollen  goods,  wax,  nitre,  and  refined 
sulphur.    The  city  is  said  to  have  been  found- 


ed in  207  B.  0.  by  the  consul  M.  Livius  Salina- 
tor,  and  to  have  been  named  in  his  honor.  It 
constituted  a  republic  at  one  period  in  the 
middle  ages,  changed  masters  frequently  du- 
ring the  wars  of  the  Guelphs  and  Ghibellines, 
was  added  to  the  Papal  States  by  Pope  Julius 
II.,  taken  by  the  French  and  made  the  capital 
of  the  department  of  the  Rubicon  in  1797,  re- 
stored to  the  Roman  see  in  1814,  and  merged 
in  the  kingdom  of  Italy  in  1860. 

FOSU)  Hslezn  4a,  an  Italian  painter,  bom 
at  Forli  in  1488,  died  about  1492.  He  was  the 
first  who  applied  the  art  of  foreshortening  to 
the  painting  of  vaulted  ceilings.  About  1472 
he  painted  the  **  Ascension  ^^  in  the  great  chapel 
of  the  Santi  Aposton  at  Rome  for  Cardinal 
Riario.  In  1711,  when  the  chapel  was  being 
rebuilt,  Chis  painting  was  cut  out  of  the  ceil- 
ing and  placed  in  the  Quirinal  palace,  where 
it  still  remains. 

FORMiSy  Karl,  a  German  vocalist,  bom  at 
MOlheim  on  the  Rhine,  Aug.  7,  1818.  He  re- 
ceived instructions  from  Oehrlein,  a  bass  sing- 
er at  Cologne,  and  Bassadone  in  Vienna,  and 
made  his  first  appearance  in  opera  at  Cologne, 
Jan.  6,  1842,  as  Sarastro  in  Mozart^s  **  Magic 
Flute."  In  1848  he  was  made  a  member  of 
the  court  opera  at  Mannheim,  and  in  1844 
he  became  prime  basso  of  the  imperial  opera 
at  Vienna.  He  took  part  in  1848  in  the  revo- 
lutionary movements  in  that  city,  and  subse- 
quently retired  to  Hamburg,  and  thence  went  to 
England,  where  in  1849  he  appeared  as  a  mem- 
ber of  the  German  opera  company  at  Drury 
Lane,  and  subsequently  at  the  royal  Italian 
opera,  Co  vent  Garden.  In  1857  he  came  to 
the  United  States,  making  his  first  appearance 
in  December  of  that  year  at  the  academy  of 
music  in  Bobert  U  Liable,  Since  that  time  he 
has  made  this  country  his  home,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  a  brief  residence  in  Europe.  His 
voice  was  remarkable  when  in  its  prime  for 
its  depth,  sweetness,  and  beauty  of  tone ;  and 
he  was  scarcely  less  distinguished  as  an  actor 
than  as  a  singer,  possessing  talent  both  as  a 
tragedian  and  comedian  in  an  eminent  de^ee. 
In  such  r61es  as  Marcel  in  the  EuguenoU^  Ber- 
tram in  Robert  Is  Diabls,  and  Falstaff  in  Nico- 
lai's  "  Merry  Wives  of  Windsor,"  he  was  for  a 
long  time  without  a  rival.  He  added  also  great- 
ly to  his  reputation  both  in  this  country  and 
in  England  by  his  admirable  singing  in  Han- 
del's '"Messiah"  and  Mendelssohn's  '"Eiyah." 

FORMIC  ACID  (LaLformieaj  an  ant),  a  chem- 
ical product  so  named  from  its  being  found  in 
the  iKKlies  of  ants.  It  is  artificially  prepared 
by  dissolving  sugar,  starch,  or  tartaric  acid  in 
water,  adding  sulphuric  acid,  and  distilling 
the  mixture  on  peroxide  of  manganese.  Car- 
bonic acid  gas  escapes,  and  formic  acid  mixed 
with  water  distils  over.  It  is  colorless  and 
transparent,  strongly  acid,  of  specific  gravity 
1'1168;  its  composition  is  represented  by  the 
formula  CHtOt.  Formic  acid  occurs  in  hu- 
man blood,  urine,  spleen,  fiesh  juice,  and  per- 
spiration.   In  Watts's  *'  Dictionary  of  Chemii- 


822 


FORMOSA 


FORNEY 


try*'  22  different  ways  of  preparing  it  are 
given.  Bamoel  Fiseher  was  the  first  to  make 
it  by  distilling  ants,  and  Berthelot  was  the 
first  to  prepare  it  from  inorganic  materials. 

FORMOSA  (Port.  Ilha  Formoia,  beantifnl  isl- 
and ;  Malay,  Pehan  or  Pehando ;  Chinese, 
Tairwwi^  the  terraced  harbor),  an  island  in  the 
China  sea,  between  lat.  21''  68'  and  25''  15'  N., 
and  Ion.  120''  and  122**  £.,  separated  from  the 
Chinese  province  of  Fokien  by  a  channel  90  m. 
wide;  length  240  m.,  greatest  breadth  about 
75  m. ;  area  about  15,000  sq.  m. ;  pop.  estima- 
ted at  from  2,000,000  to  8,000,000.  A  range 
of  mountains  occupies  the  eastern  part,  run- 
ning from  N.  to  8.  through  its  entire  length. 
As  some  of  the  summits  are  covered  with 
perpetnid  snow,  their  height  cannot  be  less 
than  12,000  ft.  Among  these  mountains  are 
several  extinct  volcanoes,  and  sulphur,  naph- 
tha, and  other  volcanic  products  are  found. 
The  E.  coast  is  high  and  bold,  and  is  entirely 
destitute  of  harbors.  The  W.  shore  is  flat,  and 
has  some  good  ports  accessible  to  vessels  of 
moderate  draught  The  W.  part  is  a  very  fer- 
tile, well  cultivated  plain.  The  chief  produc- 
tions are  rice,  sugar,  camphor,  tobacco,  wheat, 
maize,  beans,  radishes,  pepper,  coffee,  tea, 
indigo,  cotton,  flax,  silk,  and  oranges,  peaches, 
plums,  and  a  great  variety  of  other  fruits.  The 
wild  animals  are  leopards,  tigers,  wolves,  and 
deer.  The  ox  and  buffalo  are  used  in  tillage, 
and  horses,  asses,  sheep,  goats,  and  hogs  are 
numerous.  Gold  is  found  in  the  mountains, 
and  there  are  mines  of  bituminous  coal  in  the 
N.  part.  Sulphur  and  salt  are  also  found.  The 
commerce  of  the  island  with  the  mainland  of 
China  is  very  extensive.  The  exports  are  rice, 
sugar,  beans,  sulphur,  camphor,  and  timber. 
It  imports  saltpetre,  opium,  and  manufactured 
goods.  Of  late  years  it  has  been  much  visited 
by  American  ships  for  purposes  of  trade.  The 
western  and  most  fertile  part  of  the  island  is 
inhabited  by  Chinese,  who  have  emigrated  to 
Formosa  in  great  numbers  during  the  last  two 
or  three  centuries.  They  are  industrious  and 
prosperous,  skilftil  cultivators  of  the  soil,  and 
enterprising  merchants.  The  Chinese  portion 
of  the  island  is  a  part  of  the  province  of  Fo- 
kien, the  governor  residing  at  Taiwang-foo,  a 
city  of  about  100,000  inhabitants.  In  virtue 
of  treaties  four  ports  have  been  thrown  open  to 
commerce,  Tanshui  and  Eelnng  on  the  north, 
and  Takao  and  Taiwang-foo  on  the  W.  side.  Tlie 
E.  and  mountainous  part  of  Formosa  is  inde- 
pendent fii  the  Chinese,  and  is  inhabited  by  a 
warlike  race  of  copper-colored  barbarians,  of 
whom  the  Chinese  are  in  great  dread,  and  with 
whom  they  are  almost  constantly  at  war. 
They  are  probably  of  the  Malay  division  of 
mankind.  They  wear  their  hair  long,  have 
rings  in  their  ears,  and  are  clothed  omy  with 
a  piece  of  cotton  stuff  wrapped  about  the  mid- 
dle. They  dwell  in  bamboo  cottages  raised  on 
terraces  8  or  4  ft.  high.  They  have  no  written 
language,  and  do  not  appear  to  have  any  priest- 
hood.   Their  government  is  patriarchal,  petty 


chie6  and  councils  of  elders  ruling  them  in 
the  manner  of  the  American  Indians.  Their 
arms  are  lances,  bows  and  arrows,  and  a  few  Chi- 
nese matchlocks.  In  their  language  the  island 
is  termed  Eaboski,  and  also  Gadavia.  Hieir 
number  is  not  supposed  to  exceed  20,000. 
Some  of  these  people  have  been  subdued  by 
the  Chinese,  and  are  kept  in  small  villages  in 
a  kind  of  pnedial  servitude. — ^The  Chinese  seem 
to  have  had  no  settlements  in  Formosa  before 
the  15th  century.  In  1582  a  Spanish  ship  was 
wrecked  there,  and  the  survivors  brought  the 
first  account  of  the  island  to  Europe.  About 
1684  the  Dutch  took  possession  of  it  and  built 
several  forts  and  factories ;  but  in  1662  they 
were  driven  out  by  a  famous  Chinese  pirate, 
Coxinga,  who  made  himself  king  of  the  W. 

Sart,  and  transmitted  the  sovereignty  to  his 
escendants,  who,  however,  submitted  in  1688 
to  the  authority  of  the  Chinese  emperor,  to 
whom  it  has  since  been  tributary.  The  Chinese 
colonists  have  frequently  rebelled,  and  in  1788 
an  insurrection  broke  out  which  cost  the  impe- 
rial government  100,000  lives  and  an  immense 
expenditure  of  money  before  it  was  suppressed. 
Psalmanazar,  whose  extraordinary  imposture 
excited  so  much  attention  in  England  at  the 
beginning  of  the  last  century,  pretended  to  be 
a  native  of  Formosa,  and  published  an  account 
of  the  island  which  was  entirely  fictitious. 
Commodore  Perry,  who  from  1852  to  1854  was 
employed  by  the  government  of  the  United 
States  in  concluding  commercial  treaties  with 
China,  Japan,  and  Siam,  called  attention  to  the 
importance  of  Formosa ;  and  since  then  scien- 
tific expeditions  have  been  sent  out  by  the  gov- 
ernments of  England  and  Prussia,  to  survey  the 
coast  and  to  explore  parts  of  the  island  with  a 
view  to  establishing  naval  stations  or  colonies. 

FORNAUH A,  La  (Sie  baker  girl),  the  appella- 
tion of  the  reputed  mistress  of  Raphael,  and 
celebrated  as  the  model  of  many  of  his  pictures. 
She  was  the  daughter  of  a  baker  residing  in 
Rome  near  the  church  of  St.  Cecilia.  Raphael, 
having  accidentally  seen  her  while  she  was 
washing  her  feet  in  the  river,  is  said  to  have 
fallen  in  love  with  her.  The  most  famous  of 
the  alleged  likenesses  of  her  are  in  Raphael's 
great  fresco  of  Heliodorus,  in  his  Parnassus  in 
the  Vatican  as  Clio,  in  his  "  Agony  of  St  Ce- 
cilia," and  in  his  *' Transfiguration."  His  pic- 
ture "  La  Fomarina  "  is  supposed  by  Passavant 
to  be  intended  for  the  improwisatrice  Beatrice 
Pio,  and  the  same  biographer  of  Raphael 
doubts  the  story  of  the  former  having  been  his 
mistress. 

FOSNET,  Jofei  Witas,  an  American  journal- 
ist, bom  at  Lancaster,  Pa.,  Sept.  80, 1817.  In 
1888  he  became  an  apprentice  in  the  printing 
ofSce  of  the  Lancaster  **  Journal,"  and  in  1887 
editor  and  Joint  proprietor  of  the  Lancaster 
"Intelligencer;"  and  in  1840  he  united  that 
paper  with  the  "Journal."  He  removed  in 
1845  to  Philadelphia,  where  he  was  long  the 
editor  of  ^e  "Pennsylvanian,"  one  of  the 
most  decided  of  the  democratic  journals.    In 


F0RBE8T 


FOBSEAL 


323 


1861  be  was  ohosen  clerk  of  the  United  States 
bouse  of  representatives,  and  was  reelected  in 
1858.  Meanwhile  his  oonneotion  with  the 
"  Pennsylvanian  "  had  ceased,  and  be  had  be- 
come editor  of  the  ^^  Union,^'  the  democratic 
organ  at  Washin^n.  Ue  resigned  this  post 
in  1866,  returned  to  Pennsylvania,  and  was 
chosen  chairman  of  the  democratic  state  com- 
mittee. In  January,  1857,  he  was  democratic 
candidate  for  the  office  of  United  States  sena- 
tor, but  was  defeated  by  Mr.  Cameron,  and  on 
Aug.  1  following  began  in  Philadelphia  the 
publication  of  ^^The  Press,"  an  independent 
democratic  Journal.  Although  be  had  advocated 
the  election  of  Mr.  Buchanan  to  the  presidency, 
he  became  a  determined  opponent  of  his  ad- 
ministration when  the  Lecompton  constitution 
of  Kansas  became  a  topic  of  public  debate; 
and  he  was  again  chosen  clerk  of  the  house 
of  representatives  in  the  86th  congress  by  the 
repnbiicans.  During  the  civil  war  be  gave  a 
constant  support  to  the  national  government. 
In  1861  he  began  the  publication,  in  addition 
to  ^^The  Press"  in  Philadelphia,  of  a  weekly 
paper  in  the  city  of  Washington  entitled  "  The 
Gl^onicle ;"  this  also  began  to  appear  daily  in 
October,  1862.  From  1861  to  1868  Mr.  For- 
ney was  secretary  of  the  United  States  senate. 
In  1867  he  published  ^*  Letters  on  Europe," 
comprising  a  series  of  sketches  of  travel  con- 
tributed to  "  The  Press  "  while  abroad ;  and  in 
1873  '^Anecdotes  of  Public  Men,"  a  collection 
of  papers  published  originally  in  the  **  Sunday 
Chronicle  "  and  "  The  Press." 

FOUESV9  Edwin,  an  American  actor,  bom 
in  Philadelphia,  March  9,  1806,  died  there, 
Dec.  12,  1872.  His  father  was  Scotch,  bis 
motlier  of  German  birth.  He  exhibited  from 
an  early  age  a  taste  for  the  stage,  and  when  11 
years  old  participated  in  theatrical  representa- 
tions as  a  member  of  an  amateur  club,  some- 
times performing  female  parts.  Hi9  first  ap- 
pearance on  the  regular  stage  was  on  Nov.  27, 
1820,  when  he  acted  Douglas  in  Home's  play 
of  that  name.  His  next  part,  played  in  the  same 
engagement,  was  Frederick  in  Mrs.  Inchbald's 
^^  Covers'  Vows."  A  protracted  professional 
tour  in  the  west  and  south  ensued,  in  which 
he  won  considerable  reputation.  He  essayed 
Shakespearian  characters  first  in  1822,  in  Cin- 
cinnati, where  he  performed  Richard  III.  and 
Othello.  His  first  great  success  was  achieved 
May  26, 1826,  in  the  Park  theatre,  New  York, 
as  Othello.  This  led  to  a  long  engagement  at 
the  Bowery  theatre,  where  he  won  some  of  bis 
greatest  triumphs.  In  October,  1829,  he  went 
to^e  Park  theatre,  where  he  long  ei\joyed  ex- 
traordinary popularity.  There  he  first  acted 
Metamora  (Dec.  15,  1829)  in  John  H.  Stone's 
tragedy  of  that  name,  and  Spartacus  (Sept.  25, 
1831)  in  Dr.  Bird's  "  Gladiator,"  both  of  which 
were  written  to  fit  bis  peculiar  talents.  In  1885 
be  visited  Europe,  and  after  a  long  tour  on  the 
continent  appeared  as  Spartacus  in  Drury  Lane 
theatre,  Oct.  17,  1836.  He  met  with  success 
everywhere,   and   received  many   courtesies 


from  eminent  literary  men  and  from  those  of 
his  profession,  particularly  from  M&  Macready. 
In  1837,  he  married  Catharine  Norton  Sin- 
clair, daughter  of  John  Sinclair  the  singer, 
and  soon  afterward  returned  to  the  United 
States,  where  he  was  welcomed  by  enthusiastic 
audiences.  After  an  engagement  in  Philadel- 
phia, he  played  at  the  Park  theatre  in  New 
York,  where  be  first  appeared  as  Aylmere, 
May  24,  1841,  in  Robert  T.  Conrad's  play  of 
^*  Aylmere,  the  Bondsman  of  Kent,"  better 
known  as  *^  Jack  Cade."  This  was  one  of  bis 
most  effective  characters,  in  which  he  appeared 
to  the  best  advantage.  In  1845  Mr.  and  Mrs. 
Forrest  returned  to  London.  During  this  visit, 
which  lasted  two  years,  a  rupture  occurred  in 
the  friendly  relations  between  Forrest  and  Mac- 
ready,  and  to  the  zeal  with  which  the  friends 
of  the  former  espoused  his  quarrel  was  due  the 
disgraceful  riot  in  New  York,  May  10,  1849, 
during  an  engagement  of  Macready  at  the 
Astor  place  opera  bouse.  Soon  after  Forrest 
separated  from  his  wife  for  aUeged  misconduct 
on  her  part,  and  in  1850  counter  suits  for  a 
divorce  on  the  ground  of  adultery  were  insti- 
tuted. His  conduct  at  this  time  alienated  from 
him  the  sympathy  of  the  better  class  of  people. 
Mrs.  Forrest  obtained  a  divorce  from  him,  for- 
feiting none  of  her  honors  and  legal  rights,  and 
was  decreed  an  allowance  of  $8,000  a  year  as 
alimony,  a  decision  which  he  contested  up  to 
tlie  court  of  last  resort  In  1850  Forrest  pur- 
chased an  estate  on  the  Hudson  river  and  built 
a  house  which  he  named  Fonthill.  He  sold 
this,  at  a  large  advance  on  its  cost,  for  a  con- 
vent, and  in  1855  bought  a  residence  at  Spring 
Brook,  near  Philadelphia,  where  he  resided 
until  his  death.  He  retired  from  the  stage  in 
1858,  but  reappeared  in  1868  and  again  in  1867. 
His  last  engagement  began  on  Feb.  6,  1871, 
in  the  Fourteenth  street  theatre.  New  York, 
during  which  he  played  Lear  and  Richelieu ;  but 
he  was  compelled  by  illness  to  retire.  Three 
weeks  before  his  death,  he  appeared  in  Stein- 
way  hidl.  New  York,  as  a  reader  of  **  Hamlet " 
and  **  Othello."  He  died  of  apoplexy,  surviving 
the  attack  only  half  an  hour.  Forrest  accumu- 
lated a  large  fortune,  estimated  at  upward  of 
$1,000,000.  By  his  will  he  left  a  large  part  of 
his  fortune  to  establish  an  institution  for  aged 
and  destitute  actors.  His  splendid  library, 
which  he  bad  spent  many  years  in  gathering, 
the  Shakespeare  collection  being  said  to  be  the 
finest  in  the  world,  was  almost  entirely  de- 
stroyed by  fire  in  his  bouse  m  Philadelphia, 
Jan.  15,  1878.  His  bio^aphy,  by  the  Bev.  W. 
B«  Alger,  is  in  preparation. 

FORSKiL,  Peter,  a  Swedish  traveller  and  nat- 
uralist, bom  in  Kalmar  in  1786,  died  in  Yerim, 
Arabia,  July  11,  1763.  He  studied  at  Gdttin- 
gen  and  at  Upsal,  published  a  thesis  in  opposi- 
tion to  the  then  dominant  philosophy  of  Wolf, 
and  incurred  the  displeasure  of  government  by 
a  treatise  on  civil  liberty.  He  was  appointed 
to  a  professorship  in  the  university  of  Copen- 
hagen, and  by  recommendation  of  LinnsDus  was 


324 


FORSTE 


F0B8TER 


attached  with  Karsten  Niebuhr  to  the  scientific 
expedition  sent  to  Egypt  and  Arabia  by  the 
king  of  Denmark.  He  set  oat  in  1761,  and 
daring  two  years  preceding  his  death  by  the 
plague  collected  materials  for  three  important 
works  descriptive  of  the  fauna  and  flora  of  the 
East,  which  were  published  under  the  editorial 
care  of  Niebuhr. 

F0B8TE,  a  town  of  Brandenburg,  Prussia,  on 
an  island  in  the  Neisse,  44  m.  S.  by  E.  of 
Frankfort-on-the-Oder ;  pop.  in  1871,  7,950. 
It  consists  of  the  town  proper  and  two  suburbs ; 
has  a  castle  and  two  Protestant  churches,  con- 
siderable manufactures,  and  a  trade  in  flax, 
horses,  and  cattle.    There  are  six  annual  fairs. 

fOrOTEK.  I.  Erut  JMcbin,  a  German  painter 
and  writer  upon  art,  born  at  M&nchengossen- 
stfidt,  Bavaria,  April  8,  1800.  He  studied  the- 
ology, philosophy,  and  philology  at  Jena  and 
Berliu,  but  afterward  devoted  himself  to  paint- 
ing, and  in  1823  became  the  pupil  of  Cornelius 
at  Munich.  He  was  employed  in  painting  fres- 
coes in  the  Aula  at  Bonn  and  in  the  Glyptothek 
and  arcades  at  Munich  till  1826,  when  he  visited 
Italy.  At  Pisa,  Bologna,  and  other  cities  he 
collected  interesting  materials  for  a  history  of 
Italian  art,  and  at  Padua  in  1887  discovered 
and  restored  the  frescoes  in  the  chapel  of  St. 
George.  He  made  a  valuable  collection  of  de- 
signs by  the  old  masters,  prepared  guide  books 
for  Italy  and  Germany,  and  wrote  numerous 
works,  the  most  important  being  on  the  history 
of  art.  Among  these  are :  Oesehiekte  der  deu- 
Uehen  Kunst  (6  vols.,  Leipsic,  1851-'59);  Vor- 
Behule  zur  Kunstgeschiehts  (1862) ;  Denhmale 
der  deutschen  Bauhunst^  BUdnerei  und  Malerei 
(9  vols.,  1866-'65);  Baphael  (2  vols.,  1869); 
and  Oesehiekte  der  italienieehen  Kunst  (2  vols., 
1870).  He  also  edited  several  of  the  works  of 
Jean  Paul  Richter,  and  wrote  Wahrheit  aus 
Jean  PauVs  Leben^  and  Denhwurdigheiten  au9 
dem  Leben  Jean  FattVs  (Munich,  1868).  IL 
Friedrich,  a  German  historian,  brother  of  the 
preceding,  bom  Sept.  24,  1791,  died  in  Berlin, 
Nov.  8, 1868.  On  leaving  the  university  of  Jena 
in  1813,  he  joined,  with  his  friend  the  poet  Kdr- 
ner,  in  the  war  of  independence  against  France, 
composed  stirring  war  songs,  and  rose  to  be 
captain.  Subsequently  he  was  professor  at 
the  school  of  artillery  and  engineering  in  Ber- 
lin till  1817,  when  he  was  removed  by  the  gov- 
ernment, to  which  some  of  his  writings  gave 
umbrage,  and  he  found  himself  likewise  ham- 
pered in  his  functions  as  adjunct  professor  at 
the  university.  He  soon  became  connected 
with  prominent  literary  journals,  visited  Italy 
with  his  brother,  and  received  in  1829  an  ap- 
pointment at  the  royal  museum,  with  the  title 
of  court  councillor.  He  published  poems,  nov- 
els, plays,  and  a  continuation  of  Chamisso^s 
Pet&r  Schlemihl^  entitled  Peter  SehlemihVs 
Heimlcehr  (2  vols.,  Berlin,  1849).  His  most 
popular  historical  works  relate  to  Wallenstein, 
Oolumbus,  and  especially  to  Frederick  the 
Great,  and  include  Oesehiekte  der  Befreiungs- 
kriege  1818,  1814  und  1815  (8  vols.,  7th  ed., 


Berlin,  1865),  and  Keuere  preuuische  und 
deuteehe  Oesehiekte  (2  vols.,  6th  ed.,  1867-'9). 

F0B8TEE,  Ceaige,  an  English  traveller,  died 
in  Nagpoor  in  1792.  He  was  in  the  service 
of  the  East  India  company,  and  in  1782  under- 
took an  overland  journey  from  India  to  Russia. 
Disguised  as  a  Mussulman  merchant,  and  able 
to  speak  Hindoo,  Persian,  and  the  Mahratta 
dialect  with  facility,  he  set  out  from  Lucknow, 
travelling  northward  by  Ferozabad  and  Ram- 
poor  into  the  upper  regions  of  the  Puiyaub. 
He  then  proceeded  by  Bellaspoor  and  Jambo 
through  the  vale  of  Cashmere,  which  had  been 
visited  before  by  no  European  traveller  except 
Bemier.  He  passed  by  Cabool,  Candahar,  and 
Herat,  to  the  southern  coast  of  the  Caspian 
sea,  and  travelled  thence  through  Russia,  ar- 
riving in  England  in  1784.  After  publishing 
"  Sketches  of  the  Mythology  and  Customs  of 
the  Hindoos''  (London,  1785),  he  returned  to 
Calcutta,  where  in  1790  appeared  the  first  vol- 
ume of  his  **  Journey  from  Bengal  to  England,'' 
&c.  It  was  republished  in  London  in  1798, 
together  with  the  second  volume,  which  was 
printed  from  his  manuscript.  On  the  breaking 
out  of  hostilities  with  Tippoo  Saib,  Forster 
was  sent  on  a  mission  to  the  Mahratta  court 
of  Kagpoor,  where  he  died. 

FftSOTER,  HetBrich,  a  German  pulpit  orator 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  church,  born  in  Glo- 
gau,  Prussian  Silesia,  Nov.  24, 1800.  He  stud- 
ied theology  in  Breslau,  was  ordained  as  priest 
in  1825,  appointed  canon  of  the  cathedral  in 
1837,  afterward  inspector  of  the  theological 
seminary  and  preacher  at  the  cathedral.  Ho 
opposed  with  great  zeal  the  influence  of  Ronge, 
became  in  1848  a  member  of  the  Frankfort  par- 
liament, attended  in  the  same  year  the  synod 
of  the  German  bishops  at  Wnrzburg,  and  was 
made  in  1858  prince-bishop  of  Breslau.  As  an 
author  he  made  himself  popular  by  his  Lebens- 
bild  DiepenbroeVs  (2d  ed.,  Breslau,  1859),  and 
several  other  works. 

FOBSTEK.  L  Jobun  Relnheld,  a  German 
traveller  and  naturalist,  born  in  Dirschau, 
Prussia,  Oct.  22,  1729,  died  in  Halle,  Dec.  9, 
1798.  He  w^as  descended  from  an  exiled  Scot- 
tish border  family,  was  educated  at  Halle  and 
Dantzic  for  the  clerical  profession,  and  in  1758 
became  pastor  at  Nassenhuben,  near  Dantzic, 
but  devoted  himself  especially  to  the  study  of 
mathematics,  philosophy,  and  geography.  In 
1765  he  went  with  his  son  Johann  Georg  as  an 
agent  of  the  Russian  government  to  investigate 
the  condition  of  the  colony  at  Saratov  in  south- 
ern Russia,  and  in  the  following  year  repaired 
to  London.  He  was  for  a  time  professor  of 
natural  history  and  of  the  French  and  German 
languages  at  Warrington,  in  Lancashire,  and  in 
1772  accompanied  Capt.  Cook  on  his  second 
voyage  to  the  south  seas,  being  engaged  as 
naturalist  of  the  expedition.  After  his  retnm 
he  published  his  botanical  observations  in  a 
special  work  (London,  1776),  and  also  "Ob- 
servations made  during  a  Voyage  round  the 
World  on  Physical  Geography,  Natnral  His- 


F0R8TER 


FORSYTH 


325 


tory,  and  Ethic  PbiloBophy  "  (London,  1778). 
In  1780  he  was  appointed  professor  of  natural 
history  at  Halle,  an  office  which  he  retained 
till  his  death.    He  spoke  and  wrote  17  lan- 
guages, and  was  familiar  with  general  and 
especially  with   classical  literature.     Among 
his  works,  besides  those  above  mentioned,  are : 
Liber  Singularis  de  Bysso  Antiquorum  (Lon- 
don, 1776);    Zoologia  Indica  (HaUe,   1781); 
Beobachtun^en  und  Wahrheiten  (Berlin,  1798) ; 
and  Qe$ehichU  d«r  Bntdeehungen  und  Schiff- 
fahrten  im  Norden  (Frankfort,  1784).    Tlie 
last  was  translated  into  English  (London,  1786), 
and  contains  much  useful  information  and  in- 
genious conjecture,  together  with  many  ill- 
natured  reflections,  particularly  on  the  Eng- 
lish.   II.  J«luuin  GMrg  Adas,  eldest  son  of  the 
preceding,  a  German  traveller  and  natural- 
ist, born  at  Nassenhuben,  Nov.  26,  1754,  died 
in  Paris,  Jan.  12,  1794.    After  accompanying 
his  &ther  to  Saratov,  he  studied  nearly  a  year  in 
St  Petersburg,  and  went  thence  to  England, 
where  he  gave  instruction  in  French  and  Ger- 
man, and  translated  several  works  into  Eng- 
lish.  He  went  with  Cook  on  his  second  voyage 
roond  the  world,  a  narrative  of  which  he  pub- 
lished after  his  return,  receiving  scientific  notes 
for  it  from  his  father,  and  thus  eluding  the 
agreement  by  which  the  elder  Forster  was  vir- 
tually prohibited  from  publishing  a  narrative. 
After  residing  in  Paris  and  Holhmd,  he  was  for 
six  years  professor  of  natural  history  in  Oassel, 
whence  in  1784  he  passed  to  the  same  profes- 
sorship in  Wilna.    He  was  appointed  histo- 
riographer to  an  expedition  round  the  world 
under  the  patronage  of  Catharine  IL  of  Russia, 
but  the  project  was  thwarted  by  the  Turkish 
war.    He  became  in  1788  librarian  to  the  elec- 
tor of  Mentz.    In  1790  he  accompanied  Alex- 
ander von  Humboldt  to  England,  France,  and 
the  Netherlands;  and  Humboldt  calls  him  his 
"  celebrated  teacher  and  friend,  who  has  most 
vigorously  and  successfully  opened  the  path  in 
German  literature  of  the  scientific  study  of 
nature.^'    In  1792,  on  the  occupation  of  Mentz 
by  the  French,  he  engaged  actively  in  sup- 
port of  republican  principles,  and  in  1798  was 
sent  to  Paris  as  agent  of  the  city  to  solicit 
its  incorporation  with  France.    After  its  re- 
capture by  the  Prussians,  Forster  lost  all  his 
property,  his  books,  and  his  manuscripts,  and 
resolved  to  go  to  India,  but  died  while  study- 
ing the  oriental  languages  in  Paris.    Besides  nu- 
merous translations,  his  most  important  works 
are  on  subjects  of  natural  history  and  ethnol- 
ogy, as  Kleine  Sehriften,  ein  Beitrag  zur  Ldn- 
der-  und   Volkerhunde^  Niaturgesekiehte  und 
PhUo^ophU  d»  Lebem  (6  vols.,  Berlin,  1789- 
^97),  and  AnMchten  vom  Niederrhein^  von  Brct- 
hxnty  FlandemyHolland^  England  und  Frank- 
reieh  (8  vols.,  Berlin,  1791-'4).    He  was  the 
first  to  translate  into  German  the  Sahuntala  of 
Kalidasa.    His  widow,  the  daughter  of  Heyne, 
afterward  known  as  Therese  Huber,  published 
a  coUection  of  his  letters  (2  vols.,  Leipsic,  1828- 
'9).    His  complete  works  were  edited  by  his 


daughter,  with  a  critical  notice  by  Gervinua 
(9  vols.,  Leipsic,  1848-'4). 

FOBSTEB.  Jehii,  an  English  author,  bom  in 
Newcastle  in  1812,  died  Feb.  1,  1876.    He  was 
educated  at  the  university  of  London,  and  was 
a  member  of  its  first  law  class.    With  his  class- 
mates he  established  the  **  London  University 
Magazine,^'  out  of  which  grew  the  ^^  English' 
man's  Maganne,"  among  his  contributions  to 
which  was  a  series  of  biographical  articles  on 
the  "  Early  Patriots  of  England,"  which  were 
subsequently  enlarged  into  his  ^*  Lives  of  the 
Statesmen  of  the  Oommonwealth."  He  pursued 
the  study  of  law  under  Ohitty,  and  was  called 
to  the  bar,  but  soon  became  a  valued  contrib- 
utor to  periodicals.    In  1884  he  connected  him- 
self with  the  ^*  Examiner,"  of  which  he  became 
the  sole  editor  in  1846 ;  and  from  the  time  of 
his  first  connection  he  contributed  largely  to 
every  number  of  it,  in  both  the  departments 
of  politics  and  literary  criticism.    He  was  also 
for  four  years  the  editor  of  the  *^  Foreign 
Quarterly  Review,"   and  for   about  a  year 
of  the  "  Daily  News,"  after  the  retirement  of 
Mr.  Dickens.    He  was  a  frequent  contributor 
to  the  "  Edinburffh  Review  "  and  the  "  Quar- 
terly Review."    A  collection  of  his  **  Historical 
and  Biographical  Essays"  was  published  in 
1858.    His  other  principal  works  are :   ^^  The 
Life  and  Adventures  of  Oliver  Goldsmith" 
(1848),  enlarged  into  "  The  Life  and  Times  of 
Oliver  Goldsmith  "  (1864) ;    "  The  Arrest  of 
the  Five  Members  by  Charles  I."  (1860) ;  "  De- 
bates on  the  Great  Remonstrance"  (1860); 
"  Sir  John  Eliot,  a  Biography  "  (1864) ;  "  Wal- 
ter Savage  Landor,  a  Biography  "  (1868) ;  and 
"  The  Life  of  Charles  Dickens  "  (1871-'4).    In 
1855  he  married  the  wealthy  widow  of  Henry 
Colburn,  the  publisher.    In  1856  he  was  ap- 
pointed secretary  to  the  lunatic  commission, 
and  was  made  commissioner  of  lunacy  in  1861. 

FOESTEH,  WllllaM  Edward,  an  English  states- 
man, born  at  Bradpole,  Dorsetshire,  July  11, 
1818.  His  father  was  a  minister  of  the  society 
of  Friends,  who  died  during  an  anti-slavery 
mission  to  Tennessee.  He  married  in  1850  a 
daughter  of  Dr.  Arnold  of  Rugby,  became 
prominent  as  a  Bradford  manufacturer  and 
an  ultra-liberal  politician,  and  has  represented 
that  borough  in  parliament  since  1861.  He 
was  under-secretary  for  the  colonies  from  No- 
vember, 1865,  to  July,  1866 ;  and  in  December, 
1868,  he  was  appointed  one  of  the  charity  com- 
missioners and  vice  president  of  the  committee 
of  council  on  education,  on  which  occasion  he 
was  made  privy  councillor.  In  1870  he  was 
the  chief  promoter  of  the  new  education  law, 
and  in  1871  of  the  ballot  law. 

FORSTTB.  L  A  N.  W.  county  of  North  Caro- 
lina, bounded  W.  by  Tadkin  river,  and  drained 
by  its  afiluents ;  area  about  250  sq.  ra. ;  pop. 
in  1870,  13,050  of  whom  2,884  were  colored. 
The  surface  is  much  diversified,  and  the  soil  is 
generally  fertile.  The  chief  productions  in 
1870  were  66,678  bushels  of  wheat,  178,146  of 
Indian  com,  76,569  of  oats,  13,088  of  Irish  and 


826 


FORSYTH 


FORT  DONELSON 


11,603  of  sweet  potatoes,  2,997  tons  of  hay,  and 
288,262  lbs.  of  tobaooo.  There  were  1,546 
horses,  2,166  milch  oows,  2,788  other  cattle, 
6,606  sheep,  and  11,287  swine;  6  manufacto- 
ries of  carriages  and  wagons,  1  of  boots  and 
shoes,  1  of  cotton  and  1  of  woollen  goods,  and 
6  flour  mills.  Capital,  Winston.  II.  A  N. 
county  of  Georgia,  bounded  E.  and  8.  E.  by 
the  Chattahoochee  river;  area  about  250  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  7,988,  of  whom  1,121  were 
colored.  The  surface  is  hilly,  and  in  some 
places  mountainous.  The  soil  is  everywhere 
of  fair  quality,  and  in  the  vicinity  of  the  rivers 
is  alluvial  and  extremely  fertile.  The  county 
is  remarkably  rich  in  minerals.  Silver,  copper, 
and  considerable  quantities  of  gold  are  ob- 
tained, and  diamonds  and  other  precious  stones 
have  occasionally  been  found.  The  chief  pro- 
ductions in  1870  were  19,881  bushels  of  wheat, 
68,075  of  Indian  com,  9,769  of  oats,  and  217 
bales  of  cotton.  There  were  7  manufactories 
of  carriages  and  wagons.    Capital,  Cumming. 

FOBSTTBL  JehiLan  American  statesman,  born 
in  Frederict  co.,  Va.,  about  1781,  died  in  Wash- 
ington, Oct.  21, 1841.  He  graduated  at  Prince- 
ton college  in  1799,  and  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  Augusta,  6a.,  in  1802.  He  became 
attorney  general  of  the  state  in  1808,  repre- 
sentative in  congress  in  1812,  and  United  States 
senator  in  1818.  In  1820  he  was  sent  to  Spain 
as  resident  minister,  where  he  negotiated  the 
treaty  for  the  cession  of  Florida.  In  1828  he 
was  elected  to  congress,  in  1827  governor  of 
Georgia,  and  in  1829  United  States  senator. 
He  opposed  nullification,  and  voted  for  Mr. 
Olay^s  compromise  act  of  1888.  He  was  sec- 
retary of  state  under  Jackson  and  Van  Buren 
from  June  27,  1884,  to  March  4,  1841. 

FOST  BEND,  a  S.  £.  county  of  Texas,  intersect- 
ed by  Brazos  river,  which  is  here  navigable  by 
steamboats  during  part  of  the  year,  and  touched 
on  the  S.  W.  by  San  Bernard  river ;  area,  920 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  7,114,  of  whom  5,510 
were  colored.  In  the  valleys  of  the  streams 
the  soil  is  alluvial  and  fertile.  The  rest  of  the 
county,  consisting  principally  of  prairies,  is  leiss 
productive,  but  furnishes  abundant  pasturage. 
Timber  is  found  in  the  river  bottoms,  Brazos 
and  San  Bernard  rivers  being  skirted  by  a 
thick  growth  of  oak,  ash,  elm,  and  red  cedar. 
The  Buffalo  Bayou,  Brazos,  and  Colorado  nul- 
road  passes  through  the  county.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  288,505  bushels  of 
Indian  corn,  20,867  of  sweet  potatoes,  4,017 
bales  of  cotton,  862  hhds.  of  sugar,  and  28,960 
gallons  of  molasses.  There  were  8,207  horses, 
2,198  milch  cows,  49,191  other  cattle,  and 
9,475  swine.    Capital,  Richmond. 

FORT  DODGE,  a  city  and  the  capital  of  Web- 
ster CO.,  Iowa,  on  the  Des  Moines  river,  and 
the  Iowa  division  of  the  Illinois  Central  rail- 
road, at  the  terminus  of  the  Des  Moines  Valley 
line,  70  m.  N.  N.  W.  of  Des  Moines;  pop.  in 
1860,  672;  in  1870,  8,095.  The  river,  here 
about  250  ft.  wide,  affords  water  power,  and 
coal  and  limestone  are  found  in  the  vicinity. 


The  city  contains  a  court  house  of  stone,  a 
high  school  building  costing  $80,000,  two  na- 
tional banks,  10  public  schools,  a  semi-weekly 
and  two  weekly  newspapers,  a  monthly  period- 
ical, and  six  or  eight  churches,  and  has  consid- 
erable trade. 

FORT  DONELSON  and  FM  Hovy,  two  forti- 
fications in  N.  W.  Tennessee,  near  the  border 
of  Kentucky,  erected  by  the  confederates  late 
in  1861,  and  captured  by  the  Union  forces  in 
February,  1862.  The  Cumberland  and  Ten- 
nessee rivers  run  nearly  parallel,  at  a  distance 
of  about  10  m.,  for  about  50  m.  before  they  faU 
into  the  Ohio.  Near  the  point  where  this  paral- 
lel course  begins,  Fort  Henry  was  built  on  the 
Tennessee,  and  Fort  Donelson  on  the  Cumber- 
land. The  positions  were  of  importance  as 
covering  the  passage  by  boats  up  these  rivers, 
and  as  protecting  the  railway  communication 
between  Memphis  and  Bowling  Green,  Xy., 
which  was  then  the  central  point  of  confederate 
operations  in  this  region.  In  February,  1862, 
a  combined  naval  and  military  expedition  was 
planned  against  these  forts.  Admiral  Foote 
arrived  before  Fort  Henry  on  the  6th,  and 
commenced  the  attack  without  waiting  for  the 
arrival  of  the  land  forces.  After  a  bombard- 
ment of  an  hour  the  fort  was  surrendered ;  but 
the  garrison,  about  8,000  strong,  escaped  to 
Fort  Donelson,  with  the  exception  of  about  60 
who  were  made  prisoners.  Gen.  Grant  with 
about  80,000  men  moved,  partly  by  water  and 
partly  by  land,  upon  Fort  Donelson,  which  was 
now  commanded  by  Gen.  Floyd,  formerly  Uni- 
ted States  secretary  of  war,  who  had  in  all 
about  15,000  men.  Next  in  command  were 
Gens.  Pillow  and  Buckner.  On  the  18th  about 
half  the  Union  force  had  come  up,  and  there 
was  sharp  skirmishing,  in  which  each  side  lost 
about  200  in  killed  and  wounded.  On  the  14th 
the  gunboats  arrived,  and  in  the  afternoon 
opened  fire,  and  had  nearly  silenced  the  bat- 
teries of  the  fort  when  the  steering  apparatus 
of  the  two  largest  vessels  was  shot  away,  and 
the  fleet  was  forced  to  withdraw,  with  a  loas 
of  54  men.  Grant,  meanwhile,  was  proceeding 
to  invest  the  fort,  when  on  the  morning  of  the 
15th  the  confederates  made  a  sudden  sally, 
hoping  to  break  through  the  lines  of  invest- 
ment and  make  their  way  to  Nashville;  but 
after  gaining  some  considerable  advantages  they 
were,  late  in  the  afternoon,  driven  back  into 
their  intrenchments  by  superior  numbers.  The 
loss  on  each  side  was  about  2,000  killed, 
wounded,  and  prisoners.  During  the  night  a 
council  of  war  was  held,  in  which  it  was  decided 
that  the  fort  must  be  given  up.  But  Floyd 
declared  that  he  would  not  surrender  himself; 
he  said,  *^  Ton  know  my  position  with  the  fed- 
erals :  it  would  not  do."  Pillow  was  in  favor 
of  still  trying  to  cut  their  way  out ;  in  any  case, 
he  would  not  make  the  surrender.  It  was 
finally  decided  that  Floyd  should  make  orer 
the  command  to  Pillow,  who  should  in  turn 
make  it  over  to  Buckner,  and  in  the  mean  while 
Floyd  and  Pillow  might  try  to  save  their  re- 


FORT  DUQUESNE 


FORTIFICATION 


827 


BpectiTe  commands.  About  half  of  these,  some 
2,000,  sncoeeded  in  gettmg  aoross  the  river,  and 
escaped.  On  the  morning  of  Sandaj,  Feb.  16, 
Grant  was  drawn  np  ready  to  assaolt,  when  a 
flag  of  trace  came  from  Backner,  who  proposed 
the  appointment  of  commissioners  to  agree 
upon  terms  of  capitulation,  and  asked  for  an 
armistice  ontil  noon  for  that  purpose.  Grant 
replied:  ^*No  terms  other  than  an  uncondi- 
tional and  immediate  surrender  can  be  accept- 
ed. I  propose  to  move  immediately  upon  your 
works.^^  Buckner  responded:  "The  over- 
whelming force  under  your  command  compels 
me,  notwithstanding  the  splendid  success  of 
the  confederate  arms  yesterday,  to  accept  the 
ungenerous  and  unchivalrous  terms  whicn  you 
propose/'  The  number  of  prisoners  was  about 
13,000,  with  48  guns,  and  large  quantities  of 
small  arms,  ammunition,  and  supplies.  The 
conduct  of  Floyd  and  Pillow  was  ^arply  cen- 
sured by  the  confederate  government,  and  both 
were  suspended  from  their  commands. 

fWT  1HIQIJB81IE.    See  Pittsbuboh. 

FOIT  EDWARD,  a  village  and  town  of  Wash- 
ington CO.,  New  York,  on  the  £.  bank  of  the 
Hudson  river,  and  on  the  Ohamplain  canal,  40 
m.  K.  of  Albany;  pop.  of  the  village  in  1870, 
8,492 ;  of  the  town,  5,126.  The  Rensselaer  and 
Saratoga  railroad  and  the  Glen's  Falls  branch 
miite  here.  The  village  contains  a  weekly 
newspaper,  two  national  banks  with  a  capital 
of  $870,000,  a  state  bank  with  $100,000  capi- 
tal, extensive  manufactories  of  ^^  congress  bit- 
ters '*  and  of  turbine  water  wheels,  three  saw 
mills,  a  foundery  and  machine  shop,  a  blast 
tenace,  a  brewery,  two  manufactories  of  stone- 
"ware,  and  one  each  of  paper,  malt,  matches 
and  brooms,  razor  strops,  and  fanning  mills. 
The  Fort  Edward  collegiate  institute  in  1872 
bad  16  instructors,  420  pupils,  of  whom  141 
irere  females,  and  a  library  of  1,000  volumes. 

FOmSClJE)  Sir  JohMy  an  English  lawyer,  who 
lived  in  the  reigns  of  Henry  Yl..  and  Edward 
lY.  The  place  and  date  of  his  birth  are  un- 
known; he  is  supposed  to  have  died  about 
1486.  In  1426  he  was  appointed  one  of  the 
governors  of  Lincoln's  Inn,  and  in  1442  chief 
justice  of  the  king's  bench.  He  was  a  zealous 
Lancastrian,  and  when  in  1461  the  fortune  of 
war  made  Henry  YI.  a  fugitive,  Fortescue  ac- 
oompanied  him  to  Scotland,  where  Henry  is 
supposed  to  have  appointed  him  chancellor  of 
England,  by  which  title  he  has  been  mentioned 
by  several  writers.  Soon  Bitetward  the  York- 
fsts,  who  at  that  period  controlled  the  pariia- 
ment,  included  him  in  the  act  of  attainder 
which  was  passed  by  them  against  the  king, 
qaeen,  and  other  prominent  Lancastrians.  In 
1464  he  fled  to  the  continent  with  Queen  Mar- 
garet and  her  son  Edward,  and  remained  abroad 
several  years  attending  on  the  royal  exiles. 
He  returned  with  them  to  England,  but  after 
the  battle  of  Tewkesbury  in  1471  he  became 
a  prisoner  ta  the  victor,  Edward  lY.  Having 
obtained  his  pardon  and  liberty,  he  withdrew 
to  Gloaoestershire,  and  there  passed  the  rest  of 


his  life  in  retirement  The  most  celebrated  of 
his  works  is  his  treatise  I}e  Laudibus  Legum 
AngliaSj  which  is  written  in  the  form  of  a 
dialogue,  the  interlocutors  being  Prince  Ed- 
ward and  the  author.  The  earliest  edition  is 
that  of  Whitechurch,  published  in  the  begin- 
ning of  the  reign  of  Henry  YIIL,  and  the  latest 
that  of  A.  Amos  (Oambridge,  1826).  The  old- 
est translation  is  by  Mulcaster  (London,  1616). 

FOKT  CUUDliS,  a  town  and  the  capital  of  Olay 
CO.,  Greorgia,  on  the  Chattahoochee  river,  at 
the  terminus  of  a  branch  of  the  Southwestern 
railroad,  166  m.  S.  by  W.  of  Atlanta ;  pop.  in 
1870,  768.  It  is  a  shipping  point  for  cotton. 
On  Oolamoka  creek,  a  few  miles  S.  E.,  are 
several  ancient  artificial  mounds,  the  largest 
of  which  is  76  ft.  high,  with  a  level  surface  at 
the  summit,  80  by  80  yards  in  extent  From 
the  base  a  broad  canal,  600  yards  long  and  in 
some  places  12  ft.  deep,  extends  to  the  creek. 

FOKT  GAKET)  Manitoba.    See  Wiknipbo. 

FORTH,  a  river  of  Scotland,  the  third  of  that 
country  in  size,  and  one  of  the  most  noted  for 
romantic  scenery.  It  is  formed  by  the  conflu- 
ence of  two  small  streams,  the  Duchray  and 
the  Dhu,  which  unite  on  the  N.  E.  slope  of 
Ben  Lomond.  Thence,  under  the  name  of  the 
Avendow  or  Black  river,  it  flows  E.  through 
the  fertile  valley  of  the  Laggan,  shut  in  on 
either  side  by  hills,  and  after  receiving  one  or 
two  tributaries  assumes  the  name  of  Forth. 
From  this  point  it  begins  to  present  the  remark- 
able sinuosities  which  form  its  chief  character- 
istic, now  winding  gracefully  through  a  rich 
level  country,  now  doubling  and  flowing  W., 
again  sweeping  to  the  E.,  describing  at  times 
almost  complete  circles,  and  forming  all  along 
its  course  many  beautiful  peninsulas.  The 
most  notable  of  these  windings,  called  the 
*Minks  of  Forth,"  occur  between  Alloa  and 
Stirling,  the  distance  between  which  places,  in 
a  straight  line,  is  about  6  m.,  while  by  water 
it  is  12  m.  The  Teith,  Allan,  and  Devon  are 
its  largest  tributaries.  At  Kincardine  it  begins 
to  widen  into  an  estuary,  called  the  fnth  of 
Forth,  between  the  counties  of  Olackmannan 
and  Fife  on  the  north,  and  of  Linlithgow,  Edin- 
burgh, and  Haddington  on  the  south.  The  fnth 
contains  several  islands,  and  a  great  abimdance 
of  herring  and  other  flsh ;  length  60  m.,  great- 
est breadth  16  m.  The  general  course  of  the 
Forth  is  E.  or  S.  E.  Its  depth  is  from  8  to 
more  than  87  fathoms,  and  its  bottom  is  gene- 
rally muddy.  The  tide  sets  up  from  the  sea  as 
far  as  Stirling  bridge,  a  distance  of  70  m.  It  is 
navigable  thus  far  for  vessels  of  100  tons,  and 
to  Alloa  for  vessels  of  800  tons.  Its  length  to 
the  sea,  including  all  its  sinuosities,  is  about 
170  m.,  though  in  a  direct  line  it  would  not 
exceed  90  m.  The  Forth  and  Olyde  canal,  88 
m.  in  length,  connects  those  two  rivers. 

FOBTIFI€ATIOir ,  the  military  art  of  preparing 
a  place  to  redst  attack.  The  means  uised  for 
this  purpose  may  be  those  presented  by  nature, 
as  woods  and  rivers,  or  those  formed  by  art,  as 
shelters  of  earth,  wood,  or  stone,  or  a  combir 


328 


FORTIFICATION 


nation  of  both.  The  artificial  obstacles  thus 
used  are  divided  into  two  classes,  permanent 
and  temporary  fortifications.  When  they  are 
of  a  durable  character  and  the  position  is  to  be 
occupied  permanently  or  for  some  indefinite 
period,  they  belong  to  the  former  class ;  but 
when  the  position  is  to  be  occupied  only  for 
a  short  time  or  during  the  operations  of  a 
campaign,  they  are  sometimes  constructed  in 
great  haste  and  often  of  perishable  materials, 
and  receive  the  name  of  temporary  or  field 
fortifications.  I.  Pebmakent  li  obtifioations. 
These  are  essentially  defensive  in  their  na- 
ture, and  their  object  has  not  changed  with 
time.  Their  history,  like  that  of  man,  may  be 
divided  into  three  principal  epochs,  ancient 
fortifications,  fortifications  of  the  middle  ages, 
and  modem  fortifications. — 1.  Frimitwe  and 
Ancient  Fortifications.  The  oldest  form  of  forti- 
fication appears  to  be  the  stockade,  which  up 
to  the  end  of  the  18th  century  was  still  the  na- 
tional system  with  the  Turks  (palania),  and  is 
even  now  in  full  use  in  the  Indo-Chinese  pen- 
insula. It  consists  of  a  double  or  triple  row 
of  the  trunks  of  stout  trees,  planted  upright 
and  near  each  other  in  the  ground,  forming 
a  wall  all  around  the  town  or  camp  to  be 
defended.  Darius  in  his  expedition  among  the 
Scythians,  Cortes  at  Tabasco  in  Mexico,  and 
Capt.  Cook  in  New  Zealand,  all  came  in  con- 
tact with  such  stockades.  Sometimes  the 
space  between  the  rows  of  trees  was  filled  up 
with  earth ;  in  other  instances  the  trees  were 
connected  and  held  together  by  wickerwork. 
The  next  step  was  the  erection  of  masonry 
walls  instead  of  stockades.  This  plan  secured 
greater  durability,  at  the  same  time  that  it  ren- 
dered the  assault  far  more  difficult ;  and  from 
the  days  of  Nineveh  and  Babylon  down  to  the 
close  of  the  middle  ages,  masonry  walls  formed 
the  exclusive  means  of  fortification  among  all 
the  more  civilized  nations.  The  walls  were 
made  so  high  that  escalade  was  rendered  diffi- 
cult; they  were  made  thick  enough  to  ofiTer  a 
lengthened  resistance  to  the  battering  ram,  and 
to  allow  the  defenders  to  move  about  freely  on 
the  top,  sheltered  by  a  thinner  masonry  par- 
apet with  battlements,  through  the  embrasures 
of  which  arrows  and  other  missiles  might  be 
shot  or  thrown  against  the  assailants.  To  in- 
crease the  defence,  the  parapet  was  soon  built 
overhanging,  with  holes  between  the  project- 
ing stones  on  which  it  rested,  so  as  to  allow  the 
besieged  to  see  the  foot  of  the  wall  and  reach 
an  enemy  who  might  have  got  so  far  by  direct 
missiles  from  above.  For  a  similar  reason  tow- 
ers, which  at  first  were  nothing  more  than 
square  or  semicircular  projections,  built  from 
distance  to  distance  in  tiie  wall  itself^  were  de- 
vised, and  subsequently  were  divided  into  sto- 
ries, each  of  which  was  provided  with  loop- 
holes to  flank  the  ad[jacent  towers  and  the 
straight  portions  of  the  wall  between  them. 
Each  tower  could  be  isolated  from  the  straight 
portion  of  the  wall  acfjaoent  by  an  interruption 
at  the  top,  over  which  communication  was  had 


by  a  temporary  bridge.  These  defences  were 
found  to  be  insufficient  against  the  ingennity 
and  skill  of  the  assailant,  who  by  means  of 
covered  galleries  of  timber  gradudly  won  his 
way  to  the  foot  of  the  wall,  when,  by  breaking 
his  way  through  it  or  undermining  it,  he  over- 
<:ame  or  removed  the  obstruction  between  him 
and  the  assailed.  This  led  to  the  use  of  wide 
and  deep  ditches  surrounding  the  place,  form- 
ing a  formidable  obstacle  to  the  modes  of  at- 
tack then  used.  When  it  could  be  obtained^ 
the  ditches  were  filled  with  water.  With  the 
decadence  of  the  Roman  empire  the  art  of  for- 
tification, like  other  branches  of  the  military 
art,  fell  into  decay. — ^2.  MedicBcal  Fortiflca- 
tions.  The  principal  works  that  characterize 
the  middle  ages  are  the  castles  placed  in  the 
most  inaccessible  positions  on  the  lines  of  com- 
munication which  the  little  inland  commeroe 
that  was  still  carried  on  was  obliged  to  trav- 
erse. They  were  provided  with  every  possible 
device  for  an  obstinate  passive  defence,  being 
surrounded  by  a  wide  and  deep  ditch  or  moat, 
over  which  a  drawbridge  was  the  only  commu- 
nication to  the  main  entrance,  which  was 
fianked  by  towers  on  the  exterior,  and  closed 
with  massive  doors ;  the  winding  passage  that 
led  into  the  castle  being  further  secur^  by  a 
grated  portcullis,  which  could  be  dropped  at  a 
mementos  notice  to  arrest  a  sudden  assault 
Loopholes  and  machicoulis  in  and  on  the  walls 
and  towers  were  added.  In  addition,  there 
was  a  high  interior  tower,  termed  a  keep  or 
donjon,  which,  commanding  the  exterior,  was 
also  a  watch  tower  over  the  adjacent  country. 
This,  the  last  defensible  point,  was  often  pro- 
vided with  a  secret  subterranean  passage,  hav- 
ing its  outlet  in  some  concealed  spot  on  the  ex- 
terior, by  which  succor  could  be  introduced  to 
the  castle,  or  the  garrison  find  safety  in  a  steal- 
thy flight.  The  fortifications  of  towns  during 
this  period  partook  of  the  same  characteris- 
tics as  those  of  castles. — 8.  Modem  Fortifica-' 
tion.  This  begins  with  the  invention  of  gun- 
powder and  its  application  to  military  purposes. 
We  divide  it  into  periods  according  as  we  find 
the  art  practised  in  Europe.  There  are  four 
marked  periods,  y\z. :  1,  during  the  14th,  ISth, 
and  16th  centuries ;  2,  the  16th  and  17th  cen- 
turies ;  8,  the  17th  and  18th  centuries ;  4,  £h}m 
the  18th  century  to  the  present  time.  The  first 
was  noted  for  tlie  rise  and  growth  of  the  has- 
tioned  system;  it  is  supposed  to  have  origi- 
nated in  Italy,  and  was  during  this  period  the 
only  one  used  in  Europe.  Most  of  the  en- 
gineers who  superintended  the  construction  of 
the  works  were  Italians,  and  it  is  therefore  gen- 
erally known  as  the  Italian  system.  The  second 
period  was  noted  for  the  modifications  and  im- 
provements in  this  system  made  in  Holland 
during  its  war  of  independence  with  Spain. 
The  third  period  was  noted  for  the  improve- 
ments maae  in  the  basdoned  system  by  the 
French.  The  fourth  period  is  noted  partiou- 
larly  for  the  objections  made  to  the  bastioned 
system  and  the  proposal  of  a  new  one  as  a 


FORTmOATION 


329 


sabfltitQte.  This  new  metliod  is  known  as  the 
polygonal  sjstem,  and  as  many  recent  fortifica- 
tions in  Germany  have  been  constructed  ac- 
cording to  it,  it  is  often  called  the  German  sys- 
tem. Whatever  be  the  System  used,  the  object 
is  the  same,  that  is,  to  make  the  place  so  strong 
that  to  gain  possession  of  it  the  enemy  will  be 
compelled  to  resort  to  the  operations  of  a  siege 
or  blockade.  Whatever  be  the  diversities  of 
opinion  on  the  best  mode  of  effecting  this  ob- 
ject, they  all  agree  on  certain  general  condi- 
tions as  necessary.  These  may  be  summed  up 
as  follows :  1.  They  should  be  strong  enough 
toresist  with  success  an  open  assault.  2.  They 
should  have  secure  and  easy  communications 
for  the  troops,  both  within  and  to  the  exterior. 
8.  They  should  be  so  planned  that  every  exterior 
point  within  cannon  range  shall  be  swept  by 
the  fire  from  the  work.  4.  They  should  be  pro- 
vided with  bomb-proof  shelters  for  the  troops, 
and  magazines  of  provisions  and  munitions  of 
war.  6.  They  should  be  provided  with  all  the 
accessory  means  of  defence  that  the  natural 
features  of  the  position  may  afford. — ^The  most 
convenient  mode  of  fortifying  a  position  in 
a  simple  manner  consists  in  enclosmg  it  with 


a  rampart  surmounted  by  a  parapet,  with  a 
ditch.  The  latter  when  dry  has  its  sides  re- 
vetted with  masonry.  The  accompanying  pro- 
file (fig.  1),  which  is  a  section  made  by  a  vertical 
plane  perpendicular  to  the  general  direction  of 
the  intrenchment,  will  show  the  form  of  para- 
pet and  ditch  generally  used.  When  the  place 
fortified  is  expected  to  contain  the  defenders 
only,  called  the  garrison,  it  is  termed  a  fort 
If  it  surrounds  a  town,  or  is  expected  to  con- 
tain other  persons  than  those  designed  to  de- 
fend it,  it  is  called  a  fortress.  For  both  cases 
the  character  of  the  fortification  is  the  same. 
The  rampart  is  an  earthen  mound  raised 
above  the  natural  surface  of  the  ground  upon 
which  the  parapet  is  placed,  and  serves  to 
give  the  troops  a  commanding  view  over  the 
ground  exterior  to  the  work,  while  it  increases 
the  obstacles  to  an  open  assault  by  the  addi- 
tional height  it  gives  to  the  scarp.  The  top 
surface  in  rear  of  the  parapet,  called  the  terre- 
plein,  affords  a  convenient  and  secure  commu- 
nication for  the  troops.  The  form  and  dimen- 
sions of  the  rampart  are  so  arranged  that  it 
shaU  afford  cover  to  the  troops  and  to  the 
armament,  and  facility  for  firing  over  it  by  the 


l^ 


fn" 


Fie.  1.— a,  the  rtmpart,  of  which  a  d  Is  tho  slope,  and  b  e  the  terrepletn ;  b',  the  panpet,  of  which  e  d  e/  ff  h  \»  the 
oatHne;  e'  e\  the  main  ditch;  d\  the  scarp  waU;  «',  the  coimtnvcarp  wall;  /',  the  emoankment  of  the  covered  way,  of 
which  9»  n  is  the  terreplein,  n  o  p  the  ontline  of  the  banquette  and  interior  stope,  and  p  r  the  glacis ;  m'  n\  the 
natural  snrfkce  of  the  ground:  /  the  interior  crest;  /g^  the  superior  slope;  g h^  the  exterior  slope;  /«,  the  interior 
slope;  d  e,  the  banquette  tread;  e  d,  the  banquette  slope. 


defence  both  with  artillery  and  small  arms. 
The  ditch  serves  the  double  purpose  of  in- 
creasing the  obstacles  to  be  overcome  by  the 
enemy  and  furnishing  the  earth  to  form  the  ram- 
part and  parapet.  To  give  strength  and  durabil- 
ity, the  faces  are  revetted  with  walls  of  mason- 
ry, called  respectively  scarp  and  counterscarp 
walls.  When  dry,  the  ditch  is  made  from  20 
to  80  yards  wide,  and  receives  a  slight  slope 
toward  the  middle,  where  a  small  drain  called 
a  cunette  is  dug  to  receive  the  drainage  and 
keep  it  dry.  When  wet.  the  ditches  are  wider. 
Scarp  walls  are  of  three  kinds :  1,  the  ordinary 
retaimng  wall,  strengthened  by  counter  forts ; 
2,  the  same  with  relieving  arches ;  8,  detached 
in  part  or  wholly  ftom  the  rampart.  They 
are^  usually  made  not  less  than  80  ft.  high, 
which  is  sufficient  to  prevent  an  escalade 
if  the  defence  offer  an  ordinary  resistance. 
Counterscarps  are  ordinarily  of  the  first  and 
fleeond  class,  and  are  generally  from  18  to  24 
ft.  high.  The  height  of  the  interior  crest  of 
the  parapet  above  the  exterior  ground  is  called 
the  command,  and  its  height  above  the  bottom 
of  the  ditch  the  relief.  The  covered  way  is  an 
open  passage  bordering  the  ditches,  forming  a 
continuous  communication  around  the  work, 


sheltered  from  the  enemy  by  an  embankment 
high  enough  to  cover  the  troops  using  it.  This 
embankment  is  arranged  like  an  ordinary  para- 
pet, having  on  the  exterior  a  gentle  slope  or 
glacis.  Slopes  and  dimensions  of  profile  are 
as  follows:  scarp  and  counterscarp  slopes, 
^  (or  1  base  to  24  altitude) ;  exterior  slope, 
\  (45°) ;  superior  slope,  | ;  interior  slope,  f ; 
banquette  slope,  )-;  rampart  slope,  f ;  terre- 
pleins,  8  ft.  below  interior  crest ;  berm,  2  ft. ; 
thickness  of  parapet,  25  ft. ;  height  of  interior 
crest  above  banquette  tread,  4^  ft. ;  width  of 
banquette  treads,  from  2  ft.  to  6  ft. ;  general 
width  of  terreplein,  48  ft.  The  continuous 
line  enclosing  the  place  is  called  the  enceinte 
or  main  enclosure.  Although  a  great  diversity 
of  figures'may  thus  be  presented  by  the  outline 
of  the  work  enclosing  the  place  to  be  fortified, 
they  may  all  be  classed  under  four  heads,  to 
each  of  which  engineers  have  applied  the  term 
system  of  fortification.  These  four  classes 
are:  1,  circular;  2,  polygonal;  8,  tenailled; 
4,  bastioned.  The  circular  system  consists  of 
a  work  the  plan  of  which  is  circular  or  curved. 
The  polygonal  is  when  this  plan  is  a  polygon 
with  salient  angles  only,  or  where  the  rednter^ 
ings  are  very  uight    The  tenaiUed  is  where 


830 


FOETIFIOATIOlir 


the  plan  consistB  of  a  tenallled  lise,  the  reen- 
tering angles  being  between  90^  and  100°,  and 
the  salient  angles  not  less  than  60°.  The  baa- 
tioned  consists  generally  of  two  fiaoes  and  two 
flanks,  the  extremities  of  the  flanks  being  con- 
nected by  cartains.  A  work  consisting  of  an 
enceinte  alone  would  restrict  the  garrison  to  a 
passive  defence,  and  would  be  more  or  less 
exposed  to  surprise.  To  provide  against  tiie 
latter,  and  to  enable  the  garrison  to  make  a 
more  active  defence  by  operating  on  the  exte- 
rior of  the  place,  engineers  have  devised  cer- 
tain exterior  defences  called  outworks  without 
the  enceinte.  Others  have  been  placed  within 
the  enceinte,  called  interior  works,  more  par- 
ticularly for  the  purpose  of  defending  any 
breach  that  may  be  made  in  the  main  work. 
When  an  interior  work  is  detached  from  the 
enceinte  and  is  organized  to  receive  the  garri- 
son and  rely  on  its  own  resources  after  the 
main  work  has  fallen,  it  is  called  a  citadel 
Owing  to  the  form  and  height  of  the  parapet, 
its  fire  can  take  effect  only  at  some  distance 
beyond  it.  The  enemy  having  gained  the 
ditch  will  not  be  exposed  to  the  fire  from  the 
works  unless  some  arrangement  has  been  made 
for  this  emergency.  Such  points  where  the 
enemy  can  find  shelter  are  called  dead  angles 
or  spaces.  These  may  be  removed  either  by 
arranging  the  lines  of  the  work  with  this 
object  in  view,  as  in  the  bastioned  system,  or 
by  means  of  auxiliary  works,  termed  capon- 
ni^res,  scarp  galleries,  counterscarp  galleries, 
&c.,  as  in  the  polygonal  system. — Bastioned 
System.  If,  supposing  the  place  enclosed  by  a 
bastioned  system,  we  connect  the  salients  of 
the  bastions  by  straight  lines,  these  will  form 
a  polygon  of  as  many  sides  as  there  are  bas- 
tions. If  the  curtains  be  produced,  they  wiU 
form  a  second  polygon  within  the  first.  They 
are  respectively  called  exterior  and  interior 
polygons.  Either  of  these  may  be  taken  as  a 
general  outline  to  enclose  the  place  to  be  forti- 
fied. The  exterior  polygon  is  generally  used, 
and  sometimes  called  the  polygon  of  the  for- 
tification. It  may  be  regular  or  irregular. 
We  will  suppose  the  site  to  be  fortified  to  be 
level  or  approximately  so,  and  the  polygon  to 
be  regular.  There  is  an  intimate  relation  be- 
tween the  length  of  the  side  of  the  polygon 
and  the  lengths  of  the  lines  of  the  fortification, 
which  will  be  referred  to  hereafter.  Assume 
the  lengtii  of  a  side,  called  the  exterior  side, 
to  be  880  yards.  To  lay  off  the  lines  of  the 
work,  some  one  line  must  be  selected  as  the 
directing  one.  In  permanent  fortLfications  the 
line  of  intersection  of  the  front  face  of  the 
floarp  wall  with  the  top  or  upper  surface  of 
coping  is  taken,  and  receives  tne  name  of  ma- 
gistral. In  giving  the  method  for  locating  the 
lines  on  one  side  or  front,  all  the  informati<Hi 
necessary  for  the  entire  work  will  be  known. 
Bisect  the  side  of  the  polygon  by  a  perpen- 
dicular, and  lay  off  on  it  inside  the  polygon  a 
distance  equal  to  i,  |,  or  ^  of  the  side,  accord- 
ing as  the  polygon  is  a  square,  a  pentagon, 


or  a  polygon  of  a  greater  number  of  sides.  In 
this  particular  case  lay  off  ^,  or  68*38  yards; 
this  will  be  the  distance  for  the  hexagon  or 
any  greater  polygon.  Lines  drawn  through 
this  point  and  the  extremities  of  the  exterior 
side  determine  the  directions  of  the  faces  and 
the  lines  of  defence.  We  may  assume  the 
lengths  of  the  faces  and  then  deduce  the  flanks 
and  curtain,  or  assume  the  curtain  and  deduce 
the  others.  If  we  take  the  first  plan,  we  lay 
off  from  the  salient  a  distance  equal  to  f  of  the 
exterior  side,  which  gives  us  the  length  of  the 
face  and  the  positions  of  the  shoulder  angles ; 
then  draw  the  fianks,  making  an  angle  of  110° 
with  tiie  lines  of  defence  or  100°  with  the 
curtain.  Lay  off  on  each  flank  a  distance  of 
50  yards  and  join  their  extremities  by  a  straight 
line.  This  will  give  the  cnrtain,  140  yards 
in  length.  This  length  of  curtain  admits  of 
the  flaoks  having  a  relief  of  44*50  ft.,  and  at 
the  same  time  tiioroughly  sweeping  the  ditch 
in  front  of  the  curtain  by  the  fire  from  them. 
Let  X  X,  fig.  2,  be  the  exterior  side ;  then,  fol- 
lowing the  foregoing  construction,  we  have 
X  Y  the  magistral  of  the  face,  Y  Z  of  the  fiank, 
and  Z  Z  the  curtain.  The  line  X  Y  produced  to 
Z,  the  opposite  extremity  of  the  curtain,  is  the 
line  of  defence.  From  their  positions  it  is  evi- 
dent that  an  intimate  relation  exists  between 
these  lines ;  any  change  in  one  affects  all  the 
others.  The  angle  at  X  is  called  the  salient 
angle  of  the  bastion ;  X  Y  Z,  the  shoulder  an- 
gles ;  Y  Z  Z,  the  curtain  angles ;  and  X  X  Y, 
the  diminished  angle.  From  an  examination  of 
the  figure,  it  is  seen  that  we  have  now  laid  out 
the  plan  of  the  enceinte.  The  heavy  line  paral- 
lel to  the  one  constructed  is  the  interi(»*  crest. 
Although  drawn  parallel  in  the  figure,  it  is  not 
absolutely  so  in  practice.  Tq  explain  these 
details  would  extend  this  article  to  a  degree 
that  is  not  admissible.  The  other  lines  are 
easily  understood  by  looking  at  the  profile 
rfig.  1)  taken  on  m'  tnf  n*  n\  Communication 
from  the  interior  to  the  exterior  is  made  by  a 
postern  through  the  middle  of  the  curtain  that 
comes  out  6  ft.  above  the  bottom  of  the  ditch. 
A  wooden  ramp  is  used  to  descend  from  the 
postern  to  the  ditch.  In  front  of  the  curtain 
is  placed  the  tenaille  O,  its  form  being  a  cur- 
tain parallel  to  that  of  the  enceinte  with  two 
wings  the  scarps  of  which  are  on  the  prolonga- 
tions of  the  scarps  of  the  fiices.  It  is  separated 
from  the  curtain  by  a  ditch  18  yards  wide,  and 
from  the  flanks  by  cUtohes  11  yards  wide.  It 
is  intended  to  mask  the  masonry  of  the  curtain 
and  flanks  and  cover  the  postern.  It  is  ar- 
ranged for  defence  having  its  fire  to  bear  upon 
the  ditches.  The  object  of  the  double  capon- 
nidre  P  is  to  afford  a  secure  communication 
across  the  ditch,  and  to  be  a  defensive  work 
for  the  main  ditch.  The  object  of  the  demi- 
lune G  is  to  secure  the  gates  of  the  place  from 
a  surprise,  to  mask  the  flanks  and  curtains  of 
the  enceinte  from  the  enemy^s  batteries,  and 
to  give  cross  fires  on  the  salients  (tf  Uie  baa- 
tions.    They  favor  sorties  by  the  strong  reCa* 


FORTTFIOATIOiar 


331 


teiingB  made  in  the  front.  The  cuts  K  K  are 
made  to  isolate  its  eztremitiefl  from  the  sclent 
pcfftion,  and  prevent  the  enemj  from  driying 
the  defence  from  the  redonhts  of  the  reentering 
places  of  arms  if  he  shonld  gain  possession  of 
the  demilnne.  The  demihme  redoubt  J  is  for 
the  purpose  of  sweeping  at  close  range  the 
terreplein  of  the  demilune,  and  render  its  de- 
fence xnore  obstinate  by  the  support  it  receives 
from  the  redoubt  The  covered  way  D  D, 
the  ditches  of  the  main  work  and 


demilune,  forms  a  secure  communication  around 
the  entire  work.  It  is  an  indispensable  out- 
work, and  is  of  the  highest  importance  where 
an  active  defence  is  to  be  made.  Traverses, 
a,  a,  are  placed  at  intervals  to  protect  the  troops 
in  it  from  ricochet  flre,  and  are  arranged  for 
defence.  The  covered  way  is  broken  forward 
in  the  re-entering  angles  for  the  purpose  of 
enlarging  the  covered  way  at  these  points, 
and  pr^udng  a  flanking  arrangement  by 
which  the  glacis  can  be  swept  and  a  cross 


Cia^Uk 


Fm.  S.— A  A  A  A,  ihd  enceinte  or  body  of  the  plaoe,  or  main  encloenre;  B  B,  the  bastions;  C  C  0  0,  the  main  dltdi, 
or  the  diteh  of  the  enceinte;  D  D  D  D,  the  beetkui  and  demilune  corered  wftjra;  £  £,  the  reentering  plaeee  of  anna; 
F,  the  aaUent  place  of  arms;  G,  the  demilnne;  H  H.  the  demilnne  ditch;  J,  tiie  demilnne  redoabt;  K  K,  cuts  in  the 
demilnne:  L  ll  the  ditch  of  the  demilnne  redoubt ;  M  M.  the  redoubts  of  the  reentering  places  of  arms;  N  N,  ditches  of 
the  tedouMs ;  O,  the  teoallle ;  P,  double  caponni<^re ;  X  X,  exterior  side ;  a  a,  trarerses  of  the  covered  way. 


fire  brought  to  bear  upon  the  ground  in  front 
of  the  salients.  Withm  this  enlarged  space, 
or  reentering  place  of  arms,  a  redoubt  M  is 
placed.  Its  object  is  to  strengthen  the  covered 
way  and  sweep  with  its  flre  the  enemy's  estab- 
lishments on  the  glads  of  the  demilune.  Some- 
times a  redoubt  is  placed  in  the  salient  place 
of  arms.  The  surface  of  the  embankment  of 
the  covered  way  is  made,  from  the  interior 
creat  to  the  exterior,  with  a  gentle  slope.  The 
principle  to  be  attended  to  in  arranging  these 


glacis  planes  is,  that  they  should  all  be  swept 
by  the  artOlery  fire  of  the  works  in  their  rear, 
and  by  the  musketry  fire  at  least  of  the  bastion 
face.  From  what  has  been  said,  it  will  be 
seen  that  in  this  system,  when  the  relief  and 
plan  are  suitably  arranged,  the  fortification 
possesses  the  advantage  of  having  its  ditches 
thoroughly  swept  from  within  the  main  work 
itself,  of  bringing  a  cross  and  fiank  fire  to  bear 
upon  the  approaches  on  the  salients,  and  fur- 
mshing  a  strong  direct  and  cross  fire  upon  the 


832 


FORTIFICATION 


ground  in  advance  of  the  onrtains  and  the  faces 
of  the  bastions. — The  bastioned  system  came 
into  existence  after  the  application  of  gun- 
powder to  militarj  purposes.  The  precise  date 
and  name  of  its  author  are  not  known.  The 
best  authorities  give  as  the  date  of  its  origin 
the  close  of  the  15th  or  the  beginning  of  the 
16th  century.  The  system  as  it  appeared  in 
Italy,  and  as  practised  by  the  Italian  engi- 
neers of  that  date,  was  soon  adopted  through- 
out Europe.  In  its  application  in  the  different 
states,  it  was  varied  and  modified  in  different 
degrees.  These  variations  and  modifications 
were  due  to  the  discussions  among  the  profes- 
sion as  to  the  best  method  of  combining  the 
parts,  of  adapting  it  to  the  natural  features  of 
the  country  where  applied,  and  to  the  natural 
characteristics  of  the  people.  From  these 
arose  the  schools  known  as  the  Italian,  Dutch, 
French,  Spanish,  German,  and  Swedish.  The 
Italian  school  was  characterized  by  very  small 
bastions  connected  by  very  long  curtains,  with 
the  flanks  perpendicular  to  the  curtains,  and 
no  outworks.  In  some  cases,  a  small  and  very 
obtuse  bastion  was  placed  at  the  middle  of 
the  curtain.  The  ditches  were  about  83  yards 
wide  and  24  ft.  deep.  The  defects  of  this  plan 
were  soon  felt,  and  an  improvement  was  made 
by  shortening  the  curtain,  enlarging  the  bas- 
tions, and  introducing  a  covered  way,  with  a 
t^te  de  pont  to  cover  the  communication 
across  the  main  ditch  at  the  middle  of  the 
curtain.  In  the  Netherlands,  the  low  coun- 
try, want  of  time  and  money,  and  presence  of 
water  on  or  near  the  site,  led  to  decided  changes 
in  the  system.  From  the  nature  of  their 
struggle,  their  defensive  works  were  based 
upon  a  strictly  passive  defence.  The  character- 
istic feature^  of  the  Dutch  school  were  wide 
ditches  filled  with  water,  low  ramparts  with- 
out revetment  walls,  an  enceinte  often  within 
one,  and  numerous  outworks.  The  French 
school  was  characterized  by  a  combination  of 
the  best  features  of  the  Dutch  and  Italian 
schools.  Retaining  the  profile  of  the  latter, 
the  outworks  of  the  former  were  added.  It  is 
to  this  school  that  we  are  indebted  for  the 
rules  and  principles  of  the  bastioned  system. 
Scientific  and  systematic  fortification  may  be 
said  to  date  from  Vauban,  so  perfect  are  his 
works  in  comparison  with  those  of  his  predeces- 
sors throughout  Europe,  in  the  arrangement  of 
the  details,  the  proportions  of  the  lines,  and  the 
adaptation  of  the  system  to  the  requirements 
of  every  locality.  The  characteristics  of  the 
Spanish  school  are  the  increase  in  dimen- 
sions of  profile  and  height  of  scarp,  with  in- 
terior intrenchments,  and  often  a  bomb-proof 
keep,  the  object  being  to  render  the  defence 
more  obstinate.  They  made  free  use  of  de- 
tached works,  but,  like  the  main  work,  they 
were  generally  organized  for  a  strictly  passive 
defence,  depending  upon  their  own  resources 
rather  than  codperation  from  the  main  or  other 
works.  They  frequently  omitted  tibe  covered 
way.    The  works  of  the  German  school  differ 


but  slightly  from  those  of  the  French  and 
Italian.  In  some  fortresses,  the  adoption  of 
casemated  batteries,  which  in  recent  years 
have  formed  so  important  a  part  in  their 
works,  was  the  distinguii^ing  feature.  This 
school  reckons  a  number  of  original  writers  on 
fortifications,  among  the  most  noted  of  whom 
are  the  celebrated  Albert  DtLrer,  Speckle,  and 
Rimpler.  Many  of  the  characteristic  features 
of  the  French  school  were  suggested  by 
Speckle  many  years  before  they  were  adopted 
in  France.  Swedish  engineers  paid  special  at- 
tention to  covering  the  faces  of  their  works 
from  enfilading  fire.  They  made  free  use  of 
casemated  batteries,  having  them  often  in  sev- 
eral tiers.  They  also  arranged  their  interior 
parts  so  that  each  should  contribute  to  the 
defence  of  the  others  and  be  capable  of  an 
independent  resistance. — Polygonal  or  O&rman 
System,  This  system  has  been  proposed  by 
several  engineers  of  distinction,  but  its  most 
ardent  advocate  has  been  the  French  engineer 
Montalembert.  The  leading  features  of  this 
system  are  as  follows :  1.  To  occupy  the  prin- 
cipal points  of  the  ^position  to  be  fortified  that 
are  liable  to  be  attacked  by  works  which  shall 
contain  within  themselves  all  the  resources 
necessary  for  a  vigorous  defence ;  these  works 
to  be  placed  in  reciprocal  defensive  relations 
with  each  other,  but  so  arranged  that  the 
falling  of  one  of  them  into  the  hands  of  the 
enemy  will  not  compel  the  loss  of  the  others, 
nor  the  surrender  of  the  place.  These  are  called 
independent  works.  2.  To  enclose  the  space 
in  rear  of  these  by  a  continuous  enceinte ;  or 
connect  them  by  long  curtains;  or  employ 
them  as  a  system  of  detached  works  in  advance 
of  a  main  work,  for  the  purpose  of  forming 
capacious  iiitrenched  camps.  The  enceinte, 
when  used,  to  be  polygonal  in  plan  with  a 
revetted  scarp,  and  so  arranged  with  the  in- 
dependent works  as  to  sweep  in  the  most 
effective  manner  by  their  fire  the  approaches 
of  the  enemy,  both  near  and  distant.  8.  To 
provide  the  most  ample  means  for  an  active 
defence  by  covered  ways  strengthened  by  case- 
mated  redoubts,  and  ample  communications  be- 
tween them  and  the  main  work  for  sorties  in 
large  bodies.  4.  To  shelter  the  artillery  from 
the  enemy^s  fire,  and  so  arrange  it  that  it  shall 
be  superior  to  that  of  the  besiegers  at  any 
period  of  tlieir  attack.  In  this  system  the 
plan  of  the  enceinte  and  of  any  independent 
work  when  detaclied  is  polygonal,  the  ditches 
of  which  are  flanked  by  caponnidres,  whic^ 
are  casemated  structures  of  two  and  some- 
times three  tiers  of  fire ;  or  the  front  may  be 
either  slightly  tenailled  or  of  a  bastion  form, 
with  short  casemated  flanks  to  flank  the  main 
caponnidre ;  the  main  flanking  arrangement 
for  the  ditch  being  the  caponniire,  a  work  ex- 
terior to  the  enceinte.  The  caponni^re  in  many 
cases  extends  across  the  ditch,  projecting  into 
the  outwork  on  the  other  side,  and  also  into 
the  interior  of  the  enceinte.  It  serves  in  tiiis 
case  three  purposes :  to  flank  the  ditch ;  as  a 


FOBXmOATION 


338 


redoubt  for  the  outwork ;  and  as  an  interioi* 
work  to  sweep  the  terrepleins  of  the  enceinte. 
Where  the  caponni^re  is  not  flanked  from  the 
main  work,  bj  soarp  galleries  or  batteries, 
other  arrangements  are  devised,  as  projecting 
wings,  or  small  oaponnidres  attached  to  the 
main  one.  Free  use  of  casemated  defences  is 
made  in  this  system ;  also,  systems  of  mines 
for  interior  as  well  as  exterior  defence  are 
arranged  in  connection  with  the  counterscarp 
galleries.  The  profile  differs  but  slightly  from 
that  used  in  the  bastioned  system.  The  use  of 
detached  and  semi-detached  scarps  affords  fa- 
cilitiea  for  arranging  corridors  or  open  pas- 
sages around  the  works,  and  opportunities  for 
loopholes.  To  sum  up,  this  system  proposes 
to  nank  the  ditches  not  from  the  work  itself, 
but  by  auxiliary  works ;  to  provide  an  over- 
whelming artillery  fire  protected  in  defensive 
casemates ;  and  to  organize  strong  permanent 
works  within  and  independent  of  the  en- 
ceinte, which  are  to  serve  as  a  secure  retreat 
for  the  garrison  when  forced  to  give  up  its 
defence.  The  advantages  of  this  system,  com- 
pared with  the  bastioned,  may  be  stated  as 
follows:  1,  that  the  interior  space  enclosed 
by  equal  lengths  of  enceinte  is  greater  than 
in  the  bastioned;  2,  that  the  faces  of  the 
work,  from  the  greater  obtuseness  of  the  sa- 
lient angles,  are  less  exposed  to  ricochet  fire ; 
3,  that  the  fire  of  the  faces  has  a  better  bear- 
ing on  the  distant  defence ;  4,  that,  requiring 
fewer  points  on  a  given  extent  of  line  to  be 
fortified,  there  will  be  fewer  fianks,  and  more 
artillery  will  be  disposable  for  the  faces  and 
curtains ;  6,  that  the  besiegers  will  be  forced 
to  a  greater  development  of  trenches  for  the 
same  number  of  points.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  system  is  deficient  in  the  strong  concen- 
trated cross  fires  that  exist  in  the  bastioned 
system  in  front  of  the  salients.  The  fianking 
arrangement  of  the  ditch  being  an  exterior 
work,  as  soon  as  its  fire  is  silenced  the  main 
work  will  be  exposed  to  an  escalade.  It  is 
further  objected  to  this  system  that  the  nu- 
merous works  of  masonry  can  be  easily 
mined  by  distant  batteries  of  heavy  calibre, 
•specially  when  weakened  by  loopholes  and 
casemates,  as  is  the  case  in  the  caponni^res 
and  defensive  barracks;  that  the  distribu- 
tion of  troops  and  material  of  war  through- 
out the  independent  works  deprives  the  de- 
fence of  that  unity  and  concert  of  action  so 
necessary  for  a  successful  resistance ;  that  the 
works  are  more  costiy  from  the  greater  amount 
of  masonry  used ;  and  finally,  that  it  is  im- 
prudent to  abandon  a  system  that  has  been 
tested  for  one  that  does  not  possess  this  ad- 
vantage. In  the  discussions  which  have  taken 
place  upon  the  merits  of  the  two  systems 
between  engineers  advocating  them,  an  exag- 
geration of  the  defects  and  the  depreciation 
of  the  advantages  of  the  system  analyzed 
seem  to  be  the  governing  principles.  The 
truth  is  that  both  possess  great  merits,  and 
due  credit  should  be  given  to  each  system. 


The  fragility  of  masonry  and  the  ease  with 
which  it  can  be  destroyed  by  heavy  projectiles, 
the  increase  in  calibre  of  the  cannon  used  and 
in  accuracy  of  firing,  must  naturally  incline 
engineers  to  limit  its  employment  as  much  as 
possible ;  reserving  its  use  for  positions  where 
it  will  not  be  exposed,  or  is  so  covered  that 
nothing  can  be  feared  from  the  besieger's  guns. 
— ^It  is  unnecessary  to  dwell  here  upon  the  cir- 
cular and  tenailled  systems.  They  observe  the 
general  conditions  that  we  have  given  as  com- 
mon to  all  systems  of  permanent  works.  The 
advantages  they  possess  and  the  objections  that 
are  made  will  be  apparent  to  those  who  have 
carefully  examined  the  bastioned  and  polygo- 
nal systems. — General  Remarhe,  So  far  in  the 
consideration  of  fortifications  we  have  confined 
ourselves  to  the  first  three  conditions  and  an 
allusion  to  the  fourth.  No  work  would  be 
complete  without  bomb-proof  shelters  for  the 
troops  and  magazines,  whatever  be  the  system 
adopted.  The  details  of  these  works  must  be 
looked  for  in  books  treating  specially  of  these 
constructions.  The  fifth  general  condition  in- 
volves the  use  of  water  when  it  can  be  obtain- 
ed, the  character  of  the  soil,  the  use  of  mines, 
and  the  arrangement  of  the  parts  of  a  work 
when  placed  on  an  irregular  site.  The  last  case 
calls  largely  upon  the  skill  and  the  science  of 
the  engineer.  When  the  terreplein  of  a  work 
is  arranged  so  as  to  shelter  the  troops  and  ma- 
teriel by  the  parapet  or  by  traverses  from  the 
fire  of  tiie  enemy  who  occupies  ground  higher 
than  the  site  of  the  work,  it  is  said  to  be  de- 
filed from  that  fire. .  This  fire  may  be  direct  or 
in  reverse.  These  problems  of  direct  and  re- 
verse defilement  are  among  the  most  important 
in  the  profession,  and  demand  a  minute  and  la- 
borious study  of  the  natural  features  of  the  po- 
sition in  relation  to  the  defence.  No  rules  but 
of  a  very  general  character  can  be  laid  down 
for  the  guidance  of  engineers  in  such  caseA 
We  may  conclude  that  in  order  to  arrange  the 
different  parts  of  a  fortification  and  combine 
them  properly,  a  knowledge  of  the  means  which 
may  be  employed  to  fulfil  the  general  condition 
before  given,  and  a  suitable  adaptation  of  these 
parts  to  the  natural  features  of  the  position, 
are  necessary.  The  utility  of  permanent  forti- 
fications has  been  seriously  called  in  question ; 
but  it  is  enough  to  say  that  Napoleon,  the  arch- 
duke Oharles  of  Austria,  the  duke  of  Welling- 
ton, and  others  have  all  regarded  them  as  of 
great  utility  and  of  absolute  necessity  for  a 
country.  It  is  probable  that  no  great  general 
has  ever  entertained  a  different  opinion  from 
them  on  this  subject. — The  selection  of  the 
points  to  be  fortified  will  be  infiuenced  by  the 
natural  features  of  the  country.  As  a  rule, 
those  points  known  as  strategic  points  are  the 
ones  selected ;  that  is,  those  points  which  may 
be  considered  as  the  principal  objects  to  be 
gained  by  an  enemy,  or  whose  occupation 
would  be  of  manifest  advantage  to  him.  The 
capital  of  a  country  is  such  a  point  ftom  its 
importance.    The  effect  of  seizing  the  capital 


334 


FORTIFIOATION 


woald  be  to  discourage  the  nation  and  to  cause 
a  large  portion  of  the  people  to  give  up  all  hope 
of  a  soocessful  defence  against  the  enemy.  A 
position  that  is  the  key  of  several  important 
communications,  like  Atlanta  in  Georgia,  where 
several  railroads  centre,  or  on  some  river,  as 
Cairo  at  the  junction  of  the  Ohio  and  Missis- 
sippi, would  be  an  example.  In  mountainous 
regions,  the  entrance  of  defiles,  at  points  where 
several  valleys  branch,  or  at  the  junction  of 
roads,  are  examples.  Points  like  these  are  the 
ones  to  be  fortified  when  the  intention  is  to  put 
the  country  in  a  state  of  defence  against  an  in- 
vading force ;  but  as  in  the  United  States  there 
is  little  probability  of  invasion  in  any  case  ex- 
cept along  the  seacoast,  the  attention  of  Amer- 
ican engineers  has  been  directed  to  securing 
the  principal  harbors,  naval  stations,  and  com- 
mercial cities.  The  works  for  this  purpose 
have  been  arranged  and  armed  with  guns  and 
mortars  of  the  heaviest  calibre,  with  the  design 
of  excluding  the  enemy^s  fleet  from  the  use  of 
the  harbor  or  roadstead  in  their  vicinity.  Hence 
these  works  exhibit  some  peculiarities  of  con- 
struction at  variance  with  the  general  rules 
already  laid  down  for  permanent  works.  The 
cardinal  maxim  adopted  by  engineers  is  that 
all  masonry  should  be  masked  from  the  distant 
batteries  of  the  enemy ;  that  no  masonry  shoidd 
be  exposed.  When  this  rule  is  violated  there 
are  reasons  for  it  which  an  examination  of  the 
site  will  explain.  Earth  or  sand,  or  a  mixture 
of  them,  is  the  material  used  for  parapets  and 
for  the  masks.  An  examination  of  fig.  1  will 
show  that  the  glacis  of  the  covered  way  com- 
pletely masks  tibe  scarp  wall  of  the  main  work 
from  the  enemy*s  fire.  In  addition  to  this 
other  works  are  often  used.  In  cases  where,  in 
order  to  get  the  necessary  amount  of  fire,  great- 
ly exposed  masonry  has  heretofore  been  resort- 
ed to,  it  is  probable  that  wrought  iron  will 
hereafter  have  to  be  used.  Experiments  are  in 
progress  to  ascertain  the  best  method  of  sub- 
stituting it  for  stone  in  those  parts ;  and  it  was 
used  to  some  extent  in  casemates  by  Gen.  Tot- 
ten,  late  chief  engineer  of  the  United  States  army. 
Its  expense  is  the  present  chief  objection. — ^The 
casemates  and  embrasures  used  to  protect  the 
artillery  and  the  men  serving  it  weaken  the 
waUs  and  limit  the  field  of  fire.  Various  ex- 
periments have  been  proposed  to  secure  such 
protection  without  using  embrasures.  One  of 
these  is  the  project  of  having  the  gun  exposed 
above  the  parapet  only  at  the  moment  of 
firing,  the  recoil  of  the  piece  causing  it  and 
the  carriage  to  descend  by  inclined  rails  or 
other  devices  to  a  level  below  the  interior  crest, 
and  the  piece  when  reloaded  being  raised  to  its 
former  position  in  battery  by  the  aid  of  a  coun- 
terpoise attached  to  the  gun  or  carriage,  which 
has  been  lifted  to  a  certain  height  by  the  gun 
in  its  descent  to  the  lower  level.  Several  in- 
genious plans  have  been  proposed  to  carry  out 
this  principle.  Among  the  first  was  that  of 
Gen.  De  Russy,  colonel  of  the  United  States 
engineers,  who  made  a  model  showing  this 


principle  about  1840.  The  best  known  plans, 
however,  are  the  gun  carriage  devised  by  Ma- 
jor MoncriefT  of  &e  Engli^  militia,  and  that 
of  M^jor  King  of  the  United  States  engineers. 
These  carriages  have  been  tested  by  actual  ex- 
periments, and  show  that  the  principle  is  capa- 
ble of  practical  application.  M%|.  Moncriefif^s 
project  has  been  suggested  for  sunken  batte- 
ries, the  gun  and  carriage  sinking  into  a  pit 
prepared  for  the  purpose^  M%j.  King^s  is  in- 
tended to  apply  to  existing  works.  To  com- 
plete the  fortification  for  the  defence  of  har- 
bors or  rivers,  the  fifth  general  condition  must 
be  extended  to  include  a  good  system  of  tor- 
pedoes. (See  ToBPBDOss.V^All  arrangements 
made  for  the  defence  with  musketry  and  artille- 
ry belong  to  what  is  known  as  the  armament 
"niat  for  small  arms  is  complete  when  the  slopes 
of  the  parapet  and  the  position  of  the  ban- 
quette are  arranged.  The  final  defence  of  the 
work  depends  upon  the  effective  use  of  these 
arms.  For  artillery  the  arrangements  may  be 
barbette,  embrasure,  or  casemate.  The  first  is 
a  construction  by  means  of  which  the  piece  fires 
over  the  parapet;  the  second,  an  opening  for 
a  gun  in  the  parapet,  exposed  to  vertical  fire; 
and  the  third,  an  opening  protected  from  ver- 
tical fire.  The  calibre,  the  kind  of  guns  or 
mortars,  and  their  positions  in  the  work,  will 
depend  upon  the  object  of  the  fortification, 
and  the  kind  of  attack  that  it  is  exposed  to. 
II.  Tempobabt  OB  Field  Fostifioatioks. 
These  are  of  two  kinds,  those  used  in  the  de- 
fence of  a  position,  and  those  used  in  the  at- 
tack of  a  position  or  place.  They  might  be 
classed  as  defensive  and  oflfensive  works.  The 
main  objects  of  these  works  are  to  afiTord  a 
shelter  from  the  enemy*s  fire,  an  obstacle  to 
the  enemy's  progress,  and  means  for  the  as- 
sailed to  use  their  arms  with  efiect.  The  gene- 
ral term  intrenchments  is  applied  to  all  field 
works,  and  a  position  strengthened  by  them  is 
said  to  be  intrenched.  The  general  principles 
involved  in  permanent  fortification  are  ap- 
plicable to  these  defences,  the  only  difierence 
being  in  degree.  The  parapet  difiers  from  the 
parapet  represented  in  fig.  1  only  in  thickness 
and  in  resting  on  the  natural  surface  of  the 
ground  instead  of  on  a  rampart.  The  thick- 
ness is  regulated  by  the  material  used,  the  kind 
of  attack,  its  probable  duration,  and  the  length 
of  time  at  the  disposal  of  the  assailed  to  throve 
up  the  work.  As  a  general  rule,  its  thickness 
is  one  half  greater  than  the  depth  of  penetra- 
tion of  the  projectile  into  the  material  used.  If 
the  projectile  from  a  field  gun  at  a  distance  of 
440  yards,  firing  against  the  work,  can  pene- 
trate 6  ft.,  the  thickness  must  not  be  less  than 
9  ft.,  measured  horizontally  between  the  inte- 
rior and  exterior  cresta  The  height  of  the 
interior  crest  above  the  ground  within  the 
work  must  not  be  less  than  6  ft.  6  in.  ^  We 
assume  it  ordinarily  to  be  8  ft.,  and  limit  its 
greatest  height  to  12  ft.,  owing  to  the  difiSculty 
of  tibrowing  up  a  work  with  this  relief  in  a  rea- 
sonable length  of  time,  with  the  ordinary  means 


FORTIFICATION 


335 


at  hand.     Works  of  a  greater  command  tlian 
this  have  been  constracted ;  the  length  of  time 
consumed  in  hnilding  these,  their  importance, 
and  the  many  interior  arrangements  devised 
for  the  safety  and  comfort  of  the  troops  nsing 
them,  cause  them  to  approach  more  nearly  in 
detail  works  of  a  permanent  character ;  and 
they  have  been  called  for  these  reasons  semi- 
permanent works.    The  ditch  that  surrounds 
the  work  affords  the  earth  for  the  parapet,  and 
should  be  wide  and  deep  enough  (not  less  than 
12  and  6  ft.)  to  form  a  considerable  obstacle 
to  the  assailants.    The  slopes  are  the  same  as 
given  for  the  permanent  work,  viz. :  superior 
^ope,  \ ;  exterior  slope,  4 ;  and  interior  slope, 
f .    The  sides  of  the  ditch  are  not  ordinanly 
revetted ;  if  so,  however,  it  is  by  some  mate- 
rial of  a  perishable  nature,  as  plank,  timber, 
&c.    The  interior  slope  is  revetted  by  soda,  or 
some  material  hastily  gathered  for  the  pur- 
pose, as  logs,  boards,  fascines,  gabions,  &c. 
The  banquette  is  placed  4  ft.  8  in.  below  the 
interior  orest,  and  is  from  2  to  4  ft  wide.    It 
is  connected  with  the  ground  by  a  slope  of  ^, 
which  is  sometimes  replaced  when  interior 
space  is  needed  by  steps  whose  tread  is  12  in. 
and  rise  9  in.    In  laying  out  the  plan  of  the 
work  the  line  of  the  interior  crest  is  adopted 
as  the  directing  line.    The  plans  of  these  works 
vary  according  to  their  object  and  site.    Sup- 
posing the  site  level  or  approximately  so,  the 
relief  is  generally  uniform  throughout.    Such 
works  may  be  classed  into  three  kinds:    1, 
those  that  are  arranged  to  sweep  only  the 
ground  in  their  front;  2,  those  that  do  the 
same  for  their  flanks  in  addition;   8,  those 
that  are  arranged  to  fire  on  all  sides.    A  work 
eonsisting  of  a  simple  straight  line,  or  of  two 
faces,  the  rear,,  called  the  gorge,  being  open,  is 
an  example  of  the  first  class.    This  is  called  a 
redan,  and  is  used  in  front  of  a  defile,  at  itie 
exit  from  a  bridge,  or  for  the  defence  of  an 
oatpost)  where  the  attack  is  expected  only 
from  the  front.    A  redan  with  flanks,  called  a 
Iimette,  is  an  example  of  the  second  class,  and 
is  har^y  ever  used  alone.    In  this  case  the 
attack  is  not  expected  from  the  rear,  but  an 
assault  made  on  the  flanks  would  be  liable  to 
work  around  and  carry  it  at  the  rear.    Both 
in  this  case  and  the  first,  when  they  are  used 
alone,  the  gorge  is  closed  by  palisading  or  a 
stockade.    A  work  of  a  polygon^  figure,  with- 
oot  reentering  angles,  in  plan  as  a  square  or 
rectangle,  arranged  to  fire  in  all  directions,  is 
used  when  liable  to  be  attacked  on  all  sides. 
It  is  called  a  redoubt.    The  ditch  of  a  redoubt 
eannot  be  swept  by  the  fire  from  the  work  it- 
self; therefore  the  bastioned  trace  has  been 
sometimes  used,  but  the  great  length  of  time 
required  to  construct  it  prevents  its  general 
adoption.    When  these  works  are  joined  to- 
gether or  placed  along  a  given  front  with  in- 
tervals, they  form  either  a  continued  line  or  a 
line  with  intervals.    A  number  of  redans  joined 
by  curtains  is  a  simple  case  of  a  continued 
line.    If  the  line  be  formed  entirely  of  redans, 
429  VOL.  vn.— 22 


it  is  called  a  tenaille  line.  The  usual  plan  of  a 
line  with  intervals  is  to  place  lunettes  and 
simple  redoubts,  or  either,  on  a  given  front  at 
distances  apart  from  250  to  600  yards,  and  in 
rear  of  them,  opposite  the  intervals,  redans  or 
other  field  works,  arranged  to  sweep  by  their 
fire  the  ground  in  front  of  the  salients  of  the 
first  line.  In  field  works  all  accessory  de- 
fences, both  artificial  and  natural,  should  be 
freely  used.  On  irregular  sites  it  will  not  be 
possible  to  preserve  the  relief  uniform,  and  the 
same  problems  for  defilement  will  be  met  with 
as  in  permanent  works.  The  only  general 
rules  that  can  be  laid  down  are  to  lay  out  the 
principal  lines  so  as  to  obtain  a  direct  and  cross 
fire  on  the  approaches  of  the  enemy,  and  to 
place  them  as  nearly  as  practicable  parallel  to 
the  general  crests  of  the  commanding  heights, 
so  that  the  enemy  will  have  only  a  direct  fire 
on  them.  Where  the  defilement  would  in- 
volve considerable  labor  in  raising  the  interior 
orest  to  intercept  the  fur%  traverses  should  be 
resorted  to  in  preference. — ^Field  works  re- 
quire to  be  simple  and  easy  of  construction. 
All  lines  and  fronts  should  have  their  fianks 
protected  by  natural  obstacles  if  possible.  The 
relief  of  a  work  should  be  obtained  by  its 
position  and  not  by  the  construction  of  em- 
bankments, and  if  possible  the  necessity  of  de- 
filement should  be  avoided.  The  class  of  works 
already  named  will  require  several  days  and 
often  weeks  to  construct.  In  an  active  cam- 
paign they  are  freely  used,  especially  in  the 
defence  of  defiles,  the  crossing  of  rivers,  de- 
pots of  supplies,  intrenched  camps,  &c.  An- 
ticipating the  movements  of  the  enemy,  time 
enough  may  be  had  to  finish  them,  or  at  least 
to  put  them  in  such  condition  as  to  render 
them  useful  for  defence  if  an  attack  be  made. 
When,  however,  an  engagement  is  imminent, 
or  has  begun,  in  the  absence  of  such  works, 
resort  is  had  to  what  may  be  ealled  hasty  in- 
trenohments  for  opposing  the  enemy^s  advance, 
sheltering  troops,  or  strengthening  the  weak 
parts  of  a  line.  These  are  shelters  that  may  be 
executed  in  a  short  time,  say  within  an  hour, 
certainly  not  more  than  three  hours.  They 
are  not  limited  to  defensive  positions,  but  are 
used  on  the  battle  field  itself.  By  excavating 
a  trench  2  ft.  wide  and  1^  ft.  deep,  throwing 
the  earth  to  the  front,  building  up  the  slope 
next  to  the  trench  as  steep  as  possible  by 
using  clods  of  earth,  sods,  fallen  trees,  fence 
rails,  &o.,  shelter  will  be  given  to  two  ranks, 
one  kneeling  in  the  trench,  the  other  lying  flat 
in  rear  of  it.  By  placing  a  man  at  every  4 
ft.,  the  trench  can  be  dug  in  20  minutes.. 
This  trench  can  be  widened  to  4  ft.  in  20  min- 
utes more,  when  both  ranks  can  enter  it ;  in 
20  minutes  more  it  may  be  widened  to  7  ft., 
increasing  the  thickness  of  the  mound  of  earth 
between  the  men  and  the  enemy,  and  idlowing 
freedom  of  movement  to  the  limbs  of  the  sol- 
diers. Thus  it  is  seen  that  in  an  hour  good 
shelter  can  be  obtained  by  active  troops. 
These  are  known  aa  dielter  trenches,  and  upcw 


336 


FORT  JACKSON 


FORT  SMITH 


being  fnrther  strengthened  form  what  we  call 
rifle  trenches  or  pits.  In  these  the  trench  at 
bottom  is  5  ft.  wide  and  8  ft.  deep ;  the  earth 
is  thrown  forward  far  enough  to  allow  the 
natural  surface  of  the  ground  to  act  as  a  ban- 
quette, the  embankment  being  4  ft.  6  in.  high. 
These  expedients  have  entered  largely  into  the 
operations  of  recent  wars,  but  in  no  country 
and  at  no  time  have  they  been  nsed  with 
greater  success  or  more  generally  than  in  the 
late  civil  war  in  the  United  States.  When- 
ever an  army  halted  in  the  presence  of  the  en- 
emy they  immediately  began  to  intrench  them- 
selves, before  eating  or  resting.  The  difficulty 
was  to  get  them  to  wait  until  a  proper  line  was 
selected.  This  custom  has  not  been  confined 
to  modem  times.  The  Roman  legions  in- 
trenched their  camp  every  night,  and  remains 
of  many  of  their  intrenched  camps  are  yet 
to  be  seen. — The  use  of  field  works  runs  back 
to  the  remotest  antiquity,  and  has  ever  play- 
ed a  most  important  part  in  the  operations 
of  war.  Prominent  examples  are  Frederick 
the  Great's  camp  at  Bunzelwitz,  Wellington's 
lines  at  Torres  Yedras,  the  French  lines  at 
Weissenburg,  the  Austrian  intrenohments  in 
front  of  Vienna  in  1848,  and  the  lines  of  field 
works  around  Yicksburg,  Nashville,  Peters- 
burg, Richmond,  and,  most  prominent  of  all, 
the  city  of  Washington. — For  the  offensive 
works  used  in  siege  operations,  see  Siboe. — 
There  are  numerous  works  on  fortification, 
but  full  information  may  be  obtained  from 
those  of  Prof.  D.  H.  Mahan,  "Military  En- 
gineering: Part  I.,  Field  Fortifications,  &c. ; 
Part  XL,  Permanent  Fortifications"  (2  vols. 
8vo.,  New  York,  1866-7),  and  Gen.  A.  von  Zas- 
trow,  Oeschichte  der  hestdndigen  Be/estigung 
(8vo,  Leipsic,  1854;  translated  into  French, 
Bistoire  de  la  fortifieatian  permaTienU^  2  vols. 
8vo,  Paris,  1856). 

FOKT  JACKSOll.    See  New  Orleans. 

FORT  MDISOll,  a  city  and  the  capital  of  Lee 
CO.,  Iowa,  on  the  Mississippi  river,  12  m.  above 
the  lower  rapids,  and  17  m.  S.  W.  of  Burling- 
ton, oh  the  Ohicago,  Burlington,  and  Quincy, 
and  the  Burlington  and  Southwestern  rail- 
roads; pop.  in  1850,  1,609;  in  1860,  2,886;  in 
1870,  4,011.  It  is  bnilt  on  ground  rising  grad- 
ually from  the  river.  The  houses  are  for  the 
most  part  of  brick,  and  are  surrounded  by 
grounds  tastefully  arranged,  and  shaded  by 
ornamental  trees.  The  city  is  the  site  of  the 
Iowa  state  prison,  a  limestone  structure  con- 
taining 318  cells,  and  furnished  with  extensive 
workshops.  The  number  of  convicts  in  1878 
was  264.  The  court  house  and  county  jail  are 
substantial  structures.  The  river  is  crossed 
by  ferries.  Fort  Madison  is  a  place  of  consid- 
erable trade,  and  its  manufactures  are  impor- 
tant, including  hardware  and  machinery,  lum- 
ber, flour,  brick,  woollens,  wine,  &c.  There  are 
five  hotels,  four  public  halls,  a  Public  library,  a 
theatre,  and  a  national  bank.  The  Fort  Madi- 
son academy  has  an  average  attendance  of  100 
pupils.    The  city  contains  five  public  schoola, 


two  weekly  newspapers,  and  nine  churches.— 
Fort  Madison  was  first  settled  in  1832,  and  was 
incorporated  as  a  town  in  1836.  It  derives  its 
name  from  a  fort  erected  in  1808,  and  named 
in  honor  of  James  Madison. 

FOKT  KOTAL,  or  Fort  de  Fnmee,  a  seaport  of 
the  French  West  Indies,  capital  of  Martinique, 
situated  on  a  deep  and  well  sheltered  bay  on 
the  W.  side  of  the  island ;  pop.  about  12,000. 
It  is  defended  by  a  fort  which  commands  both 
the  town  and  the  harbor,  is  the  residence  of 
the  French  governor  and  of  a  bishop,  and  con- 
tains, besides  the  parish  church  and  govern- 
ment offices,  a  prison,  hospital  barracks,  and 
an  arsenal.  The  streets  are  straight  and  spa- 
cious, and  the  houses  in  general  well  built. 
The  town  was  founded  in  1672.  In  1889  it 
was  almost  wholly  destroyed  by  an  earthquake, 
in  which  more  than  600  Uves  were  lost 

FOKT  ST.  DAVID,  a  town  of  India,  on  the 
Ooromandel  coast,  in  South  Arcot,  8  m.  N.  of 
Ouddalore,  and  12  m.  S.  8.  W.  of  Pondicherry. 
It  was  formerly  well  fortified.  The  town  was 
called  Tegnapatam  till  1691,  when  it  was  pur- 
chased by  tiiie  East  India  company.  It  with- 
stood a  siege  by  the  French  in  1746,  and  from 
that  period  remained  for  12  years  the  capital 
of  the  British  possessions  in  this  part  of  India. 
In  1768  the  French  under  Lally  besieged  it 
again,  captured  it  after  a  short  resistance,  and 
destroyed  its  fortifications.    It  is  now  in  ruins. 

FORT  SCOTT,  a  city  and  the  capital  of  Bour- 
bon CO.,  Kansas,  on  the  Marmiton  river,  a 
branch  of  the  Osage,  about  100  m.  S.  of  Leaven- 
worth ;  pop.  in  1860, 262 ;  in  1870,  4,174.  The 
Missouri  River,  Fort  Scott,  and  Gul^  and  the 
Missouri,  Kansas,  and  Texas  railroads  inter- 
sect here.  Bitmninous  coal  is  abundant  in  the 
surrounding  country.  Manufacturing  indus- 
try is  little  developed,  but  there  are  three 
flouring  mills,  a  planing  mill  and  furniture  fac- 
tory, carriage  and  wagon  factories,  cement 
works,  founding  and  machine  shops,  a  castor  oil 
factory,  cement  pipe  works,  and  a  barrel  fac- 
tory, employing  in  the  aggregate  144  men. 
Two  national  banks  have  been  established, 
with  a  capital  of  $160,000.  The  city  contains 
five  public  school  buildings,  one  of  which  cost 
$60,000,  and  has  a  normal  department.  One 
daily  and  two  weekly  newspapers  are  pnb- 
lished.  There  are  nine  religions  societies.  Fort 
Scott  was  established  as  a  military  post  in 
1842,  and  was  incorporated  as  a  town  in  1856. 

FORT  SMITH,  a  city  of  Sebastian  co.,  Ar- 
kansas, on  the  right  bank  of  the  Arkansas 
river,  at  the  head  of  steamboat  navigation, 
about  180  m.  W.  N.  W.  of  Little  Rock,  and 
near  the  boundary  of  the  Indian  territory ;  pop. 
in  1860, 1,682 ;  in  1870, 2,227,  of  whom  686  were 
colored ;  in  1878, 8,600.  The  situation  is  beau- 
tiful, and  commands  an  extensive  view  of  the 
Arkansas,  the  land,  interspersed  with  hills  and 
(dales,  rising  gradually  from  the  river.  The 
business  portion  of  the  city  is  mostly  built  of 
brick  and  stone.  The  outskirts  are  lined  with 
gardens,  amid  which  are  handsome  residences. 


FORT  SUMTER 


FORT  WAYNE 


837 


The  smronnding  countrj  is  rich  in  limber  and 
coal.  The  Little  Rock  and  Fort  Smith  railroad 
was  completed  in  1878  to  Olarksville,  60  m. 
distant.  There  are  Beveral  manufactories,  in- 
cluding a  large  floor  mill,  a  planing  mill  and 
machine  shop,  two  breweries,  and  two  wagon 
factories.  There  are  Lutheran,  Baptist,  Metho- 
dist, and  Catholic  schools,  three  public  schools, 
of  which  one  is  colored,  and  nine  churches. 
FoDr  weekly  newspapers  are  published,  two  of 
which  also  issue  tri-weekly  editions.  The  Uni- 
ted States  courts  for  the  western  district  of  Ar 
kansas  are  held  here.  The  town  was  laid  out  in 
1838  on  land  a^'oining  the  reservation  belong- 
ing to  the  government  post  of  that  name. 

FOBT  SUMTEB.    See  Sumteb,  Fort. 

FOftTClfly  in  Roman  mythology,  the  goddess 
of  chance,  both  happy  and  unhaopy,  called  by 
the  Etruscans  Nursia.  Among  the  Greeks  she 
was  known  under  the  name  of  Tyche,  Its  the 
daughter  of  Oceanus,  according  to  Hesiod,  and 
as  uie  sister  of  the  Mcerea  or  Parcfls,  accord- 
ing to  Pindar,  and  had  her  temples  at  Smyrna 
and  other  cities.  She  was  worsnipped  in  IteJy 
in  the  earliest  times  by  the  Etruscans  at  Yol- 
sinii,  by  the  Latins  at  Prffineste,  and  by  the 
Volsci  at  Antium,  where  she  had  a  temple, 
two  statues,  and  an  oracle,  whose  responses 
were  highly  valued.  She  was  diversely  repre- 
sented as  blind,  with  wings  on  her  feet,  which 
she  was  believed  to  lay  aside  when  entering 
Rome,  with  a  orescent  on  her  head,  a  helmet, 
cornucopia,  or  globe  in  her  hand,  and  resting 
on  a  wheel.  The  town  of  Palestrina  is  built 
chiefly  on  the  site  of  the  temple  of  Fortuna. 

FORTIJMITB  ISLANDS.    See  Gakabt  Islands. 

fOBTUNlTDS,  the  title  of  a  collection  of  pop- 
ular tale%  the  earliest  known  publication  of 
which  took  place  in  Augsburg  in  1509,  though 
it  includes  fairy  lore  and  popular  legends  of  an 
earlier  period.  They  teach  that  wealth  is  not 
suflBcient  to  secure  permanent  happiness,  which 
is  illustrated  by  its  ultimately  ruining  Fortuna- 
tus  and  his  sons,  who  were  in  possession  of 
boundless  riches  and  of  a  talisman  enabling 
them  to  attain  all  their  desires.  The  concep- 
tion w*as  long  supposed  to  be  of  Spanish  or 
English  origin,  but  the  Germans  claim  it.  In 
1530  appeared  a  new  edition  entitled  Fortuna- 
tiLB  ton  seinem  Seckel  und  Wumehhutlein ; 
and  nnce  that  time  numerous  editions  and 
translations  have  appeared  in  the  chief  Euro- 
pean languages.  It  has  been  dramatized  in 
German  by  Hans  Sachs,  and  in  English  by 
Thomas  Decker.  The  earliest  edition  is  re- 
produced in  Simrock*s  Deutsche  VolkabUeJur 
(3  vols.,  Frankfort,  1846),  and  the  subject  is  a 
favorite  theme  of  German  poets,  and  of  ez- 
pounders  of  medieval  literature. 

FWnillE,  Robert,  a  Scottish  botanist,  born 
in  Berwickshire  in  181 8.  He  was  brought  up  as 
a  horticulturist,  and  having  procured  employ- 
ment in  the  botanical  gardens  of  Edinburgh, 
attended  the  lectures  of  the  university  profes- 
sor. He  was  afterward  employed  in  the  botan- 
ical gardens  at  Chiswiok,  and  was  appointed 


by  the  London  horticultural  society  as  collector 
of  plants  in  northern  China,  which  the  peace 
of  1842  had  just  thrown  open  to  Europeans. 
His  "  Three  Years'  Wanderings  in  the  Worth- 
em  Provinces  of  China"  (2  vols.  8vo,  1847), 
published  soon  after  his  return,  affords  full  in- 
formation of  the  horticulture  and  agriculture 
of  the  Chinese.  After  superintending  for  sev- 
eral months  the  gardens  of  the  apothecaries' 
company  at  Chelsea,  he  again  departed  in  the 
latter  part  of  1848  for  China,  under  the  aus- 
pices of  the  East  India  company,  to  examine 
uid  report  upon  the  nature  and  method  of  cul- 
tivation of  the  tea  plant,  and  to  collect  its  seeds 
and  introduce  its  culture  into  northern  India. 
After  an  absence  of  more  than  three  years,  he 
returned  to  England  and  published  **Two  Visits 
to  the  Tea  Countries  of  China"  (2  vols.  8vo, 
1852).  He  soon  made  a  third  tour  to  the  same 
country,  the  results  of  which  were  given  in 
his  *^  Residence  among  the  Chinese,  Inland,  on 
the  Coast,  and  at  Sea,  being  the  Third  Visit 
from  1853  to  1856"  (8vo,  1867).  In  1857  he 
was  employed  by  the  United  States  patent 
office  to  visit  China  to  collect  the  seeds  of  the 
tea  shrub  and  of  other  plants,  with  a  view  to 
their  cultivation  in  the  united  States.  He  pro- 
ceeded from  England  by  the  overland  route  di- 
rectly to  the  tea  districts  in  the  middle  and 
northern  provinces  of  China,  where  he  re- 
mained until  March,  1859,  shipping  a  large 
quantity  of  seeds  to  the  United  States.  He 
returned  to  England  in  May,  and  has  since 
published  "  Yedo  and  Pekin  "  (London,  1863). 

FOETIJirr,  Mtrlaii*.  '  See  supplement. 

FORT  WITNE,  a  city  and  the  capital  of  Allen 
CO.,  Indiana,  on  an  elevated  plain  at  the  con- 
fluence of  the  St.  Mary^s  and  St.  Joseph^s  riv- 
ers, which  here  form  the  Maumee,  and  on  the 
Wabash  and  Erie  canal,  102  m.  N.  E.  of  In- 
dianapolis ;  pop.  in  1840, 2,080 ;  in  1850, 4,282 ; 
in  1860,  10,888;  in  1870,  17,718,  of  whom 
5,041  were  foreigners.  Most  of  the  business 
blocks  and  many  of  the  residences  are  of  brick. 
Among  the  public  buildings  are  the  court 
house,  which  cost  $80,000,  and  the  county  jail. 
There  are  three  public  parks,  of  which  the 
principal  one  lies  S.  of  the  St.  Mary^s  river. 
N.  of  the  river  is  a  trotting  park.  Of  the  five 
cemeteries,  the  largest  and  handsomest  is  Lin- 
den Wood,  H  ro.  W.  of  the  city,  containing 
160  acres.  The  first  impetus  to  the  growth  of 
Fort  Wayne  was  given  by  the  completion  of 
the  Wabash  and  Erie  canal  about  1840.  Nu- 
merous plank  roads  were  afterward  built,  and 
since  1850  a  still  more  rapid  advance  has  re- 
sulted from  the  construction  of  railroads,  of 
which  five  intersect  at  this  point,  viz.:  the 
Toledo,  Wabash,  and  Western;  Pittsburgh, 
Fort  Wayne,  and  Chicago;  Fort  Wayne,  Jack- 
son, and  Saginaw ;  Fort  Wayne,  Munoie,  and 
Cincinnati;  and  Grand  Rapids  and  Indiana. 
The  buildings  of  the  two  railroads  first  named 
are  extensive.  All  the  machine  work,  build- 
ing of  cars,  and  repairing  for  the  western  divi- 
sion of  the  Pittsburgh,  Fort  Wayne,  and  Ohi- 


338 


FORUM 


FORWARDING  MERCHANT 


cago  road  are  done  here.  The  hnildings  for 
this  work  are  of  brick,  mostly  two  stories  high, 
and  cover  six  acres.  Good  water  power  is  fur- 
nished by  the  canal  and  the  river,  and  the  man- 
nfactures  are  important.  The  Fort  Wayne  ma- 
chine works,  with  machine  shop,  foundery,  car 
wheel  shop,  boiler  shop,  and  blacksmith  shop, 
employ  125  mea.  There  are  also  2  other  machine 
shops,  8  flonr  mills,  8  planing  mills  and  sash 
and  door  factories,  4  tanneries,  8  cabinet  works, 
2  manufactories  of  agricultural  implements 
(reapers  and  mowers,  threshing  machines,  &c.), 
a  woollen  factory  employing  70  men,  a  hub, 
spoke,  and  bending  factory,  having  125  men, 
8  national  banks  with  a  capital  of  $750,000, 
and  8  insurance  companies  with  $555,000  cap- 
ital. The  city  is  divided  into  nine  wards. 
There  ar^  efficient  police  and  fire  departments, 
and  the  streets  are  well  paved  and  lighted  with 
gas.  The  principal  charitable  institutions  <are 
the  orphans^  home  and  the  city  hospital.    The 

Eublic  schools  consist  of  a  normal  school,  a 
igh  school,  8  granmiar  and  82  primary  schools, 
which  in  1872  had  65  teachers  and  an  average 
attendance  of  2,880  pupils;  expenditure  for 
school  purposes,  $41,200,  of  which  $25,000 
were  for  teachers'  wages.  Concordia  college 
(Lutheran),  established  in  1850,  had  4  profes- 
sors, 148  students,  and  a  library  of  8,000  vol- 
umes. Fort  Wayne  coUege  (Methodist),  estab- 
lished in  184d,'had  7  professors,  182  students, 
and  a  library  of  1,600  volumes.  There  are  a 
German  Reformed,  three  Lutheran,  and  six 
Catholic  parochial  schools.  Two  daily  news- 
papers, one  tri- weekly  (German),  and  six  weekly 
(two  German)  are  published.  There  are  15 
churches, — ^The  site  of  Fort  Wayne  was  visited 
as  early  as  1700  by  the  French  for  the  purpose 
of  trading  with  the  Indians.  Prior  to  1719  they 
established  a  regular  trading  post  here,  and  sub- 
sequently erected  Fort  Miami.  In  December, 
1760,  the  British  built  a  fort  on  the  £.  bank  of 
the  St.  Joseph's  near  its  month.  In  October, 
1794,  Gren.  Wayne  erected  the  government  poet 
of  Fort  Wayne ;  in  1825  the  town  was  laid  out ; 
and  in  1840  the  city  was  incorporated. 

FOftUMy  in  ancient  Roman  cities,  an  open 
place  used,  for  the  administration  of  justice  or 
the  sale  of  goods,  and  for  the  transaction  of 
all  kinds  of  public  business.  In  this  respect 
it  corresponded  with  the  agora  of  the  Greeks; 
but  unlike  this,  it  was  oblong  in  form,  and 
never  square.  In  a  Roman  camp  it  was  the 
open  space  before  the  tent  of  the  general,  and 
the  word  also  forms  a  part  of  the  name  of 
many  towns  and  villages.  The  Romans  had 
two  kinds  oifora^  the  cvoiHa^  sometimes  called 
pididalia^  in  which  popular  assemblies  and 
courts  of  justice  were  held,  and  where  the 
bankers  and  usurers  usually  bad  their  stands ; 
and  the  venalia,  which  were  used  exclusively 
for  mercantile  purposes.  The  city  of  Rome 
contained  19  of  both  kinds;  but  the  forum  Ro- 
manuftiy  whose  origin  is  coeval  with  that  of 
the  city,  and  which  is  known  by  the  general 
name  of  the  Forum,  was  by  far  the  most  im- 


portant, notwithstanding  some  very  magnifi- 
cent ones  were  built  under  the  emperors.  It 
occupied  a  hollow  space  between  the  Capito- 
line  and  Palatine  hills,  extending  in  its  longest 
diameter  probably  from  the  arch  of  Septimius 
Severus  to  the  temple  of  Antoninus  and  Fausti- 
na. Around  its  four  sides  stood  temples,  basili- 
cas, triumphal  arches,  and  other  public  edifices, 
while  within  it  were  the  roBtra  or  stages  from 
which  orators  addressed  public  assemblies,  sta- 
tues of  illustrious  Romans,  columns,  and  tro- 
phies of  war.  At  the  eomitium  or  upper  end 
were  suspended  the  laws  of  the  twelve  tables, 
and  the  faati  or  calendar  of  ^1  the  days  on 
which  legal  business  could  be  transacted  before 
the  prffitor.  It  is  now  kno^n  as  tJie  Campo 
Yaccino,  from  having  been  used  for  several 
centuries  as  a  cattle  market,  and  preserves  no 
traces  of  its  ancient  splendor  beyond  a  few 
scattered  columns.  A  forum  judidaU  was 
built  by  Julius  Ciesar,  and  another  by  Augustus, 
which,  with  the  forum  JRomanum^  seem  to 
have  been  the  only  ones  in  Rome  for  the  trana- 
action  of  public  business. 

FOSWARDUN;  MiS€lIANT»  one  whose  busi- 
ness it  is  to  send  forward  goods  to  a  distant 
consignee.  There  are  in  the  United  States  per- 
sons who  engage  in  this  business  almost  exclu- 
sively, especially  in  the  western  cities,  in  which 
produce  accumulates  on  its  way  to  the  east, 
and  to  which  eastern  goods  are  carried  for  dift- 
tribution  through  the  west.  There  is  nothing, 
however,  in  their  business  which  is  so  far  pe- 
culiar to  them  as  to  be  governed  by  peouliai 
laws  of  ita  own,  and  therefore  call  for  eopecial 
statement.  But  there  are  two  classes  of  per- 
sons who  come  under  this  name,  or  discharge 
the  duties  which  it  describes,  and  of  whom 
more  should  be  said.  One  of  Uiese  consists  of 
those  who  are  called  expressmen,  and  the  other 
of  common  carriers,  who,  besides  carrying  goods 
on  their  own  route,  undertake  to  forwai^  them 
still  further.  The  whole  business  of  expressmen 
is  of  comparatively  recent  origin ;  but  it  has 
already  reached  an  immense  extent  and  impor- 
tance. It  has  grown  out  of  common  carnage 
of  goods,  but  differs  from  it  mainly  in  the  f&ct 
tliat  expressmen  have  no  means  of  carriage  of 
their  own,  but  hire  cars  or  vehicles,  or  room 
in  them,  and  usually  go  with  their  parcels.  It 
may  be  said,  too,  that  they  usually  carry  par- 
cels only,  or  if  larger  packages,  still  not  car- 
goes or  large  quantities  of  goods,  as  hundreds 
of  barrels  or  bales,  the  carriage  of  these  tljings 
being  still  left  to  common  or  private  carriers. 
The  principal  question  in  relation  to  express- 
men has  been,  are  they  still  conunon  carriers  in 
law,  and  do  they  as  such  come  under  the  strict 
responsibilities  of  common  carriers?  In  other 
words,  do  they  insure  the  safe  carriage  and 
delivery  of  all  the  goods  against  all  risks  "  ex- 
cept the  act  of  God  and  the  public  enemy ''  ? 
It  is  now  settled  that  they  do  thus  insure  the 
goods  they  receive  throughout  the  whole  route 
for  which  they  profess  to  be  carriers,  and  that 
they  are  therefore  liable  for  any  lose  or  iigury 


FORWARDING  MERCHANT 


339 


to  them,  withont  any  proof  or  intimation  of  their 
negligence  or  default.  No  castomer  is  bound 
to  inquire  by  what  means  or  by  what  arrange- 
ments the  expressman  proposes  to  carry  his 
parcel.  If  he  receives  it  in  Portland,  and  under- 
takes, specially  or  by  general  advertisement, 
notice,  or  sign,  to  **  express  it  through  "  (to  use  a 
common  phrase)  to  New  Orleans  or  San  Fran- 
cisco, he  is  responsible  for  its  safe  delivery  there. 
— A  railroad  company  which  takes  goods  at  one 
place  to  be  carried  to  a  distant  one  might  be 
thought  to  come  necessarily  under  the  same 
role,  but  it  is  not  quite  so.  There  is  this  differ- 
ence between  the  two  cases :  the  expressman 
has  not,  or  is  not  known  to  have,  any  regular 
means  of  conveyance  of  his  own  for  any  defi- 
nite portion  of  the  distance  over  which  he  as- 
sumes to  carry  the  goods.  The  owner  who 
gives  him  a  parcel  in  Portland  for  New  Or- 
leans has  no  means  of  knowing,  and  indeed 
no  reason  for  supposing,  that  the  expressman 
has  not  made  similar  arrangements  for  all  the 
parts  of  his  route  that  he  has  made  for  any 
part.  It  is  indeed  commonly  understood  that 
every  expressman  does  not  undertake  to  con- 
vey goods  everywhere,  but  this  man  advertises 
from  A  to  B,  because  he  has  so  arranged  and 
provided,  and  that  man  from  A  to  0,  and  the 
other  from  A  to  D ;  and  his  advertising,  or  in- 
deed his  undertaking  to  carry  to  the  specified 
place,  may  properly  be  understood  as  a  declara- 
tion on  his  part  tiiat  he  has  made  sufficient 
preparation  in  that  direction  and  to  that  dis- 
tance. But  if  the  man  in  Portland  puts  goods 
on  board  a  railroad  car  to  go  to  New  York, 
he  knows,  or  should  know,  that  the  railroad 
company  will  convey  it  a  certain  part  of  the 
way  in  their  own  carriage,  and  under  the 
charge  of  their  own  servants,  and  will  not  and 
cannot  do  anything  beyond  that  point  except 
to  pnt  it  safely  on  board  of  the  oars  of  another 
company,  who  will  take  it  to  or  toward  New 
York.  That  is,  the  man  in  Portland  knows 
that  the  railroad  company  will  there  receive 
the  parcel  as  a  carrier,  and  take  it  a  certain 
distance  as  carrier,  and  will  then  act  as  a  for- 
warding merchant  for  the  rest  of  the  route, 
sending  it  on  in  the  best  way  they  can.  Here 
then  is  a  change  of  relation,  and  with  it  a 
change  of  obligation ;  for  the  essential  differ- 
ence is  this:  a  common  carrier  insures  his 
goods  against  all  risks  but  those  arising  from 
the  act  of  God  or  the  public  enemy ;  but  the 
forwarding  merchant  is  liable  only  for  his  own 
default  or  neglect.  If  a  company  take  a  par- 
cel in  Portland,  and  it  is  lost  between  Boston 
and  Worcester,  no  one  knows  how,  the  sender 
can  look  at  once  to  the  company  that  took  it 
if  they  are  carriers  all  the  way,  but  not  if  they 
were  carriers  only  to  Boston,  where  their  road 
ends,  and  only  forwarding  merchants  for  the 
rest  of  the  route,  and  can  show  that  they  de- 
livered the  parcel  safely  and  properly  for  fur- 
ther carriage.  If  it  is  known  where  the  par- 
cel is  lost,  the  sender  may  always  call  on  the 
company  who  had  it  in  their  possession  or 


under  their  care  when  it  was  lost.  But  if,  as 
sometimes  happens,  it  can  be  traced  beyond 
the  first  carrier,  and  no  negligence  can  be  im- 
puted to  him,  and  no  one  knows  what  has  be- 
come of  it,  the  sender  is  wholly  remediless 
unless  the  first  carrier  is  carrier  to  the  end. 
Whether  he  is  so  or  not  has  been  very  much 
disputed.  Cases  turning  on  this  point  have 
been  very  frequent  both  in  England  and  the 
United  States,  and  perhaps  the  law  may  not 
be  positively  determined  in  either  country. 
Perhaps  it  may  be  said  that  the  English  courts 
are  more  disposed  to  fix  the  liability  of  carrier 
to  the  end  upon  the  party  that  first  takes 
charge  of  the  parcel  than  our  own  courts; 
but  upon  the  whole,  and  resting  upon  the  most 
recent  abjudications,  the  rules  of  law  in  this 
matter  may  be  summed  up  thus.  There  may 
be  a  partnership  in  the  business  of  common 
carriage  as  in  all  others,  and' a  railroad  com- 
pany may  connect  itself  with  other  companies 
or  with  other  carriers,  and  form  a  giKisi  part- 
nership, the  effect  of  which  will  be  that  each 
member  will  be  liable,  in  %olido^  for  all  the 
rest.  In  that  case,  all  the  companies  on  the 
whole  route  are  liable  for  a  loss  occurring  in 
any  part;  and  in  particular  the  first  company 
taking  the  parcel,  or  the  last  into  whose  hands 
it  may  be  traced,  may  be  made  liable  severally 
for  any  loss  which  has  happened  on  the  route. 
The  company  comes  under  such  a  liability 
equally  by  forming  such  a  partnership  and  en- 
tering into  such  a  joint  business,  or  by  adver- 
tising or  indicating  such  a  joinder  in  business, 
in  any  way  which  entitles  third  parties  to  act 
on  the  belief  of  it.  And  if  such  companies 
have  a  joint  agent  at  either  terminus  or  at  any 
station,  and  this  agent,  with  the  knowledge  of 
all,  and  purporting  to  act  for  all,  sells  a  through 
ticket,  as  it  is  called,  none  of  the  companies 
thus  represented  can  deny  their  joint  business 
and  joint  or  several  liability  for  the  whole ; 
and  if  the  price  of  the  ticket  is  credited  by  the 
seller  to  all  the  companies  and  is  divided  among 
them,  this  constitutes  conclusive  evidence  that 
each  of  them  undertakes  to  be  a  carrier,  with 
a  responsibility  as  such,  through  the  route. 
But  the  mere  fact  that  a  parcel  directed  to  a 
distant  place  is  received  at  a  station,  and  there 
paid  for  for  the  whole  route,  does  not  of  itself 
make  any  carrier  for  a  part  of  the  distance 
liable  as  carrier  beyond  that  part.  The  test 
of  the  liability  in  every  case  is,  what  did  the 
party  undertake  to  be  and  to  do  ?  If  he  said 
he  would  carry  all  the  way,  he  is  liable  as 
carrier  all  the  way.  If  he  sajd  he  would 
carry  a  part  of  the  way  and  then  send  it  on, 
lie  is  only  liable  accordingly.  And  taking  all 
the  facts  into  consideration,  which  of  these 
bargains  was  it  that  the  railroad  company 
made  with  the  sender? — With  this  principle 
to  guide  us,  we  may  return  to  expressmen. 
A  person  living  at  Albany  wishes  to  send  by 
express  a  parcel  to  New  Bedford.  He  gives  it 
to  an  expressman  of  Albany,  who  takes  it  to 
New  York,  and  there  gives  it  to  the  express- 


340 


FOSCARI 


FOSSANO 


man  for  Boston,  who  pays  the  Albany  man 
his  fee  for  bringiDg  it  to  New  York,  and  takes 
it  to  Boston.  The  expressman  between  Bos- 
ton and  New  Bedford  pays  the  New  York  man 
what  he  paid,  and  also  the  fare  from  New 
York  to  Boston,  and  takes  it  to  New  Bedford ; 
and  the  consignee  when  he  takes  the  parcel 
pays  tiie  man  who  gives  it  to  him  all  be  has 
paid,  and  in  addition  his  fare  from  Boston  to 
New  Bedford.  Now,  if  the  parcel  did  not 
arrive  safely,  bnt  was  lost  somewhere  on  the 
route,  is  eacn  one  of  these  expressmen  liable 
for  the  whole  ?  We  should  say  this  must  de- 
pend upon  what  each  one  undertakes  to  do. 
If  the  Albany  man  adveitises  that  he  takes 
ffoods  to  New  Bedford,  he  is  liable  as  far  as 
New  Bedford  as  carrier.  If  he  advertises  that 
he  carries  parcels  to  Boston,  he  is  so  liable 
to  that  place ;  if  only  to  New  York,  he  is  lia- 
ble as  carrier  only  to  New  York,  and  as  for- 
warding merchant  at  New  York,  and  there  his 
liability  ends ;  and  so  of  all  the  rest.  Express- 
men now  not  uncommonly  insert  in  their  bills 
of  lading  or  receipts  which  they  give  their  cus- 
tomers a  clause  to  this  effect :  ^^  This  company 
is  responsible  only  as  forwarders,  and  only  for 
the  negligence  or  other  default  of  persons  em- 
ployed by  them ;  and  this  is  a  part  of  our  con- 
tract with  all  whose  goods  we  carry."  But  the 
law  is  now  settled  that  while  a  common  carrier 
may  make  a  valid  special  bargain  with  his  cus- 
tomer, a  mere  notice  or  declaration  upon  a  ticket 
or  bill  of  lading  does  not  constitute  snch  a  bar- 
gain, unless  assented  to  by  the  customer. 

FOSCIU,  FraBMseo,  doge  of  Venice,  b6m 
about  1873,  died  Oct.  81,  1457.  Elected  doge 
in  1428,  the  whole  period  in  which  he  gov- 
erned the  republic  was  one  of  war  and  tu- 
mult. The  sultan  Amurath  II.  laying  siege  to 
Salonica,  Foscari  despatched  troops  thither, 
who  repelled  the  Mussulmans.  He  then  en- 
gaged in  hostilities  with  the  duke  of  Milan, 
FUippo  Maria  Yisconti,  and  subjected  to  the 
republic  the  territories  of  Brescia,  Bergamo, 
and  Cremona,  making  the  Adda  the  boundary 
of  the  Venetian  dominion.  The  war  was  soon 
renewed  with  various  success,  nearly  all  the 
Italian  cities  taking  part  in  it ;  but  the  doge, 
supported  by  Cosmo  de'  Medici  and  by  Fran- 
cesco Sforza,  marquis  of  Ancona,  still  further 
extended  his  power  by  a  treaty  concluded  in 
1441.  New  wars,  involving  extensive  leagues 
though  little  bloodshed,  followed  soon  after; 
bnt  in  his  old  age  Foscari  had  made  peace  with 
all  the  enemies  of  Venice,  including  Mohammed 
II.,  the  successor  of  Amurath,  when  Jacopo, 
the  last  survivor  of  his  four  sons,  was  brought 
a  second  time  before  the  council  of  ten,  falsely 
charged  with  the  assassination  of  its  chief.  The 
tribimal,  jealons  of  the  power  and  popularity 
of  the  doge,  condemned  his  son  first  to  torture 
and  then  to  exile  in  Candia.  The  young  Fos- 
cari, whose  mind  was  disordered  by  suffering, 
wishing  after  long  banishment  to  see  his  coun- 
try again  at  whatever  peril,  effected  his  return 
thitber,  but  being  condemned  again,  had  scarce- 


ly reached  the  place  of  exile  when  he  died. 
This  event  is  the  subject  of  Byron's  tragedy, 
"  The  Two  Foscari."  For.  the  old  doge  one 
other  humiliation  remained.  He  had  twice 
asked  leave  to  resign  his  office,  bnt  the  council 
had  obliged  him  to  retain  it.  He  was  now  de- 
posed, through  the  machinations  of  his  ene- 
mies, and  died  a  few  days  after  in  a  spasm  as 
he  heard  the  bells  of  St.  Mark  announce  to 
Venice  the  election  of  a  new  ruler. 

FOSCOLO,  HkM  Vgo,  an  Italian  poet  and  mis- 
cellaneous writer,  bom  in  the  island  of  Zante, 
of  a  Venetian  family,  Jan.  26,  1777,  died  at 
Tumham  Green,  near  London,  Sept.  14,  1827. 
He  was  educated  in  Venice,  and  at  the  univer- 
sity of  Padua.  His  first  tragedy,  T^te,  was 
produced  at  Venice  in  1797,  and  was  so  unsatis- 
factory to  the  author  that  he  himself  published 
the  severest  criticism  of  it.  When  Venice  was 
surrendered  by  Bonaparte  to  Austria  he  retired 
with  other  patriots  to  Milan,  and  wrote  a  politi- 
cal romance  called  Lettere  di  due  amanti,  after- 
ward republished  under  the  title  of  Le  ultime 
UtUre  di  Jaeopo  Ortis,  In  1799  he  volun- 
teered in  the  Italian  contingent  of  the  French 
army,  took  part  in  the  defence  of  Genoa  nnder 
Mass^na,  and  returned  to  Milan.  When  in 
1802  Napoleon  assembled  the  eontulia  of  Ital- 
ian deputies  at  Lyons  to  provide  a  new  con- 
stitution for  the  Cisalpine  republic,  Foscolo 
was  appointed  to  report  upon  the  state  of  the 
country ;  and  in  an  elaborate  discourse  he  con- 
trasted the  abuses  of  the  military  government 
which  had  been  established  with  the  free  gov- 
ernment which  had  been  piromised.  In  1808 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  Italian  eloquence 
in  the  university  of  Pavia,  but  the  political  in- 
dependence evinced  in  his  lectures  soon  caused 
his  chair  to  be  suppressed.    At  this  period  he 

Eublished  his  beautiful  lyric  poem  /  $epoleri, 
is  tragedy  of  Ajaee^  and  an  Italian  translation 
of  Sterne's  "  Sentimental  Journey."  On  the 
fall  of  Napoleon  he  retired  to  Switzerland,  and 
in  1816  to  England.  He  wrote  for  the  reviews 
articles  on  Dante,  Petrarch,  Boccaccio,  and 
other  Italian  authors,  delivered  lectures  on 
Italian  literature,  published  an  ^^  Essay  on  Pe- 
trarch "  in  a  separate  volume  (1828),  and  edit- 
ed the  JDvDtna  Vommedia  of  Dante  (1825).  His 
EpUtolario  (8  vols.)  and  a  new  edition  of  his 
PoeHe  were  published  at  Florence  in  1856. 
His  remains  have  been  removed  ftoia  Chis- 
wick,  England,  to  the  church  of  Santa  Croce, 
Florence. 

FOSSANO,  a  town  of  Piedmont,  Italy,  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Stura,  in  the  province  and  13 
m.  N.  N.  E.  of  the  city  of  Coni,  and  84  m.  S.  by 
E.  of  Turin ;  pop.  about  7,000.  It  is  an  antique, 
dismal,  but  regularly  planned  town,  built  on  a 
high  hill,  surrounded  by  walls,  and  defended 
by  a  strong  fortress  which  commands  the  val- 
ley of  the  Stura  and  the  road  into  France  by 
the  Col  d'Argenti^re.  The  houses  are  built 
upon  arches  over  the  footpaths,  and  the  pas- 
sages in  many  places  are  so  low  that  a  tall 
person  can  hardly  walk  upright  in  them.    It 


FOSSIL 


FOSSIL  FOOTPRINTS 


841 


19  the  seat  of  a  bishop,  and  has  an  academy 
of  science  and  art,  a  veterinary  school,  a  phil- 
harmonic academy,  and  a  theatre.  It  was  a 
walled  place  in  the  ISth  century,  was  frequently 
attacked  by  the  counts  of  Asti  and  Saluzzo,  and 
early  in  the  14th  century  put  nnder  the  protec- 
tion of  Philip  of  Savoy.  It  figured  in  the  wars 
between  Charles  Y.  and  Francis  I.  It  was 
taken  by  the  French  in  1796,  and  in  1799  the 
French  under  Championnet  were  defeated  here 
by  the  Austrians  under  Melas. 

FOSSIL  (Lat.  fomlU^  dug  up),  a  term  formerly 
applied  to  all  mineral  substances,  but  now  used 
to  designate  only  the  remains  of  organic  bodies 
fonnd  in  geological  formations.  The  general 
subject  will  be  treated  under  the  title  Faub- 
ONTOLOGY,  and  the  more  important  fossil  ani- 
mals under  their  respective  names. 

FOSSIL  FOOTPRUiTS,  or  lelueUtes  (Gr.  Ixvog, 
a  track,  and  A^oc,  a  stone),  in  geology,  impres- 
sions originally  made  by  animals  in  clay  or  in 
sand,  and  preserved  in  the  shale  or  sandstone 
rock  resulting  from  the  solidification  of  those 
materials.  Under  these  names  have  been  in- 
cluded markings  of  various  forms  in  rocks  of 
yery  different  geological  ages.  Some  of  these 
markings,  though  doubtless  made  by  animals, 
are  not  the  impressions  of  their  feet,  but  have 
been  produced  wholly  or  in  part  by  their  tails 
or  their  carapaces;  and  to  these,  although 
tmly  ichnolites  or  track-stones,  the  name  of 
fossil  footprints  does  not  therefore  apply.  It 
will,  however,  be  convenient  to  include  under 
this  head  all  the  markings  of  animals  found  in 
rocks.  Recent  impressions  of  the  feet  of  quad- 
rupeds, birds,  and  reptiles,  and  the  markings 
made  by  crustaceans,  mollusks,  and  worms, 
may  be  studied  on  the  shores  of  tidal  waters, 
where  successive  layers  of  mud  and  sand  pre- 
serve them  in  the  accumulating  sediments;  and 
the  careful  study  of  these  by  Dawson  has 
thrown  much  light  on  some  of  the  markings 
found  in  earlier  rocks.  To  begin  with  the  ich- 
nolites found  in  rocks  of  cenozoic  or  tertiary 
age,  we  may  notice  those  in  the  eocene  of  the 
basin  of  Paris,  where,  in  the  marls  which  are  in- 
terstratified  with  the  gypsum  beds  which  there 
abound,  are  found  a  great  variety  of  markings. 
Promment  among  these  are  the  trilobed  foot- 
prints of  several  species  of  palaotheHum,  a  large 
pachyderm  allied  to  the  modem  tapir,  besides 
those  of  ancplotherium,  an  animal  more  nearly 
allied  to  the  ruminants,  and  of  certain  carnivo- 
rous mammals.  In  addition  to  these  are  tracks 
of  various  land  and  fresh-water  tortoises,  of  a 
gigantic  bird,  and  of  crocodiles,  iguanas,  and 
great  batrachians  or  frog-like  animals.  The 
bones  of  many  of  the  mammals  whose  tracks 
are  here  met  with  occur  in  the  gypsum  beds 
which  are  interstratified  with  the  marls ;  but 
there  were  evidently  numerous  species  of 
which  the  bones  have  not  been  discovered, 
and  which  are  consequently  known  to  us  only 
by  their  foot  marks.  The  whole  condition  of 
things  here  shows  that  there  then  existed  nu- 
merous small  lakes  of  fresh  water,  the  shores 


of  which  were  frequented  by  great  numbers 
of  pachyderms  of  numerous  species,  and  by 
beasts  of  prey  which  occasionally  devoured 
them,  the  tooth  marks  of  the  carnivora  being 
found  on  the  bones  of  the  former.  It  will 
thus  be  seen  that  it  is  only  in  rare  local- 
ities that  the  conditions  necessary  for  the  for- 
mation and  preservation  of  these  foot  marks 
occur,  and  it  is  a  fortunate  chance  which  ex- 
poses them  for  our  inspection.  It  was  not  till 
1859  that  these  were  discovered  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Paris. — In  the  mesozoic  period  the 
footprints  of  the  trias  or  new  red  sandstone  are 
remarkable  for  their  number  and  variety,  and 
also  for  the  interest  which  attaches  to  the  his- 
tory of  their  discovery  in  the  valley  of  the  Con- 
necticut river,  where  they  are  very  abundant. 
Attention  was  first  called  to  these  so-called 
bird  tracks  by  Mr.  Dexter  Marsh,  and  they 
were  subsequently  studied  by  Dr.  James  Deane 
and  by  Prof.  Edward  Hitchcock,  who  after  a 
careful  examination  of  them  concluded  that 
they  were  truly  the  footprints  of  birds;  and 
they  were  therefore  called  by  him  omithieT^ 
nites  or  bird  tracks.  He  ascertained  their  ex- 
istence in  numerous  localities,  and  showed  that 
they  occur  at  intervals  through  a  thickness  of 
1,000  ft.  of  sandstones  and  shales.  He  further 
remarked  that  although  the  beds  bearing  the 
tracks  are  now  inclined  at  angles  of  from  5^  to 
80^,  they  must  have  been  horizontal  at  the 
time  the  impressions  were  made ;  and  showed 
that  their  occurrence  throughout  so  great  a 
thickness  of  strata  could  only  be  accounted  for 
by  supposing  that  the  surface  was  subsiding 
during  the  deposition  of  these  rocks.  Some  of 
these  tracks  were  of  gigantic  size,  one  of  them 
measuring  10  by  16  in.,  and  recurring  at  in- 
tervals of  ftom  4  to  6  ft.  along  tlie  surface  of 
the  rocky  bed ;  these  distances  indicating  the 
length  of  the  strides  made  by  the  animal.  A 
careful  study  of  these  markings  during  many 
years  convinced  Prof.  Hitchcock  that  many  of 
them  wiere  made  not  by  birds,  but  by  batra- 
chians or  huge  frog-like  animals;  and  in  an 
elaborate  report  by  him,  published  by  the 
state  of  Massachusetts  in  1666,  he  sliowed  that 
the  ichnolites  of  the  red  sandstone  had  been 
found  in  not  fewer  than  88  localities,  extend- 
ing over  a  length  of  90  m.,  with  a  breadth 
of  2  or  3  m.,  in  the  Connecticut  valley.  The 
markings  known  to  him  were  referred  to  as 
many  as  119  species  of  animals,  including 
quadrupeds,  birds,  lizards,  batrachians,  tor- 
toises, fishes,  crustaceans,  insects,  and  worms. 
While  most  of  these  markings  were  made  on 
land,  others  were  apparently  produced  by  ani- 
mals like  fishes,  swimming  near  the  bottom. 
The  surfaces  of  many  of  the  beds  bear  the 
marks  of  waves  or  ripples,  and  others  are  dis- 
tinctly marked  by  rain  drops.  The  collection 
of  these  ichnolites  made  by  Prof.  Hitchcock, 
and  now  in  the  museum  of  Amherst  college,  is 
very  great,  and  shows  more  than  8,000  indi- 
vidual tracks.  A  few  remains  of  bones  and 
coprolites  have  been  found  in  the  sandstones 


842 


FOSSIL  FOOTPRINTS 


of  this  formation,  bnt  thej  have  not  thrown 
maoh  light  upon  the  animato  prodacing  the 
tracks.  Footprints  have  since  been  met  with 
in  the  sandstones  of  the  same  formation  in 
New  Jersey,  and  in  their  probable  equiva- 
lents, the  lower  triassio  sandstones  of  Lan- 
cashire and  Cheshire  in  England,  and  also 
at  Uildbnrghausen  in  Sazonj.  These  Eu- 
ropean footprints  have  a  rude  resemblance 
to  the  human  hand,  and  were  for  some  time 
regarded  as  the  marks  of  an  unknown  quad- 
ruped, to  which  was  given  the  name  of  ehei- 
rotheHum,  a  supposed  marsupial  allied  to  the 
kangaroo.  The  tracks  are  of  considerable  di- 
mensionSf  and  those  of  the  hind  and  fore  feet 
differ  greatly  in  size.  They  have  since,  how- 
ever, been  referred  with  greater  probability 
to  the  labyrinthodan,  an  animal  allied  to  the 
crocodiles,  to  which  may  be  due  some  of  the 
footprints  of  the  Connecticut  valley.  But  be- 
sides these  five-toed  and  four-footed  animals, 
were  those  which  made  the  three-toed  biped 
impressions  at  first  regarded  as  the  tracks  of 
birds,  and  very  abundant  in  the  Connecticut 
sandstones.  Prof.  Hitchcock  finally  recog- 
nized the  fact  that  some  of  these  animals  had 
huge  tails,  which  had  left  their  impressions, 
and  smaller  fore  feet  or  paws,  which  they 
sometimes  put  to  the  ground;  and  he  then 
referred  them  to  a  kind  of  bird-like  lizards. 
More  recent  studies  of  the  fossil  remains  of 
these  animals,  which  have  been  careftiUy  made 
by  various  naturalists,  and  especially  by  Cope, 
have  made  us  acquainted  with  that  curious 
class  of  animals,  the  dinosaurs.  These  crea- 
tures constituted  numerous  genera  and  spe- 
cies, some  of  gigantic  size,  others  comparative- 
ly small ;  some  feeding  on  plants,  and  others 
carnivorous;  but  all  remarkable  for  present- 
ing a  higher  type  of  reptUian  organization  than 
any  now  existing,  and  approaching  in  some  re- 
spects to  the  birds  and  in  others  to  the  mam- 
malia. Among  the  vegetable  feeders  of  this 
group  was  hadrosauros^  a  gigantic  animal,  20 
ft.  or  more  in  height,  with  huge  bird-like  legs 
and  feet,  a  lizard-like  tail,  a  diminutive  head, 
and  small  fore  feet  or  hands,  feeding  on  plants; 
while  lalaps  was  an  equally  huge  carnivorous 
animal  of  somewhat  similar  organization.  The 
animals  which  made  the  so-called  bird  tracks  in 
the  sandstones  of  the  Connecticut  valley  were 
probably  similar  to  these. — If  we  go  backward 
to  the  palsBOzoic  period,  we  find  in  its  upper  por- 
tion, in  the  rocks  of  the  coal  formation  in  Penn- 
sylvania, footprints  which  probably  belong  to 
an  air-breathing  frog-like  animal  related  to  the 
Idbyrinthodon  of  the  mesozolc.  Footprints,  ap- 
parently of  batrachian  reptiles,  are  also  found 
in  the  carboniferous  formation  of  Nova  Scotia. 
'  These,  so  far  as  we  know,  are  the  oldest  air- 
breathers,  and  the  remains  of  animals  of  this 
kind  which  abound  in  the  rocks  of  this  region 
have  been  described  and  figured  by  Dawson. 
In  the  great  series  of  paleozoic  rocks  beneath 
the  coal,  comprising  the  Devonian,  Silurian, 
and  Cambrian,  we  have  numerous  ichnolites, 


but,  so  far  as  we  know,  belonging,  unlike  those 
which  we  have  described,  solely  to  fishes  or 
to  invertebrate  animals.  The  sandstones  at 
the  base  of  the  coal  in  Nova  Scotia  are  marked 
with  the  tracks  of  a  crustacean  allied  to  the 
limultu  or  king  crab;  and  to  an  animal  of 
that  kind  are  ascribed  those  curious  markings 
found  in  the  beds  of  the  Potsdam  sandstone 
at  several  localities  in  the  St.  Lawrence  val- 
ley near  Montreal,  to  which  the  name  of  pr(h 
tiehnites  has  been  given.  These  tracks,  at  first 
supposed  to  be  the  footprints  of  a  large  tor- 
toise-like animal,  show  the  presence  of  sev- 
eral pairs  of  walking  feet  and  of  a  flexible 
tail.  In  the  same  sandstone  beds  are  singular 
ladder-like  markings,  which  have  been  called 
cUtnactiehnites,  Dr.  Dawson  has  in  this  con- 
nection studied  carefully  the  habits  of  the  king 
crab,  and  has  shown  that  when  walking  on  the 
sands  it  produces  impressions  very  like  pro- 
tichnitet,  and  when  using  its  swimming  feet, 
markings  like  elimaetiehnites  were  the  result. 
In  the  Chazy  and  Clinton  divisions  of  the  low- 
er palieozoic  in  New  York  and  in  Canada  are 
curious  bilobate  markings,  which  were  sup- 
posed to  be  the  impressions  of  a  marine  plant, 
and  received  the  name  of  ruiophyeusy  but 
according  to  Dawson  are  really  casts  of  bur- 
rows, connected  with  footprints  consisting  of  a 
double  series  of  transverse  markings,  so  that  a 
comparison  of  them  with  the  trails  and  burrows 
of  limulua  justifies  the  cbndusion  that  they 
were  produced  by  trilobites.  To  these  markings 
he  has  given  the  name  of  ruaiehnitea,  and  has 
recognized  the  existence  of  similar  forms  in  the 
carboniferous,  which  he  refers  to  the  trilobites 
of  the  genus  Fhillip$ia  found  in  these  beds. 
The  curious  markings  which  have  been  caUed 
erueianot  from  the  lower  Cambrian  rocks, 
were  probably  produced  by  crustaceans  not 
dissimilar  to  those  which  made  ruaichnites. 
Curious  parallel  notched  grooves  in  pairs, 
found  in  the  carboniferous  of  Nova  Scotia, 
have  been  described  and  figured  by  Dawson 
under  the  name  of  dipHchnitea^  and  referred 
by  him,  with  great  probability,  to  fishes  having 
pectorid  or  ventral  fins  armed  with  spines; 
while  in  rocks  of  the  same  age  and  still  older, 
down  to  the  base  of  the  Cambrian,  are  numer- 
ous grooved  and  striated  markings,  some  of 
which  may  have  been  produced  by  the  feet  or 
spinous  tails  of  swimming  animals.  Other 
markings  are  with  probability  ascribed  to  lin- 
gula,  which,  as  Prof.  Morse  has  shown,  crawls 
in  a  worm-like  manner  over  the  surface;  while 
others  still  are  perhaps  produced  by  the  trail- 
ing of  seaweeds  drifting  with  tides  or  currents. 
Certain  markings  of  this  kind  have  been  re- 
garded as  impressions  of  the  stems  of  plants, 
and,  occurring  in  the  oldest  Cambrian  rocks, 
have  received  the  name  of  eophytan.  Accord- 
ing to  Dawson,  however,  they  are  more  prob- 
ably the  grooves  produced  by  swimming  crus- 
taceans; and  he  includes  under  the  name  of 
rdbdichnites  all  those  rod-like  markings.  Va- 
rious imitative  markings  are  met  with  in  rocke^ 


FOSSOMBRONE 


FOSTER 


343 


which  are  probably  not  due  to  any  organic 
bodies.  Such  are  the  rill  marks  produced  by 
nmning  water  on  the  surface  of  soft  argilla- 
eeons  layers,  which  sometimes  simulate  fronds 
of  ferns  or  seaweeds,  or  the  tracks  of  worms. — 
The  literature  of  this  subject  is  considerable, 
and,  as  will  be  seen  from  the  facts  already 
giveni  the  study  of  iclmolites  is  one  of  much 
geological  interest  Besides  the  publications 
of  Hitchcock,  see  LyelPs  ^*  Student's  Manual 
of  Geology,"  and  a  paper  on  the  subject  by 
Dawson  in  the  ^*  American  Journal  of  Science  " 
for  January,  1878. 

fOSSOMBKONE  (anc.  Forum  Sempranii),  a 
town  of  central  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Pesaro 
ed  Urbino,  9  m.  £.  S.  E.  of  Urbino ;  pop.  about 
10,000.  It  is  situated  on  the  road  from  Fano 
to  Rome,  in  a  narrow  vaUey  on  the  Metauro. 
It  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop,  and  has  a  cathedral 
with  many  ancient  inscriptions,  and  an  old 
castle.  The  most  important  branch  of  indus- 
try is  silk  culture.  Near  here  Hasdrubal  was 
defeated  by  the  Romans  in  207  B.  0.  The 
town  was  destroyed  by  the  Goths  and  again 
by  the  Lombards,  but  rebuilt  by  the  Mala- 
testas,  who  in  the  14th  century  sold  it  to  the 
duke  of  Urbino. 

FOSm,  a  N.  E.  county  of  Dakota,  intersected 
by  the  Sheyenne,  a  branch  of  Red  river ;  area 
aboat  1 ,700  so.  m.  It  has  been  recently  formed, 
and  is  not  included  in  the  census  of  1870.  The 
Dakota  or  James  river  crosses  the  S.  W.  comer, 
and  there  are  several  small  lakes. 

FOfiTiS,  BiilLet,  an  English  artist,  born  at 
Korth  Shields  in  1812.  At  the  age  of  16  he 
was  placed  with  Mr.  Landells,  a  wood  engraver, 
by  whom  he  was  advised  to  turn  his  attention 
to  drawing  rather  than  engraving.  His  car- 
vings on  wood,  especially  of  landscapes  and 
forest  scenes,  are  among  the  best  modem  pro- 
ductions in  that  department  of  art.  For  some 
years  be  has  successfully  devoted  himself  to 
painting  in  water  colors,  but  without  wholly 
abandoning  drawing  npon  wood  for  engravers. 

FOSTEB,  Jaaes,  an  English  dissenting  min- 
ister, bom  in  Exeter,  Sept.  16,  1697,  died  Nov. 
5, 1753.  He  was  educated  in  his  native  city, 
began  to  preach  in  1718,  and  after  removing 
from  Devonshire  to  Melbourne,  and  thence  to 
Ashwick,  became  pastor  in  the  Barbican,  Lon- 
don, in  1724,  was  afterward  lecturer  at  the  Old 
Jewry,  and  in  1744  minister  at  Pinner^s  hall. 
His  reputation  for  eloquence  was  such  that  per- 
sons of  every  rank  flocked  to  hear  him.  Besides 
nuiny  sermons,  he  published  an  *^  Essay  on 
Fundamentals,  especially  the  Trinity  "  (1720) ; 
^*  Defence  of  the  Usefulness,  Truth,  and  Excel- 
lency of  the  Christian  Religion''  (1781);  and 
^DiscouTses  on  the  Principal  Branches  of 
Natural  Religion  and  Social  Virtue  "  (London, 
1749-'62). 

FOSTER,  Jeha,  an  English  essayist,  bom  in 
Halifax,  Yorkshire,  Sent.  17,  1770,  died  at  Sta- 
pleton,  near  Bristol,  Oct.  16,  1843.  In  early 
life  he  was  a  weaver,  but  at  the  age  of  17,  hav- 
ing united  with  the  Baptist  church,  he  resolved 


to  devote  himself  to  the  ministry,  and  finished 
his  studies  at  the  Baptist  college  in  Bristol. 
He  commenced  his  career  as  a  preacher  at  New- 
castle-on-Tyne  in  1792,  and  afterward  went  to 
Dublin,  and  endeavored  unsuccessfully  to  estab- 
lish himself  either  as  a  preacher  or  schoolmas- 
ter. In  1%97  he  went  to  a  Baptist  chapel  in 
Chichester,  and  thence  successively  to  Down- 
end  in  1800,  and  to  Frome  in  1804 ;  but  though 
his  preaching  was  powerful,  it  made  little  or 
no  impression  on  the  popular  mind.  While  at 
Frome  he  first  published  his  celebrated  ^^  Es- 
says," and  also  became  the  principal  contribu- 
tor to  the  ^*  Eclectic  Review,"  the  articles  for 
which  (185  in  number)  formed  his  almost  ex- 
clusive literary  labor  for  18  years.  In  1817  he 
returned  to  Downend,  where  he  wrote  his 
^^  Essay  on  the  Evils  of  Popular  Ignorance,"  in 
which  he  gives  an  appalling  description  of  the 
barbarism  prevailuig  in  the  lower  classes  of 
the  English  population.  His  health  failing,  he 
then  employed  himself  chiefly  in  preparing 
works  for  the  press,  though  preaching  at  inter- 
v<ds  until  his  death.  He  was  a  profound  thinker 
and  a  powerful  writer.  His  remaining  books 
are:  *^  Oontributions,  Biographical,  Literary, 
and  Philosophical,  to  the  Eclectic  Review  "  (2 
vols.  8vo,  1840) ;  *^  Lectures  delivered  at  Broad- 
mead  chapel,  Bristol "  (1st  series,  1844 ;  2d  se- 
ries, 1847) ;  and  "  Introductory  Essav  to  Dod- 
dridge's Rise  and  Progress  "  (1847).  The  ''  Life 
and  Correspondence  of  Foster  "  (2  vols.  8vo), 
edited  by  J.  E.  Ryland,  was  published  in  1846. 
FO6TEB9  Jaha  WeDs,  an  American  geologist 
and  archffiologist,  bom  at  Brimfield,  Mass.,  in 
1816,  died  in  Chicago,  June  29,  1873.  He 
graduated  at  Wesleyan  university,  Middletown, 
Conn.,  in  1886,  and  one  year  later  removed  to 
Zanesville,  Ohio,  where  he  was  admitted  to 
the  bar.  He  assisted  in  the  geological  survey 
of  the  state  of  Ohio,  begun  in  1887,  and  made 
a  report  on  the  central  district,  with  a  detailed 
section  of  the  carboniferous  limestone  near 
Columbus,  to  the  uppermost  bed  of  coal  near 
Wheeling.  This  was  the  first  section  ever 
made  through  the  Ohio  coal  field.  In  1845  he 
visited  the  Lake  Superior  copper  region  in  the 
interest  of  several  mining  companies,  and  two 
years  later  was  an  assistant  in  the  government 
survey  of  that  territory.  He  was  associated  in 
this  work  with  Prof.  J.  D.  Whitney,  and  after 
1849  the  completion  of  the  survey  was  left  to 
them.  "  Foster  and  Whitney's  Report  on  the 
Lake  Superior  Region,"  published  by  congress, 
is  still  the  highest  authority  on  this  subject. 
He  subsequently  resided  in  Massachusetts  a  few 
years,  and  in  1866  was  a  candidate^  for  congress 
in  the  10th  district.  In  1868  he  removed  to 
Chicago.  During  his  geological  expeditions  he 
collected  a  vast  amount  of  matter  not  strictly 
pertinent  to  the  task  in  hand,  which  he  com- 

Siled  and  published  under  the  title  of  ^^  The 
[ississippi  Valley  "  (8vo,  Chicago  and  London, 
1869).  He  also  spent  much  time  in  studying 
the  mounds  and  other  evidences  of  ancient 
races  in  the  Mississippi  valley,  and  the  result 


344 


FOSTER 


FOUOHE 


of  his  discoveries  and  speculations  was  given  in 
Lis  **  Pre-Historic  Races  of  the  United  States  " 
(Chicago,  1873).  He  was  a  frequent  contrib- 
utor of  scientific  papers  to  periodical  litera- 
ture, and  published  several  monographs  on 
American  ethnology  and  antiquities. 

FOSTER,  Randolph  S.,  D.D.,  an  American  cler- 
gyman, born  at  Williamsburg,  Ohio,  Feb.  20, 
1 820.  He  was  educated  at  Augusta  college,  Ken- 
tucky, and  in  1837  entered  the  itinerant  ministry 
of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  church  in  connection 
with  the  Ohio  conference.  From  1837  to  1860 
he  was  pastor  of  churches  in  Hillsboro,  Ports- 
mouth, Lancaster,  Springfield,  and  Cincinnati, 
and  from  1850  to  1867  in  New  York  and  Brook- 
lyn. In  1857  he  was  elected  president  of  the 
Northwestern  university,  Evanston,  111.  Three 
years  later  he  resumed  the  pastorate,  and  was 
stationed  in  New  York  and  Sing  Sing.  The 
general  conference  of  1868  appointed  him  dele- 
gate to  the  British  Wesleyan  conference  of 
England,  and  during  the  same  year  he  was 
elected  professor  of  systematic  theology  in  Drew 
theological  seminary,  Madison,  N.  J.  In  1870 
he  was  appointed  president  of  this  institution, 
retaining  the  chair  of  theology.  In  1872  he 
was  elected  bishop  of  the  M.  E.  church,  and 
soon  after  was  chosen  to  make  an  episcopal 
visitation  in  Norway,  Sweden,  Denmark,  Ger- 
many, Switzerland,  Italy,  and  South  Amer- 
ica. He  has  published  the  following  works: 
^^  Objections  to  Calvinism''  (12mo,  Cincinnati, 
1849) ;  "Christian  Purity"  (revised  ed.,  12mo, 
New  York,  1869);  "Ministry  for  the  Times" 
(18mo,  New  York,  1856);  and  "Theism,"  in 
the  "Ingham  Lectures"  (12mo,  1872). 

FOSTER,  SteplMn  Collias,  an  American  ballad 
composer,  bom  in  Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  July  4, 
1826,  died  in  New  York,  Jan.  13,  1864.  Early 
in  life  he  evinced  a  fondness  for  music,  learned 
unaided  to  play  on  several  instruments,  and, 
having  a  good  voice,  delighted  to  sing  songs 
of  his  own  composition.  In  1842,  while  he 
was  a  merchant's  clerk  in  Cincinnati,  his  song 
"  Open  thy  Lattice,  Love  "  was  published  in 
Baltimore,  and  was  very  favorably  received. 
It  was  followed  by  "Old  Uncle  Ned"  and  "O 
Susanna,"  written  for  the  negro  minstrels, 
which  achieved  such  popularity  that  he  deter- 
mined to  devote  himself  thenceforth  to  music 
alone.  He  wrote  in  rapid  succession  a  number 
of  negro  melodies,  among  which  were  "  Loui- 
siana Belle,"  "Camptown  Races,"  "My  old 
Kentucky  Home,"  "Massa^s  in  the  cold,  cold 
Ground,"  "Nelly  Bly,"  "O  Boys,  Carry  me 
'Long,"  "  Old  Folks  at  Home,"  and  many  oth- 
ers. These  became  familiar  not  only  through- 
out the  United  States  but  in  many  distant 
lands,  and  won  for  him  a  reputation  as  a  com- 
poser of  simple  melodies  unsurpassed  in  his 
day.  Between  300,000  and  400,000  copies  of 
"  The  Old  Folks  at  Home "  were  sold,  and 
others  attained  an  almost  equal  popularity. 
During  the  last  years  of  his  life  he  dropped 
the  negro  dialect  and  wrote  many  songs  of 
sentiment,  such  as  "  Come  where  my  Love  lies 


Dreaming,"  "Willie,  we  have  Missed  You," 
"Jennie  with  the  Light  Brown  Hair,"  "Fare- 
well, my  Little  Dear,"  "O  Comrades,  Fill  no 
Glass  for  Me,"  "Come  with  thy  Sweet  Voice 
again,"  and  "Old  Dog  Tray."  Besides  a 
critical  knowledge  of  music,  Foster  possessed 
a  general  and  extensive  intellectual  culture. 
He  composed  both  the  music  and  the  words 
of  most  of  his  songs,  of  which  he  published 
over  100.  His  ballads  have  been  translated 
into  many  foreign  languages  and  published 
with  his  music,  which  is  marked  by  a  sweet- 
ness and  an  indefinable  grace  and  tenderness 
which  everywhere  reaches  the  popular  heart 

FOTHERINGIT,  a  parish  and  village  of  North- 
amptonshire, England,  on  the  river  Nene,  27  m. 
N.  E.  of  Northampton.  Its  famous  castle, 
the  birthplace  of  Richard  III.,  and  the  scene 
of  the  imprisonment,  trial,  and  execution  of 
Mary,  queen  of  Scots,  was  founded  in  the 
reign  of  the  Conqueror,  and  pulled  down  by 
James  I.,  soon  after  his  accession  to  the  Eng- 
lish throne.  The  village  contains  a  handsome 
church,  in  which  were  buried  Edward  and 
Richard,  dukes  of  York,  the  former  slain  at 
Agincourt  and  the  latter  at  Wakefield. 

FOUCAVLT,  lioD,  a  French  natural  philoso- 
pher, bom  in  Paris,  Sept.  18,  1819,  died  Feb. 
11,  1868.  While  studying  medicine  he  was 
impressed  by  the  discoveries  of  Daguerre,  and 
turned  his  attention  exclusively  to  optics.  He 
rapidly  acquired  proficiency  in  this  branch  of 
natural  philosophy,  and  in  1844  invented  an 
electric  lamp,  which  has  been  adopted  by 
natural  philosophers  for  physical  experiments, 
and  used  as  a  means  of  lighting  large  foctories 
or  yards.  With  Hippolyte  Fizeaa  he  made  a 
series  of  delicate  experiments  upon  the  phe- 
nomena of  light.  He  solved  a  problem  which 
had  attracted  the  attention  of  Wheatstone, 
Arago,  and  many  others,  demonstrating  that 
the  velocity  of  light  differs  materially  while 
passing  through  a  vacuum  or  through  trans- 
parent bodies.  He  was  no  less  successful  in 
mechanics  than  he  had  been  in  optics.  By 
means  of  the  pendulum  he  gave  a  new  and 
striking  demonstration  of  the  rotatory  motion 
of  the  earth.  The  gyroscope,  another  instru- 
ment with  which  he  experimented,  not  only 
affords  new  indication  of  the  earth^s  rotation, 
and  serves  to  measure  it,  but  furnishes  a 
means  of  determining  astronomical  positions 
without  observation  of  the  heavens.  (See 
Gyroscope.)  Foucault  was  rewarded  for  his 
labors  by  an  appointment  to  an  important 
post  in  the  observatory  at  Paris,  and  received 
in  1865  the  Copley  medal  of  the  royal  society. 

FOCCHfi,  Joseph,  a  French  revolutionist  and 
minister  of  police,  born  at  La  Martini^re,  near 
Nantes,  May  29,  1768,  died  in  Trieste,  Dec.  26, 
1820.  He  was  sent  to  Paris  to  study  theology, 
but  without  taking  orders  became  professor  of 
philosophy  in  Arras  and  other  towns,  and  in 
1788  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  college  of 
Nantes.  He  afterward  became  an  advocate, 
founded  a  republican  association  in  Nantes, 


FOUOHfi 


FOUGlatES 


345 


was  chosen  in  1792  member  of  the  national 
convention,  voted  for  the  immediate  execution 
of  Loais  XVL,  and  in  1793  proceeded  to  Ly- 
ons with  Collot  d'Herbois,  charged  with  the 
execution  of  the  decree  issued  by  the  conven- 
tion against  that  city,  and  shared  in  the  violent 
measures  and  wholesale  executions  carried  out 
there.  After  his  return  to  Paris  he  was  elected 
president  of  the  Jacobin  club  (June  4,  1794). 
His  influence  and  opposition  gave  umbrage  to 
Robespierre,  who  caused  him  to  be  expelled 
from  the  club;  but  he  rejoined  it  after  the 
execution  of  Robespierre  (July  28,  1794),  upon 
whom  he  now  endeavored  to  throw  all  the 
odium  of  his  violent  proceedings  at  Lyons. 
But  he  was  denounced  as  a  terrorist,  driven 
from  the  convention  (Aug.  9, 1795),  and  placed 
under  arrest,  but  restored  to  liberty  by  the 
amnesty  of  Oct.  26,  1795.  He  afterward  in- 
gratiated himself  with  Barras,  the  president 
of  the  directory,  by  betraying  to  him  the 
movements  of  Babeuf.  The  latter  was  guil- 
lotined in  1797,  and  Fouch6  was  rewarded  with 
a  large  interest  in  the  contracts  for  the  army, 
and  in  September,  1798,  was  made  minister 
to  the  Cisalpine  republic.  In  the  beginning 
of  1799  he  was  sent  in  the  same  capacity  to 
Holland,  but  was  soon  called  to  Paris  to  enter 
upon  the  duties  of  minister  of  police.  He 
adopted  rigorous  measures  against  political 
agitators,  without  distinction  of  party,  coop- 
erated in  the  coup  d'etat  of  the  18th  Brumaire, 
and  strengthened  Bonaparte's  position  by  his 
vigilance  in  detecting  royalist  and  Jacobin 
conspiracies;  but  the  first  consul,  who  dis- 
trusted his  minister,  discarded  him  as  soon  as 
the  apparent  return  of  tranquillity  rendered  it 
practicable  to  dispense  with  his  services,  the 
office  being  abolished  (September,  1802).  He 
was  made  a  senator,  a  post  which  yielded  him 
about  $1 8,000  annually,  and  Napoleon  reward- 
ed him  also  with  half  of  the  reserve  fund  in 
the  treasury  of  the  police,  which  amounted  to 
nearly  $250,000.  In  1804,  when  Napoleon's 
position  became  more  complicated,  Fouch6 
was  again  employed.  He  opposed  the  execu- 
tion of  the  duke  d'Enghien,  and  said  to  Napo- 
leon, "  It  is  more  than  a  crime,  it  is  a  political 
fault ;"  a  saying  which,  in  the  form  **  It  is  worse 
than  a  crime,  it  is  a  blunder,''  has  become 
proverbial,  and  has  been  generally  attributed 
to  Talleyrand.  After  the  establislunent  of  the 
empire,  Fouch6  was  formally  reinstalled  as 
minister  of  police  (July  10,  1804),  and  under 
his  administration  tranquillity  and  order  were 
secured  at  home,  while  Napoleon  was  engaged 
in  fighting  his  battles  abroad.  In  1809  he  re- 
ceived the  title  of  duke  of  Otranto,  with  a 
large  pension  from  the  revenues  of  the  king- 
dom of  Naples.  In  the  same  year,  while  the 
minister  of  the  interior  Cr^tet  was  sick,  Fouch^ 
managed  his  department  along  with  his  own ; 
and  when  the  English  landed  on  the  island 
of  Waloheren,  he  caused  the  whole  national 
guard  of  France  to  be  put  in  motion.  In  the 
following  year  he  opened  unauthorized  nego- 


tiations with  the  court  of  St.  James,  and  was 
dismissed  (June  6).  Savary  was  appointed  min- 
ister of  police,  and  the  governorship  of  Rome 
was  assigned  to  Fouch^,  as  a  sort  of  honorable 
exile.  He  did  not  go  to  Rome,  but  was  com- 
pelled to  leave  France  on  his  refusing  to  sur- 
render certain  autograph  letters  of  Napoleon 
and  other  important  documents,  and  was  only 
permitted  to  come  back  on  condition  of  giving 
them  up.  Napoleon  began  to  fear  the  in- 
trigues of  Fouch^,  and  kept  him  out  of  France 
by  calling  him  to  Dresden,  and  sending  him 
afterward  to  Illyria  as  governor,  and  subse- 
quently to  Rome.  In  January,  1814,  he  wrote 
to  the  emperor  from  Rome,  recommending 
the  adoption  of  a  more  conciliatory  policy. 
Returning  to  France  in  the  spring,  he  an- 
nounced at  Lyons  and  at  Avignon  the  ap- 
proaching fall  of  Napoleon,  and  entered  Paris 
two  days  before  the  count  d' Ai'tois.  On  April 
28  he  wrote  again  to  Napoleon,  urging  him  to 
leave  Elba  for  the  United  States.  At  the 
same  time  he  put  himself  in  communication 
with  the  Bourbons.  They  suspected  him, 
however,  and  on  Napoleon's  return  from  Elba 
issued  an  order  for  his  arrest;  but  he  con- 
trived to  make  his  escape,  and  became  for 
the  third  time  Napoleon's  minister  of  police, 
while  he  was  at  the  same  time  Talleyrand's 
correspondent,  the  tool  of  the  court  of  emigrSi 
at  Ghent,  and  the  bosom  friend  of  the  liberal 
deputies  in  the  chamber.  After  the  battle  of 
Waterloo  he  sent  for  Dupont  de  I'Eure,  Lafay- 
ette, and  others,  and  made  use  of  their  repub- 
lican feelings  to  precipitate  the  overthrow  of 
the  emperor ;  and  after  his  master's  final  abdi- 
cation he  became  the  leader  of  the  provision- 
al government  (June  22,  1815).  He  was  ap- 
pointed for  the  fourth  time  minister  of  po- 
lice by  Louis  XVIII.  (July  6),  but,  placed 
between  the  opposition  of  the  extreme  re- 
publicans and  the  extreme  royalists,  his  po- 
sition became  intolerable.  He  presented  to 
the  king  two  reports  on  the  disturbed  state 
of  France,  which  created  a  great  sensation, 
and  which  are  the  best  of  his  political  wri- 
tings. He  resigned  the  ministry  Sept.  19, 
and  was  appointed  ambassador  at  Dresden, 
but  was  deprived  of  that  office  by  the  law 
of  Jan.  12,  1816,  which  affected  all  who  had 
voted  for  the  death  of  Louis  XVI.  From 
Dresden  he  removed  to  Prague,  where  he 
spent  about  two  years ;  and  having  become  in 
1818  a  naturalized  subject  of  Austria,  he  re- 
sided for  some  time  in  Linz,  and  for  the  rest 
of  his  life  in  Trieste. — See  Count  Martcl's 
£tuds  8ur  FouehS  et  but  le  eommvnume  dans 
la  pratique  en  1794  (Paris,  1873). 

FOUeivES,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Hle-et-Vilaine,  on  a  hill  near  the  Nan- 
gon,  27  m.  N.  E.  of  Rennes;  pop.  in  1866, 
9,580.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  subprefecture,  a 
court  of  primary  jurisdiction,  and  a  communal 
college,  and  has  manufactories  of  sail  cloth  and 
hempen  fabrics,  flannels,  hats,  and  leather. 
It  was  anciently  fortified,  and  was  considered 


846 


FOULD 


FOUNDUNG  HOSPITAL 


one  of  the  keys  of  Brittanj  until  that  province 
was  united  with  the  crown  of  France. 

FOULB,  Aehine^  a  French  statesman  and 
financier,  of  Jewish  parentage,  born  at  Paris, 
Nov.  17,  1800,  died  at  Tarbes,  Oct.  6,  1867. 
His  father  was  a  hanker  of  great  wealth,  and 
he  eigoyed  an  nnnsuallj  carefol  and  elaborate 
education,  which  was  completed  by  extensive 
travel  in  Europe  and  the  Fast.  He  entered 
prominently  into  political  life  in  1842,  when 
he  was  chosen  to  represent  Tarbes  in  the 
chamber  of  deputies.  In  that  body  he  at 
once  took  a  high  rank  as  an  economist  and 
financier,  and  confined  himself  almost  entirely 
to  this  department  of  political  action.  Un- 
der the  presidency  of  Louis  Napoleon  he  was 
made  minister  of  finance,  and  although  disa- 
greements with  the  president  caused  him  twice 
to  retire  from  the  ofilce,  he  was  each  time  re- 
appointed. On  the  establishment  of  the  em- 
pire, Napoleon  made  him  a  senator,  and  short- 
ly afterward  appointed  him  minister  of  state 
and  of  the  imperial  household.  To  him  were 
intrusted  the  management  and  preparation  of 
the  universal  exhibition  of  1855,  and  the  di- 
rection of  the  works  on  the'  new  portion  of 
the  Louvre  (1868-7).  On  Nov.  12,  1861,  he 
was  again  made  minister  of  finance,  and  held 
ofilce  nndl  January,  1867,  when  he  resigned 
in  consequence  of  the  imperial  decree  of  the 
19th  of  that  month,  making  important  changes 
in  the  administration  of  the  government.  He 
was  the  author  of  several  pamphlets  on  finan- 
cial questions. 

FOIJLIS,  Robert,  a  Scottish  printer,  born  in 
Glasgow,  April  20,  1707,  died  in  Edinburgh  in 
1776.  He  was  a  barber*s  apprentice,  but  fall- 
ing under  the  notice  of  Dr.  Hutoheson,  pro- 
fessor of  moral  philosophy  at  Glasgow  univer- 
sity, was  encouraged  to  perfect  his  education 
and  become  a  printer  and  bookseller.  In  com- 
pany with  his  brother  Andbbw  (bom  Nov.  28, 
1712,  died  Sept.  18,  1776)  he  made  journeys 
to  England  and  the  continent  during  the  sum- 
mers in  connection  with  his  new  business,  and 
employed  his  winters  in  teaching.  In  1789  he 
opened  a  shop  in  Glasgow,  and  in  the  following 
year  commenced  publishing.  In  1748  he  was 
appointed  printer  to  the  university,  and  after- 
ward took  Andrew  into  partnership.  Their 
editions  were  remarkable  for  correctness  and 
elegance,  those  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  classics 
ranking  with  the  best  of  the  famous  Aldine 
series.  The  Foulis  edition  of  Demetrius  Pha- 
lereus  De  Eloeutione  (1748)  is  thought  to  be 
the  first  Greek  work  published  in  Glasgow. 
Among  the  most  valuable  productions  of  this 
press  were:  Horace  (12mo,  1744),  the  sheets 
of  which  were  hung  up  in  the  university  with 
the  offer  of  a  reward  for  the  discovery  of  any 
error  in  them ;  Homer  (4  vols,  fol,  1756-'8) ; 
Thuycydides,  in  Greek  and  Latin  (S  vols.  12mo, 
1759) ;  Herodotus,  in  Greek  and  Latin  (9  vols. 
12mo,  1761);  Xenophon,  in  Greek  and  Latin 
(12  vols.  12mo,  1762-7) ;  Gray'e  poems,  Pope's 
works,  &c.     The  two  brothers  acquired  in 


time  an  ample  fortune,  which  they  lost  by  an 
unsuccessful  attempt  to  establish  at  Glasgow 
an  academy  of  painting  and  sculpture. 

FODVDEST.    See  Oastikg. 

FOUNDUITG  HOSPITAL,  a  public  institution 
for  the  reception  and  support  of  deserted  chil- 
dren. Some  of  the  nations  of  antiquity  were 
notorious  for  their  disregard  of  the  promptings 
of  humanity  in  the  treatment  of  foundlings. 
Their  wisest  legislators  and  philosophers  con- 
sidered infanticide  justifiable  under  certain  cir- 
cumstances, and  Lycurgus,  Solon,  Plato,  and 
Numa  condemned  to  death  all  weak  or  deform- 
ed children.  But  infanticide  was  punished  by 
the  ancient  Egyptians,  the  guilty  parent  being 
compelled  to  pass  three  days  and  nights  with 
the  corpse  of  the  child  fastened  to  his  neck. 
The  laws  of  the  Persians  and  the  Jews  also  pro- 
tected helpless  children.  In  Thebes  both  child 
murder  and  exposure  of  children  were  forbid- 
den. At  Athens  children  were  commonly  ex- 
posed in  the  gymnasium  called  Gynosarges,  and 
in  Rome  at  the  eolnmna  laetaria,  a  pillar  which 
stood  in  one  of  the  public  market  places.  The 
state  assigned  foundlings  as  property  to  those 
who  would  adopt  them;  and  those  not  thus 
adopted  were  educated  at  the  public  expense. 
It  appears  that  Athens  and  Rome  had  public 
foundling  hospitals  at  an  early  period,  and  the 
appellation  of  Pp&^po^Zov  is  believed  to  have 
had  reference  to  that  in  the  Gynosarges  of  the 
former  city,  while  Rome  is  supposed  to  have 
possessed  an  establishment  of  the  same  kind 
at  the  eolumna  laetaria.  But  most  foundlings 
were  left  at  the  mercy  of  those  who  found  them. 
The  exposure  of  children  became  so  common, 
that  the  classic  historians  speak  with  admiration 
of  the  nations  who  abstained  from  it.  Strabo 
praises  the  Egyptians  for  their  humane  laws, 
and  wffiian  the  Thebans  for  their  restrictive 
regulations  on  the  subject ;  while  Tacitus  men- 
tions as  a  circumstance  deviating  from  the 
practice  of  the  Romans,  that  the  old  Germans 
and  the  Jews  considered  infanticide  a  crime. 
Endeavors  to  restrain  the  cruel  practice  of  ex- 
posing children  are  said  to  have  been  made  in 
the  early  days  of  Rome ;  Romulus  prohibited 
the  murder  of  sons  and  of  first-bom  daughters. 
But  as  the  population  increased  and  the  public 
morals  declined,  those  who  had  more  children 
than  they  wanted  exposed  some  of  them.  Or- 
naments and  trinkets  were  deposited  in  many 
instances  with  the  children,  partly  with  a  view 
of  enticing  the  people  to  take  care  of  them, 
and  partly  to  facilitate  a  future  identification. 
Imperial  Rome  early  afforded  assistance  to 
abandoned  children.  Augustus  offered  2,000 
sesterces  to  citizens. who  would  take  charge 
of  orphans.  Livia  and  Faustina  adopted  a 
number  of  deserted  girls.  Trigan  gave  ali- 
mentary pensions,  and  had  the  foundlings  cared 
for  under  the  name  of  children  of  the  state. 
The  first  Ghristian  emperors  did  not  venture 
to  punish  the  exposure  of  children,  but  Oon- 
stantine  inflicted  the  penalties  of  parricide  upon 
fathers  guilty  of  taking  the  life  of  their  children, 


FOUNDLING  HOSPITAL 


347 


and  called  exposure  also  a  kind  of  murder. 
He  deprived  parents  of  all  hope  of  being  able  to 
recover  the  children,  and  decreed  that  parents 
who  were  too  poor  to  educate  their  children 
should  receive  pecuniary  assistance.    But  the 
practice  of  exposure  was  nevertheless  continued 
for  a  long  time  after,  and  was  not  completely 
prohibited  till  the  time  of  Yalentinian,  Valens, 
and  Gratian,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  4th  cen- 
tury.    The  emperor  Justinian  passed  a  law  in 
529  which  declared  foundlings  to  be  free,  and 
forbade  those  by  whom  they  were  received  and 
educated  to  treat  them  and  detain  them  as 
slaves.    The  public  institutions  which  are  be- 
lieved to  have  existed  for  the  reception  of 
foundlings  in  Rome  in  the  6th  century  are 
called  by  Justinian  hrephoProphia^  in  imitation 
of  the  Greek  institutions,  but  nothing  is  known 
about  their  regulation  and  organization.    Es- 
tablishments for  foundlings  are  said  to  have 
existed  in  the  7th  century  in  Aigou,  and  about 
the  same  time  at  Treves,  both  in  the  Frankish 
dominions.    The  capitularies  of  Charlemagne 
refer  to  foundling  hospitals  as  distinct  institu- 
tions.    In  Milan  an  institution  was  founded 
about  787  by  an  archpriest  named  Dathius^ 
to  prevent  infanticide.    Of  the  prevalence  of 
this  crime  he  gives  a  very  pathetic  account  in 
the  letter  of  foundation,  which  has  been  pub- 
lished by  Muratori.    The  mothers  of  children 
(mostly  illegitimate)  carried  to  this  establish- 
ment  strewed   salt  between   the  swaddling 
clothes,  to  denote  that  the  infant  had  not  been 
baptized.     The  foundlings  were  suckled  by 
hired  nurses,  taught  some  handicraft^  and  at 
the  age  of  seven  discharged  as  free-bom.    This 
last  regulation  was  probably  made  by  Dathius, 
to  guard  against  the  custom  by  which  the 
foundling  became  the  property  of  those  who 
received  and  educated  them,  unless  they  were 
demanded  back  by  their  parents  within  ten 
days.    In  1070  Olivier  de  la  Traie  founded  at 
Montpellier  a  charitable  order,  whose  members 
called  themselves  haspitalarii  Saneti  Sptritui^ 
and  devoted  themselves  to  the  assistance  of 
the  poor,  and  of  foundlings  and  orphans.    A 
separate  foundling  hospital  for  600  children, 
nnder  the  name  of  hospital  of  the  Holy  Ghost, 
was  founded  in  the  city  in  1180  by  a  member 
of  that  order,  the  count  Guy  of  Montpellier, 
which  was  sanctioned  by  Pope  Innocent  III. 
in  1198.    During  the  18th  century  foundling 
hospitals  were  established  at  Rome,  and  at 
Eimbeok  in  Germany.    The  magnificent  found- 
ling hospital  at  Florence,  called  at  present  spe- 
dale  degli  innocenti,  was  founded  about  1S16 ; 
kindred  institutions  were  established  in  Paris 
in  1362,  and  in  Venice  in  1380.    The  hospital 
at  Nuremberg,  founded  in  1881,  had  a  lying-in 
department,   and  made  it  obligatory  on  the 
children  to  refund  the  expense  of  their  educa- 
tion.   The  hospital  of  the  Holy  Ghost  at  Mar- 
seilles, founded  after  that  in  Montpellier,  was 
the  first  to  adopt  the  revolving  box,  by  means 
of  which  the  children  could  be  conveyed  into 
the  building  without  any  possibility  of  those 


who  brought  them  being  seen.  At  other  places 
foundlings  were  put  into  marble  shells  at  church 
doors. — The  great  hospital  of  Santo  Spirito  in 
Rome,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Tiber,  near  St. 
Peter's,  contains  a  foundling  hospital  capable 
of  accommodating  more  than  3,000  children. 
The  number  annually  received  is  about  1,150. 
During  the  ten  years  ending  in  1865,  out  of 
11,426  received,  9,260  died.  Many  of  the  chil- 
dren are  sent  to  the  country  to  be  nursed,  and 
among  them  tiie  mortality  is  said  to  be  the 
greatest.  There  are  deveral  other  foundling 
hospitals  in  Rome ;  the  total  number  of  found- 
lings is  estimated  at  more  than  3,000  annually, 
the  faoiUties  for  admission  being  so  great  that 
children  are  brought  from  all  parts  of  central 
and  southern  Italy.  At  Naples  foundlings  are 
chiefly  cared  for  at  the  hospital  deUa  Annun- 
nata.  There  are  in  Naples  annually  about 
2,000  foundlings  out  of  a  population  in  1872 
of  about  450,000.  Naples  has  the  reputation 
of  devoting  more  care  to  the  education  and 
welfare  of  foundlings  than  any  other  city  of 
Italy.  The  number  of  foundlings  in  Tuscany 
is  about  12,000  out  of  a  population  in  1872  of 
2, 1 00, 000.  A  considerable  number  of  the  found- 
lings in  Italy  are  supposed  to  be  legitimate  chil- 
dren abandoned  on  account  of  poverty.  About 
one  in  16  of  the  children  is  claimed  by  the  pa- 
rents ;  the  migority  are  cared  for  during  infi&ncy 
and  childhood,  either  in  the  hospitals  or  among 
the  neighboring  peasantry,  who  supply  them 
with  board  at  a  small  remuneration.  When 
of  sufi9cient  age  they  are  dismissed  to  support 
themselves,  but  in  many  of  the  hospitals  they 
have  some  claim  in  after  life  on  occasions  of  dis- 
tress or  sickness.  Many  children  carried  to  the 
foundling  hospitals  are  accompanied  by  tokens. 
In  the  hospital  degV  innoeenti  at  Florence  a 
piece  of  lead  imprinted  with  a  number  is  hung 
round  the  neck  of  each  babe,  in  such  a  manner 
that  it  cannot  be  easily  removed.  By  these 
means,  and  by  other  tokens,  it  is  easy  to  obtain 
information,  even  at  a  late  period,  in  regard  to 
each  child.  Illegitimate  children  cannot  be  re- 
turned until  the  expenses  are  fully  refunded. 
— ^There  are  foundling  hospitals  in  Cadiz,  Bar- 
celona, and  other  Spanish  cities,  and  several  in 
Madrid.  The  girls  brought  up  in  the  foundling 
hospital  at  Barcelona  were  formerly  led  in  pro- 
cession when  of  marriageable  age,  and  any 
man  who  took  a  fancy  to  one  of  them  might 
indicate  his  choice  b)| throwing  a  handkerchief 
on  his  favorite  girl,  and  marry  her.  The  num- 
ber of  foundlings  annually  received  in  the 
principal  hospital  at  Madrid  is  about  1,200. 
The  hospital  is  chiefly  served  by  sisters  of 
charity.  The  infants  are  intrusted  to  nurses, 
and  at  the  age  of  seven  are  transferred  to  the 
college  of  the  desamparado*  (forsaken),  where 
they  receive  instruction.  Some  are  sent  to  an 
asylum,  where  they  are  drafted  to  learn  practi- 
cal handicrafts,  and  this  asylum  is  in  a  great 
measure  self-supporting.  In  1794  Charles  IV. 
ordered  that  children  of  unknown  parents 
should  be  eonndered  legitimate  and  admissible 


348 


FOUNDLING  HOSPITAL 


to  public  office ;  that  all  who  called  them  bas- 
tards should  be  punished ;  and  that  foundlings 
in  case  of  judicial  senten^ce  should  receive  such 
punishments  only  as  could  be  imposed  upon 
privileged  persons,  like  the  nobility  and  other 
high  classes.  In  1860  there  were  149  found- 
ling hospitals  in  Spain,  with  63,464  foundlings ; 
the  illegitimate  births  in  1859  numbered  31,- 
080. — In  Portugal,  where  illegitimate  births 
are  much  more  numerous  than  in  Spain,  the 
number  of  foundlings  is  estimated  at  77  annu- 
ally to  every  10,000  inhabitants.  There  are 
21  foundling  hospitals.  The  number  of  found- 
lings under  care  in  1860  was  83,500,  about 
16,000  being  received  annually,  and  the  mor- 
tality was  50  per  cent. — ^Among  the  first  hos- 
pitals which  educated  foundlings  in  France 
was  the  H6tel  Dieu  of  Lyons  (1523).  Francis 
I.  founded  a  kindred  institution  in  1636.  A 
few  years  afterward  it  became  customary  for 
sisters  of  charity  to  place  foundlings  at  the 
entrance  of  the  cathedral  of  Notre  Dame  of 
Paris,  exclaiming:  Faitet  hien  d  ee%  pauwes 
en/ants  trouves  (**  Extend  your  charity  to  these 
poor  foundlings  ").  They  were  accommodated 
in  an  asylum  called  la  cauehe  (the  bed),  at  the 
expense  of  the  dignitaries  of  the  law  and  of  the 
church.  The  metropolitan  see,  the  monaste- 
ries, and  chiefly  the  hospital  of  the  Holy  Ghost, 
were  called  upon  to  contribute  toward  their 
support.  The  dispensation  of  this  charity  led 
to  grave  abuses.  The  women  hired  to  take 
care  of  the  children  traded  with  them.  Some 
were  sold  to  sorcerers,  for  use  in  their  art; 
others  to  beggars,  who  paraded  them  in  solicit- 
ing alms.  The  asylum  was  transferred  to  an- 
other place,  but  the  donations  were  not  suffi- 
cient to  support  the  institution.  The  children 
increased  in  numbers  at  a  fearful  rate.  Lots 
were  cast  to  decide  which  should  have  the 
benefit  of  education,  and  those  who  drew  blanks 
were  entirely  neglected.  Many  lost  their  health 
or  died  from  the  deteriorated  milk  of  sickly 
nurses.  Those  admitted  into  the  asylums  were 
almost  all  illegitimate  or  of  unknown  parents. 
A  foundling  department  was  established  in 
1663  in  the  hospital  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  under 
the  direction  of  the  city  of  Paris,  and  managed 
by  an  association  of  priests.  The  children  were 
well  educated,  many  of  the  boys  for  the  priest- 
hood, and  many  of  the  girls  were  married  and 
provided  with  dowries.  But  this  hospital 
(which  was  suppressed  in  1670)  refused  to  re- 
ceive illegitimate  children.  St.  Vincent  de 
Paul  pleaded  the  cause  of  the  poor  children 
who  were  excluded,  collected  funds,  and  in 
1640  established  a  new  institution  for  found- 
lings, with  the  assistance  of  philanthropic  la- 
dies, and  with  the  cooperation  of  the  king 
and  the  court.  In  1670  it  was  converted  into 
a  public  institution  by  Louis  XIV.,  and  was 
transferred  to  the  rue  de  Notre  Dame.  Reve- 
nues were  assigned  to  it  and  taxes  raised  for 
its  support,  and  the  first  president  and  pro- 
curator general  of  the  parliament  placed  at  the 
head  of  its  administration.    The  number  of 


foundlings  received  at  this  institution  in  suc- 
cessive periods  of  22  years,  from  1640  to  1793, 
was:  7,668,  14,101,  88,882,  40,437,  64,143, 
114,729,  129,143;  total,  408,603.  More  than 
one  third  of  these  children  came  from  tlie 
provinces.  Serfdom  had  ceased  to  exist,  and 
the  seigneurs  took  this  means  to  rid  their  lands 
of  abandoned  children,  as  they  could  no  longer 
draw  profit  from  them.  In  1779  parliament 
ordered  the  nobles  to  provide  for  the  children 
found  on  their  lands,  and  forbade  their  convey- 
ance into  Paris  without  special  permits.  After 
the  revolution  of  1789  the  republic  assumed  the 
guardianship  of  foundlings.  The  terrorists  de- 
creed (July  4, 1793)  that  they  should  be  called 
er{fants  de  la  patrie.  In  1798,  11,000,000 
francs  were  assigned  toward  their  support,  and 
it  was  ordered  that  two  lying-in  hospitals 
should  be  connected  with  the  foundling  house 
in  Paris.  But  the  usefulness  of  the  institution 
was  crippled  by  a  lack  of  nurses.  An  imperial 
decree  of  Jan.  19,  1811,  ordered  the  establish- 
ment of  a  foundling  hospital  in  each  arrondisse- 
ment  of  France,  to  be  governed  by  the  follow- 
ing regulations:  The  children  were  suckled 
and  weaned  in  the  hospitals,  and  kept  there 
until  the  age  of  six,  when  they  were  placed 
under  the  charge  of  peasants  and  artisans,  who 
received  a  stipend  for  their  board  and  training. 
This  stipend  was  reduced  from  year  to  year 
until  the  children  reached  the  age  of  12,  when 
the  able-bodied  boys  were  placed  at  the  dis- 
posal of  the  minister  of  marine,  while  for  those 
who  were  invalids  some  labor  appropriate  to 
their  condition  was  provided  in  ^e  hospital. 
They  were  the  property  of  the  state,  and  those 
who  at  the  a^e  of  12  had  not  been  taken  into 
the  public  service  were  immediately  placed  un- 
der apprenticeship  by  the  administraljon  of  the 
hospital.  The  expense  for  nursing  and  for  the 
outdoor  board  of  the  children  below  the  age  of 
12  was  paid  by  the  departments  to  which  they 
belonged.  The  expenditure  for  clothing  was 
paid  by  the  respective  hospitals.  The  number 
of  foundlings  annually  received  in  France  has 
varied  in  recent  years  from  26,000  to  30,000. 
The  annual  number  claimed  by  and  restored  to 
their  parents  is  about  3,000,  or  about  1  in  9. 
Previous  to  1811  the  children  were  deposited 
in  the  hands  of  an  officer  of  the  institution; 
but  the  decree  passed  in  that  year  obliged  each 
arrondissement  to  establish  a  hospital  of  de- 
posit, provided  with  a  turning  box.  In  accor- 
dance with  that  decree  266  hospitals  were  es- 
tablished provided  with  such  boxes,  and  17 
without  them.  But  many  arrondissements  re- 
moved the  boxes  and  the  hospitals  of  deposit. 
It  was  believed  that  the  great  increase  of  found- 
lings was  due  to  the  use  of  the  boxes,  hence 
their  suppression.  It  was  discovered  that  pa- 
rents put  themselves  in  collusion  with  those 
appointed  by  the  hospital  to  nurse  the  children 
or  to  supply  them  with  board,  and  it  was  as- 
certained that  there  were  mothers  who,  having 
discarded  their  own  ofispring  by  secretly  de- 
positmg  them  in  the  turning  boxes,  managed 


FOUNDLING  HOSPITAL 


349 


to  officiate  as  nurses  of  the  institution.  The 
present  annual  average  of  children  admitted 
into  the  Paris  hospital  is  ahout  5,000.  The 
percentage  of  illegitimate  children  is  about  28. 
Provision  is  also  made  for  the  reception  of 
children  whose  parents  are  sick  or  in  prison. — 
In  Belgium  12  cities  have  foundling  hospitals, 
and  elsewhere  the  children  are  provided  for  in 
the  country  under  the  supervision  of  hospital 
authorities.  The  foundling  hospitals  of  Tour- 
nay,  Namur,  Antwerp,  Ghent,  Mons,  and  others, 
have  been  suspended.  The  turning  boxes  were 
abolished  by  law  in  1884.  In  the  Nether- 
lands the  foundling  hospitals  and  the  number 
of  foundlings  are  not  given  separately  in  the 
statistical  reports.  Germany  has  numerous  in- 
stitutions for  the  care  and  education  of  desert- 
ed children,  but  no  foundling  hospitals  proper. 
The  latter  are  considered  unfavorable  to  mo- 
rality, and  the  system  has  been  gradually  aban- 
doned. The  foundlings  of  Bavaria  are  placed 
in  the  families  of  farmers,  and  are  under  the 
supervision  of  the  civil  magistrate  of  the  dis- 
trict The  Austro- Hungarian  empire  has  85 
foundling  hospitals,  in  which  about  120,000  in- 
fants are  deposited  annually,  but  nearly  90,000 
are  cared  for  outside  of  the  institutions.  The 
35  lying-in  hospitals  connected  with  them  con- 
tun  aboat  1,600  beds,  and  receive  yearly  about 
20,000  patients.  In  Vienna  illegitimate  chil- 
dren are  taken  care  of  in  the  lying-in  hospital, 
which  gives  a  receipt,  stating  all  particulars, 
for  the  deposited  child ;  but  unless  the  mother 
can  prove  her  poverty,  or  is  willing  to  serve  as 
a  nurse  for  three  months,  she  must  pay  from 
30  to  100  florins  for  the  admission  of  her  child. 
There  are  similar  institutions  at  Prague,  Brtinn, 
and  Gratz. — ^Toward  the  end  of  the  17th  century 
proposals  for  a  foundling  hospital  were  made 
in  London,  and  one  was  established  in  1789, 
chiefly  through  the  eflTorts  and  at  the  expense 
of  Capt.  Thomas  Ooram,  whose  portrait  and 
statue  now  adorn  the  chapel  of  the  institution. 
Handel  the  composer  presented  it  with  an  or- 
gan and  gave  several  performances  for  its  bene- 
fit. The  hospital  was  opened  June  2,  1756, 
and  adapted  to  maintain  and  educate  500  chil- 
dren. Bnt  the  great  influx  of  children,  the 
large  mortality  among  them,  and  the  abuses 
consequent  upon  the  facility  of  admission,  led 
to  a  modification  of  the  institution ;  in  1760  it 
was  changed  to  a  hospital  for  poor  illegitimate 
children  whose  mothers  had  previously  borne 
a  good  character.  In  1870  it  maintained  504 
children,  at  an  expense  of  £13,775.  In  1704  a 
foundling  hospital  was  instituted  in  Dublin. 
In  the  80  years  preceding  1825  it  received 
52,150  infants,  of  whom  14,618  died  infants, 
25,829  died  in  the  country,  where  they  had  been 
put  out  to  nurse,  780  died  in  the  infirmary  after 
returning  from  the  country,  and  822  died  grown 
children ;  total  number  of  deaths,  41,524,  or  at 
the  rate  of  4  out  of  5.  In  consequence  of  this 
great  mortality,  the  hospital  was  closed  March 
81, 1885.  The  infant  orphan  asylum  at  Wan- 
stead,  near  London,  founded  by  private  charity 


in  1827,  wholly  maintains  and  educates  aban- 
doned and  orphan  children  from  their  earliest 
infancy  to  the  age  of  14  or  15  years.  It  now 
has  600  in  charge. — In  Stockholm,  where  pub- 
lic prostitution  is  prohibited,  there  are  46*01 
illegitimate  children  out  of  every  100  born,  and 
in  the  interior  of  Sweden  one  out  of  eight. 
The  Stora  Bamhorst  hospital  of  Stockholm, 
originally  established  by  Gustavus  Adolphus 
for  children  of  military  men,  is  now  used  as  an 
asylum  for  infants,  who  are  received  without 
any  questions  being  asked  about  their  parents. 
Many  parents  who  are  fully  able  to  maintain 
tlieir  children  send  them  to  it  in  order  to  be 
relieved  from  the  care  attending  their  training 
and  education.  There  are  foundling  hospitals 
in  Christiania  and  other  Norwegian  cities,  and 
the  number  of  foundlings  for  the  past  ^ve 
years  has  been  more  than  9  per  cent,  of  the 
total  number  of  births. — The  foundling  hospital 
of  Moscow  (  Vospitatelnoi  Dom)  was  founded 
by  Oatharme  IL  in  1762.  It  is  an  immense 
establishment,  which  has  been  enlarged  by  a 
member  of  the  DemidofiT  family,  who  contrib- 
uted liberally  to  its  support.  A  lying-in  hospi- 
tal is  connected  with  the  uistitution.  It  has 
secret  wards  to  which  more  than  2,000  women 
have  recourse  annually.  The  foundling  depart- 
ment admits  yearly  about  12,000  children,  who 
are  not  left  at  the  door,  but  taken  openly  into 
a  room,  where  the  infant  is  at  once  received 
without  any  other  question  than  **Has  the 
child  been  baptized?**  and  if  so,  ^^By  what 
name?"  The  child  is  then  registered,  and  a 
number  is  assigned  to  it,  which  it  wears  around 
the  neck  and  which  is  put  on  its  cot,  while 
the  bearer  obtains  a  receipt  for  which  he  can 
claim  the  child  up  to  the  age  of  10  years.  The 
mother  is  permitted  to  nurse  the  child.  The 
girls  are  separated  from  the  boys.  About 
5,000  children  are  sometimes  in  the  villages  in 
the  environs.  The  inhabitants  of  a  large  vil- 
lage near  Moscow  are  entirely  devoted  to  the 
bringing  up  of  the  foundlings.  All  children  are 
received,  whether  foundlings  or  not,  on  condi- 
tion that  they  are  given  up  to  the  state.  About 
50  per  cent,  of  them  die  before  the  age  of  one 
year,  and  only  one  quarter  of  those  brought  to 
the  institution  reach  matarity.  The  govern- 
ment  has  of  late  years  established  many  of  them 
as  farmers  and  colonists  on  the  crown  lands. 
Many  of  the  best  Russian  engineers  have  been 
educated  in  the  institution.  Those  who  dis- 
play great  abilities  are  sent  to  the  university. 
The  minority  of  the  girls  are  employed  in 
manual  labor,  the  proceeds  of  which  go  partly 
to  the  treasury  of  tne  institution,  and  are  partly 
saved  for  them  to  form  their  marriage  portion ; 
but  those  of  superior  ability  find  opportunities 
for  cultivating  it,  and  may  become  musicians, 
actresses,  governesses,  teachers,  &c.  All  can 
return  to  the  hospital  should  they  fall  into  dis- 
tress in  after  life.  The  Yospitatelnoi  Dom  in 
St.  Petersburg  was  founded  by  Catharine  II.  in 
1772,  as  a  branch  of  that  of  Moscow,  bnt  it 
now  eclipses  the  parent  institution.    The  small 


350 


FOUNDLING  HOSPITAL 


original  endowment  has  been  increased  by 
private  donations  and  by  large  gifts  of  the 
Buccessive  czars,  and  the  hospital  is  now  one 
of  the  wealthiest  landed  proprietors  in  Russia. 
It  forms  a  little  district  of  its  own,  near  the 
Fontanka  canal,  in  the  best  part  of  St.  Peters- 
barg,  covering  28  acres  of  gronnd.  In  imme- 
diate connection  with  it  is  a  lying-in  hospital 
The  total  number  of  nurses,  physicians,  cooks, 
housekeepers,  and  other  employees  is  about 
6,000.  The  annual  receipt  of  children  num- 
bers about  6,000.  The  mortality  is  greater 
than  in  Moscow,  which  is  accounted  for  by  the 
inferior  vigor  of  the  nurses  who  come  from  the 
vicinity  of  the  capital.  A  great  many  children 
die  on  the  way  to  St.  Petersburg,  some  being 
brought  1,000  miles,  from  Siberia  and  Bessara- 
bia. One  half  of  Russia  sends  its  surplus  of  in- 
fantine population  to  this  institution,  and  the 
other  half  to  that  of  Moscow.  The  children  are 
given  in  care  of  wet  nurses  for  about  six  weeks, 
when  they  are  sent  into  the  country  until  they 
are  six  years  old.  They  are  then  brought  back 
to  the  institution  and  educated.  In  the  lying- 
in  hospital  connected  with  the  institution  tlie 
strictest  secrecy  is  maintained.  Stringent  laws 
have  been  passed  since  1887,  by  which  the 
foundMngs  become  the  property  of  the  govern- 
ment, and  the  hospitals  in  St.  Petersburg  and 
Moscow  furnish  a  constant  supply  of  recruits  for 
the  army  or  navy.  These  estabhsbments  are 
admirably  managed ;  but  those  in  the  interior 
of  Russia  are  inferior.  The  property  devoted 
to  the  support,  maintenance,  and  education  of 
foundlings  in  Russia  is  said  to  amount  to  $600,- 
000,000.  Infanticide  and  abortion  are  exceea- 
ingly  rare.  The  proportion  of  illegitimate  births 
in  the  whole  Russian  empire  is  a  little  more  than 
4  per  cent. ;  in  cities  the  average  is  much  larger, 
and  in  St.  Petersburg  and  Moscow  it  is  from 
20  to  85  per  cent. — ^China  has  many  foundling 
hospitals,  of  which  those  at  Shanghai,  Ningpo, 
Canton,  and  Hangchow  are  best  known.  The 
regulations  governing  these  institutions  com- 
pare favorably  with  the  best  of  those  in  Eu- 
rope.— One  of  the  roost  important  charitable 
institutions  of  the  city  of  Mexico  is  the  euna 
or  foundling  hospital.  It  is  supported  by  pri- 
vate individuals,  and  the  Mexican  ladies  give 
it  their  time  and  attention.  When  a  child  has 
been  about  a  month  in  the  hospital,  it  is  sent 
with  an  Indian  nurse  to  one  of  the  neighbor- 
ing villages.  These  nurses  are  subject  to  a 
responsible  resident  of  the  village,  who  guar- 
antees their  good  conduct.  The  mothers  of  the 
children  often  officiate  as  nurses,  and  are  paid 
for  their  services.  When  weaned  the  child  is 
returned  to  the  hospital,  but  generally  the  chil- 
dren are  adopted  by  respectable  persons. — In 
the  foundling  hospital  of  Rio  de  Janeiro,  the 
boys,  who  are  brought  up  in  the  neighboring 
establishment  at  Botofogo,  are  apprenticed  to 
trades,  and  Htxe  girls  are  educated  in  the  city 
establishment  At  each  anniversary  men  in 
want  of  wives  attend,  and  any  one  whose  pro- 
posals are  accepted  applies  to  the  managers  of 


the  hospital,  who  inquire  into  his  character. 
If  it  proves  satisfactory,  the  marriage  is  per- 
mitted, and  a  smaU  dowry  is  given  from  the 
funds  of  tlie  hospital. — ^In  the  United  States 
there  are  few  foundling  hospitals  except  Uiose 
which  have  been  established  and  are  main- 
ly supported  by  private  charity.  Foundlings 
are  sent  to  the  almshouses,  whence  in  many 
cases  they  are  farmed  out,  and  no  systematic 
records  concerning  them  are  kept  Several 
states  have  greatly  reduced  the  number  of 
foundlings  coming  under  their  direct  charge, 
by  increasing  the  efficiency  of  private  asylums 
through  grants  of  money  and  land.  The 
foundling  asylum  of  the  sisters  of  charity  in 
New  York  city  was  established  in  1869.  In 
1870  the  legislature  authorized  the   city  to 

fran|[  it  a  site  for  a  building,  and  appropriated 
lOOjOOO  toward  its  erection,  on  condition  that 
an  equal  sum  should  be  raised  by  voluntary 
contribution.  This  amount  was  obtained,  and 
the  building  was  formally  opened  in  October, 
1878.  From  its  commencement  in  October, 
1869,  to  Oct  1,  1878,  the  institution  received 
5,076  infants,  of  whom  2,087  have  died.  A  crib 
was  placed  in  the  vestibule  every  night,  and 
during  the  first  month  20  infants  were  brought 
to  the  house,  many  of  them  within  three  hours 
of  their  birth.  In  every  instance  except  one 
a  slip  of  paper  was  left  with  the  child,  giving 
its  name  and  the  date  of  its  birth.  Want  of 
sufficient  funds  and  room  made  it  necessary  to 
refuse  infants  more  than  three  weeks  old,  and 
still  many  have  to  be  boarded  out  in  the  city 
and  the  surrounding  country.  The  number  ad- 
mitted during  the  year  ending  Sept  80, 1878, 
w as  1 , 1 24.  The  expenses  of  the  asylum  for  this 
year  were  $115,648;  of  this  amount  $80,000 
were  paid  to  outside  nurses,  and  about  $7,000 
for  rent  and  repairs.  Accommodations  are  ftir- 
nished  for  homeless  mothers  with  infants.  The 
infants^  hospital  in  New  York,  established  in 
1868,  on  RandalPs  island,  is  under  the  direction 
of  the  department  of  charities  and  correction. 
The  number  of  children  in  the  hospital  in  1868, 
was  1,887,  of  whom  1,089  died;  in  1869, 1,510, 
of  whom  710  died;  in  1870,  1,177,  of  whom 
420  died;  in  1871,  1,098,  of  whom  267  died. 
While  in  1869,  of  the  foundlings  proper,  70*82 
per  cent,  died,  and  of  mothers^  children  20*44 
per  cent,  the  deaths  among  the  former  amount- 
ed in  1871  to  only  88  per  cent,  and  among  the 
latter  to  only  about  12  per  cent  The  decrease 
is  attributed  to  the  renovation  of  the  hospital 
building.  The  difference  of  the  mortality  be- 
tween the  mothers'  children  and  the  found- 
lings is  caused  by  the  continual  want  of  a  suf- 
ficient number  of  healthy  wet  nurses.  The 
present  ratio  of  deaths  compares  favorably  with 
the  usual  rate  of  infant  mortality  in  the  city. 
The  nursery  and  child's  hospital  in  New  York 
was  founded  in  1854,  and  has  a  branch  on  the 
north  shore  of  Staten  Island.  Each  has  a  ly* 
ing-in  department.  The  number  of  children 
received  in  the  entire  establishment  in  1870 
was  447,  of  whom  128  died ;  in  1871  the  total 


FOUNTAIN 


FOUROROY 


351 


number  of  infants  and  mothers  nnder  its  care 
was  1,046,  of  whom  988  were  children,  174 
being  bom  in  the  institation.  The  rate  of  mor- 
talit/  of  the  infants  born  alive  in  the  institu- 
tion was  a  fraction  less  than  28  per  cent.  The 
New  York  infant  asylam  was  organized  in 
1871.  Its  country  home  is  to  be  arranged  on  a 
cottage  system  that  will  admit  of  proper  classi- 
fication of  the  nursing  mothers  and  such  chil- 
dren as  await  adoption.  The  institution  re- 
ceives compensation  from  the  city  of  New 
York  and  the  several  counties  that  commit  in- 
fants to  its  care.  The  number  received  from 
its  opening,  Nov.  27,  1871,  to  the  close  of  the 
same  year,  was  28,  and  no  deaths  occurred. 

FOUBrrAIN,  a  W.  county  of  Indiana,  bounded 
W.  by  the  Wabash  river,  and  drained  by  Goal 
and  other  creeks ;  area,  about  400  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1 870, 1 6,889.  It  is  intersected  by  the  Indian- 
apolis, Bloomington,  and  Western,  and  the  To- 
ledo, Wabash,  and  Western  railroads,  and  by 
the  Wabash  and  Erie  canal.  It  has  a  level 
surface,  about  a  quarter  of  which  is  occupied 
by  fine  prairie  land,  while  much  of  the  remain- 
der is  covered  with  thick  forests.  The  soil  con- 
sists chiefly  of  a  rich  black  loam.  Coal  and 
iron  are  obtained  in  large  quantities.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  413,786  bushels  of 
wheat,  574,426  of  Indian  com,  69,681  of  oats, 
58,609  of  potatoes,  10,679  tons  of  hay,  257,196 
lbs.  of  butter,  and  90,028  of  wool.  There  were 
6,578  horses,  8,977  milch  cows,  6,972  other 
cattle,  26,389  sheep,  and  28,800 swine;  8  man- 
afactories  of  carnages  and  wagons,  10  of  bar- 
rels and  casks,  2  of  furniture,  7  of  bricks,  2  of 
printing  ^^aper,  10  of  saddlery  and  harness,  1  of 
woollen  goods,  7  four  mills,  19  sawmills,  2  dis- 
tilleries, 5  breweries,  4  tanneries,  and  4  curry- 
ing establishments.    Capital,  Covington. 

FOCqufi,  Friedrich  Helirlch  Karl  de  la  M«tte, 
baron,  a  (German  novelist  and  poet,  born  in  the 
town  of  Brandenburg,  Feb.  12,  1777,  died  in 
Berlin,  Jan.  28,  1848.  The  grandson  of  a  dis- 
tinguished general  of  Frederick  the  Great,  he 
served  in  defence  of  his  country  in  early  youth, 
and  again  in  1818  in  the  war  against  Napoleon, 
was  wounded  at  Eulm,  and  present  at  Leipsic. 
Devoting  himself  henceforward  to  literature, 
he  became  one  of  the  most  original  and  fertile 
writers  of  the  romantic  school.  An  enthusi- 
astic love  for  the  ideal  Christian  chivalry  of 
the  middle  ages,  and  for  the  ancient  national 
poetry  of  Scandinavia  and  Germany,  pervades 
most  of  his  works,  which  embrace  novels,  epics, 
dramas,  &o.  He  is  best  known  by  his  Un- 
dine^ which  has  been  translated  into  nearly 
every  European  language.  Of  this  Coleridge 
said  that  there  was  something  in  it  even  be- 
yond Scott ;  for  it  was  one  and  single  in  pro- 
jection, and  presented,  what  Scott  had  never 
done,  an  absolutely  new  idea.  Of  his  other 
tales,  all  of  which  have  been  translated  into 
English,  "Sintram"  and  "Thiodolf"  are  the 
most  remarkable.  A  corrected  edition  of  his 
select  works  was  prepared  by  Fouqu6  before 
his  death  (12  vols.,  Halle,  1841). 

880  VOL.  vn.— 23 


FOFQUEr,  or  Fove^et,  Nlealas,  marquis  de 
Belle-Isle,  a  French  minister  of  finance,  born 
in  Paris  in  1615,  died  March  28, 1680.  He  en- 
tered the  public  service  at  an  early  age,  became 
procurator  general  of  the  parliament  of  Paris 
in  1650,  and  was  devoted  to  the  interests  of 
Anne  of  Austria  and  of  Mazarin,  by  whose  in- 
fluence he  was  made  superintendent  of  finances. 
He  succeeded  for  a  time  in  meeting  the  enor- 
mous expenses  of  the  state,  already  overladen 
with  debts,  but  a  large  deficit  in  his  accounts 
brought  upon  him  an  accusation  of  peculation. 
He  had  in  fact  amassed  an  immense  fortune, 
and  had  spent  18,000,000  francs  on  one  of  his 
ch4teaux.  Louis  XIY.  had  him  arrested  in 
1661  at  a  ffete  which  Fouquet  was  giving  in  his 
honor ;  and  he  was  convicted  of  peculation  and 
treason,  Deo.  20, 1664.  Colbert,  who  succeed- 
ed him,  was  the  cause  of  his  ruin.  Fouquet 
died  at  the  castle  of  Pignerol,  after  19  years  of 
captivity.  Although  strictly  watched,  he  con- 
trived to  write  considerably  while  in  prison, 
and  several  works,  chiefly  on  religious  subjects, 
are  attributed  to  him.  The  documents  refer- 
ring to  his  trial  were  published  in  Holland  in 
1666-7  in  15  vols.,  and  a  2d  edition  in  16  vols., 
under  the  title  of  (Euvrea  de  M,  Fouquet^  ap- 
peared in  1606. 

FOV^rrat-TIlffYILLE^itttiM  QMnttB,  a  French 
revolutionist,  bom  in  U6rouel,  near  St.  Quen- 
tin,  in  1747,  guiUotined  in  Paris,  May  7,  1795. 
He  studied  law  in  Paris,  was  for  a  time  procu- 
rator at  the  Ch&telet,  which  place  he  lost  by 
his  misconduct,  and  afterward  obtained  that  of 
police  clerk.  Ruined  by  vices  and  harassed  by 
debts,  he  became  an  agent  for  the  police,  and 
after  the  establishment  of  the  revolutionary 
tribunal,  March  10,  1798,  was  advanced  to  the 
post  of  public  accuser  before  it.  From  that 
time  till  July  28,  1794,  he  was  the  indefatiga- 
ble purveyor  of  the  gnillotine.  Indiflerent  to 
friends  and  enemies,  with  equal  remorseless- 
ness  he  sent  to  death  Bailly  and  Danton,  Yer- 
gniaud  and  H6bert,Marie  Antoinette  and  Robes- 
pierre. Soon  after  the  fall  of  Robespierre  the 
convention  brought  him  to  trial,  and  he  was 
condemned  and  executed. 

FOVRdtOT,  iBtdiie  Franfols,  count,  a  French 
chemist,  bom  in  Paris,  Jan.  15,  1755,  died 
there,  Dec.  16, 1809.  The  son  of  a  draggist  in 
reduced  circumstances,  he  tried  to  gain  a  living 
by  several  callings,  but  finally,  in  1775,  became 
a  student  of  medicine.  In  1777  he  published 
a  translation  of  Ramazzini's  Latin  ^*  Treatise  on 
the  Diseases  of  Mechanics,^'  with  notes  and  ad- 
ditions. In  1780  he  delivered  a  course  of  pop- 
ular lectures  on  chemistry  and  natural  history, 
which  attracted  a  large  auditory,  and  were 
published  in  1781.  In  1784  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  chemistry  at  the  jardin  du  roij 
now  jardin  des  plantes,  for  which  poet  he  had 
been  designated  by  Bufibn  in  preference  to 
BerthoUet.  He  had  been  previously  admitted 
to  the  scientific  meetings  held  at  the  house  of 
Lavoisier,  took  part  in  the  discussions  on  sys- 
tematizing chemistry,  and  was  one  of  the  edi- 


352 


FOUR-EYES 


FOURIER 


tors  of  the  Methode  de  nomenclature  ehimique^ 
which  appeared  in  1787,  and  marked  a  new  era 
in  the  progress  of  that  science.  He  meanwhile 
published  many  papers  upon  chemistry,  and  en- 
larged and  improved  his  lectures.  In  1792  he 
was  elected  assistant  deputy  to  the  coDvention, 
and  for  18  months  devoted  his  whole  time  and 
energy  to  extracting  and  purifying  saltpetre, 
which  was  then  much  needed  in  France  for  the 
manufacture  of  gunpowder.  During  the  reign 
of  terror,  Desault,  Ohaptal,  and  Darcet  were  in- 
debted to  him  for  their  safety ;  but  all  his  exer- 
tions were  powerless  to  save  Lavoisier.  After 
the  9th  Thermidor,  being  appointed  a  member 
of  the  committee  of  public  safety,  he  endeav- 
ored to  improve  the  system  of  public  education ; 
he  organized  the  polytechnic  school,  caused 
the  establishment  of  three  schools  of  medicine, 
and  suggested  the  idea  of  the  normal  school. 
On  the  adjournment  of  the  convention  he  was 
elected  to  the  council  of  ancients,  resumed  his 
public  discourses  on  science,  and  remodelled 
nis  lectures,  which,  under  the  title  of  Systkne 
des  eonnamaneee  ehimiquee^  et  de  leur  appli- 
cation  attx  pfienom^nes  de  la  nature  et  de  fart 
(6  vols.  4to  or  11  vols.  8vo,  Paris,  1801),  be- 
came *^the  greatest  monument  erected  to 
chemical  science  in  the  18th  century."  Bo- 
naparte appointed  him  director  general  of 
public  instruction;  under  his  care  the  public 
schools  flourished,  and  no  fewer  than  800  col- 
leges or  lyceums  were  established.  The  organ- 
ization of  the  new  university  of  France  was  de- 
vised by  him,  and  he  expected  to  be  appointed 
grand  master ;  but  Napoleon  gave  the  place  to 
Fontanes.  This  preyed  seriously  upon  his  mind, 
and  hastened  his  death.  Besides  the  works 
mentioned  above,  he  wrote  La  medecine  Selairee 
par  lee  sciencee  phyeiques  (4  vols.  8vo,  1791), 
La  philosophie  chimique  (8vo,  1792),  Tableaux 
eynoptiques  de  ehimie  (atlas  folio,  1805),  and 
many  scientific  papers  in  the  Memoires  de  Vaea- 
demie  des  ecienees  and  other  learned  collections. 

FOnUETES,  a  fish.    See  Anableps. 

FOURIER,  Pierre,  called  also  Piebbb  de  Ma- 
TAiNGOUBT,  a  French  religious  reformer  and 
founder,  bom  at  Mirecourt,  Lorraine,  Nov.  80, 
1666,  died  in  Gray,  Franche-0omt6,  Dec.  9, 
1640.  After  having  graduated  in  the  universi- 
ty of  Pont-&-Mousson,  he  became  a  canon  reg- 
ular of  the  order  of  Pr^montr^  in  the  abbey  of 
Chamousey,  near  £pinal.  In  1695,  the  perse- 
cutions of  the  degenerate  monks  having  forced 
him  to  leave  the  abbey,  he  was  appointed  at 
his  own  request  pastor  of  the  parish  of  Ma- 
taincourt,  where  his  zeal  for  the  education  of 
the  poor  and  his  exemplary  life  soon  produced 
wonderful  fruits.  He  opened  a  school  in  his 
residence,  established  free  schools  in  the  most 
populous  localities,  and  laid  the  foundations 
of  the  congregation  of  Notre  Dame  for  the 
education  of  young  girls.  This  society  was 
confirmed  by  Paul  V.  Oct.  6,  1616,  and  soon 
spread  all  over  France  and  into  Canada.  In 
1621  he  was  associated  by  Gregory  XV.  with 
Jean  de  Poroelet,  bishop  of  Toul,  for  the  pur- 


pose of  effecting  a  reform  of  the  order  of  Pr6> 
montr6.  Having  persuaded  the  canons  of  St. 
Mary  in  Pont-&-Mousson  to  enter  into  the  views 
of  the  pope,  Fourier  went  with  them  to  the 
abbey  of  St  Remi  in  Lun^ville,  where  after  the 
ordinary  novitiate  they  bound  themselves  by 
solemn  vows  to  a  new  congregation  called  St. 
Saviour,  one  of  whose  main  obligations  was  to 
educate  Christian  youth.  In  a  few  years  there 
were  nine  houses  of  these  reformed  canons,  and 
in  1632  Fourier  was  elected  superior  general. 
The  king  of  France  having  taken  possession 
of  Lorraine  in  1684,  Fourier  and  his  followers 
were  compelled  to  seek  an  asylum  in  Franche- 
Comt6.  They  settled  in  Gray,  and  there  Fou- 
rier continued  to  labor  with  ever-increasing 
energy  and  fruit  until  his  death.  He  was  beati- 
fied Jan.  29,  1730,  and  is  generally  spoken  of 
as  Blessed  Peter  Fourier.  The  order  was  sup- 
pressed at  the  revolution.  Of  late  years  an 
effort  has  been  made  to  restore  the  canons 
regular  of  Pr6montr6  with  the  rule  of  Fourier. 
The  sisterhood  of  Notre  Dame  (not  to  be  con- 
founded with  the  sisters  of  Notre  Dame  de 
Namur)  in  America  has  its  central  house  in 
Montreal,  and  possesses  flourishing  establish- 
ments in  New  England  and  Chili. 

FOURIER,  VnapsiM  Marie  Charles,  a  French 
writer  on  social  science,  bom  in  Besangon, 
April  7,  1772,  died  in  Paris,  Oct  10,  1887. 
From  his  earliest  infancy  he  manifested  a  sin- 
gular originality  and  force  of  character.  At 
school  he  was  diligent  and  quick  to  learn. 
The  prizes  for  French  themes  and  Latin  verse 
are  assigned  to  him  in  the  records  of  the 
town  school  for  the  year  1786.  But  his  favor- 
ite early  studies  were  geography,  botany,  and 
music.  His  pocket  money  was  spent  in  buying 
globes  and  charts,  and  much  of  his  leisure  time 
he  devoted  to  the  cultivation  of  flowers.  He 
was  sufficiently  master  of  music  to  be  enabled 
to  construct  a  new  musical  notation  by  which 
all  the  different  voices  and  instruments  may 
give  the  same  name  to  the  same  note,  instead 
of  employing  seven  or  eight  different  keys  or 
particular  scales.  On  leaving  school  he  was 
sent  to  Lyons,  where  he  entered  as  clerk  in 
a  commercial  house;  but  having  a  desire  to 
travel,  he  engaged  soon  after  with  a  house 
whose  business  connections  extended  over 
France,  Germany,  Switzerland,  Holland,  and 
Belgium.  This  gave  him  the  opportunities  for 
observation  which  he  desired.  In  1793,  hav- 
ing received  about  100,000  francs  as  his  share 
of  his  father^s  property,  he  began  business  for 
himself  in  Lyons,  embarking  his  whole  fortune 
in  colonial  produce,  which  he  purchased  at  Mar- 
seilles, and  expected  to  sell  at  the  former  city. 
But  just  then  the  troops  of  the  convention  oc- 
cupied Lyons,  and  pillaged  the  inhabitants, 
taking  the  greater  part  of  Fourier's  fortune. 
The  Lyonnese  rose  against  the  revolutionists, 
and  Fourier  joined  them,  but  the  insurrection 
was  promptly  suppressed.  Fourier  was  cast 
into  prison  for  five  days,  hourly  exi^cting  to 
be  led  out  to  the  guillotine,  and  only  escaped 


FOURIER 


353 


br  accident.  Flying  to  BesanQon,  he  was  again 
incarcerated  as  a  suspicioas  person.  By  join- 
ing the  revolutionary  army,  he  was  enabled  to 
exchange  the  cell  for  the  saddle,  and  served 
nearly  two  years  as  a  trooper  in  the  army  of 
the  Rhine.  He  obtained  his  discharge  on  ac- 
coant  of  ill  health,  Jan.  24,  1795.  During  his 
connection  with  the  army  he  made  important 
military  suggestions  to  the  government,  for 
which  he  received  its  thanks  through  Oarnot. 
Subsequently  also  he  i^ttracted  the  attention  of 
Gen.  Bonaparte  by  a  political  essay  put  forth  in 
a  local  journal.  On  regaining  his  liberty,  he 
resamed  his  commercial  pursuits.  Employed 
in  a  wholesale  warehouse  at  Marseilles,  he  was 
chosen  to  superintend  a  body  of  men  while 
they  secretly  cast  an  immense  quantity  of  rice 
into  the  sea.  France  had  been  suffering  from 
scarcity  daring  the  year,  and  these  monopo- 
lizers had  allowed  their  stores  to  rot  rather  than 
sell  them  at  a  reasonable  profit.  Fourier  after- 
ward devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  the  means 
of  effectually  preventing  such  abuses  of  mo- 
nopoly. In  1 799  he  believed  that  he  had  discov- 
ered "the  universal  laws  of  attraction,"  and 
the  essential  destiny  of  humanity  upon  earth. 
He  spent  many  years  in  elaborating  these  dis- 
coveries; his  first  work,  called  Thiorie  de$ 
quatre  mauvements  et  des  destinees  genirales, 
was  not  published  till  1808,  when  he  issued  the 
first  volume,  which  was  merely  a  prospectus 
of  the  work,  intended  to  procure  the  means 
of  publishing  the  rest  by  subscription;  but 
France  being  then  agitated  by  the  projects 
of  Napoleon,  no  attention  was  given  to  it.  It 
did  not  make  a  single  convert  till  1814,  when 
a  copy  of  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  Muiron  of 
Besan^n.  As  it  bore  the  imprint  of  Leip- 
sic,  without  the  name  or  address  of  the  au- 
thor, it  was  a  long  time  before  he  was  able 
to  find  out  Fourier,  who  then  resided  at  Bel- 
ley.  Muiron  afterward  assisted  him  in  the 
preparation  and  publication  of  his. works.  In 
1822  Fourier  removed  to  Besan^on,  and  pub- 
lished the  first  two  volumes  of  his  work  under 
the  title  of  Traite  de  Vassoeiation  domestiqus 
agrieoU,  which  in  its  latest  form  appeared  un- 
der the  more  imposing  title  of  Traite  de  V unite 
univeraelle^  and  was  the  great  work  of  his  life. 
As  originaJly  conceived,  it  was  meant  to  em- 
brace nine  volumes,  in  the  following  order :  1, 
the  abstract  principles  of  passional  attraction, 
and  their  partial  application  to  industrial  asso- 
ciations ;  2,  familiar  synthesis  of  the  principles 
of  attraction,  and  their  equilibrium  in  practice ; 
S,  the  analysis  of  man^s  physical,  moral,  and 
mental  nature,  individually  and  collectively, 
with  regard  to  individual  society  and  universal 
unity;  4,  methodical  synthesis  and  transcen- 
dental theory;  5,  commercial  duplicity  and 
ruinous  competition ;  6,  the  false  development 
of  human  nature,  and  a  regular  analysis  and 
synthesis  of  a  false  development  of  universal 
nature,  as  an  exception  to  universal  harmony ; 
7,  universal  analogy  and  illustrations  to  cos- 
mogony ;  8,  the  scientific  theory  of  the  immor- 


tality of  the  soul ;  and  9,  dictionary  of  contents 
and  references  to  the  whole  work.  Two  vol- 
umes only  were  printed  at  Paris,  and  these 
attracted  no  attention.  Five  years  later  Fou- 
rier drew  up  a  brief  summary  of  their  contents 
under  the  title  of  Kowoeau  monde  industriel  et 
soeietaire^  in  the  hope  of  getting  them  into 
notice  in  that  way.  In  1881,  when  the  St. 
Simonians  began  to  make  a  stir  in  France, 
Fourier,  who  had  established  himself  in  Paris, 
published  a  pamphlet  against  them  and  the 
followers  of  Robert  Owen,  accusing  them  of 
utter  ignorance  of  social  science,  and  of  gross 
charlatanry  in  their  pretensions;  and  from 
that  time  his  writings  began  to  receive  the 
attention  of  minds  inclined  to  such  studies. 
Many  of  the  disciples  of  St.  Simon,  seeing  the 
more  precise  and  scientific  nature  of  Fourier^s 
socialism,  abandoned  their  old  master  for  this 
new  teacher.  On  June  1,  1882,  a  journal  of 
the  socialistic  doctrines  of  Fourier  was  be- 
gun under  the  name  of  Le  Phalaneth'e,  A 
joint-stock  company  was  formed  to  realize 
the  new  theory  of  association,  and  one  gentle- 
man, M.  Baudet  Dulary,  bought  an  estate  at  a 
cost  of  500,000  francs.  Operations  were  com- 
menced, but  for  the  want  of  paying  sharehold- 
ers the  community  dispersed.  In  1885  Fourier 
published  another  work,  La  Jautse  indtutrie^ 
morcelee^  repugnante  et  memonghe^  et  Van* 
tidotey  Vindtistrie  naturelle,  conwinee^  attray- 
ante,  veridique,  dormant  quadruple  produit 
(1  vol.  8vo) ;  but  it  added  nothing  to  his  original 
discoveries.  He  was  about  to  publish  a  second 
part  when  he  died.  On  his  tomb  are  engraved 
the  three  fundamental  axioms  of  his  doctrine : 
La  eerie  diatribue  lee  harmoniee;  Les  attrae- 
tions  sant propartionellee  aux  destinies;  Ana* 
logie  universelle.  He  was  buried  in  the  ceme- 
tery of  Montmartre  in  Paris.  His  friends  had 
meanwhile  replaced  the  Phahmst^ey  whidh 
was  short-lived,  by  La  Phalange ;  and  when 
the  subject  had  created  an  audience  for  it- 
self, a  daily  paper.  La  DSmoeratie  Paciflaue^ 
was  established,  under  the  editorship  of  vie- 
tor  Consid^rant.  This  maintained  the  prop- 
agation till  it  was  discontinued  during  the 
reactionary  movements  which  followed  the 
revolution  of  1848. — ^Fourier's  doctrines  ob- 
tained some  vogue  in  France,  where  a  school 
was  regularly  organized  for  their  difftision.  At 
the  hc^d  of  it  were  Oonsid^rant,  Oantagrel, 
Victor  Hennequin,  Laverdaut,  Victor  Meu- 
nier,  and  other  ardent  young  men.  In  Eng- 
land Hugh  Doherty  placed  himself  at  the  head 
of  the  movement,  and  established  a  weekly 
paper  called  "The  Phalanx,"  while  in  the 
tlnited  States  Albert  Brisbane,  by  his  vehe- 
ment expositions  of  the  subject,  gave  to  it  an 
immense  6clat  and  temporary  success ;  but  of 
late  years  it  has  died  out  of  the  public  mind. 
Nevertheless,  the  scheme  of  Fourier  deserves 
notice.  He  was  a  man  of  the  noblest  humane 
impulses,  of  rare  acuteness  and  sagacity,  and 
of  original  imagination.  His  negative  criti- 
cisms of  the  disorders,  the  falsehoods,  and  the 


354 


FOURIER 


miseries  of  Bociety,  are  a  fearful  exposure  of 
the  ulcers  of  our  imperfect  civilization ;  and 
even  those  who  reject  his  more  positive  notions 
will  find  abundant  material  for  thought  in 
these  exposures.  The  fundamental  and  lead- 
ing principles  of  Fourier  are  summed  up  in 
the  following  short  formulas :  ^^l.  The  series 
distributes  the  harmonies  of  the  world.  2. 
Attractions  are  proportional  to  destinies.  8. 
Analogy  is  universal.''  In  other  words:  1,  all 
the  harmonies  of  the  universe  grow  out  of  a 
regular  and  uniform  order,  which  Fourier  de- 
nominated the  law  of  the  series ;  2,  all  beings 
are  led  to  and  kept  in  their  true  sphere,  not  by  a 
principle  of  external  force,  but  of  internal  at- 
traction ;  8,  the  universe,  being  everywhere  the 
same,  constructed  upon  the  same  infinite  model, 
and  according  to  the  same  eternal  laws,  must 
in  every  sphere  repeat  itself,  or  be  analogous. 
These  general  principles  or  deductions  Founer 
carried  out  into  all  branches  of  science,  but  his 
chief  application  of  them  was  to  social  science. 
Society  being  composed  of  men,  he  began  with 
an  analysis  of  human  nature,  of  human  im- 
pulses and  attractions.  The  permanent  princi- 
ples of  nature  were  three :  1,  the  active  prin- 
ciple, or  spirit;  2,  the  passive  principle,  or 
matter ;  8,  the  neutral  principle,  or  the  math- 
ematical laws  of  justice  and  harmony.  The 
nature  of  man  was  coordinate  with  this  di- 
vision, and  contained:  1,  his  physical  nature, 
adapted  to  the  passive  principle,  or  matter ;  2, 
his  moral  nature,  adapted  to  the  active  princi- 
ple, or  spirit ;  8,  his  intellectual  nature,  adapt- 
ed to  the  neutral  principles  of  law  and  justice. 
The  oonunon  object  of  all  his  physical  desires 
is  sensuous  enjoyment ;  the  common  object  of 
his  moral,  mutual  affection ;  the  conunon  ob- 
ject of  his  intellectual,  order  and  association ; 
while  over  all  presides  a  superior  tendency 
to  unity  or  universal  harmony.  The  essential 
faculties  of  the  soul,  then,  or  impulses  to  ac- 
tion or  life,  Fourier  analyzed  into  five  sensuous 
"passions,"  four  moral  passions,  and  three  in- 
tellectual passions.    Thus : 


SflDBDOOS  Ik- 

cnltles,  or 
modes  of 
eDjoym«iit 


Moral  affac* 
tionB. 


Intellectual 
impabes. 


1.  Slg'ht,  or  desire  for  eidoymenta  of  color,  fta 

2.  Hearing,  or  desire  for  the  pleaAores  of 

sound. 
8.  Taste,  or  desire  for  dellg^hts  of  the  palate. 
4.  Smell,  or  desire  for  agreeable  odors. 
ft.  Touch,  or  desire  for  external  eaae,  Ac 

6.  Friendship,  or  the  affection  of  equals. 

7.  Love,  or  toe  affiDction  of  the  sexes. 

8.  Paternity,  or  the  fiiroily  affection. 

9.  Ambition,  or  the  affecuon  of  society. 

'10.  Cahalistic  or  emulative  impulse. 

11.  Alternating  or  varying  impulse. 

13.  Composite  or  combining  impulse. 
^18.  Unityiam,  or  harmonizing  aspiration. 


These  simple  and  essential  desires  of  the  soul, 
according  to  Fourier,  may  all  be  directed  into 
a  contrary  and  subversive  development  by  the 
unnatural  action  of  circumstances.  In  the 
false  conditions  of  society  they  become  so 
many  uncontrollable  and  warring  appetites. 
What  they  want  for  their  rectification  and 
true  development  is  a  social  sphere  adapted  to 


their  harmonic  action.  Society  must  be  con- 
stituted according  to  the  same  law  of  groups 
and  series  which  harmonizes  universal  nature. 
The  association  of  the  three  principal  agents 
of  production,  that  is,  of  capital,  science,  and 
labor,  for  the  mutual  advantage  of  each  member 
of  such  association,  in  the  several  branches  of 
agriculture,  manufacture,  commerce,  domestic 
industry,  art,  science,  and  education,  would 
prepare  the  way  for  this  true  society.  The 
economies  effected  in  expenditure  and  con- 
sumption would  be  prodigious;  the  distribu- 
tion of  labor  and  of  its  result  would  become 
gradually  very  exact  and  eqtiitable ;  the  plea- 
sures of  combined  and  varied  exertion  would 
take  from  toil  its  monotony  and  its  repulsive 
aspects ;  while  the  skill,  the  wisdom,  the  grace 
of  every  member  of  the  association  would  be 
always  available  to  the  benefit  of  every  other 
member.  The  unity  of  the  association  would 
be  expressed  in  the  common  domain  and  com- 
bined dwelling  house  (the  ^^  phalanstery  ") ;  the 
variety,  in  the  separate  apartments,  the  different 
labors,  the'  individual  tastes.  A  township  of 
about  1,800  persons,  male  and  female,  Fourier 
regarded  as  the  germ  of  larger  combinations, 
which  would  interweave  and  unite  themselves 
together,  step  by  step,  until  a  network  of  con- 
nected associations,  bound  by  the  same  princi- 
ples, and  governed  by  a  syndic  or  council  of 
representatives,  would  be  spread  over  a  state, 
a  nation,  Europe,  the  globe.  But  this  grand 
and  world-embracing  harmony  would  be  the 
result  of  no  instanttmeous  or  speedy  change, 
but  of  a  regular  development  of  the  combined 
order,  according  to  the  law  of  the  series.  So- 
ciety, he  said,  passed  through  a  process  of  reg- 
ular growth,  firom  its  most  infantile  condition 
to  its  highest  maturity,  when  it  would  again 
begin  to  decline,  and  fijially  fall  into  decrepi- 
tude and  decay.  In  this  it  resembled  the 
growth  of  the  individual  man,  who  had  his 
ascending  vibration,  or  advance  from  infancy 
to  youth,  from  youth  to  manhood,  from  man- 
hood to  old  age,  and  then  by  a  descending  vi- 
bration from  old  age  to  death.  This  universal 
career  of  humanity  Fourier  distributed  in  the 
following  order:  two  phases  of  incoherence, 
containing  each  seven  social  periods;  two 
phases  of  combination,  containing  each  nine 
social  periods ;  grand  total  of  82  social  periods 
or  societies.  The  first  seven  of  these  periods, 
embracing  the  history  and  progress  of  the 
world  up  to  the  present  time,  he  named :  1, 
Edenism;  2,  savagery;  8,  patriarchalism ;  4, 
barbarism;  5,  civilization;  6,  guaranteeiam ; 
and  7,  simple  association.  Five  of  them,  as 
the  records  of  all  the  earth  prove,  have  been 
periods  of  constraint,  poverty,  oppression, 
fraud,  carnage,  and  false  science;  the  other 
two  are  the  feeble  dawns  of  a  better  day, 
ushered  in  by  associations  of  joint  interest  and 
reciprocal  guarantee.  But  as  soon  as  society 
shall  have  reached  them,  a  higher  and  compo- 
site order  begins,  when  seven  other  periods, 
distioguished  by  successive  creations  of  har- 


FOURIER 


FOWLER 


355 


monic  beings,  will  give  happiness  to  all  the 
world.  Then  comes  the  plenitude  and  apogee 
of  harmony,  the  pivotal  or  amphiharmonic  age 
of  the  race,  which  nature  wiU  recognize  hj  the 
conversion  of  the  aurora  borealis  into  a  boreal 
crown,  encircling  the  earth  as  the  rings  of 
Saturn  encircle  that  planet,  the  stationary  po- 
sition of  the  ecliptic,  and  tJie  disinfection  and 
perfuming  of  all  the  waters  of  the  seas,  by 
means  of  the  boreal  fluid.  This  supreme  con- 
dition of  nature  and  man  will  continue  for 
about  8,000  years,  when  the  beam  of  happi- 
ness will  again  descend,  and  society  pass 
through  a  series  of  declines,  similar  to  the 
series  of  its  advances.  The  earth  itself  will  be 
sniitten  with  a  palsy  of  weakness,  and  after 
many  convulsions  sink  into  death.  The  hu- 
man race,  however,  will  not  perish,  but  by  a 
series  of  bicomposite  transmigrations  attain  to 
immortality  in  other  spheres.  Fourier  was 
rigidly  true  to  his  method  in  all  departments 
of  inquiry,  and  applied  it  with  the  most  in- 
trepid and  unhesitating  fidelity,  whatever  the 
conclusions  to  which  it  might  lead.  His  cosmo- 
gonical  and  ultramundane  speculations  there- 
fore assumed  often  the  most  grotesque  forms ; 
and  yet  his  disciples  found  so  much  beauty  in 
his  social  scheme,  that  they  endured  his  aber- 
rations for  the  sake  of  the  comprehensive  ideas 
which  he  suggested. — His  collected  works  (8d 
ed.,  6  vols.,  Paris,  1841-'5)  do  not  include  all 
his  writings.  Some  transcendental  specula- 
tions have  since  been  published  separately; 
others  still  remain  in  manuscript. 

FOVUB,  Jetti  Baptlste  Jtseph,  baron,  a  French 
savant,  bom  in  Auxerre,  March  21,  1768,  died 
in  Paris,  May  16,  1880.  He  was  professor  of 
mathematics  at  Auxerre,  afterward  a  teach- 
er in  the  polytechnic  school  at  Paris,  and  in 
1T98  a  member  of  the  scientific  commission  in 
Egypt.  In  1802  he  was  appointed  prefect  of 
the  department  of  Is^re,  and  in  1808  made  a 
baron.  By  the  draining  of  the  marshes  of 
Bourgoin  he  freed  more  than  40  communes 
from  the  pestilential  malaria  to  which  they  had 
always  been  subject.  On  the  return  of  Napo- 
leon from  Elba,  he  issued  a  proclamation  in 
favor  of  Louis  XVIIL,  and  was  removed  by 
the  emperor,  who  however  appointed  him  pre- 
fect of  the  department  of  the  Rh6ne.  In  1817 
he  became  a  member  of  the  academy  of 
sciences,  and  soon  afterward  perpetual  secre- 
tary jointly  with  Ouvier,  and  in  1827  member 
of  the  French  academy.  Upon  the  death  of 
Laplace  in  1827  he  became  president  of  the 
eonseil  deperfeetiannement  in  the  polytechnic 
school.  His  principal  works  are  Theorie  ana- 
lytique  de  la  chaleur  (1822),  and  Analyse  des 
iquation»  determinses  (1881),  a  posthumous 
publication,  but  written  in  his  youth. 

fOnunBTKON)  Bcaott,  a  French  inventor, 
bom  in  St.  £tienne,  Oct  81,  1802,  died  in 
Paris,  July  8,  1867.  He  was  educated  at  the 
school  of  mines  in  his  native  city,  and  upon 
leaving  it  in  1819  was  employed  in  the  mines 
of  Greozot,  and  invented  the  turbine.     His 


first  turbine  was  exhibited  with  complete  suc- 
cess at  Inval,  near  Gisors,  in  1884,  and  the 
prize  of  6,000  francs,  which  had  for  nine  years 
remained  unawarded,  was  bestowed  upon  him 
by  the  academy  of  sciences.  His  proposal  to 
establish  several  of  these  machines  in  the  Seine 
at  Paris,  for  the  purpose  of  supplying  every 
part  of  the  city  with  water,  as  well  as  of  filling 
the  ditches  which  surround  the  fortifications, 
was  commended  by  Arago.  He  published 
Memoires  sur  les  turbine$  hydrauliqueSy  et  Uur 
application  en  grand  dans  les  ttsines  et  manu- 
factures (Li6ge,  1841),  and  a  Table  pour  fa- 
ciliter  les  calculs  des  formules  relatives  au 
mouvement  des  eaux  dans  les  tuyaux  de  con- 
duite  (Li4ge,  1844). 

FOVRNIEK.  fiddurd,  a  French  author,  bom 
in  Orleans,  June  15,  1819.  He  early  devoted 
himself  to  literary  labors,  and  produced  many 
plays  alone  or  in  collaboration  with  others. 
One  of  his  best  efibrts  is  Comeille  d  la  hutte 
Saint- JRoch  (1862) ;  his  drama  Gutenberg  was 
favorably  received  in  1868  at  the  Od6on,  after 
having  been  rejected  by  the  Th6Atre  Fran^ais. 
His  writings  relate  to  a  great  variety  of  sub- 
jects, and  he  has  edited  many  voluminous 
publications  and  reviews.  His  best  known 
works  are :  L* Esprit  des  autres  (1865 ;  4th 
enlarged  ed.,  1861) ;  L^ Esprit  dans  Fhistoire 
(1857;  2d  ed.,  1860);  and  Le  vieux-net^f,  his- 
toire  ancienne  des  inventions  et  decouvertes  mo- 
dsmes  (2  vols.,  1859). 

FOWLEB.  I.  OrsMSqilre,  an  American  phre- 
nologist, bom  in  Oohocton,  Steuben  co.,  N.  T., 
Oct  11,  1809.  He  graduated  at  Amherst  col- 
lege in  1884,  and  immediately  began  to  lecture 
on  phrenology.  In  1885  he  ana  his  brother 
Lorenzo  opened  an  office  in  New  York.  In 
1886  the  two  wrote  and  published  ^*  Phrenology 
Proved,  Illustrated,  and  Applied."  "  The  Self- 
Instructor  in  Phrenology  and  Physiology " 
(1849)  is  also  their  joint  production.  In  Octo- 
ber, 1888,  he  issued  in  rhiladelphia  the  first 
number  of  the  "  American  Phrenological  Jour- 
nal," which  was  published  in  that  city  till  1842, 
when  it  was  removed  to  New  York,  and  con- 
tinued by  the  firm  of  0.  S.  and  L.  N.  Fowler, 
which  became  Fowlers  and  Wells  in  1844,  and, 
by  the  retirement  of  the  Fowlers,  S.  R.  Wells 
in  1868.  Meantime  Mr.  Fowler  has  pursued, 
as  editor,  lecturer,  and  author,  a  career  of 
unusual  activity,  lecturing  in  almost  every 
part  of  the  United  States  and  Canada.  The 
entire  years  1872  and  1878  were  devoted  to 
lecturing  in  California  and  on  the  Pacific 
coast.  In  1868  he  removed  to  Boston,  where 
he  now  resides  (1874).  Among  the  many 
volumes  on  phrenology  and  kindred  subjects 
which  he  has  published,  may  be  mentioned 
^*  Memory  and  Intellectual  Improvement  ap- 
plied to  Self-Education"  (1841);  "Physi- 
ology, Animal  and  Mental,  applied  to  Health 
of  Body  and  Power  of  Mind  "  (1842) ;  "  Matri- 
mony, or  Phrenology  applied  to  the  Selection 
of  Companions"  (1842);  "Self-Culture  and 
Perfection  of  Character  "  (1848) ;  "  Hereditary 


356 


FOWLING  PIECE 


Descent,  its  Laws  and  Facts  applied  to  Human 
Improvement "  (1848) ;  "  Love  and  Parentage 
applied  to  the  Improvement  of  Offspring  ^^ 
(1844) ;  "  A  Home  for  All,  or  the  Gravel  Wall 
and  Octagon  Mode  of  Building  "  (1849);  and 
"Sexual  Science"  (8vo,  Philadelphia,  1870). 
II.  Lorenzo  Niks,  brother  of  the  preceding,  born 
in  Oohocton,  June  28,  1811,.  His  early  history 
is  almost  identical  with  that  of  his  brother, 
whom  he  accompanied  on  his  lecturing  tours. 
He  has  also  lectured  alone  in  all  the  consider- 
able towns  of  the  United  States  and  the  British 
American  provinces.  In  1863  he  went  to  Lon- 
don, where  he  now  resides  (1879)  and  has  lec- 
tured in  all  parts  of  Great  Britain.  Several 
of  his  lectures  have  been  published  iQ  Lon- 
don, but  not  reprinted  in  the  United  States. 
In  addition  to  the  works  written  in  connection 
with  his  brother,  he  is  the  author  of  the 
'*  Synopsis  of  Phrenology  and  Physiology " 
(1844),  and  '^Marriage,  its  History  and  Phi- 
losophy, with  Directions  for  Happy  Marriages  " 
(1846).  As  a  member  of  the  lirm  of  Fowlers 
and  Wells  he  was  engaged  in  publishing  "  Life 
Illustrated,"  a  weekly  Journal,  and  the  month- 
ly periodicals,  the  '*  American  Phrenological 
Journal "  and  the  "  Water-cure  Journal," 
which  has  been  superseded  by  the  *^  Science 
of  Health."  IlL  Lydit  Folger,  wife  of  the  pre- 
ceding, born  in  Nantucket,  Mass.,  in  1828,  died 
in  London,  Jan.  26, 1879.  She  was  a  graduate 
of  the  Syracuse  medical  college,  and  practised 
medicine.  She  also  lectured  frequently  on 
physiology  and  the  diseases  of  women  and 
children,  and  was  the  autiior  of  "  Familiar  Les 
sons  on  Phrenology  and  Physiology  "  (1847), 
and  *^  Familiar  Lessons  on  Astronomy  "  (1848). 
FOWUNO  PIECE,  a  weapon  used  by  sports- 
men for  killing  small  game.  It  has  always 
been,  among  dilettanti  addicted  to  hunting  as 
a  pastime,  the  object  of  much  extravagant  and 
capricious  fancy.  Like  bibliomania,  the  pas- 
sion for  sporting  weapons  is  often  concerned 
with  the  extrinsic  rather  than  the  intrinsic 
merit  of  its  object ;  and  weapons  by  particular 
makers  are  valued  like  the  handiwork  of  the 
Elzevirs  and  Foulises,  and  for  similar  reasons. 
The  barrels  are  the  most  important  part  of  this 
weapon,  and  in  their  construction  the  maker 
endeavors  to  secure  the  greatest  possible  light- 
ness consistent  with  the  requisite  strength.  Be- 
fore the  invention  of  cast  steel,  and  before  the 
manipulation  of  that  metal  was  well  understood, 
wrought  iron  only  was  used.  The  iron  ob- 
tuned  from  the  Catalan  forges  and  bloomaries, 
60  generally  used  a  century  ago,  was,  fi*om  the 
nature  of  the  process  and  materials,  of  excel- 
lent quality.  The  old  habit  of  saving  and  re- 
working scrap  iron  of  all  forms  tended  further 
to  improve  it ;  and  it  is  not  surprising  to  find 
that,  for  gun  barrels  requiring  the  best  iron, 
small  scrap,  like  old  nails,  wire,  and  waste 
clippings  of  metal,  should  have  been  resorted 
to.  Old  horse  nails  (stubs)  were  viewed  with 
especial  favor,  and  popular  tradition  attached 
some  mysterious  virtue  to  the  iron  which  had 


performed  service  in  a 'horse's  hoof;  they  were 
always  saved  by  farriers  with  scrupulous  care, 
and  sold  to  the  gun  makers.  The  real  utility 
of  such  materia],  aside  from  the  quality  due  to 
repeated  manufacture,  lies  in  the  fact  that  the 
damask,  or  shading  of  barrels,  cannot  be  obtained 
without  using  small  pieces  of  iron,  which  muKt 
be  welded  together,  and  drawn  down  into  rods 
under  the  hammer,  and,  when  twisted  and 
worked  into  the  barrel,  must  be  etched  with 
acids.  In  welding  together  these,  small  frag- 
ments, a  film  of  cinder  forms  upon  the  surface 
of  each ;  and  in  the  subsequent  forging,  draw- 
ing, or  twisting,  this  film  constitutes  a  vein  in 
the  metal,  and  is  made  visible  by  its  darker 
color  and  the  greater  facility  with  which  it  is 
dissolved  by  acids.  When  the  value  and  prop- 
erties of  cast  steel  became  known,  this  metal 
was  used  in  gun  barrels,  at  first  in  small  quan- 
tities, but  gradually  to  the  extent  of  three 
fourths ;  and  finally  the  highest  grade  of  work- 
manship involved  the  use  of  steel  alone.  1. 
Damask  (or  ^^ Damascus")  barrels  are  made 
of  metal  prepared  in  the  following  manner : 
Alternate  strips  or  layers  of  soft  wrought  iron 
and  steel  are  piled  together,  and  drawn  down 
into  rods  -j^  of  an  inch  square.  These  rods  are 
then  twisted  to  an  extreme  degree,  until  the 
original  angles  describe  16  to  20  turns  around 
the  axis  of  the  rod  in  every  inch  of  ita  length. 
They  are  again  squared,  and  three  of  them  are 
welded  together  laterally,  and  drawn  into  a  rod 
about  half  an  inch  wide  and  a  quarter  of  an 
inch  thick.  2.  Wire  twist  is  piled  in  the  same 
manner  and  with  the  same  materials  as  dam- 
ask, but  is  drawn  into  rods  three  eighths  of  an 
inch  wide,  and  of  variable  thickness.  They 
are  not  subjected  to  torsion,  like  damask,  but 
are  hammered  at  once  into  the  gauge  required 
for  coiling,  so  that  the  alternating  layers  of 
iron  and  steel  may  appear  like  a  series  of  con- 
solidated wires,  runnmg  around  the  barrel. 
8.  The  stub  twist  is  forged  from  a  mixture  of 
iron  and  steel,  clipped  into  shreds,  heated, 
tilted,  and  rolled  into  a  small  rod.  This  rod  is 
cut  into  short  lengths,  which  are  piled,  and 
drawn  into  a  ribbon  of  suitable  dimensions  for 
coiling.  4.  Stub  damask  is  made  from  the 
same  materials  as  stub  twist,  but  the  rods  after 
the  first  drawing  are  subjected  to  a  high  degree 
of  torsion,  and  two  or  three  of  them  are  then 
welded  lateraUy  to  form  the  ribbon.  5.  Ohar- 
ooal  iron,  or  carbonized  iron,  for  barrels,  is 
made  from  the  punchings  and  clippings  of 
plate  and  sheet  iron,  melted  and  cast  into  an 
mgot,  which  is  rolled  into  rods,  the  same  as 
stub  twist.  6.  Three-penny  skelp  is  made  by 
fagoting  scrap  iron,  without  steel,  heating  it  in 
an  air  furnace,  and  forging  it  into  small  rods, 
which  are  cut  up,  and  again  tilted  into  the 
proper  form.  7.  Two- penny  or  Wednesbnry 
skelp  is  similar  to  the  foregoing,  but  a  lower 
grade  of  scrap  is  used.  8.  Sham-damn  skelp 
is  common  wrought  iron,  forged  at  once  into 
the  ribbon,  and  intended  only  for  the  common- 
est article  of  trade.    Of  the  foregoing  varieties 


FOWUNG  PIECE 


357 


the  stab  twist  is  the  best,  though  a  good  wire 
twist,  if  perfectly  sound,  is  fully  equal  to  it; 
but  the  latter  is  more  liable  to  imperfect  weld- 
ing, and  the  barrels  made  from  it  have  been 
known  to  break  transversely ;  but  this  is  a  rare 
ocoarrence,  and  they  are  not  liable  to  bnrst. 
The  damask  and  stub  damask  are,  when  skil- 
fully made,  very  beautiful  barrels,  of  great 
strength,  and  slightly  inferior  to  the  stnb  and 
wire  twists.  The  most  curious  and  elegant 
damask  is  made  at  Li6ge,  and  many  beautiful 
specimens  are  produced  at  Birmingham  in 
England,  at  Vienna,  Geneva,  and  Berlin.  9. 
Of  ail  barrels,  those  of  laminated  steel  combine 
in  the  highest  degree  lightness  and  strength, 
and,  though  less  curious  and  elaborate  in  their 
damaskeening  than  the  true  damask,  are  yet 
very  handsomely  shaded.  They  are  made  by 
piling  alternate  sheets  of  steel  and  wrought 
iron,  the  former  being  much  the  thicker,  and 
hammering  the  pile  down  until  the  laminao 
are  exceedingly  thin.  *  The  laminsB  are  disposed 
in  wavy  forms,  and  their  disposition  is  varied 
in  many  ways.  Torsion  is  sometimes  given  to 
a  moderate  extent ;  but  an  extreme  degree  of 
it  is  avoided,  as  it  tends  to  diminish  the  abso- 
lute strength  of  the  ribbon. — The  ribbons  of 
various  materials  are  coiled  into  the  form  of 
the  barrel,  around  a  mandrel  and  the  edges 
of  the  helix  ttre  welded  togetner,  about  three 
inches  at  a  heat,  by  **  jumping  "  the  coil  on  an 
anvil.  .The  various  Innds  of  barrels  made  at 
Birmingham  are  characterized  by  the  width  of 
the  ribbon  used  for  the  coil.  Thus,  the  width ' 
of  the  Birmingham  damask  ribbon  is  -|4  ^^  ^^^ 
inch ;  of  the  stub  twist,  | ;  of  the  stub  damask, 
^1 ;  of  the  charcoal  iron,  ^ ;  of  the  three-penny 
skelp,  };  of  the  two-penny  skelp,  1  inch;  and 
of  the  sham-damn,  1^  inch.  Most  frequently 
the  latter  is  not  twisted  at  all,  bat  is  lap-weld- 
ed at  once  into  a  tube.  These  dimensions, 
together  with  the  texture  of  the  etching  (when 
the  etching  is  genuine),  are  of  assistance  in 
identifying  the  structure.  The  Li^ge  damask 
10  ususdly  much  smaller,  both  in  tracery  and  in 
width  of  helix.  Barrels  are  frequently  veneered 
with  damask  over  a  tube  of  inferior  metal,  and 
this  deception  is  difficult  to  detect  in  many 
cases,  so  artfully  is  the  barrel  covered  not  only 
in  its  cylindrical  part,  but  at  the  ends.  But 
first-class  makers  never  resort  to  this  trick. 
Veneered  barrels  are  usually  thicker  and 
heavier  than  the  varieties  they  are  intended 
to  simulate.  It  is  obvious  that  a  barrel  of 
sufficient  strength  can  be  made  of  the  poorest 
of  the  foregoing  qualities,  if  the  sportsman  is 
willing  to  tolerate  an  increased  weight;  but  a 
sham-damn  or  two-penny  skelp,  no  thicker 
than  a  stub-twist  of  the  best  quality,  would  be 
nearly  as  dangerous  to  the  hunter  as  to  his 
quarry.  Excellent  barrels  are  now  made  of 
Bessemer  and  Siemens  Martin  steel,  rival- 
ling all  but  the  laminated  steel  in  absolute 
strength.  They  are  perfectly  plain,  without 
weld  or  damask,  and  are  made  very  cheaply, 
in  the  same  manner  as  musket  barrels  (see 


Musket),  by  drawing  a  hollow  cylinder  of  steel 
to  the  proper  dimensions  over  a  bulbed  man- 
drel. The  two  barrels  of  a  double-barrelled 
fowling  piece  are  united  by  brazing  or  sol- 
dering to  an  intermediate  rib.  The  taper  of 
the  barrels  is  such  that  in  the  setting  the  two 
axes  converge  at  a  point  about  40  yards  in 
front  of  the  muzzle.  With  this  degree  of  con- 
vergence, the  cross  sections  of  the  rib  should 
be  uniform  at  all  points.  The  best  and  lightest 
barrels  are  usually  finished  externally  in  such 
a  manner  that  a  line  drawn  from  breech  to 
muzzle  is  slightly  convex  toward  the  axis  of 
the  barrel,  and  concave  outward,  and  in  this 
case  the  rib  requires  very  skilful  fitting.  The 
lock  of  the  piece  is  the  member  most  liable  to 
derangement  by  use.  It  should  be  of  simple 
construction,  and  rather  massive.  A  light,  deli- 
cate lock  should  be  regarded  with  suspicion. 
The  points  most  worthy  of  attention  are:  1. 
The  method  of  attaching  the  main  spring  to 
the  tumbler.  The  pivots  should  be  large  and 
strong,  and  fitted  with  precision.  The  ham- 
mer should  be  set,  with  reference  to  the  main 
spring,  in  such  a  manner  that  the  spring  may 
exert  its  most  direct  action  and  greatest  force 
when  the  hammer  is  down.  2.  The  pivot  of 
the  sear  should  be  set  so  that  it  will  be  disen- 
gaged freely  by  the  trigger,  without  danger  of 
wearing  too  much,  and  at  the  same  time  be  in 
no  danger  of  catching  at  the  half-cock  notch. 
8.  The  main  spring  should  be  attached  to  the 
look  plate  so  that  it  can  be  removed  readily, 
and  a  new  one  substituted  by  a  good  work- 
man. This  spring  is  liable  to  lose  its  tension 
^y  ag®7  whether  in  nse  or  not. — ^Within  the 
past  ten  years  breech-loading  fowling  pieces 
have  come  into  general  nse.  That  they  are 
more  convenient  than  muzzle-loaders  cannot 
be  questioned,  and  there  is  no  material  point 
in  which  they  are  objectionable,  excepting  the 
greater  cost  of  weapon  and  ammunition,  which 
is  more  than  compensated  by  their  great  ad- 
vantages. A  serviceable  breech-loader  invoIviBS 
the  use  of  prepared  cartridges,  well  primed  and 
enclosed  in  oases  of  metal  or  other  strong  ma- 
terial ;  copper  or  brass  cases  are  much  the  best, 
since  they  can  be  made  to  enter  the  chamber 
loosely,  and  the  elasticity  of  the  metal  allows 
a  temporary  expansion  during  the  act  of  dis- 
charge, without  producing  any  permanent  en- 
largement, thus  permitting  the  case  to,  be 
readily  extracted  afterward.  The  metal  case, 
moreover,  forms  a  perfect  gas  check.  Papier- 
mach6  cases  are  objectionable,  because  they 
are  liable  to  change  their  dimensions,  expand- 
ing when  long  exposed  to  dampness,  and  con- 
tracting when  they  dry.  Many  ready -primed 
cartridges  are  liable  to  failure  through  a  de- 
terioration of  the  priming.  This  is  a  paste 
containing  mercuric  fulminate,  and  the  most 
frequent  cause  of  deterioration  is  a  feeble  but 
continuous  voltaic  action,  which  is  generated 
when  the  fulminate  is  in  contact  with  two 
kinds  of  metal.  If  a  single  kind  of  metal  is 
used  (either  copper  or  brass)  to  form  the  re- 


358 

oeptaole  of  the  fulmEnate,  this  nill  not 
and  the  primer  will  retain  its  senaitii  . 
The  Tarietj  of  breeob-loading  weapons  de- 
soribed  in  specnal  treatises  on  this  Rubject  is 
very  great. 

NX  (eu^pM,  Got.)  a  carnivoroiis  animal  be- 
lonpng  to  the  vulpine  diviaion  of  the  family 
eanida.  Foxes  maj  be  distingaished  fttim  the 
dogs,  wolves,  and  other  diurnal  eanida,  by 
their  lower  stature,  pointed  muzzle,  shorter 
neok,  slender  limbs,  and  long,  bofihy,  and  cylia- 
drical  toil;  the  fiir  is  finer,  thicker,  and  more 
glossy ;  they  diffase  a  strong  scent  from  a  gland 
at  the  base  of  the  tail,  so  that  hounds  can  easily 
track  Aem ;  they  dig  bnirows,  and  hunt  at 
night,  the  popil  of  the  eye  forming  a  vertical 
fisHQre ;  the  dentition  is  the  same  aa  that  of  the 
wolf  and  dog.  Foxes  are  shj,  conniDg,  sus- 
picious, cleanly,  nnsociabte,  and  incapable  of 
troe  domesticity ;  their  senses  of  sight,  smell, 
and  hearing  are  very  acute,  and  their  speed  is 
great ;  their  tricks  to  escape  their  enemies  and 
to  seize  their  prey  are  so  remarkable,  that  the 
epithet  foxy  is  proverbially  applied  to  the  odq- 
ning,  deceitM,  and  unscrDpnlous  knave.  Steal- 
ing from  his  hiding  place  at  night,  the  foz  fol- 
lows the  steps  of  small  animals,  and  pounces 
Dpon  the  hare  in  her  form,  and  grouse,  par- 
tridges, and  pheasants  on  their  nests;  he  is 
fond  of  fruit,  espeoially  grapes,  and  will  est 
squirrels,  rats,  moles,  field  mice,  cheese,  fish, 
and  also  small  reptiles,  insects,  and  even  car- 
rion ;  in  oaltiv&ted  distriota  he  is  fond  of  visit- 
ing tJie  farm  yard  in  search  of  poultry  and  egga. 
Foxes  are  so  cunning  that  they  ore  very  rarely 
taken  in  any  kind  of  trap ;  the  favorite  and 
surest  way  of  destroying  them  is  by  meat  poi- 
soned by  strychnine,  which  is  now  familiarly 
employed  for  this  purpose  even  by  our  remote 
Indian  tribes.  They  oring  forth  once  a  year, 
from  four  to  eight  at  a  birtli,  the  yoong  being 
born  with  the  eyes  closed ;  the  breeding  sea- 
son in  the  northern  states  begins  towai^  the 
end  of  February,  and  gestation  continues  60  to 
6S  days.  There  is  considerable  variety  in  tbe 
tones  of  tbe  voice ;  they  lie  down  in  a  curved 
form,  sleep  profoondly,  and,  when  watching 
birds,  stretch  the  bind  legs  behind  them,  a 
habit  noticed  in  some  dogs;  they  hunt  singly, 
each  one  plundering  for  the  satisfaction  of  his 
own  appetite.  Of  the  14  or  more  well  ascer- 
tained speciea,  six  are  found  in  the  United 
States ;  they  are  distributed  over  the  surface 
of  both  hemispheres,  most  abundantly  in  the 
north,  and  never,  according  to  Hamilton  Smith, 
aoath  of  the  equator ;  the  resemblance  between 
the  species  is  ^eater  than  in  other  genera  of 
the  family.  Prof.  Baird  restricts  tlie  genus 
Tulpet  to  those  species  having  a  long  muzzle, 
the  tail  with  soft  for  and  long  hair  uniformly 
mixed,  and  the  temporal  crests  of  the  aknll  com- 
ing nearly  in  contact,  the  red  foz  being  the 
type  of  this  section ;  he  proposes  the  genus 
itrocyon  for  those  speoies  which,  like  the  gray 
fox,  have  a  short  muzzle,  the  tail  with  a  con- 
cealed mane  of  stiff  hairs  without  any  tnt«r- 


mixtore  of  toft  fiir,  the  temporal  create  always 
widely  separated,  and  the  under  jaw  with  an 
angular  emargination  below. — The  commoD 
American  red  fox  ( V./ulvtit,  Deem.)  has  long, 
utfcy  fur,  vrith  a  fol)  bushy  tail  tipped  with 
white ;  the  color  is  reddish  yellow,  griuled 


AmDrldui  B«d  For  (VuJpet  fiiliiu). 

with  gray  on  the  lower  back ;  throat  and 
narrow  line  on  the  belly  white;  back  of  ears 
and  tips  of  the  bair  on  the  t^  (except  tbe 
terminal  brush)  black.  The  cross  fox,  the 
variety  deevuatv*  (Geoff.),  has  the  muzzle, 
lower  parts,  and  legs  black,  the  tail  blacker, 
and  a  dark  band  between  tbe  shoulders 
crossed  by  another  over  them ;  this  is  found 
from  northern  New  Tork  to  Canada  and  north- 
em  Michigan  and  Wisconsin,  while  the  red 
variety  occurs  from  Fennsylvania  to  Canada, 
and  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Missouri.  The 
silver  or  black  fox,  variety  argentatv*  (Shaw), 
is  black,  except  on  the  posterior  back,  where 
the  hairs  are  ringed  with  gray,  and  tbe  tip  of 
Uie  tail  is  white ;  this  is  found  in  Washington 
territory.  The  European  red  fox  is  a  different 
species,  the  fur  beingless  softand  long,  and  the 
tail  less  buahy  and  more  tapering;  the  muzzle 
is  longer,  the  eyes  further  apart,  and  the  feet 
more  slender;  the  red  color  is  darker  and  the 
tint  more  unilbmi,  with  little  of  the  golden  hue 
of  the  American  species ;  the  space  where  the 
whiskers  are  inserted  is  white  instead  of  dnsky, 
and  there  is  more  white  on  the  throat  and  belly; 
this  is  the  V.  vulgarU  (Briss.) ;  it  is  found  fraat 
Spain  to  Norway,  and  from  Great  Britain  to 
eastern  Russia.  Thesespeciesandvarietiesvary 
in  length  from  nose  to  root  of  tail  from  24  to  80 
in.,  and  the  tail  to  end  of  hair  from  16  to  SO  in. 
From  the  fact  that  in  the  bone  caves  of  the 
United  States  no  skulls  of  the  red  fox  have  been 
found,  white  those  of  the  gray  foz  are  common, 
it  is  believed  by  many  naturalists  that  the 
American  red  fox  is  a  descendant  of  the  Euro- 
pean V.  rmlgaru.  The  akin  of  the  red  fox  ia 
worth  about  $1  TC,  that  of  the  cross  fox  about 


two  or  three  times  aa  maeh,  and  that  of  tbe 
black  fox  mooh  more;  but  prices  varj  much 
according  to  tbe  caprices  of  faahioD.  The 
American  red  foz,  being  a  northern  species,  is 
rare!]'  hanted  bj  horses  and  honnds,  as  the  na- 
tare  of  the  ooimtr;  would  generally  render  this 


BniapwB  Poi  (Taipei  Tulgnrli]. 

sport  impossible,  and  the  people  will  not  per- 
mit their  standing  grain  to  be  trodden  down 
bj  man  and  beast  In  Great  Britain  and  Ire- 
land, on  tbe  contrary,  the  sport  of  fox  hnnting 
is  one  of  the  most  popular  amnsementa  of  the 
higher  claases. — The  prwrie  foi  (  V.  maerourut, 
Batrd),  tbe  largest  species  known,  inhabits  the 
central  portions  of  North  America,  and  is  noted 
for  the  beantj  of  its  Air ;  its  general  color  is 
hke  that  oftheredfoK,  and  it  seems  to  mn  into 
the  variety  of  a  cross  fox ;  the  tint  is  yellowttr. 


AkUs  Fsi  (TnlpH  lagapni). 

and  there  ia  more  white  below;  the  tail  is  un- 
commonly foil  and  hairy;  the  sk  nil  is  charac- 
terized by  a  muzzle  as  mnch  longer  than  that 
of  the  red  fox,  an  ie  the  muzzle  of  the  latter 
than  that  of  the  European  species.  The  kit  or 
■will  fox  (  V.  velox,  Saj)  is  smaller  than  the 


red  species ;  the  head  is  short  and  broad,  the 

ears  small,  and  the  legs  short ;  tlie  tall  ia  very 
dense  and  bnshy ;  tlie  general  color  above,  in- 
cluding the  ears  and  tail,  is  yellowiah  gray, 
grizzled  on  the  back,  sides  pale  reddish  yellow, 
below  whitish,  and  tail  black-tipped.  The  aro- 
tic  foi  ( V.  lagoput,  Linn.)  is  chiefly  confined  to 
the  arctic  ragiona  of  both  hemispheres,  and  has 
rarely  been  seen  within  the  limite  of  the  Uni- 
ted States,  though  it  has  occasionally  been 
found  in  Newfoundland ;  it  is  smaller  than  the 
red  fox,  with  a  very  full  and  bushy  tail,  tha 
soles  of  the  feet  thickly  furred,  and  the  pelage 
fine  and  dense ;  in  the  adult  the  color  is  white, 
in  tbe  young  grayish  leaden.  We  are  familiar 
with  the  appearance  and  habits  of  this  speciea 
throogh  the  narratives  of  arctic  explorers. — 
Tlie  gray  fox  ( V.  VirgiHianiu,  Schreb. ;  uto- 
eyon,  Burd)  has  the  head  and  body  about  28 
in.  long,  and  the  tail  14  or  15  in. ;  the  tul  has 
a  concealed  mane  of  stiff  hairs.  The  color  is 
gray  varied  with  black ;  sides  of  neck  and 
flanks  fulvous ;  band  encircling  the  mnzzle 
black ;  throat  white ;  tul  hoary  on  the  ddes, 
msty  below,  blaok  at  tiie  tip.  The  head  ia 
shorter  and  the  lx)dy  stouter  than  in  the  pre- 
ceding section,  and  the  fiir  b  mnch  coarser. 
It  is  decidedly  a  southern  species,  being  rare 
north  of  Pennsylvania,  and  common  from  that 
state  eonthward,  and  from  the  Atlantic  to  the 
Pacific ;  it  is  less  daring  and  cunning  than  tbe 
red  fox,  and  rarely  visits  the  farm  yard ;  it  in- 
vades the  nests  of  the  wild  turkey,  pounces 
npoD  coveys  of  quaila,  and  gives  chase  to  the 
rabbit  like  a  dog.  When  pursued  by  hounds 
in  open  woods,  where  it  cannot  sknlk  through 
thick  underbrush,  it  will  very  often  climb  a 
tree.  In  general  this  species  does  not  dig  a 
burrow,  preferring  a  hollow  log  or  a  hole  in 
the  rocks  for  its  den ;  it  is  often  caught  in  steel 
traps,  and  as  a  pet  is  less  playtbl  and  leas  odor- 
ous than  the  red  fox.  Its  windings  when 
ohased  afibrd  good  sport  for  the  hunter,  and 
its  chase  with  horses  and  hounds  in  tbe  south- 
em  Btatea,  where  the  ground  is  favorable,  is 
mnch  relived  as  a  healthfnl  exercise  and  ex- 
hilaratiog  pastime.      In  Carolina  this  speciea 

Broduces  fr«m  three  to  five  young  at  a  time  in 
[arch  or  April.  The  short-tailed  fox  ( V.  or 
JT.  Uttoralit,  Baird)  is  about  half  the  size  of  the 
gray  fox,  with  the  tail  only  one  third  the  length 
of  the  body;  it  resembles  a  miniature  gray  fox, 
of  about  the  size  of  a  house  cat,  though  of 
atonter  body  ;  it  was  found  on  the  island  of 
San  Hignel,  on  the  coast  of  Oalifomia. — Other 
species  of  fox  exist  in  Nepaul,  in  the  Himalaya 
mountains,  in  Syria,  and  in  Egypt,  named  re- 
spectively V.  Hod^Kfaii  (Ilardw.),  V.  ffimaUii- 
eu*  (Ogilby),  F.  OaMi  (H.  Smith),  and  F.  Ni- 
lutieus  (Geoff.). 

FOX,  Ckarles  JaMi,  an  English  statenman 
and  orator,  bom  in  London,  Jan.  24,  1749, 
died  at  Ohiswick,  Sept.  13,  1606.  His  father, 
Henry  Fox,  afterward  Lord  Holland,  had 
amawed  a  great  fortune  as  paymaster  of  the 
forces ;  his  mother  was  a  daughter  of  Charles, 


360 


FOX 


the  second  duke  of  Richmond,  and  hy  her  he 
was  descended  from  Charles  II.  of  England 
and  Henry  IV.  of  France.  It  is  said  that  his 
father,  when  he  was  about  14,  having  taken 
him  to  Spa,  gave  him  five  guineas  a  night  to 
plaj  with ;  the  source,  perhaps,  of  his  invin- 
cible attachment  to  gaming.  He  studied  at 
Wandsworth  and  Eton,  where  he  impressed 
his  schoolfellows  with  a  conviction  of  his  su- 
periority. From  Eton  he  went  in  1764  to  Ox- 
ford. Here  he  gamed,  studied,  and  spent  pro- 
fusely the  lavish  allowance  given  him  by  his 
father.  He  read  Homer  and  Longinus,  and 
gained  a  good  knowledge  of  Greek.  In  later 
years  he  was  able  to  repeat  long  passages 
from  Homer.  Leaving  Oxford  without  gradu- 
ating, he  went  to  the  continent  in  1766.  Du- 
ring his  residence  abroad  he  taught  himself 
Italian,  and  contracted  a  partiality  for  Italian 
literature  which  lasted  through  his  life.  In 
August,  1768,  he  returned  to  England,  where 
he  had  been  elected  to  parliament  in  his  ab- 
sence, while  yet  under  age.  He  took  his  seat 
as  a  supporter  of  the  duke  of  Grafbon^s  minis- 
try, following  the  political  faith  of  his  father, 
and  made  his  first  speech  in  the  house  April 
15,  1769.  In  February,  1770,  he  was  made  a  ' 
junior  lord  of  the  admiralty,  but  resigned  in 
1772.  In  January,  1778,  he  was  made  one  of 
the  lords  of  the  treasury,  but  came  into  col- 
lision with  the  premier^  and  was  dismissed 
Feb.  28,  1774.  After  his  father's  death  Fox 
joined  the  opposition,  and  was  an  eloquent 
assailant  of  the  leading  measures  of  the  minis- 
try. He  foretold  the  defeat  of  the  British 
arms  in  America,  and  stood  by  Edmund  Burke 
in  the  struggle  against  the  policy  of  Lord 
North.  In  the  beginning  of  1780  Burke 
brought  forward  his  plan  of  economical  re- 
form, which  was  zealously  supported  by  Fox ; 
this  was  rejected  by  the  house,  but  resolutions 
were  passed  for  an  inquiry  into  the  public 
expenditure.  Fox  supported  Pitt's  motion 
for  parliamentary  reform  in  May,  1782,  and 
introduced  a  measure  of  concession  to  Ireland. 
When  the  ministry  of  Lord  North  fell  in  this 
year,  Fox  was  made  secretary  for  foreign  affairs, 
and  undertook  to  secure  peace  with  the  hostile 
powers,  and  the  recognition  of  the  indepen- 
dence of  the  United  States.  The  negotiations 
were  interrupted  by  the  death  of  the  marquis 
of  Kockingham,  the  prime  minister ;  and  when 
Lord  Shelburne  took  the  head  of  the  ministry, 
Burke,  Fox,  and  several  of  their  associates  re- 
signed. In  April,  1788,  Fox  came  again  into 
power  as  foreign  secretary  in  the  coalition 
which  he  had  made  with  his  former  enemy, 
Lord  North,  and  on  account  of  which  much 
odium  was  cast  upon  him.  On  Nov.  18  he  in- 
troduced his  bill  designed  to  relieve  the  suffer- 
ings of  India,  which  he  pressed  with  his  usual 
warmth,  and  aided  by  Burke  it  passed  the 
commons;  but  the  lords,  the  crown,  and  the 
India  company  being  against  him,  the  coalition 
fell,  and  the  ministry  were  dismissed,  Dec.  18. 
On  resolutions  introduced  by  Fox,  there  was 


a  decided  majority  against  the  new  ministry, 
and  parliament  was  dissolved.  Fox  stood  for 
Westminster,  against  the  whole  influence  of 
the  court  and  ministry,  and  was  declared 
elected  by  a  large  majority;  but  the  unsuc- 
cessful candidate  demanded  a  scrutiny  of  the 
vote,  and  the  high  bailiff  took  upon  himself 
to  make  no  return  of  representatives  for  the 
city.  The  returns  being  delayed  for  about  a 
year,  Fox  entered  parliament  for  a  Scotch 
borough.  The  high  bailiff  was  afterward  fined 
£2,000.  Fox  finally  triumphed,  and  the  na- 
tion was  now  divided  into  two  parties,  that  of 
Fox  and  that  of  the  king.  On  April  22,  1788, 
Fox  opened  the  Benares  charge  against  War- 
ren Hastings,  in  whose  impeachment  he  aided 
Burke  and  Windham.  When  in  1788  George 
III.  became  insane,  Pitt  advocated  the  appoint- 
ment of  a  regent  by  parliament,  but  Fox  main- 
tained the  right  of  the  prince  of  Wales,  after- 
ward George  IV.,  as  indefeasible.  The  recov- 
ery of  the  king  ended  the  discussion  for  the 
tim^.  Fox  moved,  March  2,  1790,  the  repeal 
of  the  corporation  and  test  acts.  A  lack  of 
sympathy  on  tliis  subject,  as  well  as  in  regard 
to  the  principles  of  the  French  revolution, 
arose  between  him  and  Burke,  and  led  to  their 
formal  separation.  May  6,  1791.  Fox  was  in 
earnest  sympathy  with  liberal  principles,  and 
in  1791  aided  Wilberforce  in  his  efforts  to 
abolish  the  slave  trade.  He  introduced  a  bill 
defining  the  powers  of  juries  in  trials  for  libel, 
which  was  passed  in  April,  1792.  In  1798  he 
supported  Grey's  motion  for  parliamentary  re- 
form, and  soon  became  a  leader  of  the  reform 
party.  This  party  was  in  a  hopeless  minority, 
and  finding  his  opposition  in  the  house  of  com- 
mons useless,  he  ceased  to  attend  its  sessions 
in  1797 ;  and  in  1798  he  was  struck  from  the 
list  of  privy  councillors  for  having  repeated 
the  duke  of  Norfolk's  toast,  *^The  miyesty  of 
the  people."  From  1797  to  1802  he  passed 
his  time  chiefly  in  retirement  He  planned  an 
edition  of  Dryden,  a  defence  of  Kacine  and 
the  French  stage,  a  refutation  of  the  historical 
theories  of  Hume,  and  a  history  of  the  revo- 
lution of  1688.  His  researches  for  this  last 
work  took  him  to  Paris  in  1802,  and  while 
there  he  was  treated  by  Napoleon  with  marked 
distinction.  Only  a  portion  of  the  proposed 
history  of  the  revolution  of  1688  was  ever 
written;  it  is  chiefly  notable  from  the  fact 
that  Fox  would  not  use  any  word  which  had 
not  been  used  by  Dryden.  Returning  to  par- 
liament, he  united  with  Pitt  against  the  Ad- 
dington  ministry,  but  upon  its  fall,  when  Pitt 
wished  to  form  a  new  ministry,  Fox  was  ex- 
pressly excluded  by  the  king,  and  Pitt  was 
obliged  to  make  his  selections  from  the  subor- 
dinates of  his  predecessor.  This  ministry  was 
dissolved  by  Pitt's  death,  Jan.  28,  1806,  and 
Fox  became  secretary  for  foreign  affairs  in  the 
new  ministry  formed  by  Lord  Grenville.  Du- 
ring his  short  service  of  only  seven  months, 
Fox  procured  a  vote  in  the  conmaons  for  the 
abolition  of  the  slave  trade,  and  entered  into 


FOX 


361 


negotiations  for  peace  with  France.  Fox  was 
one  of  the  most  brilliant  and  saccessful  of  de- 
baters. His  personal  appearance  was  fine, 
and  his  manner  impassioned  and  convincing. 
His  recklessness  dissipated  his  estate,  and  du- 
ring a  large  part  of  his  life  he  was  continually 
in  debt.  Yet  such  was  the  sweetness  of  his 
temper,  the  generosity  of  his  disposition,  and 
the  magnanimity  of  all  his  conduct^  that  he  was 
loved  and  honored  by  tbe  purest  men  of  the 
time.  Bnrke  loved  him  as  his  chosen  friend ; 
with  Wilberfprce  he  labored  side  by  side  in 
the  cause  of  humanity ;  and  even  the  austere 
Johnson  boasted  of  his  friendship.  In  his  po> 
litical  principles  he  was  firm  and  unbending ; 
no  emotion  of  ambition  took  him  from  the 
path  of  honor ;  no  opposition  terrified  or  dis- 
couraged him.  He  gave  to  the  whig  party 
of  England  its  distinguishing  principles;  he 
originated  those  measures  of  reform  in  the 
constitution  which  have  finally  been  adopted ; 
and  probably  no  other  statesman  has  had  so 
large  an  influence  upon  the  politics  of  Eng- 
land. Mackintosh  says  of  him :  **  He  certain- 
ly possessed,  above  all  moderns,  that  union 
of  reason,  simplicity,  and  vehemence  which 
formed  the  prince  of  orators.  He  was  the 
most  Demosthenean  speaker  since  Demos- 
thenes.^'— See  **  Character  of  the  late  Charles 
James  Fox,"  by  Dr.  Samuel  Parr  (2  vols.  8vo, 
London,  1809);  *^  Speeches  in  the  House  of 
Commons  by  0.  J.  Fox,"  with  a  biographical 
and  critical  introduction  by  Lord  Erskine  (6 
vols.,  London,  1815) ;  and  ^*  Memorials  and  Cor- 
respondence of  Charles  James  Fox,"  by  Lord 
John  Russell  (4  vols.,  London,  1858-'7).  Some 
interesting  particulars  of  the  private  life  of 
Fox  are  given  in  the  posthumous  '^  Recollec- 
tions of  Samuel  Rogers  "  (London,  1859),  and 
in  *^  Holland  House,"  by  Princess  Marie  Liech- 
tenstein (London,  1873). 

FOX)  CSMTge,  the  founder  of  the  society  of 
Friends,  bom  at  Drayton,  Leicestershire,  Eng- 
land, in  July,  1624,  died  in  London,  Jan.  13, 
1691.  His  father  was  a  zealous  Presbyterian, 
too  poor  to  give  his  son  any  education  beyond 
reading  and  writing.  The  boy  was  grave,  and 
fond  of  solitude  and  contemplation.  He  was 
apprenticed  to  a  shoemaker ;  but,  keeping  aloof 
from  his  fellow  workmen,  he  meditated  upon 
the  Scriptures,  gradually  shaping  the  doctrines 
which  he  afterward  promulgated.  About  the 
age  of  19  he  abandoned  his  occupation  in  order 
to  prepare  himself  for  the  mission  to  which  he 
believed  he  had  been  called.  For  some  years 
he  led  a  wandering  life,  living  in  the  woods 
and  in  solitary  places,  and  practising  a  rigid 
self-denial.  In  1643  he  made  his  appearance 
as  a  preacher  at  Manchester,  where  the  ex- 
position of  his  peculiar  views  caused  much 
excitement,  and  subjected  him  to  imprison- 
ment as  a  disturber  of  the  peace.  Thence- 
forth, undeterred  by  the  assaults  of  the  popu- 
lace or  the  persecutions  of  the  magistrates, 
he  travelled  over  England,  preaching  his 
doctrines  with   an  earnestness   and   persua- 


siveness which  won  him  many  converts.  He 
advocated  virtue,  charity,  the  love  of  God,  and 
a  reliance  upon  the  inward  motions  of  the 
Spirit,  by  which,  as  he  asserted,  and  not  the 
Scriptures,  ^*  opinions  and  religions  are  to  be 
tried."  Simplicity,  not  merely  in  religious 
worship,  but  in  all  the  relations  of  life,  was 
also  urged  upon  his  converts ;  and  to  his  refu- 
sal to  recognize  the  ordinary  tokens  of  out- 
ward respect,  as  w^ell  as  to  take  any  oath,  are 
to  be  ascribed  most  of  the  persecutions  and 
imprisonments  to  which  he  was  subjected. 
The  term  Quakers  is  said  by  some  to  have 
been  first  applied  to  Fox^s  followers  at  Derby, 
in  1650,  in  consequence  of  his  telling  Justice 
Bennet,  before  wnom  he  had  been  brought, 
to  *^  quake  at  the  word  of  the  Lord."  (See 
Fbisnds.)  In  1655  Fox  was  carried  a  prisoner 
to  London,  and  examined  in  the  presence  of 
Cromwell,  who  not  only  released  him,  declar- 
ing that  his  doctrines  and  conduct  were  equally 
harmless,  but  on  several  subsequent  occasions 
protected  him  from  persecution.  In  1669  he 
was  married  to  the  widow  of  a  Welsh  judge, 
and  two  years  afterward  he  visited  the  North 
American  colonies.  A  large  oak  in  Flushing, 
Long  Island,  under  which  he  preached  just 
two  centuries  before,  and  which  was  esteemed 
a  historical  monument,  was  destroyed  by  fire 
in  October,  1873.  On  his  return  to  England, 
in  1673,  he  was  imprisoned  for  refusing  to  take 
the  oath  of  supremacy,  and  for  exciting  dis- 
turbances among  the  king^s  subjects.  But  he 
was  released  within  a  year,  and  went  in  1677  to 
Holland,  where  his  preaching  was  attended  with 
considerable  success.  He  returned  to  England, 
was  again  imprisoned  for  refusing  to  pay  tithes, 
revisited  Holland  in  1684,  extending  his  travels 
to  Hamburg,  Holstein,  and  Dantzic,  and  a  tew 
years  before  his  death  established  himself  in 
London,  where  he  rested  from  his  labors,  al- 
though he  continued  to  preach  occasionally. 
Fox  was  a  man  of  genuine  piety,  and  his  meek- 
ness, humility,  and  excellence  in  the  explana- 
tion of  Scripture  and  in  prayer  are  mentioned 
in  t-erms  of  high  praise  by  his  disciple,  William 
Penn.  His  published  works,  containing  his 
journal,  correspondence,  and  all  his  writings 
upon  his  doctrine,  are  numerous  and  curious. 
They  were  partially  collected  in  8  vols,  fol., 
1694-1706.  An  edition  in  8  vols«  8vo  has 
been  published  in  Philadelphia. — See  ^^  Life  of 
George  Fox,  with  Dissertations  on  his  Views," 
&c.,  by  S.  Janney  (Philadelphia,  1852). 

lOX,  J«ki,  an  English  author,  bom  in  Bos- 
ton, Lincolnshire,  in  1517,  died  in  London  in 
1587.  He  was  educated  at  Oxford,  and  elected 
a  fellow  of  Magdalen  college  in  1543,  but  be- 
coming a  convert  to  Protestantism  was  de- 
prived of  his  fellowship  in  1545,  and  reduced 
to  great  distress  by  the  withholding  of  his  pat- 
rimony for  the  same  reason.  After  some  time 
he  obtained  a  situation  as  tutor  in  the  family 
of  Sir  Thomas  Lucy,  immortalized  by  the  story 
of  Shakespeare^s  robbing  his  deer  park.  He 
was  next  employed  by  the  duchess  of  Rich- 


362 


FOX 


FOXES 


mond  as  tutor  to  the  children  of  her  brother, 
the  earl  of  Surrej,  who  was  then  imprisoned 
in  the  tower,  and  afterward  executed.  After 
the  accession  of  Edward  YI.  he  was  restored 
to  his  fellowship.  In  the  reign  of  Mary  he  fled 
to  the  continent,  and  was  employed  at  Basel  as 
a  corrector  of  the  press.  On  the  death  of  the 
queen  he  returned  to  England.  The  duke  of 
Norfolk,  one  of  his  former  pupils,  gave  him  a 
pension,  and  he  was  appointed  to  a  prebend  in 
the  cathedral  of  Salisbury.  This  omce  he  re- 
tained while  he  lived,  his  refusal  to  subscribe  to 
the  new  articles  of  religion  preventing  any  far- 
ther preferment.  He  was  the  author  of  numer- 
ous works,  all  of  which  are  now  nearly  forgot- 
ten save  his  Acta  et  Monumenta  EcelesicB,  better 
known  under  its  English  name,  *^  Fox*s  Book 
of  Martyrs,"  which  first  appeared  in  London 
in  1568.  It  details  the  sufferings  of  the  early 
Protestant  reformers  from  "  the  great  persecu- 
tions, and  horrible  troubles,  that  haue  been 
wrought  and  practised  by  the  Bomishe  prel- 
ates, especiallye  in  this  realme  of  England  and 
Scotlande,  from  the  yeare  of  our  Lorde  a  thou- 
sande,  vnto  the  tyme  now  present,"  and  met 
with  great  success,  though  its  trustworthiness 
has  always  been  disputed  by  Catholics. 

FOX,  WlIliaM  JohBSMi,  an  English  clergy- 
man and  politician,  bom  in  Wrentbam,  Suf- 
folk, in  1786,  died  June  8,  1864.  He  was 
educated  at  Homerton  Independent  college, 
embraced  Unitarian  doctrines,  and  became  a 
preacher,  in  which  capacity  he  officiated  many 
years  at  the  chapel  in  Finsbury  square,  Lon- 
don. He  took  an  active  part  in  politics,  on 
the  extreme  liberal  side,  and  was  a  popular 
speaker  for  the  anti-eom-law  league.  In  1847 
he  was  elected  to  represent  the  borough  of 
Oldham  in  parliament,  as  successor  to  Wil- 
liam Gobbett,  was  returned  again  for  the  same 
borough  in  1852  and  1867,  and  held  his  seat 
until  he  resigned  in  1862.  He  contributed 
largely  to  the  "  Westminster  Review  "  and  to 
other  periodicals,  and  published  several  works, 
among  which  are  **  Lectures  on  Religions 
Ideas  "  and  '^  Lectures  to  the  Working  Class- 
es "  (4  vols.  12mo). 

FOXES,  a  tribe  of  North  American  Indians 
of  the  Algonquin  family,  noted  in  history  as 
turbulent,  daring,  and  warlike.  They  were  of 
two  stocks,  one  calling  themselves  Outagamies 
or  Foxes,  whence  our  English  name ;  the  other 
Musquakink  or  men  of  red  clay,  the  name  now 
used  by  the  tribe.  They  lived  in  early  times 
with  the  kindred  Sacs  east  of  Detroit,  and  as 
some  say  near  the  St.  Lawrence,  so  that  we 
may  conjecture  them  to  be  the  Outagwami  of 
the  early  Jesuit  narratives,  who  resided  near 
Lake  St.  John.  They  were  driven  west,  and 
settled  at  Saginaw,  a  name  derived  from  the 
Sacs.  Thence  they  were  driven  by  the  Iroquois 
to  Green  bay.  About  1658  they  were  forced 
from  this  by  the  Iroquois  and  Winnebagoes, 
and  finally  took  post  on  Fox  river.  Here  they 
were  visited  by  the  trader  Perrot  and  the  mis- 
sionary AUouez  in  1667.   They  numbered  prob- 


ably 500  warriors,  cultivated  Indian  com,  and 
were  expert  hunters,  but  had  no  canoes.  Still 
turbulent,  they  made  war  on  the  Sioux,  and  held 
their  own  against  all  their  enemies,  although 
suffering  severe  losses.  The  missionaries  failed 
to  make  any  great  impression  on  them.  At 
the  summons  of  De  la  Barre  in  1684  they  sent 
warriors  who  joined  Durantaye  on  Lake  Erie 
for  the  campaign  against  the  Five  Nations. 
They  also  took  part  in  DenonviUe^s  more  serious 
campaign.  They  soon^  however,  showed  hos- 
tility to  the  French,  and  opened  intercourse 
with  the  Five  Nations,  even  proposing  to  re- 
move to  their  territory.  Won,  as  French 
writers  charge,  by  English  promises,  the  Foxes 
under  Pemoussa,  w^ith  the  Maskoutens  and 
Eickapoos,  attacked  Detroit  in  1712.  Du  Buis- 
son,  the  French  commander,  called  out  the 
allies  of  France,  and  the  Foxes  were  besieged 
in  their  fort,  where  they  made  a  desperate  de- 
fence ;  but  they  finally  fled,  were  pursued,  and 
almost  all  destroyed  at  Presque  Isle  on  Lake  St 
Clair.  The  rest  of  the  tribe  molested  every 
road,  and  in  1716  Louvigny  was  sent  against 
them.  He  invested  their  fort  at  Butte  des 
Morts  on  Fox  river,  and  compelled  them  to 
sue  for  peace.  They  continued  hostilities 
against  the  French  and  their  allies  for  years, 
making  the  road  to  Louisiana  almost  impassa- 
able.  The  French  sent  another  expedition 
against  them  under  De  Ligney  in  1728,  which 
ravaged  their  country,  and  again  in  1784.  Fi- 
nally, in  1746,  with  the  aid  of  the  Menomo- 
nees  and  Chippewas,  they  drove  the  Foxes 
from  their  river  to  the  Wisconsin.  Some 
Foxes  however  joined  the  French  in  their 
last  struggle  for  Canada,  and  served  under 
Montcalm  at  Fort  William  Henry.  At  the 
close  of  the  war  in  1768  they  were  in  a  large 
village  of  logs  and  bark  on  the  Wisconsin,  with 
fields  of  com  and  vegetables.  Although  in 
1786  they  were  reported  as  reduced  to  100 
warriors,  they  are  at  this  time  said  to  have  in- 
creased to  820.  The  Foxes  took  no  part  in 
Pontiac^s  war,  but  befriended  the  whites.  In 
1766  they  settled  at  Prairie  du  Chien,  so  named 
from  one  of  their  chiefs,  called  the  Dog.  When 
the  American  revolution  began,  they  took  up 
arms  on  the  side  of  the  English,  and  fought 
under  De  Langlade.  English  influence  pre- 
vailed even  after  the  end  of  the  war.  The 
Foxes  did  not  indeed  take  part  in  the  Miami 
war,  though  some  may  have  been  involved 
with  the  Sacs  who  did,  five  chiefs  claiming  to 
act  for  the  Foxes  and  Sacs.  By  the  treaty  of 
Nov.  8,  1604,  for  $2,284  50  and  an  annuity  of 
$1,000,  the  Foxes  and  Sacs  ceded  to  the  United 
States  inmiense  tracts  of  land  on  the  Missouri, 
Jeflfteon,  and  Wisconsin  rivers,  and  on  the  D- 
linois  and  its  branch  the  Fox.  They  were  at 
this  time  chiefly  west  of  the  Mississippi,  in  a 
single  village,  140  leagues  above  St.  Louis,  and 
numbered  1,200.  When  the  second  war  with 
England  began,  800  of  the  Foxes  and  their 
kindred  the  Sacs  went  to  Maiden  to  join  the 
British  forces,  and  took  part  in  the  attack  on 


FOXGLOVE 


FRACTION 


363 


SandoBk J.  Eeoknk  with  the  friendly  Sacs  and 
Foxes  retired  to  St.  Louis.  In  September, 
1815,  thej  made  peace,  agreed  to  give  up  pris- 
oners, &c.,  but  one  band  of  Sacs  long  contin- 
ued to  be  called  the  British  band.  In  1822 
tiiey  were  on  the  Mississippi  near  Fort  Arm- 
strong, in  three  villages,  some  having  moved 
to  the  Iowa  and  returned.  They  were  expert 
hunters  and  canoemen,  and  cultivated  800 
acres  of  land,  raising  com,  beans,  pumpkins, 
and  melons ;  many  were  employed  in  the  lead 
mines,  digging  400,000  pounds  in  a  season. 
They,  with  the  Sacs,  ceded  lands  by  the  treaty 
of  Aug.  4,  1824,  and  July  15,  1880,  but  were 
to  some  extent  involved  in  the  Black  Hawk 
war  in  1881,  begun  by  that  chief  of  the  British 
band  of  Sacs  who  wished  to  retun  Rock  Island 
in  Illinois.  At  the  cfose  of  this  war  the  two 
tribes  made  a  treaty  at  Fort  Armstrong  with 
Gen.  Scott  and  Gov.  Reynolds,  ceding  lands 
for  an  annuity  of  $20,000  for  20  years.  By  a 
subsequent  treaty  at  Rock  Island  they  ceded  a 
part  reserved  in  the  last,  embracing  256,000 
acres,  for  $192,000.  They  then  centred  on  the 
Des  Moines  in  an  irregular  square  tract  about 
140  miles  each  way.  The  Foxes  at  this  time 
numbered  2,446,  cultivating  no  more  than  be- 
fore, though  hunting  less.  Turbulent  as  ever, 
they  were  constantly  at  war  with  neighboring 
tribes.  Government  removed  them  again  by 
the  treaty  of  1842,  and  in  1849  they  were 
chiefly  on  the  Osage.  Since  then,  in  spite  of 
government  efforts  to  civilize  and  improve 
them,  they  have  declined  in  numbers  very  rap- 
idly, rejecting  with  steady  pertinacity  mission- 
aries and  schools.  In  1872  the  Sacs  and  Foxes 
who  had  ceded  their  lands  in  Kansas  to  the 
United  States  in  1859  and  1868  numbered  only 
468,  about  one  half  Foxes.  They  occupied  a 
reservation  of  488,840  acres,  between  the  I^orth 
fork  of  the  Canadian  and  the  Red  fork  of  the 
Arkansas.  The  Sacs  and  Foxes  of  the  Mis- 
souri, the  band  who  remained  faithful  during 
the  Black  Hawk  war,  are  reduced  to  88,  occu- 
pying a  reservation  of  16,000  acres  in  S.  £.  Ne- 
braska and  N.  £.  Kansas.  This  band  has  near- 
ly twice  as  much  land  under  cultivation  as  the 
former,  though  those  of  the  Mississippi  have 
more  live  stock.  The  latter  have  annuities 
amounting  to  $60,000 ;  those  of  the  Missouri 
to  $10,506.  In  1857  a  party  of  817  Sacs  and 
Foxes,  tired  of  being  constantly  moved  from 
reservation  to  reservation,  bought  lands  in 
Tama,  Iowa,  unaided  by  government,  for  they 
received  no  annuities.  Here  they  set  to  work, 
and  have  $10,440  invested  in  stock,  and  have 
raised  $2,715  worth  of  produce  in  a  year,  while 
by  hiring  out  as  farm  laborers  they  are  rapidly 
becoming  industrious  and  self-sustaining.  The 
farmers,  who  at  first  laughed  at  the  idea  of 
employing  them,  now  find  them  good  workers. 

FOXGLOVE.    See  DiorrAus. 

FOX  HOUBTD.    See  Houkd. 

FOX  ISLAlfPSt    See  Aleutiav  Islands. 

FOX  RIVEB.  I«  A  river  of  Wisconsin,  called 
by  the  Indians  Neenah.    It  rises  in  the  S.  cen< 


tral  portion  of  the  state,  and  flows  first  nearly 
S.  W.  to  within  1^  m.  of  the  Wisconsin,  when  it 
turns  suddenly  K.,  and  after  a  course  of  a  few 
miles  assumes  a  N.  £.  direction,  passing  through 
Lake  Winnebago,  and  into  the  S.  end  of  Green 
bay.  The  rapids  in  its  lower  course  furnish 
immense  water  power.  The  channel  has  been 
improved  so  that  steamboats  pass  from  Green 
bay  to  Lake  Winnebago.  The  subject  of  con- 
necting the  Fox  and  Wisconsin  rivers  by  a  ship 
canal,  so  as  to  admit  vessels  from  Lake  Michi- 
gan into  the  Mississippi  river,  has  been  much 
discussed,  and  a  government  survey  of  the 
route  has  been  made.  The  whole  length  of 
Fox  river  is  about  200  m.  IL  Also  called 
the  Pishtaka,  a  river  which  rises  in  Wauke- 
sha CO.,  Wisconsin,  flows  nearly  due  S.  until 
it  reaches  Oswego,  Illinois,  when  it  turns  S. 
W.,  and  falls  into  the  Illinois  river  at  Ottawa, 
after  a  course  of  200  m.  It  affords  abundant 
water  power. 

FOT,  MaxlaniMi  S^tastfen,  a  French  soldier 
and  orator,  bom  at  Ham,  Feb.  8,  1775,  died  in 
Paris,  Nov.  28,  1825.  He  entered  the  army 
in  1791  as  second  lieutenant  of  artillery,  served 
successively  under  Dumouriez,  Moreau,  Mas- 
s6na,  and  Bonaparte,  and  became  colonel  in 
1801.  His  further  advancement  was  for  a 
time  impeded  by  his  freedom  of  speech  and  his 
vote  against  making  Napoleon  emperor;  but 
for  his  distinguished  services  in  the  Peninsula 
he  was  made  brigadier  general  in  1808,  and 
general  of  division  in  1810.  At  Salamanca,  in 
1812,  he  protected  the  retreat  of  the  French 
army,  and  in  the  following  campaigns  gained 
great  applause  by  his  skilful  manoBuvres.  At 
the  battle  of  Orthez  in  1814  he  was  seriously 
wounded.  On  the  first  restoration  he  was  ap- 
pointed inspector  general  of  infantry.  During 
the  hundred  days  he  was  placed  in  command 
of  a  division,  fought  at  Quatre-Bras,  and  was 
wounded  at  Waterloo.  On  the  second  restora- 
tion he  retired  to  private  life,  and  devoted 
himself  to  a  history  of  the  peninsular  war.  In 
1819  he  was  elected  to  the  chamber  of  depu- 
ties by  the  department  of  Aisne.  For  six 
years  he  held  his  seat  in  the  legislature,  where 
he  advocated  constitutional  liberty  with  ener- 
gy and  boldness,  and  was  recognized  as  the 
national  orator.  His  health,  impaired  by  his 
former  wounds,  broke  down  under  his  parlia- 
mentary labors,  and  he  died  of  a  disease  of  the 
heart.  It  having  been  reported  that  the  only 
inheritance  left  his  children  was  his  fame,  sub^ 
scription  lists  were  opened,  and  within  a  few 
days  the  amount  had  reached  1,000,000  francs. 
The  speeches  of  Gen.  Foy  were  collected  and 
published  in  2  vols.  8vo  (Paris,  1826).  His 
unfinished  Hutovre  de  la  guerre  ds  la  Peniry- 
iule  appeared  in  1827,  in  4  vols.  8vo. 

FRACTION  (lAtfranffere,  to  break),  in  arith- 
metic and  algebra,  an  expression  for  an  unexe- 
cuted division,  originally  invented  to  represent 
a  quantity  less  than  a  unit.  Thus  I  originally 
signified  three  quarters  of  one,  and  afterward 
was  used  for  the  fourth  part  of  three,  these 


364 


FRACTURE 


two  quantities  being  identical.  The  dividend 
number  is  called  the  numerator,  because  in 
arithmetic  it  numbers  how  many  parts  are 
taken;  and  the  divisor  is  called  the  denomi- 
nator, because  it  names  the  parts.  Tbese  terms 
are  retained  in  algebra,  where  it  is  evident 
that  their  literal  meaning  is  inapplicable.  Frac- 
tions are  also  used  to  express  the  ratio  of  the 
numerator  to  the  denominator.  Thus  the  ex- 
pression ^—^  may  signify  the  ratio  of  the  sum 

of  the  quantities  a  and  h  to  their  difference,  or 
the  quotient  arising  from  the  division  of  that 
sum  by  that  difference.  The  propriety  of  in- 
dicating the  quotient  and  the  ratio  by  the  same 
sign  is  evident  from  the  consideration  that  the 
quotient  bears  the  same  ratio  to  unity  that  the 
dividend  bears  to  the  divisor.  A  decimal  frac- 
tion is  one  whose  denominator  consists  of  1 
with  zeros  annexed,  in  which  case  the  denomi- 
nator is  not  written,  but  is  understood  from  a 
point  being  prefixed,  with  zeros  if  necessary ; 
thus,  -871  means  -A^;  -0371,  t!.Ut»  and  so 
on.  A  continued  fraction  is  a  fraction  whose 
numerator  is  1,  and  whose  denominator  is  a 
whole  number  plus  a  fraction  whose  numera- 
tor is  1  and  denominator  a  whole  number  plus 
a  fraction,  &o. 

FIACTDRE,  in  surgery,  a  disruption  or  sepa- 
ration between  the  parts  of  a  bone  or  cartilage, 
produced  by  external  violence  or  the  sudden 
and  forcible  contraction  of  muscles.  The  frac- 
ture is  said  to  be  simple  when  there  is  no  ex- 
ternal wound;  compound  when  complicated 
with  lesion  of  the  surrounding  soft  parts ;  and 
comminuted  when  the  bone  is  broken  into 
many  fragments.  Fractures  may  occur  at  any 
time  from  the  end  of  intra-uterine  life  to  ex- 
treme old  age;  in  youth,  fractures  are  com- 
paratively rare  on  account  of  the  elasticity  of 
the  bones,  and  in  advanced  life  common  from 
their  brittleness.  Ruptures  of  vessels  and 
nerves  are  the  most  dangerous  complications 
of  fractures  of  the  extremities;  gangrene  is 
often  the  consequence  of  the  former,  and 
paralysis,  convulsions,  or  intense  pain  and  in- 
flammation, of  the  latter ;  comminuted  frac- 
ture is  very  apt  to  be  followed  by  tedious 
suppuration,  necrosis,  false  joint,  or  much 
shortened  limb ;  dislocation  also  is  not  unfre- 
quently  added  to  fracture.  Fractures  may  be 
transverse  or  oblique;  the  former  are  most 
common  in  children,  and  are  accompanied  by 
little  displacement;  the  latter  are  the  most 
frequent,  and  often  require  all  the  surgeon's 
skill  and  sufferer^s  patience  to  effect  permament 
reduction  and  prevent  deformity  of  the  limb. 
The  causes  of  displacement  in  the  ends  are 
muscular  contractions  and  the  weight  of  the 
fractured  part ;  the  lower  fragment  rides  over 
the  upper,  sometimes  to  the  extent  of  several 
inches.  The  bones  most  liable  to  fracture  are 
the  superficial  ones,  like  the  clavicle,  tibia,  and 
skull ;  or  such  as,  like  the  radius  in  the  fore- 
arm, are  likely  to  receive  the  weight  of  the 
body  daring  a  fall ;  old  age,  caries,  and  cancer- 


ous, scorbutic,  and  venereal  diseases,  predis- 
pose to  fracture.  Violence  applied  to  a  part 
does  not  always  produce  a  direct  fracture ;  for 
instance,  a  fall  upon  the  shoulder  may  indi- 
rectly break  the  clavicle;  the  kneepan  and 
the  olecranon  are  the  bones  most  commonly 
broken  by  muscular  action.  The  physiologi- 
cal symptoms  of  fracture  are  pain  and  inability 
to  move  the  limb ;  the  physical  characters  are 
unnatural  mobility  of  the  parts,  change  in  the 
length,  direction,  or  form  of  the  limb,  and 
crepitation  when  the  broken  fragments  are 
moved  upon  each  other.  When  there  is  great 
swelling,  it  is  often  difficult  to  ascertain  the 
nature  or  even  the  existence  of  a  fracture. 
The  course  of  a  simple  fracture  is  a  painful  and 
inflamed  swelling  a  few  days  after  the  acci- 
dent, with  more  or  less  febrile  reaction ;  these 
gradually  subside,  and  with  proper  treatment 
the  bone  unites  in  from  one  to  two  months, 
with  or  without  deformity  according  to  cir- 
cumstances not  always  under  the  control  of 
the  surgeon;  when  the  constitution  is  dis- 
eased, or  the  reparative  process  injudiciously 
interfered  with,  union  may  not  take  place  and 
a  false  joint  be  formed.  Complicated  fractures 
often  terminate  in  the  death  of  portions  of  bone 
and  of  the  soft  parts,  in  unhealthy  abscesses 
and  tetanus,  leading  perhaps  to  fatal  conse- 
quences unless  the  limb  be  removed.  The 
prognosis  of  fracture  of  course  depends  on  its 
situation,  extent,  complication  with  wounds, 
and  a  variety  of  circumstances  which  will 
occur  to  every  physician.  The  process  of 
reparation  has  been  described  in  the  article 
Bonk  (vol.  iii.,  p.  61),  and  it  will  only  be  ne- 
cessary to  say  here  that  lymph  is  effused  be- 
tween the  broken  surfaces,  which  is  gradually 
converted  into  cartilage,  and  in  a  few  weeks 
into  a  spongy  ossifio  mass  called  the  provisional 
callus ;  this  holds  the  ends  together  for  a  few 
months  until  the  permanent  callus  is  deposit- 
ed between  them ;  the  former  is  gradually  ab- 
sorbed, and  the  latter  has  all  the  characters 
of  true  bone.  In  the  interior  of  the  skull, 
however,  and  in  the  cavities  of  the  synovial 
membranes  of  the  joints,  no  provisional  calluii 
is  formed ;  if  the  parts  be  kept  in  close  appo- 
sition, bony  union  will  slowly  take  place ;  if 
not,  the  union  will  be  ligamentary.  The  indi- 
cations of  treatment  are  to  reduce  or  set  the 
fragments,  and  keep  them  at  rest  and  in  close 
contact,  so  as  to  prevent  deformity ;  all  dis- 
turbing muscles  must  be  relaxed,  the  ends  of 
the  bones  extended,  and  the  parts  properly 
supported  and  kept  in  place ;  the  limb  is  ban- 
daged, and  some  kind  of  splint  or  apparatus  is 
applied  to  keep  it  immovable  and  of  its  natural 
length.  Splints  are  made  of  wood,  pasteboard, 
tin,  and  more  recently  and  best  of  gutta  per- 
ch a,  all  properly  padded  and  secured  against 
displacement;  the  starched  bandage,  consist- 
ing of  layers  of  cloth  imbued  with  starch  or 
dextrine,  is  light,  firm,  and  capable  of  very 
exact  application ;  a  plaster  of  Paris  apparatus 
has  been  much  used  in  Germany,  especially 


FRAMINGHAM 


FRANgAIS 


365 


for  intractable  persons  and  on  the  field  of 
battle.  When  swelling  and  inflammation  mn 
high,  antiphlogistic  and  refrigerant  applica- 
tions should  precede  the  nse  of  bandages  and 
splints ;  and  the  latter  when  applied  should  be 
looseneHd  when  swelling  comes  on,  and  after- 
ward readjusted  so  as  to  keep  the  parts  uni- 
formly in  place.  The  variety  of  bandages, 
splints,  and  apparatus  for  the  different  kinds 
of  fractures  is  very  great ;  and  in  nothing  does 
American  surgery  stand  more  preeminent  than 
in  its  ingenious  and  effectual  instruments  fur  the 
treatment  of  broken  bones.  The  accompanying 
symptoms  of  depression,  inflammation,  delirium, 
painful  twitchings  of  muscles,  and  other  com- 
plications, must  be  treated  on  principles  fa- 
miliar to  every  surgeon.  When  a  false  joint  is 
produced,  attempts  at  union  are  made  by  ex- 
citing inflammation  in  the  separated  pieces  by 
rubbing,  the  seton,  sawing  off  the  ends,  and 
other  operations  now  in  vogue;  care  being 
taken  at  the  same  time  to  strengthen  the  pa- 
tient, and  to  correct  any  evident  constitutional 
vice.  In  compound  fractures,  especially  the 
severe  ones  from  railroad  accidents,  the  <mes- 
tion  of  amputation  is  frequently  a  most  diffi- 
cult one  to  resolve;  much  depends  on  the 
strength,  habits,  and  age  of  the  patient,  the 
degree  of  laceration,  the  proximity  to  joints, 
and  the  injury  to  vessels  and  nerves ;  if  the 
operation  be  decided  on,  it  is  generally  per- 
formed at  once,  before  the  accession  of  inflam- 
matory fever.  If  it  be  determined  to  retain  the 
limb,  the  bone  should  be  reduced  to  its  natu- 
ral position,  loose  pieces  removed,  and  the 
necessary  applications  be  made  to  induce  the 
wounds  to  heal ;  in  proper  time  bandages  and 
splints  should  be  applied ;  cooling  lotions,  opi- 
um to  quiet  pain  and  restlessness,  prevention 
of  lodgment  of  matter,  tonics  and  stimulants 
to  support  the  strength  under  profuse  dis- 
charges, are  the  additional  general  indications 
of  treatment. 

FRAIIIN6IIAM9  a  town  of  Middlesex  co.,  Mas- 
sachusetts, on  the  Boston  and  Albany  railroad, 
at  its  junction  with  a  branch  to  MUford,  and 
at  the  junction  of  several  divisions  of  the  Bos- 
ton, Clinton,  and  Fitchburg  line,  20  ro.  W.  by 
S.  of  Boston;  pop.  in  1870,  4,968.  It  is  in- 
tersected by  Sudbury  river,  and  borders  on  Oo- 
chituate  lake.  There  are  manufactories  of 
woollens,  cars,  and  carriages,  hats  and  bonnets, 
&c.,  and  a  national  bank.  The  town  is  the  seat 
of  a  state  normal  school,  which  in  1872  had  10 
instructors,  165  pupils,  and  a  library  of  1,200 
volumes.  There  are  20  public  schools,  inclu- 
ding 2  high  schools,  with  an  average  attendance 
of  about  700  pupils;  a  public  library,  with 
about  6,000  volumes ;  and  10  churches  (2  Bap- 
tist, 8  Congregational,  1  Episcopal,  1  Methodist, 
2  Roman  Catholic,  and  1  Universalist). 

FRANC,  the  monetary  unit  in  France,  Bel- 
gium, and  Switzerland.  The  first  coins  having 
this  name  were  struck  under  John  the  Good 
of  France  in  1860 ;  they  bore  the  impression 
of  the  king  on   horseback,  and  the  device 


Franearum  rex,  and  were  called  franco  d  the- 
vol ;  they  were  of  fine  gold,  and  were  worth 
1  pound  {livre)y  or  20  sols,  and  weighed  2^ 
pennyweights.  Under  Charles  V.  the  impres- 
sion was  of  the  king  on  foot,  and  they  were 
styled  francs  d  pied^  but  retained  the  same 
value.  Under  Charles  VII.  their  weight  was 
reduced  to  about  two  pennyweights.  The 
first  silver  francs  were  coined  by  Henry  III. 
in  1675,  and  presented  on  one  side  the  head  of 
the  king,  and  on  the  other  a  decorated  cross, 
and  weighed  -686888  pennyweight,  and  had 
a  current  value  of  20  sous.  Henry  III.  also 
coined  half-francs  and  quarter-francs.  In  1602 
the  value  of  the  franc  was  increased  to  21 
sous.  Having  suffered  many  alterations,  chief- 
ly from  clipping,  Louis  XIII.  prohibited  its 
circulation  for  more  than  its  actual  value,  and 
substituted  the  silver  louis  of  60,  80,  16,  and  6 
sous  value.  The  franc  then  ceased  to  be  real 
money,  remaining  a  unit  of  valuation.  But  on 
the  adoption  of  &e  decimal  system,  in  1796,  it 
was  chosen  as  the  monetary  unit,  being  divi- 
ded into  tenths,  called  dhime»^  and  into  hun- 
dredths, called  centime*;  it  had  a  legal  weight 
of  8-216  pennyweights,  ^  fine;  coins  were  also 
struck  of  2  and  6  francs  value  in  silver,  and  of 
20,  60,  and  100  francs  in  gold..  In  Switzer- 
land the  franc  was  adopted  as  the  unit,  along 
with  the  whole  French  monetary  system,  May 
7,  1860.  In  1864  the  pieces  of  60  and  20 
centimes  value  were  replaced  by  pieces  of 
equal  nominal  but  less  intrinsic  worth.  After 
the  monetary  convention  between  France, 
Belgium,  Italy,  and  Switzerland,  in  1866,  the 
standard  franc  of  the  law  of  1796  ceased  to 
exist  except  in  the  five-franc  pieces ;  the  pieces 
of  60  and  20  centimes  value  being  reduced  to 
'886  of  pure  silver  instead  of  *900,  and  the  law 
requiring  their  withdrawal  from  circulation 
when  they  have  lost  *06  in  weight. 

FSANf  iJS,  lit»lM,  count,  popularly  known  as 
FsANgAiB  DB  Nantes,  a  French  politician  and 
author,  born  at  Beaurepaire,  Is^re,  Jan.  17, 
1766,  died  in  Paris  in  1886.  He  was  the  son 
of  a  notary,  received  a  superior  education,  and 
became  in  1789  an  advocate  and  customs  di- 
rector at  Nantes  and  an  ardent  revolutionist. 
Subsequently,  as  a  member  and  for  some  time 
president  of  the  legislative  assembly,  and  as 
a  member  of  the  council  of  five  hundred,  he 
acquired  great  popularity  by  his  denunciations 
of  royalists  and  priests.  He  readily  accepted 
office,  however,  under  the  consulate,  and  rose 
to  be  director  general  of  the  o€tr<n  department, 
which  gave  him  opportunities  of  offering  sine« 
cures  to  poor  literary  men,  who  regarded  him 
as  a  MsBcenas.  He  retained  this  influential  post 
during  the  empire,  when  he  was  made  a  count. 
From  1819  to  1822  he  represented  the  depart- 
ment of  Mre  in  the  chamber  of  deputies.  His 
revolutionary  pamphlets  met  with  great  suc- 
cess, but  his  miscellaneous  writings  brought 
him  little  fame.  They  include  TciS>leau  de  la 
vU  rurdls^  ou  Vagrieulture  eneeignee  d'une 
manure  dramatique  (8  vols.,  Paris,  1829). 


866 


FRANCAIS 


FRANCE 


FRANfAIS,  Fnofolfl  Lrals,  a  French  painter, 
bom  at  Plombi^res,  Nov.  17,  1814.  He  went 
to  Paris  in  1829,  became  a  bookseller ^s  clerk, 
employed  his  leisure  in  studying  painting,  and 
produced  bis  first  landscape  in  1841.  He  has 
since  acquired  celebrity  in  that  branch  of  art, 
and  his  masterpiece,  ^^  Orpheus,'*  was  exhibit- 
ed in  1868.  He  has  also  painted  subjects  from 
the  environs  of  Paris  and  Home  (1866),  and 
Mont  Blanc  (1869). 

FKANCE  (Lat  Gallia  or  Francia ;  Ger. 
FranJcreich^  empire  of  the  Franks),  one  of  the 
principal  countries  of  Europe,  occupying  the 
western  end  of  the  central  part  of  that  con- 
tinent, between  lat.  42^  20'  and  61°  6'  N.,  and 
Ion.  4*  48'  W.  and  r  88'  E.  It  is  bounded  N. 
by  the  North  sea  and  the  strait  of  Dover  (Pas 
de  Calais),  and  N.  W.  by  the  English  channel 
(La  Manche),  which  separate  it  from  Great 
Britain ;  W.  by  the  Atlantic  and  the  bay  of  Bis- 
cay ;  S.  by  the  Pyrenees,  forming  its  frontier 
toward  Spain,  and  by  the  Mediterranean ;  E. 
by  the  Alps,  and  the  Jura  and  Yosges  moun- 
tains, which  respectively  divide  it  from  Italy, 
Switzerland,  and  the  German  empire ;  N.  E., 
on  which  side  it  has  no  natural  bounda^,  by  a 
conventional  line  which  runs  from  the  Yosges, 
crossing  the  Moselle  S.  W.  of  Metz,  to  the 
shores  of  the  North  sea,  some  25  ro.  E.  of  the 
strait  of  Dover,  along  the  frontiers  of  Germany, 
the  grand  duchy  of  Luxemburg,  and  Belgium. 
Under  the  meridian  of  Paris,  that  is,  toward  its 
centre,  it  measures  N.  to  S.  about  590  m.,  and 
E.  to  W.,  between  lat  48°  and  49°,  about  565 
m. ;  while  its  greatest  length  N.  W.  to  S.  E., 
from  the  extremity  of  Finist^re  to  Mentone,  i^ 
about  675  m.,  and  its  great^t  breadth,  N.  £.  to 
S.  W.,  from  a  point  E.  of  Lun^viile  to  the  W. 
extremity  of  the  Pyrenees,  a  line  crossing  the 
former  nearly  at  right  angles,  is  about  650  m. 
Its  total  area,  the  coast  islands  and  Corsica  in- 
cluded, is  officially  computed  at  52,867,695  hec- 
tares, or  204,091  sq.  m.  It  holds  the  fourth 
rank  in  extent  among  European  countries,  be- 
ing surpassed  by  Russia,  the  Austro-Hungarian 
empire,  and  Germany. — ^The  shape  of  France 
is  an  irregular  hexagon,  the  sides  of  which 
might  be  drawn  respectively  along  the  English 
channel,  the  Atlantic,  the  Pyrenees,  the  Medi- 
terranean, the  Alps,  and  the  Yosges  mountains, 
the  last  side  running  from  the  end  of  this 
range  to  the  North  sea.  The  first  of  these 
sides,  or  the  N.  W.  coast,  presents  from  Dun- 
kirk to  the  mouth  of  the  Somme  a  succession 
of  sandy  downs,  from  which  project  Capes  Gris 
Nez  and  Blanc  Nez,  opposite  Dover.  From 
the  month  of  the  Somme,  sweeping  8.  W.  to- 
ward the  mouth  of  the  Seine,  the  coast  is  char- 
acterized chiefly  by  clifiB  of  chalk  and  marl, 
with  here  and  there  harbors,  the  most  impor- 
tant of  which  is  Dieppe.  The  Seine  now  widens 
into  a  small  bay,  bearing  the  name  of  Seine, 
Havre,  or  Calvados,  from  which  the  coast  line 
runs  almost  due  W.,  fringed  by  a  chain  of 
reefs,  to  the  mouth  of  the  Yire,  whence  it 
takes  a  N.  direction  and  forms  the  square- 


shaped  peninsula  of  Cotentin.  On  the  N.  face 
of  this  peninsula,  between  Capes  Barfleur  and 
La  Hague,  lies  the  port  of  Cherbourg.  From 
Cape  La  Hague,  a  low  shelving  shore,  inter- 
rupted by  granitic  cliffs,  runs  southward  to  the 
bay  of  Cancale,  the  sandy  bottom  of  which  is 
dry  at  ebb  tide.  The  coast  then  resumes  its 
westerly  direction  to  form  the  triangular  pen- 
insula of  Brittany,  the  rocky  cliffs  of  which 
present  a  wild  and  desolate  aspect.  Its  ex- 
tremity. Cape  St.  Mathieu  or  Fimst^re,  mns 
into  the  Atlantic,  and  is  the  westernmost  point 
of  France.  The  coast  is  here  deeply  indented 
by  a  large  bay,  which  receives  its  name  from 
the  important  military  seaport  of  Brest,  and  by 
the  less  sheltered  bay  of  Douamenez,  which  is 
separated  from  the  former  by  the  peninsula  of 
Crozon.  From  the  point  which  projects  S.  of 
the  bay  of  Douarnenez,  the  coast,  gradually 
declining  and  becoming  sandy  again,  recedes 
E.  S.  E.  toward  the  mou&  of  the  Loire.  From 
the  Loire  to  the  Gironde,  the  shore,  continuing 
low  and  sandy,  is  indented  by  several  bays, 
generally  protected  by  islands,  and  presents 
the  two  seaports  of  La  Rochelle  and  Rochefort. 
From  the  mouth  of  the  Gironde  to  the  foot  of 
the  Pyrenees,  the  coaat  is  but  an  unbroken  line 
of  sandy  downs  interspersed  with  marshes,  the 
only  opening  to  vessels  being  the  basin  of  Ar- 
cachon.  Drifting  sands  have  here  covered 
large  tracts  of  good  soil,  and  within  the  last 
two  centuries  a  number  of  scattered  cabins, 
private  residences,  convents,  and  even  whole 
villages,  have  been  tlms  completely  buried. 
Along  the  Atlantic  division,  which  is  about  650 
tn.  in  length,  there  are  many  islands,  including 
Ushant  (Ouessant)  on  the  extreme  point  of 
Brittany,  Belleisle,  nearly  opposite  the  mouth 
of  the  Loire,  Noirmoutiera,  Dien,  R6,  and 
016ron,  between  that  river  and  the  outlet  of 
the  Gironde.  At  the  entrance  of  the  En^^ish 
channel,  near  the  Cotentin  peninsula,  four  isl- 
ands, Jersey,  Guernsey,  Alderney  (Aurigny), 
and  Sark,  although  physicaUy  belonging  to 
France,  are  held  by  Great  Britain.  The  coast 
of  the  Mediterranean,  about  850  m.  long,  re- 
cedes first  toward  the  northeast,  in  a  semi- 
circular curve  to  the  mouth  of  the  Rhftne,  and 
forms  what  is  improperly  called  the  gulf  of  Ly- 
ons (Fr.  golfe  du  Lion) ;  bold  and  rocky  near 
the  Pyrenees,  it  soon  lowers  into  a  sandy  beach, 
intersected  by  a  number  of  lagoons,  such  as 
those  of  Thau  and  Yalcar^  but  without  a  sin- 
gle good  harbor.  It  is  everywhere  bordered 
by  shoals,  and  the  accumulation  of  sand  is  such 
as  to  require  constant  attention  to  prevent  the 
filling  up  of  the  few  indifferent  ports  which  are 
to  be  found  here.  Aigues-Mortes,  which  was 
formerly  an  accessible  port,  is  now  some  miles 
from  the  sea.  Agd  e,  notwithstanding  works  of 
improvement,  affords  protection  only  to  a  few 
barks.  A  more  important  port  is  Cette.  Be- 
yond the  mouth  of  the  Rh6ne  the  shore,  rising 
up  in  bold  cliffs,  abounds  in  good  ports,  the 
principal  of  which  are  Marseilles  and  Toulon. 
Between  the  mouth  of  the  Yar  and  the  Italian 


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867 


boundary  line,  it  is  flanked  bj  precipitous  Al- 
pine slopes,  and  gradually  assumes  the  charac- 
ter of  the  Ligurian  Riviera. — Besides  the  two 
great  mountain  chains  which  form  the  limits  of 
France  toward  Spain  and  Italy,  several  others 
of  minor  importance,  belonging  to  the  Alpine 
and  Pyrenean  systems,  intersect  the  country. 
The  principal  of  these  chaina,  which  is  but  a 
part  of  the  great  European  watershed,  starts 
from  the  Pyrenees,  taking  first  a  winding 
course  £.  N.  £.  nearly  parallel  to  the  Mediter- 
ranean shore,  then  setting  northward,  under  the 
names  of  Black  mountains,  C6vennes,  and  G6te 
d'Or ;  near  lat  48°,  where  it  is  called  the  pla- 
teau of  Langres  and  Monts  Faucilles,  it  makes 
a  curve  eastward,  and  then  branches^  proiect- 
ing  northward  the  Vosges,  and  southward  va- 
rious ridges  which,  through  the  Jura,  connect 
with  the  Alps.  This  chain  thus  divides  France 
into  two  very  unequal  parts,  the  greater  slo- 
ping toward  the  Atlantic  and  the  English  chan- 
nel, the  smaller  toward  the  Mediterranean. 
Foar  ranges,  the  general  direction  of  which  is 
N.  W.,  branch  off  from  this  watershed  and  sep- 
arate the  basins  of  the  various  rivers  flowing 
into  the  Atlantic  and  the  English  channel :  1, 
the  hills  known  as  the  eastern  Ardennes;  2, 
the  western  Ardennes,  connecting  with  the 
hills  of  Picardy  and  Artois ;  8,  the  branch  con- 
sisting of  the  Morvan  mountains,  the  hills  of 
the  Orleans  forest,  those  of  lower  Normandy, 
and  the  Monts  d*Arr6e,  extending  through  the 
N.  part  of  Brittany;  4,  the  mountains  of  Au- 
vergne,  which  may  be  more  properly  called  a 
claster,  of  which  the  mountains  of  Limousin  and 
hills  of  Poitou  are  but  the  continuation.  The 
Pyrenees  also  send  some  secondary  ramifica- 
t'ons  through  the  southwest.  The  highest  sum- 
mits of  this  great  chain  within  the  limits  of 
France  are  from  9,000  to  11,000  ft.  above  the 
sea.  In  the  G6vennes  ridge,  Mt.  M6zin  is  5,790 
ft.  high.  The  Reculet  and  the  D61e  tower  over 
the  ranges  of  the  Jura  to  about  5,600  fL  Among 
the  rounded  summits  of  the  Vosges,  which  are 
called  ^^  balloons,'^  the  only  one  deserving  no- 
tice is  the  Ballon  d^  Alsace,  in  the  southern  part 
of  this  chain.  The  group  of  Auvergne  presents 
the  Puy  de  D6me,  Mt  Dor  or  Dore,  and  the 
Plomb  du  Gantal,  rising  to  a  height  of  about 
6,000  ft.  The  loftiest  summit  of  the  country 
(excluding  Mt.  Blanc,  which  since  the  annex- 
ation of  Savoy  is  exactly  on  the  Italian  bound- 
ary, but  cannot  properly  be  considered  as  with- 
in French  territory)  is  the  Pointe  des  £crins  in 
the  Mont  Pelvoux  group  of  the  Dauphiny  Alps, 
which  is  about  13,600  ft.  (according  to  other 
measurements,  Mt  Olan). — ^The  great  W.  slope 
of  France  is  divided  into  three  parts,  one  inclined 
toward  the  North  sea,  another  toward  the  Eng- 
lish channel,  and  the  third  toward  the  Atlantic. 
The  first  is  drained  by  the  Moselle,  the  Meuse, 
which  flows  in  a  northern  direction  between  the 
E.  and  W.  Ardennes,  and  the  Scheldt  (Escaut) ; 
the  last  two  are  properly  Belgian.  The  Somme, 
the  Seine,  the  Ome,  the  Yire,  and  the  Banco 
flow  into  the  English  channel.     The   Seine 

881  VOL.  vn.— 24 


rises  at  St.  Seina,  at  the  foot  of  the  C6te  d'Or, 
runs  in  a  N.  W.  direction,  receives  on  its  left 
the  Yonne,  and  on  its  right  the  Aube,  the 
Marne,  and  the  Oise,  and  flows  into  the  sea  at 
Havre.  The  Atlantic  receives  the  Aulne,  the 
Blavet,  the  Yilaine,  the  Loire,  the  Sevre- 
Niortaise,  the  Charente,  the  Gironde,  and  the 
Adour.  The  Loire,  which  is  the  largest  river 
and  waters  the  most  central  part  of  the  coun- 
try, rises  in  the  G^vennes,  at  Mt  M6zin,  runs  N. 
and  N.  W.  to  Orleans,  and  thence  S.  W.  and  W. 
with  a  somewhat  tortuous  course  to  its  mouths. 
It  receives  on  the  right  the  Ni^vre,  and  further 
down  the  Mayenne,  which,  after  being  Joined 
by  the  Sarthe,  assumes  in  its  lower  part  the 
name  of  Maine;  on  the  left  the  AUier,  the 
Gher,  the  Indre,  the  Vienne  swollen  by  the 
confluence  of  the  Greuse,  and  the  S^vre-Nan- 
taise.  The  Loire  and  its  tributary  streams, 
particularly  those  from  the  south,  roll  down 
immense  quantities  of  gravel  and  sand,  which, 
continually  shitting,  render  the  navigation  dif- 
ficult and  dangerous.  A  great  dike,  called  the 
*^Lev6e  of  the  Loire,"  the  origin  of  which  is 
lost  in  antiquity,  bounds  the  course  of  the 
river  on  the  right  bank  from  Blois  to  Angers ; 
this  vast  work  is  generally  about  25  ft.  high  and 
40  broad.  The  Garonne,  which  has  its  source 
in  the  valley  of  Aran  in  Gatalonia,  follows 
one  of  the  passes  of  the  Pyrenees,  flows  N.  £. 
until  it  reaches  Toulouse,  then  turns  N.  W.  and 
becomes  navigable;  it  receives  on  the  right 
the  Tarn  and  the  Lot,  passes  Bordeaux,  where 
it  is  half  a  mile  wide,  and  meeting  the  Dor- 
dogne  about  12  miles  below  this  city,  takes  the 
name  of  Gironde,  forms  several  islands,  and 
broadening  into  an  estuary  empties  into  the 
sea.  The  navigation  between  Bordeaux  and 
the  sea  is  impeded  by  many  shoals ;  the  tide 
flows  up  about  80  m.,  and  is  sometimes  pre- 
ceded by  a  huge  billow  that  sweeps  destruc- 
tively along  the  shore.  This  phenomenon  is 
called  the  masearet  The  Adour,  rising  in  the 
Pyrenees,  has  a  semicircular  course  toward 
the  bay  of  Biscay,  into  which  it  enters  after 
receiving  numerous  mountain  streams.  The 
E.  slope,  which  is  inclined  toward  the  Medi- 
terranean, is  enclosed  between  the  Jura  and 
the  Alps  on  one  side,  the  G6te  d'Or  and  the- 
G^vennes  on  the  other.  It  is  drained  almost 
entirely  by  the  Rh6ne  and  its  branches.  The* 
Rhftne,  which,  rising  in  Switzerland,  enters. 
France  below  Geneva,  is  not  very  wide,  and 
runs  generally  with  the  impetuosity  of  a  tor- 
rent. It  joins  the  Sa6ne  at  Lyons,  and  flow» 
S.  to  the  Mediterranean,  discharging  by  sev- 
eral  branches,  forming  a  delta.  It  is  joined 
on  the  left  by  the  Isdre,  the  Dr6me,  and  the 
rapid  Durance,  which,  like  the  Is^re,  rises  in 
the  Alps.  The  few  lakes  of  France  scarcely 
deserve  the  name ;  the  largest  is  that  of  Grand 
Lieu,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Loire;  the  most 
picturesque  are  those  of  G6rardmer  in  the 
vosges,  and  Nantua  in  the  southern  part  of 
the  Jura. — ^The  geological  outline  of  France 
is  easily  marked.     A  belt  of  granitic  rocks 


368 


FRANCE 


mnning  through  the  Yosges,  the  Alps,  the 
Pyrenees,  and  the  peninsnla  of  Brittany,  forms 
a  kind  of  basin  in  the  centre  of  which  a  pile 
of  the  same  formation  rises.  This  constitutes 
the  Auvergne  moantains,  which,  being  mostly 
composed  of  granite,  gneiss,  and  micaceous 
schists,  bear  abundant  traces  of  recent  volcanic 
activity;  extinct  craters,  lava  streams,  &o., 
present  an  interesting  field  for  the  observations 
of  the  geologist.  The  primary  rocks  at  the 
circumference  are  of  the  greatest  diversity, 
the  granite  however  predominating  at  the  ex- 
tremity of  the  peninsula  of  Brittany.  The  in- 
tervals between  the  external  belt  and  the  cen- 
tral nucleus  are  mostly  filled  up  by  secondary 
formations,  interspersed  with  tertiary  deposits. 
Both  are  interesting.  The  former,  which  are 
calcareous  or  marly  and  generally  compact, 
contain  a  vast  number  of  shells,  madrepores, 
and  other  organic  remains ;  stretching  in  long 
hill  ranges-,  of  little  elevation,  they  run  through 
I/orraine,  Burgundy,  Franche  -  Comt6,  Dau- 
phiny,  and  Languedoc.  Many  are  steep  and 
bare,  or  covered  only  by  a  thin  vegetable  soil ; 
but  some,  the  hills  of  the  06te  d^Or  especial- 
ly, are  admirably  suited  for  the  vine.  The 
most  remarkable  tract  of  tertiary  formations 
is  known  as  the  ''Paris  basin;''  a  larger  one 
covers  nearly  the  whole  of  the  valleys  of  the 
Garonne  and  the  Adour,  while  several  others 
of  smaller  extent  are  found  in  the  valleys  of 
the  Loire  and  the  Allier.  These  are  mostly 
calcareous,  enclosing  great  quantities  of  shells 
and  the  remains  of  fossil  mammalia  of  large 
size.  The  district  around  the  mouth  of  the 
Rh6ne  is  entirely  alluvial. — The  soil  of  France, 
taken  as  a  whole,  is  of  superior  quality ;  and 
the  productive  part  of  it  bears  a  larger  pro- 
portion to  the  entire  extent  of  the  country 
than  in  most  other  European  states.  Of  the 
entire  soil  only  7*5  per  cent,  is  uncultivated  or 
unproductive.  Of  the  productive  portion  60 
per  cent,  is  arable  land  and  gardens,  4  per 
cent,  vineyards,  28  per  cent,  meadows  and  pas- 
tures, and  18  per  cent,  forests. — The  climate, 
being  on  the  whole  temperate,  is  one  of  the 
finest  in  Europe ;  it  is  however  greatly  diver- 
sified by  the  differences  of  latitude,  elevation, 
soil,  exposure,  &c.  In  this  respect  France  has 
been  divided  into  four  regions,  each  being 
characterized  by  a  special  production :  the  first, 
the  region  of  the  cereals,  extends  from  the 
northern  frontier  to  a  line  drawn  from  M6- 
zidres  to  Nantes ;  the  second,  the  region  of  the 
vine,  is  comprised  between  this  line  and  an- 
other passing  from  a  point  near  Nancy  to  the 
mouth  of  the  Charente;  the  third,  through 
which  the  cultivation  of  maize  prevails,  is 
bounded  S.  by  a  line  extending  from  Grenoble 
to  Perpignan;  and  the  fourth,  the  region  of 
the  olive,  includes  the  southeastern  part  of 
the  country.  The  air  is  generally  pure  and 
healthy.  The  mean  annual  temperature  of 
different  parts  of  France  has  been  estimated 
as  follows  by  Humboldt:  at  Toulon,  62**  F. ;  at 
Marseilles,  69*5° ;  at  Bordeaux,  66** ;  at  Nantes, 


66-2*;  at  Paris,  61 -S** ;  and  at  Dunkirk,  60-6'. 
More  rain  falls  annually  in  the  valley  of  the 
Rh6ne  than  on  the  Atlantic  slope;  the  aver- 
age fall  in  the  former  being  about  80  inches, 
while  it  does  not  exceed  20  inches  in  the  latter. 
The  centre  of  the  country  ei\joys  a  happy  me- 
dium of  temperature  and  climate ;  in  the  south 
the  summers  are  long,  dry,  and  hot.  The 
mountainous  region  of  Auvergne  is  visited  by 
long  and  severe  winters.  The  departments 
around  the  gulf  of  Lyons  are  subject  to  disa- 
greeable winds,  which  sometimes  prove  iiguri- 
ous  to  the  crops;  the  most  dreaded  is  the 
mutral. — Of  the  vegetable  products,  the  most 
generally  cultivated  are  wheat,  rye,  maize, 
buckwheat,  oats,  barley,  potatoes,  colewort, 
black  poppy,  &c.  The  chief  grain-growing 
districts  are  the  departments  of  £ure-et-Loir, 
Aisne,  Le  Nord,  Meurthe-et-Moselle,  Beine-et- 
Marne,  Seine-et-Oise,  Beine-Inf(&rieure,  Somme, 
and  Pas-de-Calais.  Barley,  oats,  oleaginous 
seeds,  hops,  and  beet  root  are  mostly  cultiva- 
ted in  the  department  of  Le  Nord;  buck- 
wheat in  Brittany.  Meadows  and  pastures 
are  principally  found  in  Normandy.  There 
are  vineyards  in  76  of  the  departments.  As 
regards  the  cultivation  of  the  vine,  France 
occupies  the  first  rank  among  the  states  of 
Europe.  Though  the  amount  of  wine  produ- 
ced is  subject  to  very  considerable  variations, 
it  always  constitutes  one  of  the  most  important 
articles  of  export.  From  1864  to  1869  the 
produce  was  as  follows  (1  hectolitre =26*41  gal- 
lons): 1864,  50,658,000 hectolitres;  1865,68,- 
948,000;  1866,  68,888.000;  1867,  89,128,000; 
1868,  52,098,000;  1869,  70,000,000.  The  pro- 
dnction  of  red  is  to  that  of  white  wine  near- 
ly as  8  to  1.  The  average  price  of  red  wine 
is  14  francs  a  hectolitre;  that  of  white  is 
11  francs.  Apple  trees  are  abundant  in  the 
northwest,  and  the  Normandy  cider  enjoys  a 
wide  reputation  in  France ;  hemp  and  flax  are 
raised  in  large  quantities  in  the  same  region ; 
attention  is  given  to  the  mulberry  tree  in  the 
south  and  southeast;  madder  is  successfully 
cultivated  in  the  southeast  on  the  banks  of  the 
Durance ;  tobacco  is  raised  in  the  departments 
of  Le  Nord,  Pas-de-Oalais,  Gironde,  Ille-et- 
Vilaine,  Lot,  and  Lot-et-6aronne.  The  prin- 
cipal forest  trees  are  the  chestnut  on  the  cen- 
tral mountains,  the  oak  in  the  Pyrenees,  and  the 
fir  in  Gascony.  The  most  richly  wooded  dis- 
tricts are  the  Ardennes  table-land,  the  Yosges, 
the  plateau  of  Langres,  the  05te  d^Or,  the 
C^vennes  and  their  ramifications,  the  Jura,  and 
the  Alps.  The  destruction  of  wood  has  been 
considerable  within  the  last  two  centuries, 
and  the  forests  do  not  cover  more  than  -^  of 
the  whole  area  of  the  country.  The  principal 
forests  still  in  existence  are  those  of  Com- 
pi^gne,  Fontainebleau,  L'Esterel,  Rambouillet, 
Villers-Ootterets,  and  Orleans.  The  French 
fiora  comprises  upward  of  800  genera  and 
6,000  species.  The  numbers  of  live  stock  in  1 866 
were  as  follows:  horned  cattle,  12,833,000; 
sheep,   80,116,000;   horses,  8,163,000;   mules 


FRANCE 


369 


and  asses,  862,000;  swine,  5,650,000;  goats, 
1,640,000.  Within  the  last  60  years  great  at- 
tention has  been  given  not  only  to  the  im- 
provement of  native  breeds,  bat  to  the  intro- 
duction of  foreign  ones,  which  has  been  gene- 
rally saccessfa].  The  best  breeds  of  cattle  are 
those  of  Aavergne  and  Gascony;  the  sheep 
of  Berry  are  considered  the  finest ;  the  fattest 
Bwine  are  raised  in  Lorraine  and  the  Pyrenees ; 
the  horses  of  Limousin,  Brittany,  Perche,  and 
Xormandy  are  renowned,  those  of  the  last 
two  provinces  for  their  strength  and  size ;  the 
males  of  Poitoa  deserve  the  same  praise.  Poul- 
try, which  is  one  of  the  principal  articles  in 
the  hasbandry  of  France,  is  raised  with  pe- 
culiar success  in  Maine,  Augoumois,  and  Bur- 
gundy. Eggs  are  important  articles  of  export, 
especially  to  England.  Bees  are  principally 
raised  in  the  departments  bordering  on  the 
Mediterranean ;  the  most  celebrated  honey  is 
that  of  Karbonne.  The  wild  animals  are  fast 
diminishing  all  over  the  country;  the  black 
bear  is  confined  to  the  higher  ranges  of  the 
Alps  and  the  Pyrenees,  where  the  chamois 
and  the  wild  goat  are  also  found.  The  lyns 
appears  rarely  in  these  mountains  and  the 
O^vennes.  Wolves,  notwithstanding  the  ac- 
tive war  of  extermination  carried  on  against 
them,  are  still  found  in  some  central  depart- 
ments, especially  the  moantainous  districts. 
The  wild  boar,  roebuck,  and  fox  are  found  in  all 
well  wooded  parts.  The  red  and  fallow  deer 
are  becoming  rare,  while  hares  and  rabbits 
are  abundant.  Several  kinds  of  squirrels,  the 
polecat,  weasel,  marten,  hedgehog,  and  other 
small  animals  are  common.  Otters  and  a  few 
beavers  are  found  in  some  of  the  southern 
streams.  Reptiles  are  few ;  a  venomous  kind 
of  viper  and  a  harmless  adder  are  to  be  found 
in  some  regions.  Among  the  birds,  which  are 
Tery  numerous,  are  eagles,  vultures,  falcons, 
&c.  The  rivers  and  coasts  generally  abound 
with  fish ;  fisheries  are  consequently  an  impor- 
tant industry  and  a  n'eat  source  of  wealth. 
Several  points  on  the  N".  W.  and  W.  coasts  fur- 
nish excellent  oysters.  The  pilchard  fishery, 
which  is  conducted  mostly  on  the  shores  of 
Brittany,  is  the  most  important  of  all ;  about 
8,000  barrels  of  salted  pilchards  are  sent  into 
the  market  annually,  and  the  inhabitants  on 
the  coast  live  in  great  part  on  fresh  pilchards 
during  the  season.  The  herring  fishery,  the 
headquarters  of  which  are  at  Dieppe,  has  also 
some  importance,  as  well  as  the  sole,  ray,  and 
mackerel  fisheries.  The  tunny  fishery  is  pur- 
sued on  the  Mediterranean.  Dunkirk,  Bou- 
logne, St.  Valery-sur-Somme,  Dieppe,  Fecamp, 
and  St.  Malo  send  yearly  a  number  of  ships  to 
the  herring,  mackerel,  cod,  and  whale  fisher- 
ies.— ^The  mineral  wealth  of  France  is  equally 
large  and  diversified,  although  gold  and  silver 
are  to  be  found  in  but  very  small  quantities. 
The  former  appears  in  some  small  streams 
fiowing  from  the  Pyrenees ;  a  few  mines  of  the 
latter  are  wrought,  but  with  little  profit,  while 
the  precious  metal  is  extracted  in  larger  quan- 


tity from  lead  and  copper  ores.  Large  beds  of 
iron  ore  are  found  in  nearly  all  parts  of  France ; 
they  are  mostly  wrought  in  the  departments 
of  Ardennes,  Meurthe-et-Moselle,  Haute-Marne, 
Haute-Sa6ne,  le^re,  Pyr^n^es-Orientalea,  Bas- 
ses-Pyr6n6es,  Ard^che,  and  Aveyron.  They 
yield  annually  about  700,000  tons,  and  give 
employment  to  about  16,000  hands.  Marble, 
porphyry,  granite,  alabaster,  and  crystals  are 
found  in  nearly  all  the  mountains;  slate  in 
the  departments  of  Ardennes,  Maine-et- Loire, 
and  Finist^re ;  building  stone  of  many  varieties 
everywhere.  Coal  b^s  of  various  kinds  are 
also  numerous,  and  within  the  last  40  years 
considerable  progress  has  been  made  in  the 
working  of  mines.  The  most  productive  are 
to  be  found  in  the  departments  of  Le  Nord, 
Loire,  Sa6ne-et-Loire,  Aveyron,  &c.,  and  their 
annual  yield  is  about  2, 000, 000  tons.  Salt  mines 
are  worked  in  the  departments  of  Meurthe-et- 
Moselle,  Haute-Sa6ne,  Doubs,  Jura,  Ari^ge, 
and  Basses-Pyr6n6es,  while  salt  marshes  exist 
along  nearly  the  whole  of  the  seacoast.  The 
produce  of  both  exceeds  1,000,000,000  lbs.  an- 
nually. Lead  is  extensively  scattered  through 
the  mountainous  districts,  especially  in  Brit- 
tany. Copper  is  abundant  in  the  Pyrenees, 
Alps,  and  Vosges.  Together  with  diese  metals, 
zinc,  cobalt,  and  manganese  are  found.  Alum 
is  gathered  in  Aisne,  Oise,  and  Aveyron.  The 
mineral  springs,  which  are  nearly  900  in  num- 
ber, are  divided  into  cold  and  hot,  ferruginous, 
gaseous,  sulphureous,  and  salt  waters;  the 
most  renowned  are  those  of  Aix,  St.  Amand, 
Bagn^res-de-Bigorre,  Balamo,  Bareges,  Bour- 
bon-Lancy,  Bourbonne-les-Bains,  Cauterets, 
Eaux-Bonnes,  Forges,  Mont  Dor,  Plombidres, 
and  Vichy. — Previous  to  the  revolution  of  1789 
France  contained  86  provinces,  which  difiered 
from  each  other  in  extent,  population,  rights, 
immunities,  and  administration.  By  a  decree 
of  the  national  assembly,  dated  Jan.  15,  1790, 
the  country  was  divided  into  departments, 
which  were  subdivided  into  arrondissements, 
cantons,  and  communes.  According  to  the 
official  census  of  1866,  there  were  89  depart* 
ments,  873  arrondissements,  2,941  cantons,  and 
87,548  communes.  In  consequence' of  the  loss 
of  territory  sustained  through  the  war  of  1870- 
*71,  these  numbers  were  reduced  in  the  census 
of  1872  to  87  departments  (including  Belfort), 
862  arrondissements,  2,865  cantons,  and  85,989 
communes.  The  following  table  shows  the  de- 
partments, the  former  provinces  from  which 
they  have  been  chiefly  formed,  their  popula- 
tion, and  their  capitals : 


PROVINCES. 


N.  DnriBTOir. 

FlftDders 

Artols 

Pieardy 

NormaDdy... 


DvparimcBU. 


LeKord 

Pas-de-OftUft 

Soinme 

'  S«ine-Iiif6rieure.. . . 

Enre 

Orne 

CaWadoe 

Manehe 


Ckpltali. 


761,158 
657,015 
790,022 
8n,874 
898,250 
454,012 
644,776 


Lflle. 

Arraa. 

Amiem. 

Booen. 

^vreox. 

AleD^on. 

Caen. 

BtLd. 


870 


FRANCE 


PBOTINCES. 

CXMT&AL  Dt- 
TI81UK. 

Isle  of  Fnmoe 


Ghampagne. 


Lomine 


OiitenalB. . . . . 

Tooraine  .... 
Beny 


Klrernais ... 
Bonrbonnals 
Marche 


AiiT0rg7i6 . . . . 

Limonain . . . . 

E.  "DTVjmov. 
Alaaoa  ...<... 


Frasche- 


Borgnndj. . . , 

I^noata  . . . , 
W.  DinaioN. 

Bilttaiiy 

Maine. 

Aqjoa 

Poitoa 

Anniaand 

BaintoDffe.. 
AngoouK^.., 


Guienne 

B.  l)rn8ioir. 
Gaatsony....!. 

Bteiii 

Foix 

BoaasUlon.... 


Laognedoc... 


Seine , 

8elne<et-01ae 

Olaa 

Beixie*et->]iarDe. . . . 

Aisne , 

ArdenDea 

Marne 


Anbe 

Haate-Marne 

Meuae 

Meorthe-et-Moselle 

Voflgea. 

Lolret 

£ure-et-Loir 

Lolr-ot'Cber. 

Indre-et-Loire 

j  Indre 

iCher 

Nterre 

AlUer 

Creuae 

Pt>y-de-D6me 


i 


Cantal 

Hante-Ylenne. 
Corrtee 


The  terrltoiy 

Belibrt 

fHante-SaAne... 
JDoaba..* 

Jura 


of 


1 


fToniie 

Cflte-d'Or. 

Sa^ne-et-Loire..... 

Aln 

RhAne 

Loire 


•  •  •  • 


'Flnist^re 

CAtee-dn-Nord 

Morblhan 

IIle-et-Yllatne 

,  Loire- Ittfirienre.. . . 

Mayenne 

Sartho 

Maine-et-Loire 

(  Vienne 

•{  Denx-Bdyrea 

(  Vend6e 

Charente-Inftrieare 

Gharente 

fOironde 

Dordogne 

Lot-et-Garonne. . . . 

Lot 

Tam-et>6aronDe. . . 

,  Ayejrron 

'Landea 


2,280,060 
060,180 
890,804 
841,490 
602,489 
820,217 
886,157 

258,687 

251,196 

284,725' 

866,187 

892,988 

898,021 

282,622 

268,601 

817,027 

277,608 

885,892 

889,917 

890,812 

274,668, 

566,468 

881,867' 
822,447 
808,746 


Parla. 

YeraalUea. 

Beauvaia. 

Melun. 

Laon. 

M^Kl^ree. 

GhMona-anr- 

Maine. 
Troyea. 
Ghaamont. 
Bar-le-Duc. 
Nancy. 
^IplnaL 
Ori^ana. 
Ghartrea. 
Bloia. 
Tooza. 

Gh&teaazoux. 
Boargea. 
Kevera. 
Moulina. 
Gadrat. 
Glermont-Fer- 

raod. 
Auriliae. 
Limoges. 
Tnlle. 


56,781  Belfort 
808,0881  Vesoul. 
291.251 'Beaan^on. 
287,684  Lona-le-Saol- 

I  nier. 
8<;8;,608'Aiucerre. 
874,510  DMon. 
698,844  Mfloon. 
868,290  Bouiig. 
670,247!  Lyons. 
C50,611,Montbrison. 


Daaphiny 

Arignon 

Provence. .... 

Savoy 

nice 

Goraica 


Gets 

Hantea-Fyr6n6ea . . 
Ba88ea-Fyr6n6ea. . . 

Arl^ge 

^rren^es  Orientalea 
Haate-Garonne. . . . 

Tarn 

Aude 

H6niult. 

Gard 

Lozdre 

Haate-Loire 

Ard6che 

^'  Is^re 
BrAme 
Hantes-Alpea. 

Vauduse 

Basses- Alpes 

Bouohes-aa-IUi5ne. 

Vor 

j  Savote 

(  Hante-Sftvoie 

AIpea-Maritimea. . . 
Gcnrse 


] 


642.968 

622,295 

490.852 

589,582 

602,206 

850,687, 

446,608 

518,471 

820,698 

881,248 

401,446 

466,668 
867,520 
706,149 
480,141 
819,289 
281,404 
221,610 
402,474 
800,628 


Qaimper. 

St  Brieaa 

Yannea. 

Kennes. 

Nantea. 

Laval 

Le  Mans. 

Angers. 

Poitiers. 

Niort 

Napol^n-Yen- 
d6e. 

La  Rochelle. 

Angoul6me. 

Bordeanx. 

P^rigneux. 

Agen. 

Gahcvs. 

Montanban. 

Rodez. 

Mont-de-Mar- 
aan. 
284,717  Auch. 
286,160  Tarbea. 
426,700  Pan. 
246,298  Foix. 
191,666  Perpignan. 
479,862 1  Toolouae. 
862,718' Albi. 
286,927  Garoaasonne. 
429,878  Montpelller. 
420,181  Nlmea. 
185,190  Mende. 
808,782  Le  Puy. 
8S0,277iPrivas. 
57^784  Grenoble. 
820,417  Yalence. 
118,898  Gap. 
268,4511  Avignon. 
189.882 1  Digne. 
554,911 1  Marseilles. 
298,757'Dragaignan. 
267,958  Ghambiry. 
278.027  Annecy. 
199.087  Nice. 
258,507  Ajacelo. 


In  popalation  France  ranks  third  among  the 
great  European  states,  being  inferior  omj  to 
Russia  and  Germany.  The  gradual  increase  in 
population  since  1700  is  shown  in  the  follow- 
ing table,  made  up  from  the  official  censuses : 


Ycftn.  Popnlmlkm. 

1700 19,669,820 

1762 21,769,168 

1780 24.800,000 

1790 26,500,000 

1801 27,849,008 

1806 29,107,426 

1820...   80,491,187 

1881 82,660^964 


Yean.  FD|ml*1l0B. 

1886 88,640,910 

1841 84,280,178 

1846 86.401,761 

1861 86.761,628 

1856 86,089,864 

1861 87,472,782 

1866 88,067,064 

1872 86,102,921 


According  to  this  table,  within  a  period  of  a 
century  and  a  half  the  population  has  not  even 
doubled ;  but  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that 
during  the  middle  part  of  this  period  the  popu- 
lation was  heavily  taxed  by  the  bloody  wars 
of  the  empire,  by  which  France  lost  no  fewer 
than  1,700,000  men  on  the  battle  field.  A 
comparison  of  the  movement  of  population  in 
France  with  that  of  the  other  European  coun- 
tries shows  that  the  average  increase  in  France 
has  been  smaller  than  in  any  other.  The  annual 
average  increase  from  1821  to  1872  has  never 
been  more  than  0*69  per  cent. ;  from  1851  to 
1856,  it  was  0*21;  from  1856  to  1861, 0*11;  from 
1861  to  1866,  0*87.  Only  a  few  departments 
which  contain  the  largest  cities  have  doubled 
their  population  since  1790;  quite  as  many  had 
in  1872  fewer  inhabitants  than  in  1790.  The 
period  from  1866  to  1872  was  more  unfavor- 
able than  any  preceding  one ;  for  even  leaving 
out  of  account  the  territory  ceded  to  Germany, 
it  showed  an  absolute  decrease  of  population. 
While  the  present  territory  of  France  in  1866 
had  86,469,856  inhabitants,  it  had  in  1872 
only  86,102,921;  a  decrease  of  866,985  (0*16 
per  cent,  per  annum).  In  only  14  depart- 
ments, nearly  all  containing  large  cities,  had 
there  been  an  increase.  The  cities  with  upward 
of  80,000  inhabitants  showed  an  aggregate  in- 
crease of  186,496,  though  in  some  there  had 
also  been  a  considerable  decrease,  as  in  Brest 
(18,575),  Toulon  (7,999),  and  Toulouse  (2,084). 
The  causes  of  the  slowness  of  increase  and  of 
the  recent  positive  decrease  in  French  popula- 
tion are  too  various  to  be  considered  here,  and 
many  conflicting  opinions  have  been  given  con- 
cerning them.  Legislation  w^hich  has  been  in- 
directly repressive  of  marriage  has  undoubted- 
ly had  much  to  do  with  the  matter ;  and  many 
classes  of  the  people  have  been  led  by  the  laws 
concerning  property  to  take  all  possible  pre- 
cautions against  the  increase  of  their  families. 
Especially,  modern  French  statesmen  agree  in 
confessing  that  the  law  of  March  7, 1798,  which 
abolishes  testamentary  freedom,  and  obliges 
parents  to  an  equal  division  of  their  property 
among  their  children,  has  increased  the  *^  ste- 
rility of  marriages,"  The  average  population 
to  the  square  mile  is  177;  the  density  is  greater 
in  the  north  than  in  the  south.  Of  the  male 
sex  there  were  17,980,476,  of  the  female  18,- 
122,445 ;  owing  to  the  war,  the  decrease  of  the 
former  since  1866  had  been  almost  double  that 


FRAlSrOE 


371 


of  tbe  latter  (285,880  to  181,105).  In  respect 
to  occapation  the  total  population  of  France 
was,  according  to  the  official  census  of  1866, 
classified  as  follows: 


OCCUPATIONS. 


Agxteoltare 

Mmnnftctnres 

Commerce 

OeeapatioiiB  coimectod  with  the  throe 

prmeding 

Muoellaaeoos  ocoupatlons 

liberal  profbsstons  aud  rentiers 

Employed  by  goyemment 

Unuown 

Total 


TotBl 
PopuUUon. 


19.508,115 

10,959,091 

1,517,153 

1,095,787 
198,689 

8,607,295 
564.841 
526,688 


88,067,064 


P*r- 


58 

29-64 
4-11 

2-96 
0-54 
9-75 


The  agricultural  population  in  1866  was  less 
than  in  1851,  in  which  year  it  amounted  to 
21,992,874;  and  in  1872  it  showed  again  a  con- 
siderable decrease,  which,  as  in  many  other 
countries,  may  be  ascribed  to  the  progress  of 
commerce  and  manufactures,  and  to  the  attrac- 
tion of  the  cities.  The  following  table  shows 
the  number  of  births  and  deaths  during  each 
of  the  tax  years  ending  with  1870 : 


TEARS. 

BblU. 

Dootho. 

ExccMOf  BIrthi 
orDMthk 

1665. 

1,005,768 

1,006,258 

1,007,515 

984,140 

94a526 

948,515 

921,887 
884,578 
8S6,887 
922,088 
864,820 
1,046,909 

88,866  of  blrtha. 

1S66 

121,685  "      " 

1867. 

120,628  •*      •* 

1869. 

68,102  "      " 

1969 

84,206  "      " 

1870 

108,894  of deatha. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  excess  of  births,  even 
before  the  Franco-German  war,  had  been  con- 
siderably reduced  from  its  usual  ratio;  and 
that  in  1870  it  gave  way  to  an  alarming  excess 
of  deaths,  which  is  not  fully  accounted  for  by 
the  ravages  of  the  war,  but  indicates  a  progres- 
sive decrease  of  fecundity  in  the  population. 
Twice  before  there  had  been  an  excess  of  deaths 
over  births,  in  1854  of  69,818,  and  in  1855  of 
85,006.  The  illegitimate  children  in  1865  con- 
stituted 7'65  per  cent  of  all  births ;  in  1866, 
7-63;  in  1867,  7-62;  in  1868,  7*62;  in  1869, 
7*48 ;  in  1870,  7'46.  The  relation  of  marriages 
to  the  entire  population  was  in  1865  as  1  to 
every  126 '8 'inhabitants;  in  1866,  1  to  122*5; 
in  1867, 1  to  127 ;  in  1868, 1  to  127-3  ;  in  1869, 
1  to  121-4;  in  1870,  1  to  165.  In  no  previ- 
ous year  since  1815  had  the  decrease  of  mar- 
riages been  so  large  as  in  1870.  The  general 
proportion  from  1825  to  1869  had  been  1  to 
from  118  to  128,  with  the  exception  of  1847, 
when  it  was  1  to  142.  The  loss  of  inhabitants 
by  emigration  is  very  small.  From  1849  to 
1858  the  number  of  emigrants  was  less  than 
200,000,  while  the  German  eYnigrants  num- 
bered more  than  1,200,000,  and  those  from 
Great  Britain  2,750,000.  From  1859  to  1868 
only  40,000  emigrated,  including  10,000  to  Al- 
geria. In  the  following  table  all  the  cities  of 
France  having  more  than  70,000  inhabitants 
are  arranged  according  to  population : 


cims. 

PiopfolatioD  in 
187S. 

CITIES. 

PojNdstlonia 
1819. 

Paria 

1,851,792 
828,417 
812.864 
194,055 
168,117 
124,852 

Naotea 

ilSi517 
110,814 

Lyons 

St  £tlenne 

Rooen 

HaTre 

Auraellles 

Bordeaux 

102,470 
86,825 

Lille 

Roabalx 

Bhelma 

75,987 

Touloase 

71,994 

The  bulk  of  the  French  nation  consists  of  the 
descendants  of  Gallo-Roraans  mixed  with  Ger- 
man and  Scandinavian  barbarians  (Burgundians, 
Goths,  Franks,  and  Northmen),  who  invaded 
Gaul  between  the  5th  and  10th  centuries.  But 
the  latter  elements  are  far  from  being  impor- 
tant, and  the  French  may  be  called  a  neo-Latin 
race ;  their  language  partakes  of  the  same  char- 
acter, being  Latin  with  a  slight  admixture  of 
Germanic  and  Oeltic.  Although  the  various 
races  have  melted  into  a  single  people,  some 
of  the  original  types  may  be  still  traced,  espe- 
cially in  the  remote  parts  of  the  country  or 
along  the  frontiers.  The  inhabitants  of  Brit- 
tany mostly  retain  the  characteristic  features 
of  their  ancestors,  and  the  Breton  language  is 
still  spoken  in  the  western  part  of  that  prov- 
ince. The  Basques  preserve  their  primitive 
language.  The  German  element  of  the  pop- 
ulation has  been  reduced  to  an  insignificant 
number  by  the  cession  of  Alsace  and  Lorraine. 
The  Gorsicans  speak  Italian.  The  inhabitants 
of  other  than  French  descent  were  in  1872 
estimated  as  follows :  Walloons,  1,800,000 ; 
Celts,  1,100,000;  Italians,  400,000;  Basques, 
200,000;  Spaniards,  100,000;  Flemings,  100,- 
000;  Jews,  46,000;  gypsies,  10,000;  Cagots 
(in  the  Pyrenees),  5,000. — Although,  as  has 
been  stated,  53  per  cent,  of  the  population  of 
France,  and  a  very  much  larger  proportion  of 
the  land,  are  devoted  to  agriculture,  yet  this 
department  of  production  is  far  from  being  in 
an  advanced  state  of  progress,  when  compared 
with  the  agriculture  of  other  nations.  By 
some  writers  this  is  attributed  to  the  effect 
of  the  law  of  1798,  which  requires  the  division 
of  estates  equally  among  the  children  of  the 
testator,  and  has  thus  divided  France  into  mil- 
lions of  small  farms  whose  owners  have  not 
sufficient  capital  to  cultivate  them  in  the  best 
manner.  Comparatively  few  kinds  of  labor- 
saving  machinery  are  in  use ;  the  methods  of 
culture  are  generally  primitive  and  unintelli- 
gent on  the  smaller  farms,  and  the  great  land 
owners  have  only  introduced  more  modem 
methods  within  the  last  15  or  20  years. — In 
manufactures,  on  the  other  hand,  great  pro- 
gress has  been  made ;  and  as  respects  the  ex- 
tent and  value  of  her  products,  France  ranks 
as  a  manufacturing  country  next  to  Great 
Britain.  While  she  cannot  enter  into  compe- 
tition with  the  latter  in  the  manufacture  of  cot- 
ton goods  and  several  other  valuable  articles, 
she  excels  her  and  other  countries  in  nearly  all 
those  requiring  particular  taste  and  elegance. 
Her  silk  goods  hold  the  most  prominent  place 
in  this  respect.    St.  £tienne,  Lyons,  Avignon, 


372 


FRANCE 


Kimes,  and  Tours  are  the  principal  seats  of 
this  important  manufacture,  the  excellence  of 
which  is  sufficieutlj  proved  bj  the  fact  that 
tour  ^hs  of  its  products  are  exported.  In 
the  manufactures  of  Jewelry  and  bronze  goods 
France  exceeds  everj  other  country  of  the 
globe ;  their  principal  seat  is  Paris.  Tlie  capital 
is  also  the  groat  centre  of  the  fabrication  of 
surgical  and  philosophical  instruments,  books, 
and  what  is  especially  called  VartieU-modei, 
The  pablishing  business  is  also  carried  on  with 
some  activity  in  Lyons,  Tours,  and  several 
other  large  cities.  Lace,  tulle,  and  embroid- 
eries are  mostly  manufactured  in  and  around 
Nancy  and  St.  Quentin.  Iron  works  are  to  be 
found  in  various  parts  of  France;  tibe  most 
important  are  at  Oreuzot,  Nevers,  and  St. 
£tienne ;  the  product  of  pig  iron  has  been  on 
the  increase,  but  is  not  yet  suflScient  to  supply 
all  the  manufactories.  The  making  of  cutlery 
is  principally  carried  on  at  Paris,  Langres, 
Oh&telierault,  Moulins,  and  Thiers ;  hardware 
is  produced  at  the  same  places,  as  well  as  St 
£tienne,  Oharleville,  &c.  There  are  manu- 
factories of  fine  porcelain  and  euthenware  at 
Sevres,  Limoges,  Nevers,  and  Montereau ;  the 
porcelain  of  Sevres  is  much  and  justly  es- 
teemed. Watches  are  made  at  Besan^on,  Mont- 
b^liard,  Pontarlier,  and  Versailles.  Leather  is 
exported  A*om  France  in  larger  quantities  tiian 
fr(»n  any  other  country  of  Europe ;  the  best 
manuiactures  of  leather  ware  are  at  Paris  and 
Grenoble.  The  woollen  manufacture  is  of  para- 
mount importance ;  its  chief  seats  are  Sedan, 
Louviers,  and  Elbeuf,  for  cloths;  Yervins, 
Bheims,  Amiens,  Arras,  St  Omer,  Roubaix, 
and  Tourcoing,  for  fiannels  and  other  coarse 
stuffs ;  Paris,  Beauvais,  and  Aubusson,  for  car- 
pets ;  the  number  of  spindles  employed  is  about 
2,500,000.  The  cotton  manufacture,  employ- 
ing about  4,600,000  spindles  (after  the  cession 
of  Alsaoe  and  Lorraine,  which  had  over  2,000,- 
000  spindles),  and  including  all  kinds  of  fabrics, 
is  mostly  carried  on  in  the  departments  of  Le 
Nord,  Aisne,  Seine-Inf6rieure,  Pas-de-Calais, 
and  Vosges.  Linens  are  manufactured  princi- 
pally in  the  northern  provinces.  St.  Quentin, 
Valenoieimes,  and  Gambrai  produce  the  best 
cambrics ;  Lyons  and  Alen^on,  the  best  muslins. 
Mirrors  of  superior  quality  are  manufactured 
at  St  Gobain,  St  Qnirin,  and  Girey.  There 
were  in  April,  1878,  about  614  houses  for  the 
manufacture  of  beet>root  sugar,  giving  an  an- 
nual product  of  360,000,000  kilogrammes.  Ship 
building  is  principally  carried  on  at  Gherbonrg, 
Brest,  Kocnefort,  Marseilles,  Toulon,  and  Bor- 
deaux. The  manufacture  of  tobacco  is  car- 
ried on  in  16  establishments  belonging  to  the 
state.  The  total  number  of  steam  engines  used 
in  France  in  1868  was  29,485,  of  an  aggre- 
gate of  790,194  horse  power ;  of  these  23,450, 
of  289,676  horse  power,  were  used  in  19,887 
industrial  establishments. — The  great  articles 
of  export  consist  of  silk,  woollen,  and  other 
manufactured  goods,  wines  and  brandies,  join- 
ers^ and  cabinetmakers*  wares,  leather,  bronze. 


steel,  and  iron  wares,  paper,  refined  sugar, 
china,  earthen,  and  glass  wares ;  while  the  im- 
ports comprise  all  sorts  of  colonial  produce, 
cotton,  wool,  sugar,  coffee,  spices,  dyestuffs, 
raw  silk,  woollen,  hemp,  fiax,  coal,  copper, 
catUe,  hides,  &c.  These  are  mostly  brought 
to  Marseilles,  Havre,  Bordeaux,  Nantes,  Ro- 
chelle,  Dunkirk,  Boulogne,  St  Malo,  Lorient, 
Bayonne,  Gette,  &c.,  which  are  also  the  outlets 
of  exportation.  The  following  tables,  compiled 
from  recent  ofiScial  publications,  show  the  so- 
called  "  actual "  values  of  tlie  commerce  of 
France,  distinguished  as  ^^  general ''  and  ^*  spe- 
cial ;"  the  former  term  comprehending  all  the 
imports  and  exports,  and  the  latter  only  the 
imports  for  domestic  consumption  and  the  ex- 
ports of  French  produce  and  manufactures. 
The  "  ofiScial "  value,  which  is  that  fixed  by  law 
in  1826,  is  somewhat  smaller.  The  sums  are 
given  in  millions  of  francs : 


omnAX.  ooM- 

MBBCS. 

8PBCTAL  OOM- 

lllETAUa 

iBlpflftSa 

Ezpwti. 

Impoili. 

KzpeitK. 

Inpotis. 

txpm^ 

lo^Bi. ... 

1869 

1870.... 
1871 

4,258 

4,008-7 

8,498 

ill' 

8,808-7 
8,1S81 
«,8e7-4 
8,898-8 
8,447& 

2,76»-« 
8,074-9 
8.802-1 
2,865-6 
8,679-0 

687 

647 
416 
886 
400 

865 

264 

261 
529 

1872 

888 

The  following  table  exhibits  the  principal  arti- 
cles of  the  special  commerce  in  1872  (values 
expressed  in  millions  of  francs) : 


ARTICLES. 


Inpotte. 


811k 

Wool 

Cotton 

ADimak 

Grain 

Hides 

Wood 

Coal 

Bngar 

Mannfira.  of  wool . . . ' 
Mannflra.  of  cotton.) 

Flax I 

Tallow , 

Oil  seed I 

CettoB  yam j 

Olto 


41811 

811-5 

208-6 

1764 

167-6 

1850 

129-8 

128-7 

117-6 

1001 

84*4 

81-8 

742 

60-6 

450 

88*1 


ARTICLES. 

MaoQft«.ofallk 

Manaflrs.  ofwool... 

Flour  and  grain 

Wines 

Leather  and  mft«.  of 

Small  wares 

Silk 

Keflned  angar 

Confectionezy 

Spirita 

Wool 

Hardware. 

Raw  sugar 

M annfts.  of  cotton . . 
Cheese  and  butter. . 
Cotton. 


4861) 

290-0 

264-2 

254-8 

22&-2 

146-8 

182-5 

117-9 

107-8 

82-0 

81-0 

72-6 

69^ 

69-2 

fi8-7 

49-4 


The  following  table  represents  the  special  com- 
merce of  France  with  the  countries  most  large- 
ly interested  in  her  trade  in  1870,  the  actual 
values  being  given  in  millions  of  francs : 


EXPOBTB. 


COUNTRIES. 

Great  Britain 

Beljcium 

United  SUtea. 

Switserland 

Italy 

Algeria 

Spain 

German  Zollvereln. 

Tuikey 

Argentine  Republic 
Brazil 

Netbeiiuids ...'..!. 
ChlH 


Valw. 


842*8 

810-8 

806-8 

262-8 

198-6 

109-5 

91-0 

60-6 

64-4 

62-4 

M-0 

41-2 

84-2 

88-f 


OOUKTRIEB. 

Russia r 

Hanse  Towns 

Uruguay 

Peru 

United  States  of  Co- 
lombia  

Spanish  colonies  in 
America 

Austria 

Martiniaue 

Portugal. 

Greece 

R^unioD. 

Mexico 


ValM. 


28-4 

28-2 
22-8 
20-1 

18-8 

16*5 
18-8 
11-6 
11-2 
10-9 
10-9 
10<» 


FRANCE 


873 


niPOBis. 

OOUKTRISS. 

ValMb 

COUNTRIES. 

VtlM. 

GveatBiitaia 

OKoV 

978-0 

982-8 

917-6 

188-4 

188-4 

188-9 

104-8 

109-4 

8M) 

74^ 

64-7 

686 

47-8 

45^1 

Bpaalak  poMeaaloiift 

in  Aineitos 

Nonroy 

46« 

Ite^ . 

41-8 

United  StotM 

RnMiAu            .     1 

OWn« 

41 -1 

Egypt 

88-9 

X*iirk0y 

Uruguay 

8T-0 

Britiah  India. 

Anyanttae  KepabHe 

BwitaBriaod 

Zolhrerein 

Ne^erianda 

Haytl 

Anatria 

88-0 
8»7 
29-1 

Japan •  > . 

87-0 

ftpfiln 

R^inton 

«y4 

Peru 

Gnadaloape 

Martinique 

Deep-aea  flaherlea. . 
Bag',  poaa.  In  jUHca 

94-9 

21-7 

AlserlA 

21-6 

B^rad^n 

90-A 

The  total  ralae  of  imports  into  France  from 
the  United  States  daring  the  year  ending  June 
80,  1873,  was  $84,212,656;  and  the  exports 
from  France  to  the  United  States  daring  the 
same  period  amounted  to  $38,977,524.  The 
ratio  of  increase  of  imports  and  exports  since 
1855  may  be  seen  from  the  following  figares, 
representing  the  average  annual  general  and 
special  commerce,  including  specie  movements, 
in  millions  of  francs : 


TEABS. 

OSHKBAL  OOM- 
MSBCB. 

apsoiAL  OOll- 

XUCB. 

PXBOIOUS 

mcTALa. 

bepM 

■ivortu 

imt^ 

br««i. 

Impwti. 

681 
065 

781 

bpi^ti. 

18B»-*90. 

1860-*64. 
1869-'69. 

9,491-6 
8,0671 
8,984-0 

9,616-8 
9,861-0 
4^008-9 

1,782-1 
9,298-6 
2,988-7 

1,804^ 
9,408*6 

9,991-9 

471 
629 
874 

The  moyement  of  French  shipping  durmg  the 
period  from  1867  to  1870  was  as  follows: 

TSARSb 

V«Mh. 

Toi 

»9.000 

iser 

64,486 
64,435 

68,300 
6fi.788 

10,4s 

1868.., 

10,656,000 

1869 

10,954,000 
10.424^000 

1S70 

'      ,     1 

■T-— " 

Of  the  aggregate  tonnage  about  86  per  cent, 
belonged  in  1870  to  French  vessels,  against  88 
per  cent,  in  1869.  Foremost  among  the  coun- 
tries with  which  France  had  maritime  rela- 
tions in  1870  were  Enghind  (8,940,025  tons), 
Italy  (922,718),  Algeria  (632,602),  Russia  (526,- 
892),  United  States  (524,588),  Turkey  (419,- 
866),  and  Germany  (815,364).  The  strength 
of  the  French  mercantile  navy,  exclaslve  of 
small  fishing  vessels,  was  on  Jan.  1,  1870,  as 
follows : 


CLAaS3. 

VMMk. 

Tow. 

ftfllln^  vA^we^*. 

15,824 
454 

981.714 

Mtainen. 

148.949 

Ibtal 

15,778 

1,074,656 

In  that  year  3,681  vessels  (including  240  steam- 
ers) of  269,288  tons  belonged  to  ports  of  the 
Hediterninean,and  12,097  vessels  (214  steamers) 


of  805,373  tons  to  ports  on  the  Atlantic.  The 
merchant  marine  has  increased  since  1857  by 
8,000  vessels,  with  a  gain  in  capacity  of  about 
180,000  tons.  The  coast  fisheries  in  1871  em- 
ployed 17,998  boats,  with  60,635  men.  About 
30  per  cent,  of  the  foreign  trade  is  carried  on 
by  land.  The  coasting  trade  of  France  is  very 
large.  There  are  242  ports,  the  principal  of 
which,  in  the  order  of  tneir  importance  in  this 
branch  of  commerce,  are  Marseilles,  Havre, 
Bordeaux,  Rouen,  Aries,  Honfleur,  Rochefort, 
Dunkirk,  Cette,  and  Libourne. — France  has  an 
excellent  and  extended  system  of  railways. 
Paris  is  the  central  starting  point  of  these 
roads,  which,  running  in  every  airection,  place 
the  metropolis  in  direct  communication  with 
nearly  all  parts  of  the  country.  They  may  be 
divided  into  the  following  great  lines,  each  of 
them  sending  off  numerous  branches :  1,  the 
Northern  railway,  leading  to  the  N.  £.  frontier, 
where  it  connects  with  the  Belgian  roads;  2, 
the  Eastern  or  Strasburg,  by  Meaux,  Gh&lons- 
sur-Mame,  and  Nancy,  to  the  banks  of  the 
Rhine ;  8,  the  Southeastern  or  Mediterranean, 
passing  through  Fontainebleau,  Dij(»i,  Lyons, 
and  Avignon,  to  Marseilles;  4,  the  Orleans, 
which  branches  at  Orleans  into  the  Central 
railway,  which  runs  in  a  S.  direction,  and  the 
Southwestern  or  Bordeaux,  which  first  follows 
the  Loire,  then  runs  from  Tours  to  Bordeaux, 
and  terminates  at  Bayonne,  connecting  witn 
the  Spanish  lines;  5,  the  Western,  connecting 
the  metropolis  with  the  seaport  of  Brest, 
through  Versailles,  Le  Mans,  and  Rennes ;  6, 
the  Northwestern  or  Havre,  traversing  the 
valley  of  the  Seine.  Two  other  lines  of  great 
importance  start  from  Bordeaux:  one,  the 
Southern,  connects  this  city  with  the  Mediter- 
ranean at  Cette;  the  other  gives  direct  com- 
munication between  Bordeaux  and  Lyons,  un- 
der the  name  of  the  Great  Central.  The  aggre- 
gate length  of  railways  in  operation  in  Septem- 
ber, 1872,  was  10,612  m.  The  aggregate  length 
of  telegraph  lines  at  the  beginning  of  1870  (in- 
clusive of  Alsace  and  Lorraine)  was  26,282  m. ; 
of  wires,  71,930  m.  France  is  well  provided 
with  highways,  which  are  divided  into  na- 
tional, military,  departmental,  communal,  and 
vicinal  roads,  the  cost  of  each  class  being  re- 
spectively defrayed  by  the  government,  the 
departments,  or  the  communes  to  which  they 
belong.  The  first  class  of  these  thoroughfares, 
about  200  in  number  with  an  aggregate  extent  of 
upward  of  20,000  m.,  are  wide  highways,  paved 
or  macadamized,  and  bordered  with  fine  trees ; 
the  departmental  roads  are  tolerably  good,  but 
the  communal  are  indifferent,  and  too  often 
out  of  repair,  as  they  are  not  like  the  others 
under  the  charge  of  civil  engineers  appointed 
by  the  government.  The  canals,  79  in  number, 
have  an  aggregate  length  of  about  3,000  m. ; 
among  the  principal  are :  the  Southern  canal 
{cauM  du  Midi)^  which  runs  from  Cette  to 
Toulouse,  where  it  joins  the  Garonne,  and  thus 
connects  the  Mediterranean  with  the  Atlantic; 
the  canal  of  Burgundy,  between  the  Tonne 


374 


FRANCE 


and  the  Sa6ne,  and  the  canal  of  the  Rhine  and 
Rh6ne,  connecting  these  two  rivers ;  the  canal 
of  the  Centre,  between  the  Loire  and  the 
8a6ne ;  the  Loing,  Briare,  and  Orleans  canals, 
opening  a  communication  between  the  Seine 
and  the  Loire;  the  St.  Quentin  canal,  which 
is  remarkable  for  its  tunnel,  and  connects  the 
Oise  with  the  Scheldt;  the  canal  of  Britta- 
ny, the  longest  of  all,  running  from  Nantes  to 
Brest,  280  m.  The  railways,  highways,  and 
canals  are  placed  under  the  superintendence  of 
a  special  department  known  as  the  board  of  en- 
gineers of  bridges  and  public  ways  {inghiieura 
des  ponts  et  chausaSea),  Each  department  has  its 
chief  engineer. — ^The  present  government  of 
France  is  a  republic,  that  form  having  been  pro- 
claimed on  Sept.  4,  1870,  immediately  alter  the 
downfall  of  Napoleon  IIL,  when  a  provisional 
government  was  instituted.  In  the  hands  of  a 
national  assembly,  at  first  called  only  for  the 
])urpose  of  debating  on  the  terms  of  peace  with 
Germany,  the  organization  of  government 
gradually  assumed  a  more  definite  fonn ;  and 
although  the  labors  of  this  assembly  have  not 
yet  (May,  1874)  resulted  in  a  positive  and 
accepted  permanent  constitution,  the  present 
administration  of  the  country  pending  the  com- 
pletion of  this  work  may  be  considered  fixed 
as  follows.  The  executive  power  is  exercised 
by  a  president,  who  is  responsible  to  the  as- 
sembly. The  term  of  office  of  Marshal  Mac- 
Mahon,  who  succeeded  M.  Thiers  in  this  office  in 
May,  1878,  has  been  fixed  at  seven  years  by  a 
special  decree  of  that  body,  passed  in  Novem- 
ber. Under  the  president,  and  appointed  by 
him,  are  the  ministers  of  justice,  foreign  affairs, 
the  interior,  finances,  marine  and  colonies, 
public  instruction,  public  works,  agriculture 
and  commerce,  and  war,  all  of  whom  are  also 
responsible  to  the  assembly.  Each  department 
under  these  has  its  chief  and  under  secretaries. 
The  national  assembly  is  made  up  of  members 
elected  at  different  times  since  its  constitution 
in  February,  1871.  By  a  law  passed  May  24, 
1872,  a  council  of  state  was  created,  consisting 
of  28  members  elected  by  the  assembly,  and 
15  appointed  by  the  president.  The  functions 
of  this  body  are  restricted  to  the  giving  of 
advice  on  bills  presented  to  the  assembly  by 
the  government,  or  on  matters  submitted  to  it 
by  the  president  or  ministers.  The  internal 
administration  of  each  department  is  in  the 
hands  of  a  prefect,  who  is  assisted  by  a  council 
of  prefecture,  and  has  under  his  direction  the 
sub-prefects  of  the  arrondissements;  a  mayor, 
aided  by  a  municipal  council,  is  at  the  head  of 
each  commune.  The  mayors  of  towns  with 
more  than  20,000  inhabitants,  and  of  the  capi- 
tals of  departments  and  arrondissements,  are 
appointed  by  the  government.  In  other  towns 
they  are  elected  by  the  municipal  councils. 
Councils  of  arrondissement  and  councils  of 
department  hold  sessions  of  a  few  days  twice 
every  year  to  regulate  the  assessment  of  taxes 
and  give  expression  to  the  wishes  and  wants  of 
their  respective  communities.    Such  are  the 


administrative  arrangements  all  over  the  coun- 
try, with  the  exception  of  the  department  of 
the  Seine  and  the  city  of  Lyons,  which  have 
an  organization  of  their  own. — For  the  admin- 
istration of  justice  France  has  27  courts  of 
appeal  established  in  so  many  of  the  principal 
cities,  and  holding  jurisdiction  over  from  one 
to  seven  departments.  They  are  composed  of 
a  president,  several  vice  presidents,  and  from 
20  to  60  councillors,  to  whom  must  be  added 
an  attorney  general  (procureur  general)^  as- 
sisted by  advocates  general  and  substitutes. 
The  principal  of  these  courts  is  that  of  Paris. 
Under  them,  each  arrondissement  has  ita  court 
of  original  or  primary  jurisdiction  (tribunal 
civil  ou  depremih'e  instance) ;  each  canton,  its 
tribunal  of  justice  of  peace  and  its  simple  police 
court.  At  the  head  of  the  judiciary  establish- 
ment stands  the  court  of  cassation,  which  is 
a  supreme  court  of  appeal  in  both  civil  and 
criminal  cases.  The  crime  of  high  treason  falls 
under  the  jurisdiction  of  an  exceptional  high 
court  of  justice.  The  courts  of  assize  (one  in 
each  department)  are  organized  juries,  but  take 
cognizance  of  criminal  cases  only.  The  court 
of  accounts  (cour  des  eompt€»\  although  not  a 
regular  tribunal,  may  be  also  mentioned  here ; 
it  is  established  to  audit  and  examine  all  the 
accounts  connected  with  the  public  revenue 
and  expenditure.  Besides  the  regular  judi- 
ciary courts,  tribunals  of  commerce  and  councils 
of  prttd'hommeB,  chiefly  composed  of  commer- 
cial men,  have  been  established  in  the  principal 
manufacturing  and  commercial  towns,  to  decide 
upon  cases  connected  with  trade  and  manufac- 
tures. The  penitentiary  institutions  of  France, 
in  which  great  improvements  have  been  made 
within  the  last  80  years,  are  generally  well 
managed  and  free  from  abuses.  Besides  the 
bagnea  of  Brest,  Rochefort,  and  Toulon,  most 
of  the  inmates  of  which  have  been  transported 
to  the  penal  colonies  of  Guiana,  there  are  23  cen- 
tral prisons  for  convicts  of  various  grades,  the 
principal  being  at  Clairvaux,  Gaillon,  Melun, 
Foissy,  and  Clermont-de-rOise. — Religious  tol- 
eration is  established  by  a  law  which  se- 
cures equal  freedom  and  protection  to  every 
kind  of  worship ;  but  all  forms  of  religion  not 
expressly  recognized  by  the  government  are 
likely  to  suffer  from  the  regulation  which  makes 
meetings  of  more  than  20  persons  dependent 
upon  previous  authorization  by  the  police.  A 
vast  majority  of  the  population  belong  to  the 
Roman  Catholic  church.  The  French  govern- 
ment not  only  supports  the  pastors  of  this 
church,  but  also  those  of  the  Protestant  and 
Jewish  communions.  France,  exclusive  of  its 
colonies,  is  divided  into  84  Catholic  dioceses, 
67  of  which  are  bishoprics  and  17  archbishop- 
rics, viz. :  Aix,  Albi,  Auch,  Avignon,  Besan^on, 
Bordeaux,  Bourges,  Cambrai,  Chamb6ry,  Ly- 
ons, Paris,  Rennes,  Rheims,  Rouen,  Sens,  Tou- 
louse, and  Tours.  Every  bishop  and  archbibh- 
op  is  assisted  by  vicars  general  and  a  chapter. 
The  dioceses  are  divided  into  parishes,  which, 
according  to  their  importance,  are  intrusted  to 


FRANCE 


875 


priests  holding  for  life,  or  to  ministers  remov- 
able at  will  by  the  bishops.    The  former  are 
called  cures  inamoviblM^  the  permanency  of 
their  office  being  recognized  by  the  civil  au- 
thority ;  the  latter  cures  amovibles.    The  num- 
ber of  priests  in  1872  exceeded  40,000 ;  that  ot 
convents,  2,600.    Each  diocese  has  a  petit  semi- 
naire  or  college,  where  the  classics,  mathematics, 
natoral  and  mental  philosophy  are  taught ;  and 
a  ^and  seminaire^  or  theological  seminary. 
The  French  Protestants  mostly  belong  to  the 
Lutheran  and  Reformed  or  Calvinistic  church- 
es, both  of  which  are  recognized  by  the  state, 
which  annually  appropriates  a  sum  for  their 
support.    The  Lutherans  were  greatly  dimin- 
ished in  number  by  the  cession  of  Alsace  and 
Lorraine  to  Germany ;  their  largest  congrega- 
tions are  now  found  in  the  departments  of 
Doubs  and  Seine.    In  1872  they  had  69  pastors, 
and  about  74,000  church  members,  with  pres- 
byterial  councils  and  9  consistories,  under  the 
superintendence  of  a  director  at  Paris.    The 
Calvinista,  who  mostly  inhabit  the  departments 
of  Seine,  Gard,  Oharente-Inf^rieure,  Ard^che, 
Drdme,  Tarn,  Tarn-et-Garonne,  Lot-et-Garon- 
ne,  Loz^re,  and  Deuz-S^vres,  have  696  church 
pastors,  presbyterial  councils,  108  consistories, 
a  central  council  sitting  at  Paris,  and  a  theologi- 
cal college  at  Montauban.    The  population  con- 
nected with  this  church  is  estimated  at  488,000. 
Of  the  Protestant  churches  which  receive  no 
government  support,  the  more  important  are 
the  following :  the  union  of  evangelical  church- 
es, founded  in  1849,  with  45  churches  and  about 
8,000  members  in  1872 ;  the  Methodists,  with 
24  ministers  and  1,916   members;    and   the 
Baptists,  with  8  congregations  and  about  800 
ftiembers.    The  Jews,  numbering  about  46,000, 
who  are  found  principally  in  the  large  towns  of 
the  east  and  south,  have  synagogues  at  Paris, 
Nanoy,  Bordeaux,  and  Marseilles,  with  a  cen- 
tral council  in  the  capital.    The  clergy  of  the 
Gatholio  church,  which  previous  to  the  French 
revolution  was  the  holder  of  fully  one  third  of 
the  landed  property,  and  had  a  yearly  income 
amounting  to  very  near  $40,000,000,  now  re- 
ceive a  salary,  the  aggregate  amount  of  which 
in  the  budget  of  1873  was  61,000,000  fr.— The 
government  has  a  direct  and  supreme  control 
over  public  instruction,  through  the  instrumen- 
tality of  that  powerful  institution  Imown  as  the 
university  of  France,  and  the  combined  action 
of  its  civil  officers  in  the  administration  there- 
of.   The  minister  of  public  instruction,  placed 
at  the  head  of  the  whole  organization,  is  assist- 
ed by  an  imperial  council  and  a  body  of  18  in- 
spectors general.    The  country  is  divided  into 
15  districts,  each  with  its  academy ;  the  seats 
of  these  institutions  are  at  Aix,  Besan^on,  Bor- 
deaux, Caen,  Clermont,  Dyon,  Douai,  Greno- 
ble, Lyons,  Montpellier,  Nancy,  Paris,  roitiers, 
Rennes,  and  Toulouse.    Each  academy  is  gov- 
erned by  a  rector,  with  an  academy  inspector 
for  every  department.    Hie  rector  is  assisted 
by  an  academical  council,  of  which  he  is  the 
presiding  officer ;  the  academy  inspector,  by  a 


departmental    council   presided  over  by  the 
prefect.    Three  grades  of  instruction  are  re- 
cognized,  superior,   secondary,  and  primary. 
Superior  instruction,   embracing  the  highest 
branches  of  human  knowledge  only,  is  given 
by  a  number  of  faculties,  the  professorships 
of  which  are  intrusted  to  men  of  tried  ca- 
pacity and  talent.    There  are  6  faculties  of 
theology  (all  Catholic),  12  of  law,  2  of  med- 
icine, 15  of  science,  and  15  of  letters.    Sec- 
ondary instruction  is  supplied  by  secondary 
schools  of  medicine   and  pharmacy,  national 
lyceums  and  communal  colleges,  under-semi- 
naries,  chiedy  for  theological  students,  and  pri** 
vate  institutions  and  schools.    In  1878  there 
were  78  lyceums,  286  communal  colleges,  19  pro- 
fessional schools,  and  a  large  number  of  pri- 
vate institutions.    The  aggregate  number  of 
scholars  in  the  public  institutions  was  about 
70,000,  the    under-seminaries  not    included. 
The  above  two  branches  of  public  instruc- 
tion are  under  the    special    control    of  the 
rectors   and  academy  inspectors.    The  third, 
primary  instruction,  is  especially  intrusted  to 
the  care  of  the  prefects,  aided  by  special  in- 
spectors.   For  primary  instruction  there  are 
about  69,000  schools  established  all  over  the 
country.    These  are  supported  by  the  com- 
munes ;  part  of  their  pupils  are  admitted  free 
of  expense ;  the  others  pay  a  trifling  annual 
charge.     Asylums  for  children  complete  the 
establishments  of  primary  instruction.     Nor- 
mal schools  for    the    education    of  primary 
teachers  exist  in  nearly  all  the  departments, 
and  have  worked  satisfactorily.    The  majority 
of  the  professors  in  the  national  lyceums  are 
educated  at  the  superior   normal  school  in 
Paris.    Candidates  for  the  Catholic  priesthood 
are    educated   in   theological    seminaries    or 
grands  seminaires  under  the  exclusive  control 
of  the  Catholic  bishops ;  and  ministers  in  the 
Protestant  seminary  at  Montauban.     These 
schools  are  of  course  out  of  the  pale  of  the 
university.    So  are  also  the  polytechnic  school, 
where  naval,  military,  and  civil  engineers,  ar- 
tillery officers,  &c.,  are  educated ;  the  military 
schools  of  St.  Cyr,  La  Fl^che,  and  Saumur ; 
the  practical  schools  for  artillery  and  engineer- 
ing, &G, ;  all  of  which  are  under  the  super- 
vision of  the  minister  of  war.     Some  other 
practical  schools  connected  with  the   navy, 
civil    engineering,   the   mines,   manufactures, 
forests,  &c.,  are  respectively  controlled  by  the 
ministers  to  which  they  more  properly  belong. 
The  central  school  of  art  and  manufactures  at 
Paris,  a  dependency  of  the  ministry  of  publio 
works,  deserves  particular  notice  on  account 
of  its  general  usefulness.     Of  simUar  impor- 
tance are  the  college  de  France,  where  lectures 
are  delivered  on  the  highest  topics  of  science 
and. literature;  the  museum  of  natural  history, 
an  admirable  collection  of  animal,  vegetable, 
and  mineral  wealth,  connected  with  the  jardin 
des  plantes;  and  the  lectures  on  oriental  lan- 
guages delivered  at  the  national  library.    Above 
all  these  learned  institutions  stand  the  French 


376 


FBANCE 


academy,  the  academies  of  inscription,  of  sci- 
ence, of  the  fine  arts,  and  of  moral  and  politi- 
cal sciences,  which  compose  the  five  classes  of 
the  institute  of  France. — The  charitable  insti- 
tutions of  France  are  very  numerous.  Hospi- 
tals and  asylums  exist  in  nearly  every  town 
of  importance.  These  establishments,  some  of 
which  hold  considerable  property,  are  sup- 
ported by  the  state,  the  department,  or  the 
commune.  The  largest  and  wealthiest  are 
at  Paris,  Lyons,  Bordeaux,  Konen,  Marseilles, 
Lille,  and  Nantes.  There  are  military  and 
marine  hospitals  under  the  control  of  the  sec- 
retaries of  war  and  the  navy.  The  former  are 
established  in  the  principal  fortified  places, 
about  40  in  number.  The  four  marine  hospi- 
tals at  the  great  seaports  of  Oherbourg,  Brest, 
Rochefort,  and  Toulon  can  accommodate  more 
than  6,000  patients,  and  are  taken  care  of  by 
sisters  of  charity  and  male  overseers.  Of  sev- 
eral asylums  for  disabled  soldiers  and  sailors 
who  have  served  their  country  for  a  period 
of  years,  the  most  celebrated  is  the  hStel  det 
invalides  at  Paris,  having  a  marshal  of  France 
for  its  governor,  a  large  staff  of  ofScers,  and 
liberal  revenues.  It  contains  nearly  8,000  old 
soldiers.  Among  the  other  institutions  are  the 
blind  asylum,  known  as  the  hoepiee  des  quinse- 
vingt^  and  the  institution  for  the  education  of 
the  blind  at  Paris;  the  institutions  for  deaf 
and  dumb  there  and  at  Bordeaux;  over  40 
lunatic  asylums,  the  most  important  of  which 
is  at  Gharenton,  near  Paris ;  foundling  hospi* 
tals,  &c.  Poor-relief  boards  (bureaux  de  bien- 
/aisance)  give  mdoor  and  outdoor  relief  to  the 
paupers  of  the  various  communes.  Various 
societies  for  the  assistance  of  prisoners  or  the 
sick,  and  a  vast  number  of  philanthropic  asso- 
ciations of  all  kinds,  are  dispersed  throughout 
the  country.  There  are  46  numU  de  piete 
(pawnbroking  establishments),  with  a  capital 
of  nearly  50,000,000  fr.,  making  yearly  loans 
to  the  amount  of  about  60,000,000  fr.  Such 
loans  are  gratuitous  in  five  of  the  establish- 
ments; interest  in  the  others  varies  greatly. 
The  first  savings  bank  (caisse  d'hpargne)  was 
established  in  1818  at  Paris;  and  on  Jan.  1, 
1870,  there  were  525  in  all  parts  of  the  country. 
The  aggregate  number  of  depositors  was  1,968,- 
007;  the  aggregate  amount  of  deposits  about 
632,000,000  fr.^A  double  system  of  taxation 
exists  in  France.  The  direct  taxes  are  those 
laid  on  land  (e(mtribuHonfonei^e\  on  houses 
(contribution  desportss  et  fenStreti),  on  persons 
(contribution  pertonnelle  et  mobili^re),  and  on 
licenses  (ifnpot  dee  patentee).  The  indirect 
taxes,  besides  the  import  and  export  duties, 
comprise  excise  charges  upon  wines,  brandies, 
salt,  gunpowder,  tobacco,  postage,  public  stages 
and  coaches,  stamped  paper,  registry  of  deeds 
and  sales,  &c.  This  complicated  system  re- 
quires an  army  of  public  ofacers  and  collectors 
of  every  rank,  private  and  general  receivers, 
payers,  &c.  These  are  under  the  control  of 
the  minister  of  finance,  who  is  assisted  by  nu- 
merous finance  inspectors  and  the  court  of 


accounts.  Besides  the  government  taxes,  there 
are  many  local  ones,  mostly  established  in  the 
towns  of  importance  to  defray  local  expendi- 
tures; they  are  generally  known  under  the 
name  of  octroie.  The  yearly  estimate  of  re- 
ceipts and  expenditures  is  called  the  budget, 
which  is  proposed  by  the  minister  of  finance 
and  voted  upon  by  the  national  assembly.  The 
following  table  presents  the  expenditures  as 
estimated  in  the  budgets  at  different  periods : 


TEARS. 

EzptBdllarM,  fr. 

TFARB. 

EspMdltaVMiy  fr. 

1816 

798,590.860 
l,15i,649,8e0 
1,095,148,115 
1.770,960.740 
1,608,898,815 

1957 

1.698.904.604 

1818 

1803 

1,970,000,000 

1880 

1805 

2,806.808,779 

1848 

1870 

8,224<609;)78 

1852 

This  list  gives  the  expenditures  as  estimated  in 
the  budgets  to  be  voted  on  by  the  legislative 
bodies ;  the  actual  expenditures  generally  ex- 
ceeded these  estimates  by  a  large  amount.  This 
accounts  for  the  increase  of  the  public  debt, 
which  has  been  much  larger  than  the  aggregate 
of  differences  between  receipts  and  expendi- 
tures given  in  tiie  several  budgets.  The  ac- 
counts of  actual  revenue  and  expenditure, 
known  as  the  eomptee  definitifey  have  generally 
not  been  published  before  the  end  of  the  fifth 
or  sixth  year  after  the  vote  on  the  estimates. 
Thus  when  the  budget  of  1872  was  voted  by 
the  national  assembly,  the  last  compte  definitif 
made  public  was  that  for  1867.  As  had  been 
usual  with  financial  statements  throughout  the 
second  empire,  this  compte  definitif  ^owed  a 
large  deficit  actually  existing  at  the  end  of  the 
fiscal  year  1867,  although  the  budget  when 
voted  upon  had  shown  a  small  surplus.  The 
following  tables  give  summaries  of  the  budget 
for  1872  as  voted  upon  by  the  assembly,  and 
that  of  1878  as  projected  by  the  government: 

BEYENUS. 

187S.  1878. 

Ordinary 8,844,79^950  fr.         2,400,461,671  fr. 

Bpedal 880,567,761  888,086,868 

Total ^666,888,720  2,789,488,064 

SXPSNBITUBBS. 

Ordlnarr 2,884,790,208  fr.         2,888,812.M8  fr. 

Bpadal 820,567,761  888,026,868 

Total 2,666,846,960  2,721,089,806 

The  following  table  gives  in  detail  the  items 
of  the  budget  for  1872  : 

EXFINDITUBES. 
(8itm»  in  Franct.) 

1.  PiiUi«  debt  and  apodal  appropriattona. 

OoDBoUdatod  debt 542,127,185 

Funded  debt 426.055.076 

FkMttngdebt 102,486,609 

£xpenaet  of  the  Preaidenfa 

houaehold 762,400 

National  aaaembly 8,684,000 

Bappleinentary  appropriation  for 

the  Legion  of  Honor. 14,000,000 

Appropriation  fbr  the  marine 

hosp^tala' ftind 7,O00l,OOO 

TotaL 1,101,006,200 


FRANCE 


877 


S.  XspenflMofthevaitoasinlnlstriM. 

Mlnistiy  of  finance 19,797JQ0 

-Justlca 88,690,048 

'' foreign  allUra 11,888«M0 

"*        *"  the    IntMior  (with 

Algeria) 109,990^14 

"war 481,000.000 

"*       **  marine  and  ookmies.  144,00«,099 
**        **  pablle  instruction..    94,89&,0<» 
**■        **•  agrienlture  and  com- 
merce     10,866,800 

•*  pnbUoworiu. 127,868^960 

988,7^,844 

8.  Xxpenset  of  admlniBtration  and 

eoDeetlon. 

Direct  oontribotiont 18,200,740 

SegtstmtkMD,   paUio  domaina, 

and  ttampi. 16,824,060 

Forests 11,587,894 

Coatoma 89,844,275 

Indirect  contribntloDs 80,111,670 

Tobaooo  and  powder 68,069,800 

Postal  eenrlee 69,780,015 

888,887,804 

4.  Beb«taa  and  rettttatioBS 11,688300 

Gnmd  total  of  expenditures. 2,884,759,208 

BECE1PT8« 
1.  INreet  taxes. 

land  tax 167.6S8.000 

PMaonaltaxes 68,901,550 

House  tax  ieonirilmtion  des 

porU9etfenHnt9) 87,911,763 

Tax  on  patents. 68,627,764 

Taaee  at  prtmUr  oowHtM- 

ment 556,800 

Taxes  on  mortmain 8,800,000 

Taxes  on  mines 1,800,000 

Apothecaries*    and    weighers* 

Uoenses. 1,982,600 

829,268,476 

S.  Indirect  tsxes  and  rerenaes 

Registration  and  stamps 488,674,000 

Customs. 188,82^000 

Taxes  on  salt,  sugar,  Ac 890,801,000 

Tobaooo 247,270,000 

Powder. 12,881,000 

Postage  stamps 92,128,000 

1,815,082,000 

8.  Produce  of  public  domains 14.640,000 

4.         **       **  foreste 68,486,500 

&  Telegrapha 18,520,000 

6l  Btote  vnlTersltles 4,182,180 

7.  Beceipts  from  Algeria 17,048,534 

8.  I&eome  deroted  to  pensions 15,887,^ 

9.  Miseelkuieons  receipts 87,898,619 

10.  Special  taxes  recently  imposed. 

Oarriage  tax 2,118,800 

Tix  on  certain  games 8,000,000 

New  stamp  taxes 118,100^000 

Coifee,  tes,  sad  cocoa 62^828^000 

Bogars. 67,817,000 

Uqnois. 88^000,000 

Tax  on  railway  tickets. 80,000,000 

Tobacco  (spedal) 40,000.000 

Gunpowder  (special) 8,000,000 

Licenses 6,800,000 

Matches 1^000,000 

Chiecory. 6,000,000 

Paper 10,000,000 

Mlnersl  oils 192,000 

Postal  taxes  (specisl) 82,000,000 

Tkxes  on  naVigistiim ^000,0l)0 

MisoeUaneoBS 81,100,000 

,      _  487,449,800 

11.  Mlsedbneous  sums  in  hsad 8,500,000 

18.  BemainiBg  on  hand  from  the  recent  Umui  of 

two  miniards 55,000,000 

Orsod  total  of  receipts 2,844J95,959 

The  continaed  deficits  from  1814  to  1869  were 
covered  by  loans  inscribed  in  the  grand  liere 
ds  la  dette  puhlique^  bearing  interest^  and 
known  as  the  rentes  at  8,  4, 4)>,  and  5  per  cent. 
Daring  the  15  jears  of  the  restoration  (1815-80) 
the  national  debt  was  more  than  trebled ;  nnder 
Louis  Philippe  (1830-^48)  it  increased  but  one 


fourth;  under  Napoleon  III.  the  consolidated 
debt  alone  rose  from  5,577,000,000  fr.  in  1858 
(bearing  220,000,000  fr.  interest)  to  11,710,- 
000,000  fr.  in  1870  (bearing  864,000,000  fr. 
interest).  In  consequence  of  the  enormous 
expenses  caused  by  the  war  against  Germany, 
the  interest  on  the  consolidated  debt  had  in* 
creased  in  1872  to  542,000,000  fr.,  representing 
a  nominal  principal  of  15,801,000,000  fr.  The 
other  liabilities  of  the  state,  including  the  float- 
ing debt  (750,000,000  fr.),  amounted  in  the 
same  year  to  6,821,500,000  fr.,  thus  swelling 
the  entire  public  debt  of  France  to  22,622,* 
500,000  fr.,  bearing  an  annual  interest  of  more 
than  1,000,000,000  fr.— The  military  establish* 
ment  of  France  is  based  on  the  law  of  July  27, 
1872,  which  went  into  operation  Jan.  1,  1878. 
According  to  this  law,  every  Frenchman  must 
personally  render  military  service,  substitution 
and  enlistment  for  money  being  forbidden; 
and  every  Frenchman  not  declared  unfit  for 
military  service  may  be  called  upon  from  the 
age  of  20  to  that  of  40  years  to  enter  the  active 
army  or  reserves.  He  must  be  enrolled  for 
five  years  in  the  active  army,  four  years  in  the 
reserve  of  the  active  army,  five  years  in  the 
territorial  army,  and  six  years  in  the  reserve 
of  the  territorial  army.  Young  men  who  can 
prove  a  certain  amount  of  education  by  passing 
an  examination  are  permitted  to  enlist  as  vol- 
unteers for  one  year  only,  and  to  obtain  thereby 
exemption  from  service  in  the  active  army. 
Soldiers  of  the  active  army  who  can  read  and 
write,  and  have  learned  their  duties,  may  be 
furloughed  for  an  indefinite  time.  The  reor- 
ganization of  the  army  was  not  yet  completed 
in  1878.  In  1872  the  infantry  embraced  126 
regiments  of  4  battalions  each,  4  regiments  of 
zouaves,  8  of  Turcos,  1  foreign  regiment,  80 
battalions  of  chasseurs,  and  8  battalions  of  light 
African  infantry;  in  all,  184  regiments  and  38 
battalions,  or  569  battalions.  The  cavalry  was 
composed  of  12  regiments  of  cuirassiers,  20 
of  dragoons,  14  of  chasseurs,  10  of  hussars,  4 
of  chasseurs  d^Afrique,  and  8  of  spahis;  in 
all,  68  regiments.  The  artillery,  according  to 
the  budget  for  1873,  is  to  be  brought  to  82 
regiments,  to  which  must  be  added  1  regi-* 
ment  of  pontonniers,  10  companies  of  workmen, 
5  companies  of  gunners,  and  2  regiments  of 
train.  The  engineers  embraced  thus  far  8 
regiments  of  sappers  and  1  company  of  work* 
men.  The  government  return  of  1871  gave 
the  nominal  strength  of  the  array  on  the  peace 
footing  as  404,192  men  and  86,868  horses;  and 
on  the  war  footing,  757,727  men  and  148,288 
horses.  France  is  divided  into  22  military  di- 
visions, governed  by  generals  of  division,  and 
the  most  important  by  marshals,  and  into  as 
*many  subdivisions  (under  brigadier  generals) 
as  there  are  departments.  The  headquarters 
of  the  divisions  are  in  the  following  cities: 
Paris,  Rouen,  Lille,  Ch41ons-sur-Mame,  6e- 
san^on,  Lyons,  Marseilles,  Montpellier,  Perpl- 

giav,  Toulouse,  Bayonne,  Bordeaux,  Nantes, 
ennes,  Bastia,    Tours,  Bourges,    Clermont, 


378 


FRANCE 


Limoges,  and  Grenoble  (two  divifiSons  htiving 
no  assigned  headquarters  in  1872).  No  other 
country  possesses  so  many  fortresses  as  France. 
After  an  imperial  decree  of  Jane  26,  1867,  had 
stricken  98  fortified  places  from  the  list  of  for- 
tresses, there  still  remained  119;  these  are 
divided  into  8  of  the  first  class,  18  of  the 
second,  23  of  the  third,  and  75  of  the  fourth. 
The  most  important  are  the  following:  1, 
along  the  N.  frontier,  Lille,  Douai,  Oond6, 
Valenciennes,  Maubeuge,  Givet,  M^zi^res, 
8edan,  Longwy ;  2,  along  the  £.  frontier, 
Belfort,  Besangon,  Fort  de  Joux,  Lyons,  Gre- 
noble, Brian^on ;  8,  along  the  Mediterranean 
coast,  Antibes,  Toulon,  Marseilles,  Cette,  Fort 
St.  Elme,  Port  Vendres ;  4,  along  the  Pyrenees, 
Bellegarde,  Mont  Louis,  Perpignan,  Bayonne ; 
6,  along  the  W.  and  N.  coasts,  the  islands 
of  Ol^ron,  R^,  Noinnoutiers,  Belle-Isle  and 
Groix,  Rochefort,  La  Rochelle,  Lorient,  Brest, 
8t.  Malo,  Mont  St.  Michel,  Cherbourg,  Havre, 
Boulogne,  Calais,  and  Dunkirk.  The  govern- 
ment has  cannon  founderies  at  Douai  and 
Toulouse,  and  factories  of  gunpowder,  muskets, 
cannon  balls,  &c.  Its  military  arsenals  and 
warehouses  are  very  numerous.  The  French 
navy  at  the  end  of  1871  was  composed  of 
62  iron-clad  vessels,  264  screw  steamers  with- 
out armor,  62  paddle-wheel  steamers,  and  118 
sailing  vessels ;  in  all,  501  vessels,  the  steamers 
with  a  total  of  96,627  horse  power,  and  tiie 
whole  fleet  carrying  8,045  guns.  The  navd 
stafi^  consisted  of  2  admirals,  18  vice  admirals, 
82  rear  admirals,  182  ship  captains,  290  frigate 
captains,  829  lieutenants,  and  610  ensigns. 
The  sailors,  afloat  and  ashore,  numbered  89,- 
500.  The  grand  total  of  men  in  the  service  of 
the  fleet,  including  engineers,  dockyard  labor- 
ers, and  others,  was  74,000.  On  a  war  foot- 
ing the  strength  of  the  navy  can  be  raised  to 
180,000  men.  There  are  boards  of  marine 
engineers,  of  hydrographical  engineers,  of  in- 
sf)ectors,  &c.  Naval  schools,  and  several 
schools  of  application,  for  the  education  and 
scientiflc  improvement  of  the  officers,  and  even 
the  seamen,  are  connected  with  the  navy  de- 
partment. A  board  of  admiralty,  another  su- 
perintending the  naval  works,  and  a  third 
attending  to  the  improvement  of  instruction 
among  the  sailors,  act  as  advisers  to  the  min- 
ister of  marine.  The  maritime  territory  of 
France  is  divided  into  five  districts  or  pre- 
fectures, subdivided  into  arrondissements  and 
quarters.  The  naval  prefects  reside  at  Cher- 
bourg, Brest,  Lorient,  Rochefort,  and  Toulon, 
and  under  them  officers,  called  heads  of  ser- 
vice, commissaries,  and  under- commissaries, 
are  placed  in  the  several  subdivisions. — France 
could  once  boast  of  the  extent  of  her  colonial 
possessions  in  America,  and  also  for  a  while  in 
Asia.  She  has  lost  the  greater  part  of  them, 
and  possesses  now  only  the  following:  1,  in 
Africa,  Algeria  on  the  N.  coast,  several  islands, 
seaports,  and  military  posts  on  the  banks  of 
the  river  Senegal,  the  island  of  Goree  on  the 
coast  of  Senegambia,  S.  of  Cape  V erd,  Reunion 


(formerly  Bourbon  island),  8.  £.  of  that  con- 
tinent, in  the  Indian  ocean,  and  the  islands  of 
Mayotte,  Nossi-B^,  and  Ste.  Marie,  near  Mada- 
gascar ;  2,  in  Asia,  the  districts  of  Pondicherry, 
Karikal,  Chandemagore,  Yanaon,  and  Mah6  in 
Hindostan,  and  six  provinces  of  Cochin  China ; 
8,  near  the  coast  of  North  America,  the  islands 
of  St.  Pierre  and  Miquelon ;  4,  in  the  Carib- 
bean sea,  Martinimie,  Guadeloupe,  Marie-Ga- 
lante,  Les  Saintes,  I>6sirade,  and  one  half  of  St. 
Martin  island;  5,  in  South  America,  French 
Guiana,  or  Cayenne;  6,  in  the  Pacific  ocean, 
the  Marquesas  islands,  or  Mendana  archipelago, 
the  Loyalty  islands,  and  New  Caledonia.  Ta-* 
hiti  and  dependencies,  the  Tonamotou  islands, 
the  Gambled  islands,  Toubouaf,  and  Vavitou, 
all  in  Polynesia,  and  Cambodia  in  Further 
India,  are  under  French  protection.  The  pop- 
ulation of  Algeria  in  1872  was  2,414,218 ;  the 
aggregate  population  of  the  other  French  col- 
onies amounted  in  1872  to  about  2,800,000; 
that  of  the  protected  countries  to  1,024,000. 
The  aggregate  area  of  the  colonies  was  esti- 
mated at  422,000  sq.  m. ;  that  of  the  protects 
countries  at  85,500  sq.  m. — France,  which 
comprises  the  largest  part  of  the  country 
known  in  ancient  times  as  Gallia  Transalpina 
(see  Gaul),  owes  its  name  to  the  Franks,  one 
of  those  confederations  of  German  tribes  that 
invaded  and  dismembered  the  Roman  empire 
during  the  period  between  the  8d  century  and 
the  end  of  the  5th.  They  were  probably  in- 
habitants of  the  country  about  the  lower 
Rhine,  united  with  those  living  near  the  mouth 
of  the  Weser.  Crossing  the  former  river, 
they  settled  in  the  northern  part  of  Bel- 
gium under  various  chiefs,  and,  after  a  long 
and  violent  struggle  with  the  Romans  through 
several  centuries,  during  which  they  were  often 
completely  driven  back,  successful  conquest 
brought  them  gradually  to  the  banks  of  the 
Somme.  Meanwhile  other  hordes  of  barba- 
rians had  taken  possession  of  several  other 
provinces  of  Gaul  ;  the  Burgundians  had 
peacefully  shared  the  eastern  part  of  this 
country  with  the  Gallo-Romans,  while  the 
Visigoths,  already  masters  of  nearly  the  whole 
of  the  Spanish  peninsula,  extended  their  mil- 
itary rule  over  the  population  of  Aquitania. 
The  cities  of  Armorica  had  formed  themselves 
into  a  confederation,  and  the  central  part  of 
Gaul  from  the  Somme  to  the  Loire  was  alone 
held  by  the  Romans.  Such  was  the  condition 
of  the  country  about  481,  when  Ehlodwig  or 
Clovis,  a  young  man,  supposed  to  have  been 
the  grandson  of  Meroveus,  from  whom  the 
Merovingian  dynasty  took  its  name,  succeeded 
to  the  rulership  over  the  Prankish  tribe  living 
in  and  around  the  city  of  Toumay.  In  486  this 
king  invaded  the  Roman  province,  conquered 
the  governor,  Syagrius,  at  Soissons,  and  thus 
secured  to  himself  the  possession  of  the  whole 
country  to  the  Loire.  Ten  years  later,  after 
forcing  back  to  Germany  some  rival  tribes 
which  had  crossed  the  Rhine  in  the  hope  of 
dividing  the  spoils  with  the  Franks,  Clovis, 


FRANCE 


379 


jielding  to  the  entreaties  of  bis  wife  Clotilda, 
eonsented  to  be  baptized,  and  henceforth  all  the 
Catholic  bishops  of  Gaul  were  enlisted  in  his 
cause.  Their  powerful  influence  helped  him 
greatly  in  consolidating  his  authority  among  the 
Gallic  population,  and  carrying  his  conquests 
southwara.  A  single  victory  won  in  507  at 
Vottill^  over  the  Visigoths,  who  were  Arians, 
gave  him  the  possession  of  nearly  all  Aquita- 
nia.  On  his  death  in  511  his  kingdom  extend- 
ed from  the  banks  of  the  Rhine  to  the  Pyre- 
nees, thus  including  the  whole  of  Gaul,  with 
the  exception  of  the  province  occupied  by  the 
Bnrgundians,  the  Mediterranean  shore,  which 
had  been  retained  by  the  Visigoths  through  the 
aid  of  Theodoric,  king  of  the  Ostrogoths,  and 
the  peninsula  of  Brittany.  This  kingdoni,  al- 
though partitioned  among  the  four  sons  of 
Clovis,  was  soon  increasea  by  the  conquest  of 
Burgundy  (about  684) ;  and  Ehlother  or  Clo- 
taire  I.,  the  youngest  of  those  princes,  sur- 
viving his  brothers  and  nephews,  could  for  a 
while  (658-561)  boast  of  possessing  a  larger 
empire  than  his  sire.  A  new  division  among 
his  own  sons  brought  on  long  civil  wars  be- 
tween the  eastern  Franks  or  Anstrasians,  be- 
tween the  Rhine  and  the  Meuse,  and  the  west- 
em  Franks  or  Neustrians,  who  lived  W.  of  the 
latter  river.  The  Burgundians,  who  under 
their  new  masters  had  preserved  their  name, 
sided  alternately  with  the  one  or  the  other; 
while  the  Aqnitanians,  taking  no  interest  in 
a  conflict  among  their  barbarian  conquerors, 
were  little  affected  by  it.  This  bloody  period, 
in  which  two  women,  Brunehant  and  Frede- 
gonda,  figured  conspicuously,  extended  over 
the  latter  part  of  the  6th  century  and  the  be- 
ginning of  the  7th  (567-613).  It  ended  with 
the  defeat  of  the  Anstrasians;  and  Clotaire 
II.,  who  at  its  close  ruled  over  the  conquer- 
ing nation,  during  the  latter  part  of  his  reign 
held  the  whole  of  the  Frankish  dominion 
under  his  sceptre.  So  did  his  son  Dagobert 
(628-638),  who  had  a  taste  for  magnificence, 
and  took  as  his  principal  minister  Eligius  or 
£loi,  the  most  celebrated  silversmith  of  his 
time,  who  was  canonized  as  a  saint.  His  suc- 
cessors were  mere  phantoms  of  royalty,  and 
have  been  styled  "  lazy  kings  ^*  {rats /ainiants). 
They  still  preserved  the  royal  title,  while  the 
power  was  wielded  by  tiie  mayors  of  the 
palace,  who,  from  the  condition  of  private 
officers  of  the  king^s  household,  had  by  help 
of  the  aristocracy  risen  to  the  rank  of  prime 
ministers  in  each  of  the  three  kingdoms,  Aus- 
trasia,  Neustria,  and  Burgundy,  of  which  the 
Frankish  dominion  consisted.  Through  their 
rivalry  the  old  contest  between  the  Austra- 
sians  and  the  Neustrians  revived;  and  not- 
withstanding the  political  talents  displayed 
by  Ebroin,  mayor  to  the  sons  of  Olovis  II. 
(660-681),  the  Neustrians  were  at  length  con- 
trolled by  the  mayors  of  Austrasia,  who  soon 
took  the  title  of  dukes,  and  finally  acquired 
absolute  possession  of  the  Frankish  kingdoms. 
Pepin  of  H^ristal,  the  most  illustrious  among 


these  nominal  ministers  and  real  monarch s, 
governed  them  in  the  name  of  several  succes- 
sive kings.  After  his  death  (714),  his  natural 
son  Karl,  celebrated  under  the  name  of  Charles 
Martel,  seized  and  wielded  with  an  iron  hand  a 
still  more  extensive  power.  He  especially  sig- 
nalized his  reign  by  defeating  the  Saracenic  in- 
vaders of  France  between  Tours  and  Poitiers  in- 
732.  Twenty  years  later  (752)  his  son  Pepin 
the  Short  confined  the  last  of  the  Merovingians, 
Childeric  III.,  within  the  walls  of  a  convent, 
and,  with  the  consent  of  the  clergy  and  the 
approval  of  the  pope,  assumed  the  title  of  king. 
His  father  and  himself,  the  first  two  princes  of 
the  Carlovingian  dynasty,  raised  the  Frankish 
power  to  its  highest  pitch.  Pepin  (752-768), 
firmly  establishing  his  authority  all  over  Gaul, 
forced  into  complete  submission  Aquitania, 
which  during  the  reign  of  the  roU  faineanU 
had  succeeded  in  maintaining  its  independence, 
and  conquered  Septunania,  a  province  aloiKr 
the  Mediterranean  shore,  which  had  been  held 
by  the  Arabs  of  Spain.  He  made  his  infiuence 
also  felt  in  Italy,  where  the  Lombards  became 
his  tributaries,  while  his  liberality  toward  the 
pope  brought  to  his  side  the  agency  of  religion. 
His  son,  Karl  the  Great  or  Charlemagne,  fol- 
lowing the  same  policy,  showed  himself  the 
most  faithful  protector  of  the  holy  see,  over- 
threw the  Lombard  monarchy,  and  placed  the 
iron  crown  upon  his  own  head  in  774;  waged 
for  82  years  (772-804)  a  merciless  war  against 
the  Saxons,  who  were  finally  subdued  and  com- 

{>elled  to  embrace  Christianity ;  destroyed  the 
ast  remnants  of  the  barbarous  Avars  who  had 
settled  in  Hungary ;  and  tried  his  arms  against 
the  Moslems  of  Spain.  He  thus  made  himself 
the  master  of  an  empire  which  included  not 
only  Gaul,  but  also  Germany  to  the  Saale,  the 
largest  part  of  Italy,  and  N.  £.  Spain.  He 
styled  his  dominion  the  **new  empire  of  the 
West,"  and  was  crowned  emperor  by  the  pope 
at  Rome  in  800.  He  aimed  indeed  at  a  com- 
plete restoration  of  the  ancient  Roman  empire 
by  marrying  the  Byzantine  empress  Irene ;  but 
this  was  prevented  by  revolutions  at  Constan- 
tinople. He  greatly  advanced  the  civilization 
of  his  realm  by  establishing  schools  and  patron- 
izing science  and  literature,  and  gave  his  court 
a  world-wide  fame  throughout  his  reign.  His 
son,  Louis  le  D6bonnaire  (814-840),  a  weak  and 
superstitious  prince,  was  peculiarly  unfitted  for 
the  heavy  task  which  devolved  upon  him ;  and 
the  selfidi  ambition  of  Louisas  successors  hast- 
ened the  national  and  social  disruption.  Less 
than  80  years  after  Charlemagne^s  death  his 
empire  was  divided  into  threo  kingdoms  by 
the  treaty  of  Verdun  (843),  and  45  years  later 
(888),  through  the  imbecility  of  his  great-grand- 
son, Charles  the  Fat,  it  had  entirely  fallen 
to  pieces.  From  its  fragments  were  formed 
the  kingdoms  of  France,  Italy,  and  Germany, 
with  the  secondary  states  of  Lorraine,  Bur- 
gundy (for  a  time  known  as  the  kingdom  of 
Arelate  or  ArlesV  and  Navarre.  Amid  the 
convulsions  which  led  to  this  consummation^ 


880 


FRANCE 


the  power  of  the  nobles  had  been  rapidly  in- 
creasing ;  the  dukes  and  counts,  who  had  been 
at  first  mere  officers  of  the  kings,  had  succeed- 
ed  in  makins  their  dignities  hereditary;  and 
Charles  the  Bald,  just  before  his  death  in  877, 
not  only  sanctioned  their  pretensions,  but  ex- 
tended the  principle  of  inheritance  to  all  the 
fiefs.  Such  was  the  foundation  of  the  feudal 
system,  the  origin  of  which  may  be  said  to  co- 
incide with  the  beginning  of  France  proper. 
The  name  France  first  appears  in  history  about 
the  9th  century,  and  applies  to  the  country  W. 
of  the  Scheldt,  the  Meuse,  the  Sa6ne,  and  the 
Cayennes;  and  henceforth  we  distinctly  see  a 
French  nation  forming  by  the  fusion  of  the 
Frankish  with  the  Gallo-Roman  element,  and 
a  new  language,  a  mixture  of  the  German  and 
the  Latin,  sprang  up  at  the  same  time.  The 
Carlovingian  family  were  soon  opposed  by 
national  princes  who  had  courage  and  talent ; 
and  after  a  struggle  which  went  on  during  the 
latter  part  of  the  9th  and  nearly  the  whole 
of  the  10th  century,  they  were  finally  de- 
prived of  their  hereditary  throne.  Previous 
to  this  a  new  race,  the  Kormans,  had  estab- 
lished themselves  in  N.  W.  France.  They  had 
carried  on  a  system  of  piracy  along  the  coast 
as  early  as  the  reign  of  Charlemagne,  and 
since  then  they  had  several  times  pushed  their 
incursions  into  the  very  heart  of  the  country. 
The  weak  Charles  the  Simple  at  last  had  re- 
coarse  to  concessions  to  check  their  continued 
attacks,  and  in  912  the  lands  situated  W.  of  the 
lower  Seine  were  ceded  to  RoUo,  the  chief  of  a 
large  horde  of  these  Northmen,  and  Normandy 
soon  became  one  of  the  most  fiourishing  and 
best  regulated  provinces  in  France.  Its  dukes 
held  the  first  rank  among  the  feudal  princes, 
when  Hugues  or  Hugh  Capet,  the  duke  of 
France,  on  the  death  of  Louis  V.,  collected  an 
army,  seized  the  throne,  and  assumed  the  title 
of  king  (987),  founding  the  Capetian  dynasty, 
which  ruled  continuously  more  than  800  years 
through  several  collateral  branches,  and  is  still 
represented  by  the  Bourbon  family.  This  ruler 
and  his  immediate  successors  pursued  a  quiet 
and  conservative  course,  and  though  taking  lit- 
tle part  in  the  great  events  which  occupied  the 
rest  of  Europe  in  their  time  (the  earliest  cru- 
sade, dec),  they  fortified  their  own  power  and 
upheld  their  royal  supremacy,  which  during 
the  12th  and  18th  centuries  was  established 
on  a  solid  foundation  by  kings  of  considera- 
ble ability.  Louis  VI.  (1108*1187),  a  king  of 
great  activity  and  bravery,  forced  many  of  the 
nobles  into  submission,  and  greatly  strength- 
ened the  royal  power.  Philip  Augustus  (1 180- 
1228),  the  most  sagacious  prince  of  his  time, 
nearly  doubled  the  royal  domains.  Besides 
Normandy,  Touraine,  Aigou,  Maine,  and  a 
large  part  of  Poitou,  which  he  seized  by  force, 
after  confiscation  had  been  adjudged  by  parlia- 
ment against  King  John  of  England,  who  held 
thein  by  inheritance,  he  acquired  by  various 
means  the  counties  of  Artois,  Vermandois, 
Yalois,  Auvergne,  and  otibier  territcMiea.    The 


count  of  Flanders  vainly  allied  himself  with  the 
English  king  and  Otho  IV.  of  Grermany.  Philip 
gained  over  his  combined  enemies  a  brilliant 
victory  at  Bovines  in  1214;  and  thenceforth 
the  royal  power  was  paramount  France, 
though  long  distracted  in  the  south  by  the  Al- 
bigensian  struggles,  was  thus  enabled  to  play  a 
conspicuous  part  in  European  affairs ;  and  the 
rank  to  which  Philip's  policy  raised  her  was 
fully  maintained  by  the  wisdom  of  his  grandson^ 
Louis  IX.  (1226-70).  The  traditional  policy 
was  followed  under  his  reign;  treaties  and 
marriages  were  concluded  which  secured  the  ul- 
timate possession  of  Langnedoc  and  Provence, 
while  tne  commons,  or  the  third  estate,  as  it 
was  then  called,  was  placed  under  the  more 
immediate  control  of  the  king.  The  introduc- 
tion of  the  Roman  law  and  the  regular  consti- 
tution of  the  parliament,  forming  a  high  court 
of  justice  which  was  to  supersede  gradually  all 
feudal  Jurisdictions,  were  important  additions 
to  the  efficiency  of  the  royal  power ;  the  limi- 
tation and  definition  of  the  powers  d  the 
church,  through  Louisas  pragmatic  sanction  in 
1269,  was  another  step  in  this  direction ;  while 
the  king's  personal  good  qualities  conciliated 
the  respect  and  affection  of  the  nation.  The 
influence  thus  secured  for  the  royal  tide  was 
sustained  by  Louis's  successors,  Philip  III.  and 
Philip  IV.  (the  Fair),  who,  though  greatiy  infe- 
rior to  their  ancestor  in  ability,  completed  the 
monarchical  system  that  was  to  prevail  for 
several  centuries.  They  leaned  more  than  ever 
upon  the  third  estate  in  order  to  counterbal- 
ance the  ascendancy  of  the  two  privileged  or- 
ders. Men  of  low  birth  had  already  been  in- 
troduced into  the  parliament;  under  Philip 
IV.  (1286-1814)  their  influence  increased,  and 
representatives  of  the  third  estate  were  admit- 
ted to  the  general  assemblies  of  the  nation, 
which  before  had  consisted  only  of  deputies  fh>m 
the  clergy  and  the  nobility.  The  chief  events 
of  Philip's  reign  were  his  quarrel  with  Pope 
Boni&ce  VIII.,  by  wh(»n  he  bad  been  excom- 
municated, but  whom  he  finally  overcame  and 
took  prisoner ;  the  remoyal  of  the  papal  see  to 
Avignon;  and  the  suppression  of  the  order 
of  knights  templars,  whose  immense  posses- 
sions in  France  were  confiscated  to  the  crown, 
while  the  knights  were  banished,  imprisoned, 
and  many  even  executed  under  circumstances 
of  the  greatest  cruelty.  Philip  was  succeed- 
ed in  turn  by  Louis  X.,  Philip  v.,  and  Charles 
IV.  The  Capetian  kings,  whatever  may  have 
been  their  faults  and  personal  shortcomings, 
succeeded  in  giving  so  powerful  an  organiza- 
tion to  the  kingdom  as  to  enable  it  to  stand 
the  brunt  of  the  foreign  and  civil  wars  which 
were  to  threaten  its  existence  under  the 
younger  branch  of  Valois  (1828-1689).  The 
rivalry  between  France  and  England,  conse- 
quent upon  the  accession  of  Duke  William  of 
Normandy  to  the  tiirone  of  the  latter,  had 
already  been  the  canse  of  occamonal  hostilities 
between  the  two  nations ;  it  came  to  a  decisive 
crisis  during  the  first  half  of  the  14th  century. 


FRANCE 


381 


On  the  direct  branch  of  the  Capetians  beoom- 
ing  extinct  by  the  death  of  Charles  IV.  with- 
out male  beira,  Philip  of  Valois,  both  by  right 
of  relationship  and  by  choice  of  the  peers,  suc- 
ceeded to  the  throne,  beginning  the  Valois 
dynasty ;  bnt  Edwfud  111.  of  England,  by  vir- 
tue of  hereditary  right  derived  from  his  moth- 
er's side,  clmmed  not  only  sach  provinces  on 
the  continent  as  had  been  taken  from  liis  ances- 
tors, bat  the  whole  kingdom  of  France.  In 
this  way  began  that  protracted  conflict  which 
French  historians  call  the  ^*  hundred  years' 
war ''  (1337-1458),  a  period  covering  the  reigns 
of  John  II.  (1350-'64),  Charles  V.  (1864-'80), 
Charles  VI.  (1880-1422),  and  the  greater  part 
of  the  reign  of  Charles  VII.  n422-'61).  Twice 
France  was  on  the  eve  of  becoming  a  depen- 
dency of  the  English  crown.  In  1840  an  Eng- 
lish fleet  destroyed  the  naval  force  of  France 
at  Sluis,  on  the  coast  of  Flanders;  in  1846,  at 
Gr^y,  the  English  archers  won  an  unexpected 
victory  over  the  flower  of  French  chivalry ; 
and  ten  years  later,  at  Poitiers,  the  Black  Prince 
not  only  defeated  King  John,  bat  made  him 
prisoner.  The  states  general  were  also  the 
scene  of  a  deadly  straggle  between  the  regent 
and  the  third  estate,  so  that  royalty  itself  was 
put  in  jeopardy ;  companies  of  adventurers  and 
mercenary  troops  ravaged  the  provinces;  the 
peasantry  of  several  districts,  driven  to  despair 
by  the  oppression  of  their  lords,  broke  ont  into 
a  fearful  insurrection,  which  was  named  the 
JdeguertA,  and  marked  by  aU  the  horrors  of  a 
servile  war.  Charles  V.,  by  his  vigorous  poli- 
cy, succeeded  in  quelling  internal  disorders; 
and  with  the  help  of  his  great  constable,  Du 
Guesolin,  he  regained  in  a  few  campaigns  all 
the  English  acquisitions  in  France,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  a  few  important  seaports.  When 
both  died,  in  1380,  the  kingdom  was  in  a  fair 
way  to  regain  its  former  prosperity.  But  the 
minority  of  Charles  VI.,  and  his  subsequent 
derangement,  ft^ln  plunged  France  into  a  series 
of  calamities.  The  conflict  between  the  various 
classes  of  society  was  renewed  with  increased 
fnry ;  rival  factions,  headed  by  prmces  of  the 
royal  family,  the  dukes  of  Orleans  and  Bur- 
^ndy,  waged  against  each  other  a  war  of 
treachery  and  assassination;  while  the  Eng- 
lish, encouraged  by  the  forlorn  condition  of 
their  enemy,  again  invaded  France.  For  the 
third  time  the  French  chivalry  suffered  defeat 
at  Agincourt  (1415).  John  the  Fearless  being 
treacherously  murdered  by  the  Orleanists  or 
Armagnaos,  in  an  interview  which  was  intended 
to  bring  about  peace,  Burgundy,  that  is,  the 
K.  E.  part  of  France,  threw  itself  into  the  arms 
of  the  English.  An  insane  king,  a  queen  of 
foreign  origin  impelled  by  her  unnatural  hatred 
to  her  son  the  dauphin,  and  a  prince  carried 
away  by  his  thirst  for  vengeance,  concluded 
the  famous  treaty  of  Troyes,  1420,  by  which 
the  royal  inheritance  of  France  was  delivered 
up  to  her  deadly  enemy.  Henry  V.  of  Eng- 
land, on  marrying  the  princess  Catherine,  was 
appointed  heir  to  Charles  VI.,  and  meanwhile 


was  to  assume  the  power  of  regent.  France 
seemed  now  to  be  irretrievably  lost ;  but  the 
country  suddenly  rallied  its  forces,  chiefly  un- 
der the  leadership  of  Joan  of  Arc,  by  whom  the 
national  enthusiasm  was  roused  to  the  highest 
degree,  and  succeeded  in  defeating  the  English 
power.  The  disinherited  son  of  Charles  Vi. 
was  now  triumphantly  conducted  to  Rheims  to 
receive  there  the  royal  unction  (1429) ;  but  it 
required  24  years  more  of  constant  warfare  to 
Anally  drive  the  invaders  from  the  country. 
This  was  accomplished  in  1458,  with  the  ex- 
ception that  the  seaport  of  Calais  remained  in 
English  hands,  to  be  retaken  105  years  later. 
After  these  long  trials,  France  was  at  Isst 
enabled  to  exercise  her  recuperative  powers ; 
her  population  increased  at  a  rapid  rate,  in- 
dustry and  art  flourished,  and  the  last  vestiges 
of  the  past  calamities  disappeared.  Mean- 
while her  kings  had  returned  to  their  tradi- 
tional policy  of  enlarging  the  royal  domains 
and  consolidating  the  royal  power  by  the  de- 
struction of  the  feudal  aristocracy.  To  this 
task  none  applied  himself  with  greater  zeal  than 
Louis  XI.  (1 461-^88),  the  son  and  successor 
of  Charles  Vll.  Many  nobles  of  every  rank 
were  delivered  to  the  executioner.  The  most 
powerfolof  all,  Charles  the  Bold,  duke  of  Bur- 
gundy, against  whom  Louis  had  long  carried  on 
intrigues  by  every  means  in  his  power,  fell  in  a 
conflict  with  the  Swiss  allies  of  the  duke  of 
Lorraine,  before  Nancy,  in  1477;  the  king  at 
once  seized  upon  part  of  the  large  inheritance 
left  by  that  formidable  vassal,  and  the  duchy 
of  Burgundy  and  Picardy  were  thus  annexed 
to  the  crown.  The  fine  provinces  of  Anjou, 
Maine,  and  Provence,  besides  claims  upon 
the  kingdom  of  Naples,  were  bequeathed  to 
Louis  by  the  last  prince  of  the  house  of  An- 
jou ;  the  king  of  Aragon  resigned  to  him  the 
counties  of  Roussillon  and  Cerdagne;  and 
France,  reaching  thus  her  natural  frontiers 
toward  the  south  and  the  southeast,  became 
one  of  the  great  powers  on  the  Mediterranean. 
On  the  northwest,  by  the  marriage  of  Charles 
VIII.  with  Anne  of  Brittany,  she  gained  pos- 
session of  that  large  province,  which  had 
hitherto  been  nearly  independent.  Under 
Charles  VIII.,  the  son  and  successor  of  Louis, 
a  French  force  invaded  Italy  in  1494,  and  con- 
quered the  kingdom  of  Naples  without  oppo- 
sition ;  but  the  conquest  was  lost  still*  more 
quickly  than  it  had  been  gained.  This  was  the 
first  of  a  long  series  of  Italian  wars  in  which 
France  was  almost  constantly  engaged  for  more 
than  half  a  century,  with  varying  success,  and 
under  several  monarchs.  With  Charles  VIII., 
who  died  without  male  heirs  in  1498,  the  direct 
line  of  Valois  ended,  and  Louis,  duke  of  Orleans, 
the  nearest  heir  to  the  throne,  and  grandson  to 
a  brother  of  Charles  VI.,  became  king  under 
the  title  of  Louis  XII.  This  monarch,  who  at 
first  met  with  some  success  in  his  Italian  cam- 

Saigns,  tried  all  the  arts  of  diplomacy  to  secure 
is  conquests;  bnt  he  was  no  match  for  the  Ital- 
ian politicians  of  the  16th  century,  and  still  less 


382 


FRANCE 


for  the  crafty  Ferdinand  of  Aragon.  By  the 
latter  he  was  expelled  for  ever  from  Naples,  of 
which  he  had  partly  taken  possession,  while 
Pope  Julius  IL,  the  republic  of  Venice,  and 
the  princes  of  Italy,  availing  themselves  of 
Spanish,  German,  and  even  English  alliances 
(forming  at  one  time  what  was  called  the 
holy  league),  forced  him  out  of  the  duchy  of 
Milan,  which  he  claimed  in  right  of  his  grand- 
mother, Valentina  Visconti,  and  which  he  had 
twice  conquered.  Francis  I.,  the  successor 
and  distant  relative  of  Louis,  in  his  turn  ap- 
peared in  Italy  as  a  conqueror,  and  his  first 
victory  at  Marignano  or  Melegnano  (1515) 
seemed  to  forebode  permanent  conquest ;  but 
he  was  opposed  by  the  emperor  Charles  V., 
and  after  his  disastrous  defeat  at  Pavia  in  1625, 
he  was  carried  a  prisoner  to  Madrid.  Here,  in 
order  to  regain  his  freedom,  he  agreed,  in  Jan- 
nary,  1526,  to  a  treaty,  by  which  he  forfeited 
Burgundy  and  all  claims  to  Naples,  Milan,  Tour- 
nay,  and  Arras.  But  no  sooner  was  he  set  at 
liberty  than  he  secured  from  the  pope  his  re- 
lease from  the  oaths  binding  him  to  this  ar- 
rangement, and  concluded  with  the  holy  see, 
the  duke  of  Milan,  and  the  republic  of  Venice 
the  second  holy  league.  In  1527  Henry  VIII. 
of  England  was  induced  to  join  the  alliance. 
But  the  results  of  the  struggle  that  followed 
were  unfavorable  to  the  French.  Pope  Clement 
VII.  was  forced  to  conclude  an  accommodation 
with  the  emperor,  and  Francis  was  compeUed 
to  acquiesce  in  the  so-called  **  ladies^  peace,*' 
concluded  at  Cambrai  (1529)  by  female  relatives 
of  the  contending  monarchs,  which  was  but  lit- 
tle less  disastrous  than  that  of  Madrid.  In  the 
mean  time,  and  while  the  wars  between  the  king 
and  Charles  V.  had  been  in  progress,  a  new 
force  had  appeared  in  European  politics.  The 
reformation  had  begun,  and  the  emperor  was 
now  obliged  to  turn  his  attention  to  Germany. 
During  the  two  or  three  years  following  the 
peace  of  Cambrai,  the  dissensions  in  that  coun- 
try afforded  Francis  an  opportunity  of  weak- 
ening his  rival  by  more  or  less  directly  en- 
couraging the  Protestant  princes  there  in  their 
hostile  attitude  toward  the  imperial  power. 
The  French  army  was  also  strengthened  during 
this  period;  an  alliance  was  concluded  with 
England  in  1532;  and  in  1586  the  war  again 
broke  out,  after  Francis  bad  in  vain  endeavored 
to  persuade  Charles  to  a  peaceable  acknowl- 
edgment of  his  Italian  claims.  A  severe  strug- 
gle followed ;  and  though  a  peace  for  ten  years 
was  signed  at  Nice  in  1588,  and  the  ministers 
of  Francis  strove  to  keep  it,  various  incidents 
led  to  a  renewed  hostility,  and  in  1542  the  con- 
flict again  began.  It  soon  took  an  unfavorable 
course  for  the  French;  the  emperor  had  by 
1544  so  far  invaded  French  territory  that  he 
even  threatened  Paris;  and  in  September  of 
that  year  the  peace  of  Crespy  put  an  end  to  the 
war  during  the  life  of  Francis;  for  so  exhausted 
were  the  resources  of  the  kingdom  that  no 
further  campaign  could  be  undertaken  before 
that  king^s  death  in  1547.    His  son  and  suc- 


cessor, Henry  II.,  the  first  part  of  whose  reign 
was  occupied  with  a  war  against  England,  re- 
newed in  1552  the  struggle  against  the  Haps- 
burgs,  which  continued  with  brief  intermissions 
till  1559,  when  the  peace  of  Cateau-Cambr^sis 
gave  to  it  a  decidedly  favorable  termination 
for  the  French.  The  English,  who  had  allied 
themselves  with  the  enemy,  gave  up  by  this 
treaty  their  last  possessions  in  France.  In  the 
last  years  of  tlie  conflict,  however,  Henry  II. 
had  allied  himself  with  the  Protestant  princes 
of  Germany,  and  had  thus  in  some  degree, 
though  unwillingly,  favored  the  spread  of  the 
Protestant  ideas  in  France,  where  Calvinism 
had  already  gained  a  wide-spread  influence 
among  the  people,  and  had  found  many  adhe- 
rents among  the  nobles.  Both  Francis  I.  and 
Henry  II.  had  attempted  to  check  the  progress 
of  the  new  beliefs,  and  had  resorted  to  the 
greatest  oppression  and  persecution  to  attain 
this  end.  Henry's  son  and  successor,  Fran- 
cis II.  (1559-'60),  so  increased  these  during  his 
short  reign  as  to  arouse  the  Huguenots  to  self- 
defence,  which  they  were  now  strong  enough 
to  attempt;  and  with  this  period  began  the 
disastrous  religious  civil  wars  which  raged  so 
fiercely  in  France,  and  lasted  with  more  or  less 
violence  till  1598.  No  fewer  than  eight  such 
wars  were  waged  during  the  reigns  of  Charles 
IX.  and  Henry  III.,  a  period  of  28  years.  The 
Protestants  held  their  ground  with  tenacity ; 
the  most  illustrious  among  their  chiefs.  Admiral 
Gaspard  de  Coligni,  accomplished  wonders ;  but 
thoroughly  honest  and  too  ready  to  confide  in 
the  honesty  of  others,  he  permitted  himself  to 
be  deceived  by  the  fair  promises  of  Catha^e 
de'  Medici,  Charles's  mother,  and  with  thou- 
sands of  his  companions  was  treacherously 
murdered  on  St.  Bartholemew's  night,  1572. 
This  fearful  massacre  did  not  however  annihi- 
late the  Protestants,  who  continued  the  strug- 
gle against  the  holy  league  or  Catholic  union, 
which  had  been  organized  for  tlie  better  pro- 
tection of  the  Catholic  church  in  France,  and 
which  was  upheld  by  the  pope  as  weU  as  Philip 
II.  of  Spain.  The  head  of  the  league,  Duke 
Henry  of  Guise,  secretly  aimed  at  uie  crown, 
and  his  popularity  seemed  to  warrant  his  suc- 
cess, when  Henry  III.  during  the  session  of  the 
states  general  at  Blois,  in  1588,  had  him  des- 
patched by  his  body  guards,  known  as  the 
"  forty-five."  A  few  months  later,  in  1589,  the 
king  himself  fell  by  the  dagger  of  the  fanatic 
Jacques  C16ment,  leaving  his  crown  to  Henry  of 
Navarre,  the  head  of  the  family  of  Bourbon,  and 
the  leader  of  the  Protestants.  The  struggle 
henceforth  took  essentially  a  political  turn ; 
and  Henry,  joined  by  but  a  few  of  the  Catho- 
lics who  had  served  his  predecessor,  and  much 
reduced  in  circumstances,  had  great  difficulty 
in  making  good  his  claims  to  the  crown.  His 
personal  qualities  and  bravery  finally  conciliated 
many  of  the  Catholic  royalists,  but  lie  could 
hope  to  be  recognized  as  king  by  the  migority 
of  the  nation  only  on  his  conversion  to  Cathol- 
icism.    To  this  he  assented,  July  25,  1593; 


FRANCE 


383 


and  now  bis  wLole  attention  was  given  to  the 
pacification  of  his  kingdom.    This  he  effected 
by  concluding  with  Spain  the  treaty  of  V ervins, 
May  2,  1598,  upon  the  conditions  of  the  oid 
treaty  of  Oateaa-Cambr^sis,  and  by  publishing 
the  celebrated  edict  of  Nantes,  which  granted 
to  the  Protestants  full  religious  liberty,  admis- 
sion to  ail  offices,  and  sevenal  places  of  security, 
among  others  the  strong  city  of  La  Rochelle. 
Henrj,  having  thus  inaugurated  the  Bourbon 
dynasty,  now  devoted  himself  entirely  to  the 
work  of  healing  the  wounds  which  had  been 
inflicted  on  the  country  during  nearly  40  years 
of  bloodshed  and  devastation.     Assisted  by 
Sully,  his  friend  and  minister,  he  restored  order 
in  all  branches  of  public  service,  and  effected 
great  improvement  m  the  condition  of  the  peo< 
pie.    He  then  returned  to  the  old  policy  of 
Francis  L,  and  meditated  the  humiliation  of 
the  house  of  Austria;  great  preparations  were 
made  for  the  enterprise,  and  Henry  was  on  the 
eve  of  his  departure  for  the  army,  when  he 
was  aaaassinated  by  Ravaillao,  May  14,  1610. 
This  calamity  interrupted  .for  nearly  15  years 
'  the  progress  of  the  kingdom  at  home  and 
abroad.     Under  the  regency  of  Henry ^s  widow, 
Maria  de'  Medici,  mother  of  Loais  XIII.,  disor- 
ders were  renewed;  the  public  treasure  was 
recklessly  wasted ;  and  the  kingdom  was  dis- 
tracted by  war  between  the  queen  mother  and 
the  young  l^ing,  soon  after  the  latter  reached 
his  minority.    Happily  a  great  minister,  Oardi- 
nal  Richelieu,  took  the  rems  of  government  in 
1634,  consolidated  the  power  of  the  monarch 
&t  home,  and,  partly  reviving  the  political  de- 
signs of  the  late  king,  threw  the  influence  and 
arms  of  France  into  the  European   conflict 
called  the  thirty  years^  war.    While  annihila- 
ting the  political  power  of  the  French  Protes- 
tants, he  energetically  supported  the  German 
Protestants  in  their  struggle  against  the  house 
of  Austria;  to  this  end  he  spared  neither  mon- 
ey nor  troops;  and  on  his  death,  in  1642,  the 
rival  of  France  had  been  already  many  times 
hnmbled.    The  successor  of  Richelieu,  Oardi- 
nal  Mazarin,  pursued  the  same  policy ;  and  the 
first  years  of  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.,  who 
ascended  the  throne  as  a  child  in  1643,  were 
marked  by  brilliant  victories,  most  of  them 
won  by  the  young  duke  d'Enghien,  afterward 
the  "  great  Gond6."    The  treaty  of  Westphalia 
in  16&  not  only  asserted  the  triumph  of  reli- 
gions and  political  liberty  in  Germany,  but  the 
victory  of  France  over  Austria,  a  victory  which 
added  to  her  territory  the  province  of  Alsace. 
The  troubles  of  the  Fronde,  a  faint  image  of 
the  old  civil  wars,  detracted  nothing  from  the 
inflaence  gained  abroad  by  the  French  govern- 
ment, and  Mazarin  conclade<l  with  Spain,  in 
1659,  the  treaty  of  the  Pyrenees,  which  secured 
two  other  provinces  to  France,  Artois  and 
Boassillon.    This  able  politician  resigned  to 
the  hands  of  Loais  XIV.  a  kingdonf  well  pre- 
pared for  the  full  exercise  of  absolute  power. 
Under  this  monarch  France  rose  to  the  height  of 
fortune  and  glory,  while  he  himaelf  was  placed 

882  vol-  vn. — 25 


above  all  control.  From  the  day  of  Mazarines 
death  (1661)  he  assumed  the  direction  of  public 
affairs,  and  his  ministers,  with  the  exception 
perhaps  of  Colbert  and  Louvois,  were  litUe 
more  than  clerks,  intrusted  with  the  execution 
of  his  designs.  The  first  years  of  his  administra- 
tion were  the  most  useful.  Colbert  devoted 
himself  to  improving  all  the  resources  of  the 
kingdom;  every  branch  of  revenue  became 
prosperous;  and,  as  at  the  beginning  of  the 
century  under  Henry  IV.,  the  nationcd  wealth 
increased  with  unusual  rapidity.  Intellectual 
progress  kept  pace  with  material,  and  every- 
thing conspired  to  create  a  literary  period  of 
unusual  magnificence.  A  short  war  against 
Spain,  which  was  terminated  by  the  treaty  of 
Aix-la-Chapelle  in  1668,  scarcely  interrupted 
this  happy  commencement ;  but  it  had  awaken- 
ed suspicions  among  the  neighboring  powers, 
and  a  triple  alliance  was  formed  between  Hol- 
land, Spain,  and  England.  Scarcely  fonr  years 
had  elapsed  when  Louis  XIV.,  at  the  head 
of  more  than  100,000  men,  invaded  Holland, 
which,  being  deserted  by  England,  could  be 
preserved  only  by  the  united  exertions  of  Spain 
and  Germany;  the  contest  lasted  six  years; 
the  French  armies,  under  Cond6,  Turenne,  and 
Luxembourg,  were  victorious  in  nearly  every 
encounter,  while  French  fleets  distinguished 
themselves  against  the  united  naval  forces  of 
Spain  and  Holland.  The  peace  of  Nimeguen, 
1678,  put  an  end  to  regular  hostilities,  but  not 
to  the  encroachments  of  Louis  XIV.,  who,  in- 
flated by  success,  seized  upon  provinces  and 
cities  which,  according  to  his  own  constrnotion 
of  past  treaties,  belonged  to  France.  Louis 
had  now  reached  the  zenith  of  his  greatness ; 
he  had  added  to  his  kingdom  Flanders,  Franche- 
Comt^,  the  imperial  city  of  Strasburg,  and  sev- 
eral other  important  territories;  he  was  feared 
abroad  and  respected  at  home ;  he  was  Louis 
the  Great  for  his  subjects,  and  even  his  ene- 
mies scarcely  refused  him  this  title.  The  league 
of  Augsburg,  devised  by  William  of  Orange, 
had  united  together  the  emperor,  Holland, 
Sweden,  and  Savoy,  and  was  joined  by  Eng' 
land  on  the  revolution  of  1688.  Louis  XI  v., 
who  undertook  to  reestablish  James  II.  on  biff 
throne,  engaged  in  a  desperate  struggle  against 
this  powerful  coalition,  and  maintained  it  for 
nine  years ;  his  armies  and  naval  forces,  the  for- 
mer especially,  still  achieved  many  triumphs: 
and  when  the  peace  of  Ryswick  was  concluded 
in  1697,  the  allies,  although  they  boasted  of 
success,  were  nearly  as  much  exhausted  as 
their  opponent.  The  war  of  the  Spanish  sac- 
cession,  which  followed  the  death  of  Charles 
II.  of  Spain  in  1700,  was  brought  about  by 
mere  family  ambition.  A  more  formidable 
coalition  opposed  the  schemes  of  the  king,  who 
aimed  at  placing  his  grandson  upon  the  Span- 
ish throne ;  the  two  greatest  generals  of  their 
time,  Marlborough  and  Prince  Eugene,  were 
at  the  head  of  the  allied  armies ;  defeat  after 
defeat  befell  the  French  forces,  and  the  king- 
dom seemed  reduced  to  extremities ;  but  after 


384 


FRANCE 


a  contest  of  12  jears*  duration  Louis  succeed- 
ed in  his  bold  undertaking,  and  by  the  treaties 
of  Utrecht  and  Rastadt  (1718  and  1714)  the 
house  of  Bourbon  inherited  the  best  part  of 
the  Oastilian  monarchy.  The  burden  which 
he  had  borne  was,  however,  far  too  heavy  for 
his  weak  successors  ;  he  had  moreover  taxed 
the  energies  of  France  and  stretched  the  royal 
power  to  such  an  extent  that  a  reaction  was 
unavoidable,  and  had  by  tyrannical  and  im- 
prudent acts  already  introduced  many  of  those 
abuses  and  elements  of  discord  which  were  to 
have  such  disastrous  results.  The  18th  century 
was  an  age  of  depression,  decay,  and  ruin  for  all 
the  institutions,  doctrines,  and  classes  that  had 
hitherto  commanded  respect.  Royalty  lost  its 
prestige,  both  through  the  unbounded  licen- 
tiousness of  the  regent  duke  of  Orleans  and 
the  king  himself,  and  through  the  irretrievable 
corruption  or  imbecility  of  its  ministers;  no- 
bility became  degraded ;  the  great  constituted 
bodies  fell  into  general  contempt ;  the  national 
treasury  was  exhausted ;  and  an  uncontrollable 
spirit  of  censure  and  raillery  hastened  the  work 
of  destruction.  Even  the  remedies  that  were 
tried,  such  as  the  wUd  financial  schemes  of 
Law  under  the  regent,  only  added  to  the  uni- 
versal confusion.  Politically  the  French  gov- 
ernment, controlled  in  turns  by  unscrupulous 
princes,  by  Cardinal  Fleury  (who,  however 
good  his  internal  administration,  failed  to  sup- 
port the  national  dignity  abroad),  by  the  clever 
and  infamous  Cardinal  Dubois,  and  by  the 
king^s  mistresses,  gradually  sank  in  the  eyes 
of  Europe ;  and  toward  the  end  of  Louis  XV.^s 
reign  it  could  scarcely  be  ranked  among  the 
great  European  powers.  The  four  wars  in 
which  France  then  participated,  against  Spain 
(1717-'19),  for  the  succession  of  Poland  (1783 
-'85),  for  the  succession  of  Austria  (1740-'48), 
and  finally  the  seven  years'  war  (1756-'63), 
were  productive  only  of  disgrace  and  disas- 
ter. The  widespread  political  degeneracy  of 
the  time  was  in  some  degree  offset,  it  is  true, 
by  the  remarkable  intellectual  activity  which 
made  itself  felt  in  all  departments  of  literature, 
and  especially  manifested  itself  in  the  teach- 
ings of  that  school  of  philosophy  whose  social, 
political,  and  metaphysical  theories  so  largely 
affected  the  course  of  events  during  the  re- 
mainder of  the  century. — Louis  XV.  died  in 
1774^  and  his  grandson  Louis  XVI.  ascended 
the  throne  at  a  period  which  was  perhaps  the 
most  inglorious  of  French  history.  Carlyle,  in 
one  of  the  opening  paragraphs  of  his  *^  French 
Revolution,''  compares  the  country,  as  it  was 
left  by  the  dead  ruler,  to  a  powder  tower  about 
which  unquenchable  fire  was  smouldering. 
"With  Pompadourism  and  Dubarryism,  his 
Fleur-de-lis  has  been  shamefully  struck  down 
in  all  lands  and  on  all  seas ;  Poverty  invades 
even  the  Royal  Exchequer,  and  Tax-farming  can 
squeeze  out  no  more;  there  is  a  quarrel  of 
twenty-five  years'  standing  with  the  Parlement ; 
everywhere  Want,  Dishonesty,  Unbelief,  and 
hot-brained  Sciolists  for  state  physiciani> ;  it  is  a 


portentous  hour."  This  description  is  not  ex- 
aggerated. The  tyranny  and  lawlessness  of  the 
nobles  and  privileged  classes,  the  burden  of 
heavy  taxation  and  oppression,  which  rested 
almost  entirely  on  the  lowest  orders,  the  reck- 
less mismanagement  exhibited  in  every  branch 
of  the  public  service,  and  the  unrestrained 
personal  vice  and  extravagance  of  those  in  au- 
thority, had  driven  the  great  mass  of  the  peo- 
ple into  a  bitterness  of  feeling  almost  beyond 
description;  while  the  exhausted  kingdom, 
with  its  recuperative  forces  apparently  de- 
stroyed, seemed  to  be  on  the  verge  of  financial 
as  well  as  political  ruin.  The  various  abuses 
that  had  grown  up  and  increased  during  nearly 
the  whole  century  were  now  at  their  height, 
and  it  seemed  evident  that  a  disastrous  crisis 
was  approaching.  In  this  condition  of  affairs 
Louis  XVI.  began  his  reign,  undoubtedly  with 
some  idea  of  the  state  of  his  kingdom,  and  with 
the  best  intentions  toward  reform;  but,  as 
events  proved,  without  the  strength  necessary 
to  carry  out  his  good  intentions.  Maurepas,  a 
man  eminently  unfit  for  the  work  in  hand,  was 
placed  at  the  head  of  the  ministry.  An  at- 
tempt to  conciliate  the  ])eople  was  made  by 
the  restoration  of  the  parliament  of  Paris ;  but 
instead  of  promoting  reform,  this  body  proved 
a  positive  hindrance  to  it.  Turgot  and  Males- 
herbes,  associated  with  Maurepas  in  the  min- 
istry, acted  with  considerable  efiSciency  in  the 
endeavor  to  improve  the  state  of  affairs,  but 
were  deposed  through  the  influence  of  the 
court  party  as  soon  as  they  sought  to  interfere 
with  the  immunities  of  the  privileged  classes. 
Similar  causes  defeated  the  less  earnest  efforts 
of  the  ministers  who  followed  them  in  quick 
succession.  Keeker,  who  became  minister  of 
finance  in  1777,  and  held  the  ofiSce  during  the 
time  in  which  France  carried  on  war  against 
England  and  in  aid  of  the  American  colonies, 
at  first  seemed  to  improve  matters  slightly; 
but  the  expenses  of  the  war,  the  usual  opposi- 
tion of  the  nobles  and  clercy  to  any  scheme 
of  general  taxation,  with  other  causes,  led  to 
his  deposition  soon  after  the  publication  of  his 
celebrated  CompU  rendu  au  rou  Calonne,  who 
succeeded  him  in  1788,  by  extravagance  and 
a  reckless  contracting  of  loans,  plunged  the 
finances  into  a  more  hopeless  condition  than 
ever;  and  in  1786  the  king  was  induced  to  call 
together  the  assembly  of  notables  to  consider 
the  state  of  affairs,  and  especially  to  deliberate 
on  certain  schemes  of  Calonne.  This  assembly, 
which  had  before  been  convened  by  Henry  IV. 
and  Louis  XIII.,  consisted  of  a  number  of  lead- 
ing persons  selected  by  the  king  from  all  parts 
of  the  kingdom ;  and  on  this  occasion,  the  last 
time  in  French  history  of  its  convocation,  it 
included  7  princes  of  the  blood,  9  dukes  and 
peers,  8  field  marshals,  22  nobles,  and  98  high 
ofiioials  of  different  classes;  144  members  in 
all.  These  met  in  February,  1787 ;  but  when 
Calonne's  report  revealed  to  them  the  extent 
of  the  existing  debt  and  deficit,  and  proposed, 
with  other  measures,  a  land  tax  from  which 


FRANCE 


885 


the  privileged  classes  shonld  not  be  exempt, 
there  arose  an  opposition  which  compelled  his 
retirement.  He  was  succeeded  by  Brienne, 
archbishop  of  Touloose ;  bat  the  notables  con- 
tinued to  oppose  all  plans  for  general  taxation, 
and  in  May  their  assembly  was  dissolved. 
VariouB  other  methods  of  raising  money  were 
now  devised ;  but  the  parliament  of  Paris  re- 
fused to  register  the  royal  edicts  ordering  their 
enforcement,  and  the  king  only  compelled  their 
registration  by  resorting  to  a  so-called  bed  of 
justice.  ■  (See  Bed  op  Justice.)  The  parliament 
protested,  and  the  king,  in  anger  at  this  open 
resistance,  banished  the  members  to  Troyes, 
but  not  before  they  had  issued  a  spirited  re- 
monstrance and  a  demand  that  the  states  gen- 
eral should  be  convened.  This  violent  act  on 
the  part  of  the  king  caused  general  indignation, 
and  partly  owing  to  this,  and  partly  to  the  ne- 
cessity for  new  loans,  he  retracted  it  soon  after, 
and  in  September  the  parliament  returned. 
The  conflicts  and  disputes  that  followed  its  re- 
assembling, however,  led  to  a  new  step,  the 
constitution  of  a  cour  plenUre,  which  should 
pass  upon  the  royal  edicts ;  and  this  measure 
aroused  more  opposition  than  ever,  the  duke 
of  Orleans  and  several  powerful  nobles  joining 
the  general  expression  which  pronounced  it  an 
illegal  attempt  to  entirely  set  aside  the  parlia- 
ment's authority.  In  the  provinces  armed  dis- 
turbances took  place.  All  classes  of  the  peo- 
ple, as  well  the  privileged  orders  as  the  rest, 
now  hoped  for  some  amelioration  through  the 
calling  of  the  states  general;  and  this  was 
everywhere  loudly  demanded.  The  king  finally 
yielded ;  Brienne  was  deposed  and  Keeker  re- 
called ;  and  the  general  assembly  of  deputies 
from  all  the  recognized  classes,  constituting 
the  states  genera),  at  last  assembled  at  Ver- 
sailles in  May,  1789 ;  this  being  the  first  con- 
vocation of  such  a  body  since  1614.  But  the 
constitution  of  the  new  assemblage  soon  led 
to  unexpected  results.  The  privileged  classes, 
the  nobles  and  clergy,  insisted  that  the  meet- 
ings of  the  body  and  all  its  deliberations  should 
be  conducted  with  strict  regard  to  the  old  class 
distinctions,  the  three  estates  meeting  and  vo- 
ting separately,  as  in  former  times,  an  arrange- 
ment by  which  the  two  higher  estates  would 
have  been  enabled  to  neutralize  the  action  of 
the  commons.  For  the  .first  time  this  classi- 
fication met  with  the  most  determined  oppo- 
sition; and  in  June,  on  the  proposition  of 
a  member,  the  abb6  Siey^s,  the  deputies  of 
the  third  estate  declared  themselves  the  sole 
body  having  a  right  to  act  as  the  legislature  of 
France,  and  summoned  the  nobles  and  clergy, 
OS  bodies  representing  only  certain  classes,  to 
attend  thoir  deliberations.  At  first  only  eight 
clerical  deputies  and  no  nobles  obeyed  their 
summons^  and  the  commons  now  (June  17) 
solemnly  proclaimed  themselves  the  legislators 
of  the  conntry,  and  constituted  themselves  a 
body  under  the  name  of  the  national  assembly 
(in  history  specially  designated  the  constituent 
assembly;  see  Constitutional  Convention). 


A  day  or  two  later  a  majority  of  the  clergy 
manifested  a  disposition  to  join  them.  Aroused 
by  these  proceedings,  the  king  made  an  ill- 
advised  attempt  to  check  the  course  of  events ; 
and  on  the  20th,  when  the  deputies  of  the 
commons,  accompanied  by  many  clerical  depu- 
ties, came  to  the  place  of  meeting,  they  found 
their  entrance  prevented  by  a  guard  of  soldiers. 
In  the  greatest  indignation,  they  gathered  in  a 
tennis  court  near  by,  and  here  took  a  solemn 
oath  not  to  dissolve  their  assembly  until  a  con- 
stitution for  the  kingdom  should  be  decided 
upon  and  established  on  a  firm  basis.  A  meet- 
ing in  the  church  of  St.  Louis  on  the  22d  gave 
them  added  strength ;  and  when,  a  few  days 
later,  the  king  appeared  before  them  and, 
though  delivering  a  half-conciliatory  address, 
insisted  upon  their  dispersing  and  meeting  as 
prescribed,  Mirabeau  was  unanimously  sus- 
tained in  sending  to  Louis  his  famous  message : 
"  We  are  here  by  the  power  of  the  people,  and 
we  will  not  be  driven  uenoe  save  by  the  power 
of  the  bayonet."  With  these  events  the  revo- 
lution may  be  said  to  have  begun.  The  finan- 
cial affairs  and  other  business,  to  consider  which 
the  assembly  had  been  called,  had  been  pushed 
into  the  background^  and  the  graver  questions 
as  to  the  rights  of  the  people,  the  reorganization 
of  government,  and  individual  liberty,  with 
which  the  American  war  had  ^atly  aided  to 
familiarize  men^s  minds,  now  occupied  the 
attention  of  all  France.  If  the  assembly  had 
gone  far  beyond  what  had  been  foreseen,  the 
body  of  the  people,  long  oppressed,  and  now 
excited  by  tne  revolutionary  clubs  and  the 
leaders  who  spoke  to  them  of  a  republic,  were 
ready  to  go  much  further  than  the  assembly. 
A  great  part  of  the  garrison  of  Paris  shared 
the  excited  feeling  of  the  populace,  and  events, 
of  which  we  shall  here  give  only  a  brief  sum- 
mary, now  followed  in  rapid  succession.  The 
king  and  his  advisers  collected  a  body  of  troops 
in  Paris,  and  deposed  and  banished  Necker. 
On  July  12,  when  the  people  heard  of  Necker's 
renewed  dismissal  and  of  his  departure  from 
Paris,  the  popular  uprising  began.  A  national 
guard  under  Lafayette  was  formed,  and  weapons 
and  ammunition  were  taken  from  the  public 
arsenals.  On  the  Hth  followed  the  attack  and 
sack  of  the  Bastile.  (See  Ba stile.)  The  people 
of  the  provinces  speedily  followed  the  example 
of  the  Parisians,  and  popular  demonstrations 
of  opposition  began  in  all  parts  of  the  kingdom. 
Louis,  who  at  first  sought  to  conciliate  the  as- 
sembly by  recalling  Necker,  and  to  quiet  the 
people  by  confirming  Lafayette^s  appointment, 
by  appearing  at  the  h6tel  de  ville  wearing  the 
tricolored  cockade,  and  by  other  means,  met 
with  only  the  most  temporary  success.  The 
assembly^  although  they  had  long  before,  at  the 
order  of  the  yielding  king,  been  joined  by  the 
nobles,  daily  took  more  decided  measures. 
Schemes  of  general  taxation  were  adopted: 
and  on  Aug.  4  the  assembly  took  the  decided 
step  of  abolishing  all  feudal  rights  and  privi- 
leges of  rank,  and  made  their  weU  known  dec- 


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laration  of  tbe  rights  of  men.  They  debated 
further  upon  a  form  of  constitation,  and  early 
in  September  they  voted  that  the  legislative 
power  should  be  vested  in  a  chamber  of  depu- 
ties that  should  be  chosen  biennially.  On  Sept. 
21,  after  violent  disputes,  they  conferred  upon 
the  king  the  right  of  a  suspensive  veto  with 
regard  to  the  proceedings  uf  this  body.  The 
king  accepted  these  measures.  Ih  the  mean 
time  the  manifestations  of  popular  excitement 
had  continued  in  Paris  with  but  brief  inter- 
missions ;  and  the  prevailing  scarcity  of  money 
and  of  food,  the  discussions  concerning  the 
royal  veto,  the  flight  of  many  of  the  higher  and 
most  unpopular  nobles,  and  other  causes,  had 
kept  the  excitement  at  a  high  pitch.  The  pro- 
oeediugs  at  a  ball  given  for  a  royal  regiment 
at  Versailles  aroused  the  populace  still  more ; 
and  on  Oct.  5  a  vast  multitude,  comprising  a 
large  number  of  women,  with  some  thousands 
of  gardes  franfaises  and  national  guards,  went 
from  Paris  thither,  and  a  tumult  ensued,  which 
was  barely  checked  by  Lafayette's  interposi- 
tion. Daybreak  of  the  6th  witnessed  renewed 
violence;  the  palace  was  invaded  and  several 
of  the  king's  guards  were  killed ;  and  the  exhi- 
bition of  popular  force  resulted  in  the  consent 
of  the  king  and  the  assembly  to  transfer  them- 
selves to  Paris.  The  assembly  now  extended 
the  right  of  suffrage  to  nearly  all  the  people, 
who  were  to  choose  electors,  who  should  in 
turn  elect  national  deputies ;  decreed  the  con- 
flscation  of  church  property  for  the  benefit  of 
the  state,  and  the  creation  of  assignats  (see 
AssiaNATs) ;  and  passed  an  act  reorganizing  the 
country  into  departments  and  smaller  divisions. 
Louis  confirmed  all  these  measures;  and  in 
February,  1790,  he  appeared  in  the  assembly, 
where  he  was  received  with  considerable  enthu- 
siasm, and  sought  to  display  a  conciliatory  and 
liberal  spirit.  On  July  14  ne  took  the  oath  of  sup- 
port to  the  new  constitution,  with  the  deputies 
and  other  authorities,  in  the  champ  de  Mars;  and 
for  a  time  it  seemed  as  if  a  constitutional  mon- 
archy would  remain  established.  But  the  con- 
flicts in  the  provinces  continued  and  increased ; 
the  assembly  became  more  and  more  sharply 
divided  into  contending  parties,  and  the  popu- 
lar orators  incited  the  people  to  further  de- 
mands. The  details  of  the  history  of  this  pe- 
riod may  be  found  in  the  biographies  of  the 
principal  actors  in  its  events;  especially  in 
those  of  Mirabeau,  at  this  time  the  greatest 
man  of  the  assembly,  and  of  Marat,  Desmoulins, 
Danton,  and  others,  leaders  of  the  republican 
clubs,  now  more  than  ever  powerful.  (See  es- 
pecially Jacobins.)  A  great  part  of  the  army 
shared  the  popular  feeling;  and  those  nobles 
who  had  emigrated  (already  called  le$  emigres)^ 
gathering  on  the  frontiers  and  seeking  to  raise 
troops,  added  to  the  causes  of  the  coming  storm. 
The  refusal  of  the  majority  of  the  clergy  to 
take  an  oath  of  conformity  to  the  civil  consti- 
tution of  their  order  as  prescribed  by  the  as- 
sembly led  to  further  troubles;  the  influence 
of  the  clubs  in  the  assembly  increased;  the 


king  was  compelled  to  dismiss  his  ministry. 
Mirabeau  seemed  tbe  only  man  capable  of  con- 
trolling affairs  at  this  crisis.  At  the  beginning 
of  1791  there  was  a  probability  that  secret 
negotiations  and  his  own  inclination  might  in- 
duce him  to  take  oflSce  under  the  king  and  give 
his  most  powerful  aid  to  the  preservation  of 
the  monarchy ;  but  all  hope  of  this  was  brought 
to  an  end  by  his  fatal  illness,  and  he  died  on 
the  2d  of  April,  at  the  most  critical  moment. 
In  the  months  which  followed  the  aspect 
of  events  grew  daily  graver.  On  the  night 
of  June  20  the  king  made  an  ill-arranged  and 
disastrous  attempt  at  flight  from  France,  in- 
tending to  escape  and  ultimately  Join  the  forces 
of  the  emigreSy  with  whom  Austria,  Spain,  Han- 
over, Sardinia,  and  Switzerland  had  united  in 
a  league  to  resist  the  revolution.  Louis  was 
stopped  at  Varennes  and  carried  back  to  the 
capital.  The  assembly  now  fully  assumed  the 
executive  power ;  and  though  the  king's  flight 
was  not  itself  made  the  formal  ground  of  any 
action  against  him,  with  its  failure  the  last  ves- 
tige of  his  authority  disappeared.  Indeed,  the 
assembly  formally  suspended  the  royal  power 
until  the  completion  ot  a  new  constitution  upon 
which  they  were  engaged — the  one  subsequent- 
ly called,  from  the  day  of  its  completion,  the 
constitution  of  the  8d  of  September.  A  multi- 
tude, influenced  by  the  leaders  of  the  clubs, 
gathered  in  the  champ  de  Mars  (July  17)  to  de- 
mand the  deposition  of  the  king,  but  Lafayette 
dispersed  them  after  a  brief  conflict.  The  con- 
stitution of  Sept.  8  prescribed  that  the  legis- 
lative power  should  rest  in  an  assembly  chosen 
biennially,  as  had  been  before  voted ;  and  still, 
as  before,  the  nominal  executive  authority 
remained  with  the  king,  as  did  the  suspensive 
veto.  Louis  took  the  oath  to  support  this  con- 
stitution on  Sept.  14,  and  on  the  80th  the  as- 
sembly dissolved,  after  passing  a  vote  for  the 
raising  of  100,000  men  for  the  defence  of  the 
frontiers.  Prussia  had  on  Aug.  27  joined  the 
coalition  of  powers  against  France.  The  regu- 
lation which  excluded  from  the  legislative  as- 
sembly (which  began  its  sessions  on  Oct  1) 
all  members  of  the  outgoing  constituent  assem- 
bly, and  prescribed  new  elections,  had  the  effect 
to  throw  the  leadership  of  the  new  body  into 
the  hands  of  the  more  democratic  party.  Of  the 
745  members,  the  m^ority  had  been  chosen 
through  the  influence  of  the  dubs.  Almost 
every  shade  of  democratic  opinion  was  repre- 
sented, from  the  earnest  and  bigh-ininded  re- 
publicanism of  the  leaders  of  the  party  soon 
to  become  famous  as  the  Gironde,  to  the  vio- 
lent extremes  which  found  expression  through 
men  like  Lacroix,  Chabot,  ana  Couthon.  The 
most  important  early  measures  of  the  session 
were  those  which  declared  the  emigres  guilty 
of  high  treason,  and  condenmed  the  recalci- 
trant priests  as  agitators.  Louis  vetoed  both 
these  measures,  and  thus  greatly  stimulated 
the  rapidly  increasing  opposition  to  the  royal 
power.  An  army  of  160,000  men  was  now 
(December)  raised  by  order  of  the  assembly. 


FRANCE 


38T 


Early  in  1792  the  property  of  the  emigrU  was 
confiscated.  The  Girondists  had  gained  the 
complete  leadership  of  the  assemhly ;  and  in 
March  the  king*  was  forced  to  dismiss  his 
ministers  and  to  form  a  new  ministry  from 
members  of  this  dominant  party.  Dumooriez 
held  the  portfolio  of  foreign  affairs,  and,  al- 
though the  only  member  not  a  Girondist,  was 
the  acknowledged  leader.  Urged  on  by  him 
and  by  the  assembly,  the  king  on  April  20  re- 
luctantly declared  war  against  Austria;  and 
the  long  conflict  between  France  and  the  mo- 
narchic^ powers  of  Europe  was  begun.  At 
the  news  of  the  first  defeats  of  the  French 
army,  the  greatest  popular  excitement  broke 
out  in  Paris.  •  A  series  of  decisive  measures 
was  passed  by  the  assembly  in  the  weeks  fol- 
lowing ;  the  banishment  of  the  priests  and  the 
formation  of  a  force  of  20,000  national  or  fed- 
eral guards  near  Paris,  acts  in  direct  defiance 
of  the  few  vestiges  of  royal  power  still  re- 
maining, were  the  most  important  of  these. 
The  collection  of  20,000  republican  troops  es- 
pecially, under  the  direct  influence  of  the  Ja- 
cobins (a  clnb  composed  of  the  most  violent 
agitators),  thongh  ostensibly  for  the  protection 
of  the  king  and  capital,  could  seem  nothing 
but  a  threat  to  Louis,  whose  body  guard  the 
assembly  bad  voted  to  disband.  On  June  18 
the  king  dismissed  his  ministers.  On  the  19th 
the  assembly  was  officially  informed  that  he 
had  vetoed  both  the  above  named  measures. 
On  the  20th  a  great  body  of  the  populace 
armed  with  pikes  appeared  before  the  meeting 
place  of  the  assembly,  demanded  the  abolition 
of  the  royal  veto,  forced  their  way  into  the 
hall,  read  an  address  in  which  the  king  was 
threatened  with  death,  and  afterward  marched 
with  violent  demonstrations  to  the  Tuileries, 
which  they  found  prepared  for  defence,  and 
protected  by  national  guards  with  cannon. 
K'o  force  being  employed  against  them,  how- 
ever, they  pressed  into  the  palace,  and  for  an 
hour  the  king,  the  royal  family,  and  their  ad- 
herents were  exposed  to  the  greatest  danger. 
Potion,  mayor  of  Paris,  at  last  succeeded  in 
dispersing  the  mob.  In  spite  of  all  efforts  the 
leaders  of  this  movement  were  not  punished ; 
affairs  grew  daily  graver,  both  at  home  and 
abroad*  The  assembly  now  took  more  and 
more  decisive  measures,  and  on  July  5,  after 
Vergniaud^s  famous  speech  {La  patrie  e$t  en 
danger)^  they  swept  away  the  last  remains  of 
even  formal  power  from  the  king  by  decreeing 
solemnly  *Hhe  country  in  danger,'^  declaring 
themselves  the  permanent  ruling  body,  calling 
the  people  to  arms,  and  establishing  a  kind  of 
exaggerated  martial  law  throughout  the  nation. 
By  the  Ist  of  August  all  seemed  prepared  for 
a  violent  crisis.  The  people  had  been  further 
excited  against  the  king  by  a  foolish  proclama- 
tion of  the  duke  of  Brunswick  in  his  favor,  and 
by  the  entry  of  the  Prussian  army  into  Cham- 
pagne; the  more  violent  party  had  rapidly 
gained  the  upper  hand  in  the  assembly  and  in 
Paris  among  the  populace,  where  multitudes 


of  armed  men  were  in  constant  movement, 
ready  to  "  enforce  the  will  of  the  people ;" 
their  real  leadership  was  in  the  hands  of  the 
men  who  had  established  themselves  as  the 
representatives  of  the  Paris  sections  at  the 
h6tel  de  ville,  and  who  later,  on  the  night  of 
the  10th  of  August,  laid  aside  all  pretence  of 
subjection  to  the  regularly  constituted  author- 
ities and  formed  themselves  into  an  insurrec- 
tionary commune.  (See  Oommunb  dr  Pabib, 
I.)  All  was  ripe  for  a  violent  uprising,  and 
on  the  night  of  Aug.  9-10  the  outbreak  came. 
Summoned  by  the  ringing  of  bells  and  the 
drum  roll  beaten  in  the  streets,  a  force  made 
up  of  the  more  violent  classes  of  the  populace 
and  a  comparatively  small  proportion  of  na- 
tional guards  collected  and  took  up  their  march, 
hastily  formed  into  columns,  against  the  Tui- 
leries. A  part  of  the  guard  posted  about  the 
palace  aflUiated  with  them  and  compelled  the 

Xning  of  the  gates  from  within ;  the  king 
wed  himself  to  be  persuaded  to  seek  safety 
in  flight  to  the  meeting  place  of  the  assembly ; 
the  Swiss  guard  alone  began  a  defence  which 
seemed  likely  to  be  successful.  Suddenly  they 
received  from  the  king  a  message  commanding 
them  to  cease  all  resistance  and  retire  to  their 
barracks.  They  obeyed,  and  gave  up  their 
posts.  The  assailants,  however,  now  renewed 
the  attack  with  greater  fury,  the  combat  be- 
came a  massacre,  and  four  fifths  of  the  Swiss 
were  butchered.  In  the  assembly,  where 
Louis  had  taken  refuge,  tlie  greatest  excite- 
ment meanwhile  prevailed.  At  the  proposal 
of  Yergniaud  two  acts  were  passed,  one  pro- 
viding for  the  calling  of  a  national  conven- 
tion to  assume  the  full  power  of  government, 
the  other  temporarily  suspending  the  king 
from  all  authority,  and  providing  for  his 
transfer  to  and  virtual  imprisonment  in  the 
Luxembourg;  this  destination  was  next  day 
changed  to  the  Temple,  to  which  Louis  and  the 
royal  family  were  taken  on  the  Idth.  The 
Paris  commune,  which  had  been  the  moving 
cause  and  director  of  the  acts  of  the  10th, 
was  now  at  the  real  head  of  affairs,  and  could 
force  the  assenibly  into  merely  following  its 
wishes.  Acts  of  an  even  more  violent  nature 
speedily  succeeded.  A  special  commission  was 
organized  with  power  to  arrest  and  try  all 
those  who  might  be  under  suspicion  of  op- 
posing the  "  welfare  of  the  country,"  and  those 
who  were  called  "the  conspirators  of  the  10th 
of  August "  (the  royalists  and  defenders  of  the 
Tuileries) ;  and  this  first  of  the  revolutionary 
tribunals  soon  brought  about  a  perfect  reign 
of  lawlessness.  The  priests  who  had  refused 
to  take  the  prescribed  oath  were  sought  out 
and  imprisoned;  and  under  Danton*s  lead- 
ership the  commune  exercised  unlimited  con- 
trol over  life  and  property.  In  the  mean 
time  the  news  of  the  Prussian  advance  through 
Lorraine  increased  the  excitement.  The  news 
of  the  taking  of  Verdun  produced  a  climax 
of  violence.  The  populace  committed  the  wild- 
est excesses ;  troops  of  armed  men  entered  the 


388 


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prisons  where  the  priests  and  other  snspected 

Eersons  were  confined,  and  there,  on  Sept.  2, 
egan  the  slaughter  known  as  the  Septemher 
massacres.  It  is  estimated  that  between  1,300 
and  1,600  prisoners  were  put  to  death.  In  the 
provinces  similar  though  less  important  acts 
were  committed.  On  Sept.  21  the  newly 
elected  national  convention  took  the  place  of 
the  legislative  assembly.  In  this  new  body 
the  Jacobins  and  more  violent  agitators  were 
greatly  in  the  majority,  and  their  party,  called 
"the  Mountain"  from  its  occupying  the  ele- 
vated seats  in  the  hall,  far  outnumbered  the 
Gironde,  which  now  represented  the  more 
conservative  element;  besides  these  definite 
parties,  a  large  part  of  the  convention  occu- 
pied an  indecisive  middle  ground.  On  Sept. 
25,  on  the  motion  of  Collot  d'Uerbois,  France 
was  enthusiastically  proclaimed  a  republic, 
and  the  convention  at  once  entered  upon  a 
series  of  decisive  measures  against  all  relics 
of  the  old  regime.  The  fortunes  of  the  war 
on  the  frontiers  had  meanwhile  changed ;  the 
Prussians  had  retired,  the  French  under  Du- 
mouriez  entered  Belgium,  Montesquieu  pressed 
into  Savoy,  and  the  force  under  Gustine  cap- 
tured several  important  positions  on  the  Ger- 
man frontier.  The  party  of  the  Monnt^n  and 
the  popular  leaders  took  the  credit  for  these 
successes ;  their  influence  was  greatly  increas- 
ed ;  and,  urged  on  by  them,  events  now  rap- 
idly took  the  direction,  toward  which  they  had 
long  been  tending,  of  more  violent  personal 
measures  against  the  king.  On  Dec  11  Louis 
was  brought  to  trial  on  various  charges, 
and  after  a  long  and  intensely  exciting  trial 
he  was  sentenced  to  death  on  Jan.  20,  1798, 
and  on  the  21st  was  guillotined  in  the  place 
de  la  Revolution  (now  the  place  de  la  Con- 
corde). France  was  now  speedily  involved  in 
an  almost  inextricable  confusion.  Insurrec- 
tions took  place  in  all  parts  of  the  kingdom ; 
in  the  Vendue,  from  the  beginning  the  seat  of 
formidable  royalist  uprisings,  the  most  violent 
disturbances  broke  out,  and  threats  were  made 
of  advancing  on  the  capital.  England,  by 
whose  government  the  French  amba^ador  was 
dismissed  immediately  on  the  news  of  the 
king^s  execution,  united  with  the  German  em- 
pire, Holland,  Spain,  and  Naples,  against  the 
revolutionary  government  of  France.  Paris 
itself  was  soon  under  the  rule  of  an  organized 
terrorism,  at  the  head  of  which  were  Danton, 
Marat,  Desmoulins,  and  their  associates.  A 
revolutionary  tribunal  and  a  *^  committee  of 
public  safety"  were  formed  (March  10  and 
April  6),  which  were  endowed  by  the  conven- 
tion with  what  was  in  effect  an  absolute  power 
over  persons  and  property.  The  law  securing 
to  the  members  of  the  convention  immunity 
from  personal  arrest  and  injury  was  shortly 
afterward  repealed;  undoubtedly  this  was 
brought  about  as  a  preliminary  step  to  the 
effort  soon  to  be  made  to  destroy  the  Gironde, 
between  whom  and  the  new  leaders  of  affairs 
there  existed  the  bitterest  conflict ;  a  conflict 


to  be  intensified  when  a  violent  quarrel  put  an 
end  to  a  temporary  aflSliation  which  Danton 
had  made  with  the  Girondist  leaders.  Their 
fall  was  finally  brought  about  after  a  most 
violent  debate,  during  which  several  accusa- 
tions were  brought  against  them  and  rejected, 
among  others  that  of  having  been  associated 
in  some  way  with  Dumouriez  in  his  acts.  (See 
DuHousiEz.)  Bands  of  the  anned  mob  gath- 
ered before  the  hall  of  the  convention  and  de- 
manded their  punishment,  and  on  June  2  the 
arrest  of  the  Girondist  leaders  was  decided. 
They  were  at  first  only  sentenced  to  nominal 
arrest  in  their  own  houses ;  but  it  was  not 
long  before  those  who  did  not  conceal  them- 
selves were  seized  and  imprisoned  in  the  Con- 
ciergerie.  (See  Gibondists.)  These  acts  of  the 
convention  produced  violent  disturbance  in  the 
provinces  and  in  many  of  the  large  cities  of  the 
kingdom,  great  numbers  of  the  people  taking 
the  part  of  the  Girondists  and  opposing  the 
violence  of  the  new  leaders  at  the  capital. 
But  in  Paris  the  terrorists  were  now  fully 
established  in  power,  and  proceeded  daily  to 
strengthen  their  rule  by  renewed  steps  against 
their  remaining  enemies.  The  great  m^ori- 
ty  of  the  people,  especially  in  thd  provinces, 
looked  upon  Marat  as  the  head  and  life  of  the 
terrorists ;  but  when  on  July  18  he  was  killed 
by  Charlotte  Corday,  the  error  of  this  belief 
was  seen.  The  murder,  instead  of  aiding  the 
imprisoned  Girondists,  only  furnished  their 
enemies  with  another  accusation  against  them ; 
while  the  real  leadership  of  the  party  was  now 
obviously,  where  it  had  long  actually  been, 
almost  entirely  in  the  hands  of  Robespierre, 
whom  Marat^s  death  only  left  more  at  liberty 
to  carry  out  his  own  plans.  On  Aug.  10, 1793, 
still  another  constitution,  and  this  time  a  radi- 
cally democratic  one,  was  adopted,  but  it  was 
voted  that  it  should  not  go  into  actual  effect 
until  the  end  of  the  war.  The  convention 
made  great  changes  in  the  organization  and 
leadership  of  the  army,  and  by  the  most  stren- 
uous exertions,  and  the  proclamation  of  a  letee 
en  masse^  now  brought  men  into  the  field  by 
hundreds  of  thousands.  In  the  provinces  the 
conflict  with  the  opposition  was  carried  on 
with  the  most  relentless  craelty.  In  the  Ven- 
due, among  the  royalist  inhabitants,  terrible 
slaughter  was  made.  In  Bordeaux,  Marseilles, 
and  Lyons,  which  had  resisted  the  authorities 
at  Paris,  but  had  been  subdued,  the  most  bar- 
barous massacres  were  perpetrated.  Carrier 
in  Nantes  invented  novel  horrors  (the  noyadei), 
Toulon  endeavored  to  escape  the  fate  of  these 
cities  by  surrendering  to  the  British ;  but  it  was 
recaptured  and  treated  with  the  same  cruelty. 
Similar  measures  marked  the  civil  conflict  in 
all  parts  of  the  kingdom,  the  forces  of  the  con- 
vention overrunning  and  ravaging  the  country. 
Meantime  the  war  of  the  coalition  against 
France  did  not  make  much  progress.  The 
allied  powers  were  embarrassed  by  complica- 
tions among  themselves.  Paris  itself  had  been 
fairly  given  over  to  anarchy ;  all  industry  was 


FRANCE 


389 


at  an  end,  and  the  mob  plundered  as  it  chose, 
or  was  ''supported"  hj  the  government  of 
the  commune  on  the  property  seized  from  the 
rich.  Bar^re  had  openly  declared  in  an  ad- 
dress that  "  terror  was  the  order  of  the  day." 
The  convention  passed  a  decree  (Sept  17) 
against  all  those  persons  whom  it  denned  as 
*^  suspected,"  and  a  course  of  violence  that  re- 
sembled that  of  the  old  Roman  proscriptions 
began  against  those  held  to  be  enemies  of  the 
new  regime.  The  queen,  Marie  Antoinette 
(who  had  been  a  close  prisoner  since  the 
death  of  Louis),  and  the  imprisoned  Giron- 
dists, were  among  the  first  victims.  After  a 
brief  form  of  trial  in  the  first  part  of  October, 
Marie  Antoinette  was  guillotined  on  the  16th. 
The  Girondists,  after  a  brilliant  defence,  were 
executed  Oct  81.  Several  acts  of  the  conven- 
tion strongly  marked  the  prevailing  anarchy. 
By  a  decree  of  Oct.  5  the  Gregorian  cdendar  was 
done  away  with  and  a  new  revolutionary  cal- 
endar introduced,  which,  by  a  retroactive  pro- 
vision, was  supposed  to  have  begun  Sept  22, 
1792.  Soon  i^rward  the  Christian  religion 
was  formally  abolished,  and  the  worship  of 
Reason  substituted,  through  the  influence  of 
Hubert,  Anacharsis  Clootz,  and  their  followers 
— that  party  in  the  revolutionary  commune 
which  comprised  the  most  violent  extremists, 
and  which  was  already  known  under  the  name 
of  the  H^bertists  or  enrages.  But  the  ''  men 
of  terror "  now  approached  the  first  of  those 
dissensions  which  preluded  their  fall.  Robes- 
pierre, who  was  rapidly  making  his  way  to- 
ward nearly  absolute  power,  saw  that  the  acts 
of  the  H6bertists  would  weaken  his  influence 
with  the  populace,  and  for  this  and  other  rea- 
sons he  desired  to  be  rid  of  them.  Through  his 
inflnence  they  were  arrested  and  accused  on 
varions  grounds,  and  20  of  them  were  executed 
March  24,  1794.  Danton  and  his  adherents, 
including  Camille  Desmoullns,  wjio  now  advo- 
cated clemency,  were  the  next  opponents  to  be 
cleared  from  Robespierre's  path ;  and  though 
the  conflict  was  in  this  case  harder,  his  inflnence 
was  sufficient  to  carry  it  through  successfully. 
On  March  81  the  Danton  party  were  arrest- 
ed, the  fear  of  Robespierre  forced  the  conven- 
tion to  bring  accusations  against  them,  and  on 
April  5  they  were  also  brought  to  the  guillo- 
tine, leaving  Robespierre,  with  his  companions 
St.  Just  and  Coutbon,  in  power.  Under  these 
leaders  the  order  of  aflfairs  was  again  changed. 
Robespierre  introduced  still  another  religion, 
under  the  name  of  the  worship  of  the  Supreme 
Being,  proclaiming  a  solemn  fl^te  at  its  intro- 
duction, which  was  little  more  than  a  farcical 
display  of  his  own  egotism.  The  rule  of  vio- 
lence redoubled  its  horrors  and  cruelties ;  in- 
deed, the  period  now  following  is  that  which 
is  generally  known  especially  as  the  reign  of 
terror.  The  convention  could  not  refuse  the 
most  extravagant  commands  of  the  powerful 
triumvirate;  it  was  even  obliged  to  assent 
to  a  proposal  giving  to  the  revolutionary  tri- 
bunal the  right  to  summon  before  it,  without 


question,  the  deputies  themselves.  The  terri- 
ble executions  parfowrUeB  began,  before  a  re- 
organized tribunal  that  was  to  ^^  act  more  vig- 
orously" than  the  former  one.  These  execu- 
tions were  nothing  less  than  promiscuous 
slaughters  of  all  those  against  whom  the  most 
trifling  accusation  could  be  brought  forward  or 
invented ;  60  to  70  persons,  according  to  the 
most  temperate  statements,  being  daily  brought 
to  the  guulotine.  In  Paris  alone  there  are  said 
by  good  authorities  to  have  been  1,500  execu- 
tions during  the  seven  weeks  through  which 
this  state  of  affairs  endured.  Such  a  course 
could  not  be  long  continued,  and  at  length  the 
reaction  came.  Opposition  to  Robespierre 
sprang  up  within  the  committee  of  public  safety 
itself;  and  when  on  July  26  he  demanded  its 
renewed  reorganization,  the  convention  for  the 
first  time  dared  to  refuse  him.  This  step  gave 
an  opportunity  to  his  enemies  to  turn  against 
him ;  and  in  a  single  day  his  almost  dictatorial 
power  was  gone.  On  July  27  (9th  Thermidor) 
his  arrest  was  ordered.  Paris  was  now  once 
more  in  uproar ;  a  violent  conflict  ensued  b^ 
tween  the  adherents  of  Robespierre  and  the 
troops  of  the  convention,  on  whose  side  the 
sections  and  the  national  guards  arrayed  them- 
selves. At  flrst  he  was  rescued  by  his  party, 
but  their  success  was  only  temporary.  Their 
opponents  won  in  the  end  a  complete  victory, 
and  on  July  28  Robespierre  and  a  great  num- 
ber of  the  leaders  of  the  terror  were  guil- 
lotined on  the  same  spot  where  their  victims 
had  suffered.  With  this  act  of  justice  an  end 
may  be  said  to  have  been  put  to  the  reign  of 
the  proletariat  and  the  worst  classes  of  the 
Paris  population ;  and  the  more  intelligent  cit- 
izens began  to  regain  that  share  of  influence 
of  which  they  had  been  so  long  deprived.  On 
Nov.  12  the  Jacobin  club  was  dosed.  The 
more  moderate  deputies  of  the  convention,  who 
had  fled  or  been  banished,  gradually  reappeared 
in  Paris.  Although  insurrections,  caused  part- 
ly by  the  prevailing  want  and  suffering,  partly 
by  intrigues  of  the  former  leaders  of  the  mob, 
broke  out  from  time  to  time  (especially  on  April 
1  and  May  20,  1795),  they  were  put  down, 
after  sharp  conflicts,  in  one  of  which  (May  20) 
the  convention  was  driven  from  its  hall  for  a 
time.  Under  the  influence  of  the  more  mode- 
rate opinions  that  now  again  gained  the  upper 
hand  in  the  convention,  a  new  constitution  was 
formed.  This  was  * ^  the  constitution  of  the  year 
III.,"  bearing  throughout  the  traces  of  the  re-' 
turn  of  an  intelligent  and  responsible  class  to 
the  conduct  of  public  affairs.  It  provided  for 
the  institution  of  two  legislative  bodies,  the 
council  of  500  and  the  council  of  ancients,  num- 
bering 250.  The  executive  power  was  4>laced 
in  the  hands  of  a  directory  of  five  members. 
But  a  decree  of  the  convention,  by  which  it 
prescribed  that  two  thirds  of  the  new  assem- 
bly of  500  must  be  chosen  from  the  conven- 
tion's own  members — a  measure  designed  to 
prevent  either  royalists  or  ultra  democrats  from 
controlling  the  new  body — gave  rise  to  a  new 


390 


FRANCE 


and  formidable  uprising,  in  which  parties  were 
most  singularly  divided.  The  royalists,  ho- 
ping to  seize  this  opportunity  to  regain  power 
and  prepare  the  way  for  a  restoration  of  the 
monarchy,  were  those  who  began  this  insur- 
rection and  the  conflict  against  the  convention ; 
the  middle  class  (bourgeoisie),  fearing  the  re- 
turn to  power  of  the  extreme  democrats,  joined 
the  roysdists ;  and  the  convention  had  upon  its 
side  the  army  and  the  populace  of  the  suburbs, 
the  once  ruling  proletariat.  Both  sides  pre- 
pared for  a  violent  conflict,  the  royalist  party 
having  much  the  greater  force  at  command. 
But  the  convention  placed  their  troops  under 
the  command  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  then  a 
young  general,  but  of  the  greatest  promise; 
his  skill  and  determination  gave  the  conven- 
tion a  complete  victory  (Oct  5,  the  18th 
Vend^miaire).  During  the  later  portion  of 
the  revolution,  and  while  these  events  oc- 
curred at  the  capital,  the  French  army  had 
won  some  successes  in  its  war  with  the  for- 
eign powers  in  coalition  against  it,  partly 
through  actual  victories,  partly  through  the 
mismanagement  and  jealousies  in  the  ranks  of 
its  enemies.  Th e  resul ts  of  these  successes  may 
be  briefly  summarized.  Prussia,  whose  troops 
had  been  gradually  forced  to  withdraw  across 
the  Rhine  in  1798,  had  carried  on  the  war  in  only 
a  half-hearted  fashion  during  1794,  and,  jealous 
of  Austria  and  not  in  harmony  with  the  other 
powers,  had  withdrawn  from  the  coalition  and 
made  peace  in  April,  1795.  Spain  had  con- 
cluded peace  in  July  of  the  same  year.  Bel- 
gium had  been  overrun  and  taken  possession  of 
by  the  French.  The  Austrians  had  been  forced 
back  across  the  Rhine;  the  allied  armies  of 
England  and  Holland  had  been  gradudly  pushed 
back,  and  although  during  the  last  few  months 
they  had  shown  renewed  energy  in  the  carry- 
ing on  of  the  war,  they  had  as  yet  accomplish- 
ed but  little.  Early  in  September  the  French 
army  had  crossed  the  Rhine,  near  DOsseldorf, 
and  penetrated  to  Frankfort,  while  another 
detachment  had  taken  Mannheim.  But  this 
last  body  soon  met  with  a  defeat  which  great- 
ly tended  to  turn  the  tide ;  Mannheim  was  re- 
taken and  the  army  driven  back.  In  France 
itself  the  Vendue  was  again  in  insurrection. 
Such  was  the  state  of  affairs  when,  on  Oct.  28, 
1795,  the  new  government  began,  the  conven- 
tion having  been  dissolved  on  the  26th.  (See 
DiBSOTOBY.)  But  the  condition  of  things  at 
first  grew  rapidly  worse.  England,  Russia,  and 
Austria,  in  a  new  coalition,  began  to  carry  on  a 
more  vigorous  warfare.  It  was  not  until  Car- 
not^s  plan  for  a  general  offensive  movement  of 
the  French  troops  was  put  in  operation,  that 
the  current  of  success  was  decidedly  turned  in 
favor  of  the  French.  Bonaparte  was  put  in 
command  of  the  army  which  was  now  to  ad- 
vance against  the  Austrians  from  Italy,  and  the 
account  of  the  campaign  he  there  conducted  in 
1796  and  1797,  given  at  length  in  his  biog- 
raphy (see  BoNAPABTE,  Napoleon),  will  show 
how  completely  he  changed  the  condition  of 


affairs.  (For  other  military  events  under  the 
directory,  see  Hoohe,  Joubdan,  MASsiNA,  and 
MoBEAu.)  At  the  truce  of  Leoben  (April  18, 
1797)  France  controlled  all  Italy ;  Austria  sur- 
rendered all  rights  in  Belgium  and  recognized 
those  republics  which  France  established.  The 
most  important  internal  affairs  during  this  pe- 
riod were  the  schemes  for  financial  improve- 
ment, which  came  to  but  small  results.  The 
royalist  party  had,  however,  been  gradually 
gaining  ground  throughout  the  kingdom,  and 
the  directory  was  constantly  absorbed  in  the 
endeavor  to  prevent  an  outbreak,  which,  in  the 
prevailing  condition  of  want  and  general  bank- 
ruptcy, could  not  but  put  an  end  to  its  power ; 
an  outbreak  constantly  threatening  both  from 
royalists  and  the  democratic  party  which  had 
risen  from  the  intrigues  of  the  defeated  Jaco- 
bins. The  directory  sought  to  preserve  its 
own  influence  by  using  these  parties  as  balances 
to  one  another.  In  the  elections  of  1797  the 
royalists  made  such  gains  as  to  give  them  a 
minority  in  the  councU  of  500 ;  and  this  has- 
tened the  approaching  crisis.  The  republicans 
found  their  support  chiefly  in  the  army ;  and 
with  the  aid  of  this,  Bonaparte  being  on  their 
side,  they  prepared  and  carried  out  a  decisive 
movement  On  the  night  before  Sept.  4  (18th 
Fructidor)  the  hall  of  the  council  was  sur- 
rounded by  troops  and  cannon.  The  Tuileries 
was  occupied  with  little  opposition.  The  royal- 
ist members  of  the  council  were  arrested,  and 
the  remainder  of  the  body  pronounced  a  de- 
cree of  banishment  against  them,  and  declared 
their  elections  illegal.  The  republicans  were 
again  in  power.  On  Oct.  17  a  formal  peace 
was  concluded  with  Austria  at  Oampo  Formio, 
which  confirmed  the  advantages  of  tne  truce  of 
Leoben  with  some  important  additions.  From 
this  point  the  history  of  France  becomes  so  en- 
tirely identified  for  nearly  18  years  with  that 
of  a  single  n^an,  that  we  may  refer  for  all  de- 
tails of  that  period  to  the  article  Bonapabtb, 
Napoleon,  and  confine  ourselves  in  this  place 
to  the  briefest  summary  of  events.  The  bril- 
liant victories  of  the  French  under  Bonaparte 
in  Egypt  and  their  simultaneous  defeata  on 
other  theatres  of  war  (1798-^9)  prepared  the 
way  for  those  acts  which  were  to  make  him 
the  ruler  of  the  nation.  When,  on  his  re- 
turn from  the  East,  the  young  general  over- 
threw the  vacillating  directorial  government 
with  the  two  councils,  and  foimed  a  new  con- 
stitution, his  course  was  generally  approved. 
Chosen  first  consul  for  ten  years,  Dec.  18, 
1799,  he  broke  up  the  coalition  which  had 
been  formed  against  France  by  his  victory  at 
Marengo,  June  14,  1800;  forced  Austria  and 
the  German  empire  to  conclude  the  peace  of 
Lun^ville  in  1801,  and  England  that  of  Amiens 
in  1802;  and  by  a  concordat  with  the  pope 
reestablished  Christian  worship  in  France. 
Consul  for  life,  Aug.  2,  1802,  then  hereditary 
emperor.  May  18,  1804,  he  reformed  and  re- 
organized legislation  at  home  by  the  forma- 
tion of  the  civil  code,  the  organization  of 


FRANCE 


391 


pablio  instraotion,  and  the  improyements  he 
introduced  in  all  the  branches  of  pablic  ser- 
vice ;  while  he  added  to  his  military  and  polit- 
ical glory  by  his  triumphs  at  Ansterlitz,  Jena, 
FrieSand,  Eckmtihl,  and  Wagram,  and  by  the 
treaties  of  peace  which  he  signed  at  Pres- 
burg  (1805),  Tilsit  (1807),  and  Vienna  (1809), 
with  the  great  powers  of  Europe,  sacoessive* 
ly  brought  by  England  into  coalition  against 
him.  He  had  now  reached  the  height  of  his 
power  and  glory;  he  had  placed  his  broth- 
ers on  the  thrones  of  Holland,  Westphalia, 
and  Spain,  and  his  brother-in-law  on  that  of 
Naples;  he  thus  extended  his  influence  over 
nearly  the  whole  of  western  Europe,  and  be- 
came the  most  powerftil  ruler  of  the  world. 
Bat  his  insatiate  ambition  and  arbitrary  rule 
were  incessant  causes  of  hatred  and  oppo- 
sition against  him  among  the  sovereigns  and 
the  nations  of  Europe;  they  did  not  cease 
from  efforts  for  his  overthrow.  His  power  was 
shaken  by  the  successful  resistance  which  he 
met  with  in  the  Spanish  peninsula  (1808-'ld) ; 
and  his  prestige  was  ruined  by  his  disastrous 
expedition  to  Rusda  in  1812.  The  European 
nations,  recovering  their  courage,  xmited  against 
him;  and  their  combined  exertions  inflicted 
upon  him  at  Leipsio,  Oct.  16-19,  1818,  a  blow 
from  which  he  never  recovered.  It  was  in 
vain  that  he  accomplished  wonders  during  the 
campugn  of  1814;  he  could  not  expel  his 
enemies  from  the  French  territory;  he  was 
dethroned,  and  a  prince  of  the  house  of  Bour- 
bon, the  brother  of  Louis  XVI.,  received  from 
the  conquerors  the  sceptre  of  France,  now  re- 
stricted to  her  old  limits.  The  sudden  return 
of  Napoleon  from  Elba  overthrew  this  new 
power;  and  for  100  days,  from  March  20  to 
June  28,  1815,  he  was  again  the  sovereign  of 
France;  but  the  battle  of  Waterloo  (June  18, 
1815)  destroyed  his  power  for  ever,  and  the 
Bourbons,  reinstated  by  foreign  bayonets,  once 
more  ruled  the  kingdom.  From  this  time  the 
history  of  France  can  be  again  followed  in  the 
biographies  of  her  rulers,  of  whose  reigns  we 
give  here  but  a  brief  review.  Louis  XVIII., 
the  first  monarch  under  the  restoration,  grant- 
ed a  charter  to  his  subjects,  and,  keeping  care- 
fully within  the  limits  of  that  instrument,  died 
in  1824  in  undisturbed  possession  of  his  throne, 
although,  in  compliance  with  orders  from  the 
holy  Chance,  he  had  in  1828  sent  a  French 
army  to  put  down  the  liberal  revolution  in 
Spain.  His  brother  and  successor  Charles  X., 
a  man  whose  character  inclined  him  toward  a 
lees  liberal  government,  anxious  to  take  back 
the  little  lil^rty  France  was  enjoying,  tried  to 
divert  public  attention  by  supporting  the  Greek 
insurreotion  against  Turkey  (1827-^8)  and  con- 
quering Algiers  (1830).  But  these  enterprises 
failed  to  conciliate  public  opinion,  and  when 
the  king  attempted  to  suspend  some  of  the 
most  important  guarantees  secured  by  the 
charter,  a  formidable  insurrection  broke  out, 
Jnly  27,  1830.  Charles  was  obliged  to  abdi- 
cate; and  after  a  few  days^  interval  the  head 


of  the  younger  branch  of  the  house  of  Bourbon, 
Louis  Philippe,  duke  of  Orleans,  was  appointed 
"  king  of  the  French  "  (Aug.  9)  by  the  chamber 
of  deputies.  The  choice,  being  acceptable  to  the 
middle  classes  or  hourgeouve^  was  maintained ; 
and  notwithstanding  some  occasional  outbursts 
of  republicanism  among  the  people,  the  July 
monarchy,  as  it  was  called,  lasted  for  nearly 
18  years.  At  first  Louis  Philippe  seemed  will- 
ing to  fulfil  the  expectations  of  the  liberalists, 
supported  Belgium  against  Holland,  and  seized 
upon  Ancona  to  counterbalance  the  influence 
of  the  Austrians  in  Italy.  But  by  degrees  his 
policy  was  changed;  the  government  proved 
reactionary  at  home  and  devoid  of  energy 
abroad ;  and  the  popular  favor  on  which  it 
had  relied  deserted  it.  A  political  manifesta- 
tion in  favor  of  parliamentary  reform  brought 
on  another  revolution,  Feb.  24,  1848;  and 
although  the  migority  of  the  nation  would  have 
preferred  the  continuation  of  a  constitutional 
liberal  monarchy,  the  irresistible  course  of 
events  precipitated  them  into  a  republic.  (See 
Lam AoriNE.)  The  middle  classes,  being  appa- 
rently resigned  to  their  present  fate,  professed 
to  be  ready  to  give  this  new  form  of  govern- 
ment a  fair  trial;  but  within  a  few  months 
the  mcyority  of  their  representatives  in  the 
constituent  assembly,  frightened  by  socialistio 
movements  and  a  terrible  civil  struggle  in  the 
capital  (June  28-26),  gave  strong  evidence  of 
hostility  to  it.  A  so-called  republican  consti- 
tution was  adopted,  and  on  Dec.  10, 1848,  Louis 
Napoleon  Bonaparte,  the  nephew  of  Napoleon 
I.,  was  elected  president  of  the  French  repub- 
he  for  a  term  of  four  years,  by  5,434,226  votes, 
against  about  1,450,000  given  to  Gen.  Cavai- 
gnac,  who  had  crushed  the  June  insurrection. 
(See  BoNAPABTB,  Napoleon  III.)  Internal 
dissensions,  some  signs  of  which  were  appa- 
rent, soon  estranged  the  minority  of  the  legisla- 
tive assembly,  which  succeeded  the  constituent 
in  1849,  from  the  president;  and  rumors  of 
revolution  became  rife  as  the  epoch  of  a  new 
presidential  election  approached.  The  expect- 
ed revolution  took  place,  Dec.  2,  1851 ;  by 
a  bold  stroke  of  policy  the  president  dissolved 
the  assembly,  assumed  dictatorial  powers,  and 
made  an  appeal  to  the  people,  asking  them 
to  sanction  by  their  votes  what  had  been 
done.  The  support  of  the  army  had  been 
previously  secured,  and  various  unconcerted 
attempts  at  armed  resistance  were  smothered 
by  energetic  and  bloody  measures.  The  revo- 
lutionary president,  who  alone  controlled  the 
elections,  was  chosen  for  a  term  of  ten  years 
by  7,489,216  votes;  a  new  constitution,  very 
much  like  the  consular  one  framed  by  Bona- 
parte in  1799,  was  promulgated ;  and  finally, 
on  Nov.  7,  1852,  the  senate  made  a  motion  for 
the  re^stablishment  of  the  empire ;  this  having 
been  assented  to  by  a  vote  of  7,824,129  citi- 
zens, the  empire  ift^as  proclaimed,  Dec.  2,  1852, 
and  Louis  Napoleon  ascended  the  throne  with 
the  title  of  "  Napoleon  III.,  hereditary  emperor 
of  the  French  by  the  grace  of  God  and  the 


392 


FRANCE 


wiU  of  the  people."  An  unusual  financial  and 
commercial  activity  marked  the  first  years  of 
his  reign ;  the  credit  fonder  and  the  credit 
mohilier  companies  were  established  in  Paris ; 
many  important  public  works  were  undertaken, 
and  though  speculation  was  unduly  encouraged, 
the  general  material  condition  of  the  country 
was  undoubtedly  much  improved.  On  Jan. 
29-30,  1853,  Napoleon  married  Eugenie  de 
Montijo.  The  chief  event  of  the  early  portion 
of  this  reign  was  the  Crimean  complication,  in 
w^hich,  largely  through  the  influence  of  Napo- 
leon and  his  advisers,  an  alliance  was  formed 
by  England,  France,  and  Turkey  against  the 
demands  of  Russia,  and  war  was  declared  on 
March  27,  1854.  Several  large  public  loans 
were  negotiated  in  open  market  (almost  the 
first  time  this  had  been  done  in  France),  to  pro- 
vide for  the  expenses  of  carrying  on  the  naval 
and  military  operations,  and  active  wariare 
was  almost  immediately  begun  in  the  Black 
and  Baltic  seas  and  on  the  Crimean  peninsula. 
The  conduct  of  the  war  by  the  French  govern- 
ment largely  increased  the  military  prestige 
of  the  nation,  as  well  as  the  popularity  and 
strength  of  Napoleon^s  rule,  especially  as  du- 
ring its  continuance  measures  for  enhancing  the 
domestic  prosperity  of  the  country  were  by  no 
means  neglected.  An  international  exhibition 
and  the  meeting  of  a  statistical  congress  took 
place  in  Paris  in  1855,  and  during  the  same 
year  several  personal  visits  of  European  sove- 
reigns to  the  French  capital  tended  to  give 
Napoleon  a  recognition  which  was  not  at  first 
accorded  to  him.  Two  unsuccessful  attempts 
at  the  assassination  of  the  new  emperor  were, 
however,  made  during  the  same  period.  On 
March  16,  1856,  the  prince  imperial  was  bom 
at  the  Tuileries.  On  March  30  peace  was 
concluded  with  Russia,  France  coming  out  of 
the  conflict  with  the  prestige  of  the  first  mili- 
tary power  of  Europe,  while  the  French  gov- 
ernment also  rapidly  acquired  great  diplomatic 
influence.  Napoleon  was  made  arbiter  in  sev- 
eral important  questions  between  European 
powers ;  and  he  added  to  his  influence  at  home 
by  taking  part  in  the  war  against  China  in  the 
East,  and  by  occupying  New  Caledonia.  In 
1858  another  attempt  was  made  to  assassinate 
him,  on  this  occasion  by  Orsini  and  his  fellow 
conspirators,  several  of  whom  suffered  death. 
The  affairs  of  Italy  now  began  to  occupy  atten- 
tion, and  NapoIeon^s  decision  to  interfere  in 
Italian  matters  against  the  Austrian  govern- 
ment, first  openly  intimated  in  January,  1859, 
led  to  the  declaration  of  war  against  Austria 
in  May  of  that  year.  The  conflict  which  fol- 
lowed, though  leaving  the  affairs  of  Italy  in  a 
somewhat  undecided  state,  added  to  the  French 
military  prestige,  and  the  peace  of  Villafranca, 
July  11,  1859,  which  was  confirmed  by  the 
treaty  of  ZOrich  in  November,  left  France  in  a 
position  of  even  greater  authority  than  before 
in  European  politics.  In  1860  Savoy  and  Nice 
were  ceded  to  France  by  Italy,  as  had  probably 
been  secretly  arranged  with  Victor  Emanuel 


before  the  war.  This  act  excited  among  the 
other  European  powers  the  greatest  suspicions 
of  Napoleon^B  designs,  which  were  not  allayed 
until  after  his  interview  with  several  of  the 
leading  German  princes  at  Baden  in  June,  at 
which  he  expressed  himself  satisfactorily  to 
them  as  regarded  his  further  intentions.  Du- 
ring aU  this  period  Napoleon  had  not  discon- 
tinued his  activity  in  the  East,  and  especially 
in  the  colonies.  The  war  in  China  terminated 
successfuUy  for  the  allies,  by  the  capture  of 
Peking  in  October,  1860.  Those  gradual  ag- 
gressions in  Further  India,  which  terminated 
in  1863  in  the  French  occupation  of  Cochin 
China  and  in  the  establishment  of  a  protecto- 
rate over  Cambodia  (see  Cambodia,  and  Cochin 
China),  had  also  begun.  In  1860-^61  an  ex- 
pedition was  sent  to  Syria  to  protect  the  Chris- 
tians there  from  such  violence  as  had  been 
exhibited  shortly  before  in  the  Damascus  mas- 
sacres.— ^But  while  the  French  prestige  was 
greatly  increased  in  the  East  by  these  acts  and 
successes,  the  emperor's  schemes  for  establishing 
the  Hapsburg  prince  Maximilian  on  the  throne 
of  Mexico  ended  in  so  ignominious  a  failure  as 
to  do  much  toward  undermining  the  opinion 
of  his  power  that  had  been  held  in  Europe; 
nor  could  the  course  which  European  affairs 
themselves  took  in  the  few  years  next  succeed- 
ing be  other  than  dangerous  to  the  continued 
influence  of  France.  The  rapid  aggrandizement 
of  Prussia  was  e^cially  regarded  with  a  jeal- 
ous eye  by  the  French  government,  and  Na- 
poleon in  vain  endeavored  to  prevent  by  diplo- 
matic measures  the  results  which  he  foresaw 
from  the  Schleswig-Holstein  war,  and  the  war 
of  Prussia  against  Austria  in  1866.  Among 
these  were  his  efforts  to  obtain  possession  of 
Luxemburg,  resulting  in  the  neutralization  of 
that  territory.  The  internal  affairs  of  France 
during  this  period  had  also  been  of  much  im- 
portance. The  conclusion  in  1860  of  a  com- 
mercial treaty  with  England,  strongly  in  the 
interest  of  free  trade,  had  created  a  great  ex- 
citement and  vehement  opposition  among  the 
manufacturer  and  industrial  classes  of  the 
empire,  and  led  to  much  debate  in  the  corps 
l^gislatif.  In  November  of  the  same  year  an 
imperial  decree  made  several  changes  in  the 
powers  and  rights  of  the  senate  and  legislative 
body,  which  permitted  much  greater  freedom 
in  the  interpellation  of  ministers,  and  in  criti- 
cism of  the  acts  of  the  government.  This  de- 
cree was  followed  by  several  other  somewhat 
liberal  measures,  among  them  two  which  placed 
the  vote  on  the  financial  budget  in  the  hands 
of  the  corps  l^gislatii^  and  also  conferred  on 
that  body  the  power  over  appropriations,  &c., 
which  had  before  been  settled  simply  by  an 
imperial  decree.  The  laws  concerning  the 
press  were  also  somewhat. lightened ;  but  the 
tendency  toward  a  more  liberal  government 
manifested  in  these  acts  of  the  emperor  did  not 
long  continue.  The  decrees  concerning  the 
corps  l^gislatif,  however,  permitted  the  growth 
in  that  assembly  of  an  opposition  party  which 


FRANCE 


393 


rapidlj  gained  in  nambers  and  inflaenoe,  was 
considerably  increased  at  the  next  elections 
(1863),  and  during  the  decade  between  1860 
and  1870  contributed  greatly  to  the  growth  of 
public  opinion  against  the  N'apoleonio  govern- 
ment. The  failing  fortunes  of  the  Mexican  ex- 
pedition, tlie  various  diplomatic  defeats  suffered 
by  the  emperor  in  his  European  negotiations, 
the  endeavors  of  the  government  partly  to  in- 
terfere with  the  elections  in  the  departments, 
the  unsatisfactory  management  of  the  finances, 
and  many  other  causes,  combined  to  rapidly 
increase  this  feeling,  which,  assisted  by  the 
publication  of  political  satires  and  pamphlets, 
became  every  day  more  formidable.  The  course 
which  Napoleon  pursued  during  the  Prusso- 
Austrian  war  in  1866  did  not  tend  to  restore 
confidence  in  him ;  and  the  excuses  by  which 
his  ministers  sought  to  smooth  over  the  ob- 
viously vacillating  and  feeble  policy  he' had 
pursued  during  its  continuance  and  after  its 
close,  and  the  open  rebuffs  he  had  met  with 
from  the  Prussian  government,  rather  aided 
than  checked  the  growing  opposition.  The 
year  1667,  although  the  international  exposi- 
tion (which  was  opened  in  the  spring  in  Paris 
with  great  splendor)  made  it  outwardly  appear 
a  prosperous  period  for  the  French  government, 
was  in  reality  a  time  of  sharp  political  struggles 
at  home,  and  of  complications  abroad.  In  the 
course  of  the  former  the  members  of  the  oppo- 
sition in  the  corps  l^gislatif  did  not  hesitate  to 
openly  pronounce  the  imperial  policy  of  the 
preceding  years  a  failure ;  and  the  financial  and 
nulitary  measures  of  the  emperor  met  with  but 
an  indifferent  support  from  that  body.  Among 
external  affairs  the  "Roman  question,^*  the 
problem  of  the  position  of  the  Papal  States  in 
relation  to  the  rest  of  Italy,  had  assumed  an 
aspect  which  seemed  likely  to  require  prompt 
action  if  the  imperial  policy  was  to  be  sustained. 
When  in  the  autumn  of  1867  an  Italian  uprising 
agunst  the  continuance  of  the  papal  power  in 
Rome  occurred,  under  Garibaldi's  influence 
and  leadership,  and  the  government  of  Victor 
Emanuel  manifested  the  greatest  hesitancy  in 
undertaking  an  active  interference,  Napoleon 
was  driven  to  more  energetic  measures.  An 
ultimatum  was  sent  to  Florence  on  Oct.  16,  and 
on  the  30th  a  body  of  French  troops,  brought 
from  Toulon  by  sea,  entered  Rome ;  on  Nov. 
3  they  reinforced  the  papal  troops  at  the 
battle  of  Mentana  against  the  Italian  forces, 
and  secured  the  defeat  of  the  latter;  and  no 
part  of  the  force  was  withdrawn  until  the 
pope^s  authority  was  reestablished.  Even  then 
small  garrisons  were  left  in  Rome  and  Oivit4 
Yecchia;  and,  as  much  diplomatic  negotiation 
on  the  part  of  France  with  the  other  great 
powers,  did  not  lead  to  a  settlement  of  the 
question  which  was  at  the  same  time  satisfac- 
tory to  the  government  of  Victor  Emanuel  and 
that  of  the  emperor,  these  garrisons  were  re- 
tained pending  the  decision  of  the  matter ;  and 
they  did  not  finally  leave  the  Italian  capital 
until  other  and  far  different  events  had  brought 


about  Napoleon^s  downfall,  nearly  three  years 
later.  Among  the  more  important  measures 
of  the  legislative  sessions  of  1868  were  the  new 
press  law,  which  very  slightly  increased  the 
freedom  of  the  press;  the  law  greatly  enlarging 
the  army,  and  including  provisions  for  prolong- 
ing the  term  of  service  and  arming  the  troops ; 
and  the  provision  for  a  loan,  for  military  pur- 
poses, of  429,000,000  francs.  The  growth  of 
public  opinion  against  the  emperor  and  his  min- 
isters was  most  conspicuous  duiing  this  year. 
Republican  demonstrations  were  made  both  in 
Paris  and  in  the  provinces ;  Rochefort^s  Lan- 
teme  and  many  other  publications  aided  the 
growing  sentiment ;  while  the  trials  of  several 
prominent  offenders  only  increased  the  excite- 
ment. The  legislative  session  of  the  early  part 
of  1869  was  chiefly  noteworthy  for  the  reve- 
lations made  during  its  continuance  of  the  con- 
dition of  the  finances  of  the  empire.  The  fail- 
ure of  the  credit  mohilier  revealed  the  un- 
authorized proceedings  of  Haussmann,  the  pre- 
fect of  the  Seine,  to  whom  had  been  due  the 
great  embellishment  of  the  capital  duiing  the 
ten  years  preceding— embellishments  and  im- 
provements undertaken  largely  with  a  view  of 
giving  employment  to  the  more  turbulent  por- 
tions of  the  working  people,  but  pursued  with 
reckless  extravagance,  and  with  complete  dis- 
regard of  the  rights  and  interests  of  the  poorer 
classes.  The  exposure  of  the  entirely  unau- 
thorized means  by  which  money  had  been  ob- 
tained for  these  and  other  purposes,  and  of  the 
general  confusion  prevailing  in  financial  affairs, 
created  great  excitement ;  and  it  was  only  with 
extreme  difficulty  that  the  government  carried 
its  measures  for  the  year  through  the  corps 
l^gislatif.  The  elections  in  May  resulted,  in 
spite  of  the  most  energetic  exertions  of  the 
emperor's  adherents,  in  the  return  of  a  much 
greater  proportion  of  opposition  deputies  than 
had  ever  before  been  chosen.  The  debates  in 
the  corps  l^gislatif  were  now  of  such  a  nature 
that  Napoleon  hastened  to  ward  off  a  possibly 
approaching  crisis  by  the  promise  of  speedy 
liberal  measures  and  reforms,  and  to  prevent 
further  action  by  causing  the  adjournment  of 
the  body.  The  promised  measures  were  em- 
bodied in  the  ssnatus  eonsultum  of  Sept.  6, 
1869 ;  but  the  emperor ^s  failure  to  convoke  the 
le^slature  for  its  new  session  on  the  prescribed 
day  led  to  renewed  excitement.  On  Nov.  29, 
however,  it  was  finally  opened;  and  its  first 
acts  clearly  showed  the  strength  of  the  liberal 
party.  The  appointment  (in  January,  1870)  of 
Ollivier  to  the  premiership  and  the  removal  of 
Haussmann  were  the  earlier  events  of  the  ses- 
sion. Great  excitement  was  caused,  and  popu- 
lar disturbances  were  renewed,  by  the  shooting 
of  Victor  Noir  by  Prince  Pierre  Bonaparte,  on 
Jan.  10,  and  indignation  was  greatly  increased 
by  the  acquittal  of  the  prince  in  March  follow- 
ing. The  arrest  of  Rochefort  and  the  tumults 
in  consequence ;  the  long  continued  strikes  in 
several  great  factories,  and  the  discontent  of 
the  laboring  classes ;  the  delay  of  the  emperor 


394 


FRANCE 


in  giving  immediate  force  to  several  promised 
reforms,  and  the  general  distrust  of  his  inten- 
tions, combined  to  diminish  the  at  first  nnusaal 
popularity  of  Ollivier's  ministry.  The  new 
government,  which  had  seemed  about  to  iutro- 
duce  in  France  a  constitutional  regime,  grad- 
ually lost  the  public  confidence.  In  March  the 
dratlb  of  a  new  constitution  was  submitted  to 
the  corps  l^gislatif.  While  it  confirmed  the 
measures  of  reform  already  adopted,  it  did  not 
include  the  hoped-for  provision  making  the 
ministers  responsible  to  the  legislature  instead 
of  to  the  emperor ;  and  it  conferred  upon  the 
emperor  the  right  to  ^^  appeal  to  the  people  "  to 
sustain  him  in  his  acts ;  a  provision  which  was 
generally  looked  upon  as  a  mere  cover  for  the 
continuance  of  the  old  personal  government, 
and  a  device  for  concealing  Napoleon^s  retreat 
from  his  promises  to  give  to  the  legislature 
that  power  which  it  should  have  in  a  constitu- 
tional form  of  administration.  The  new  con- 
stitution itself  was  submitted  to  the  people,  by 
this  form  of  ^*  appeal,"  instead  of  to  the  corps 
l^gislatif.  Having  been  confirmed  by  a  senattu 
consultum  (April  20),  a  pUbiseite  was  ordered 
upon  it  for  May  8.  By  the  most  strenuous  ex- 
ertions of  the  imperialists,  and  their  interfer- 
ence everywhere  with  the  elections,  the  result 
was  made  to  show  more  than  7,000,000  affirm- 
ative votes,  against  fewer  than  2,000,000  nega- 
tive and  illegal  ballots.  The  large  cities  cast  a 
great  proportion  of  the  negative  votes ;  in  the 
army  and  navy  47,000  persons  voted  "No." 
In  spite  of  this  result,  the  situation  of  internal 
affairs  was  extremely  grave;  and  it  is  not  to 
be.  doubted  that,  in  the  hope  of  warding  off 
a  more  serious  crisis,  Napoleon  rather  favored 
than  retarded  the  progress  of  those  foreign 
complications  which,  in  the  early  summer  of 
1870,  began  to  assume  a  threatening  aspect. — 
For  a  considerable  period  indefinite  rumors  of 
a  possible  alliance  between  France  and  Austria 
against  the  increasing  power  and  pretensions 
of  Prussia  had  agitated  European  diplomacy. 
Of  late  they  had  gained  in  distinctiveness.  The 
position  of  Austria  did  not  appear  decided, 
but  in  France  unmistakable  manifestations  of 
a  hostile  spiiit  on  the  part  of  the  government 
were  made;  chief  among  them,  perhaps,  was 
the  appointment  to  the  ministry  of  foreign  af- 
fairs of  the  duke  de  Gramont,  well  known  for 
his  hostility  to  Prussia.  Hardly  had  this  ap- 
pointment been  made  when  an  unexpected 
event  occurred,  which  hastened  the  rapidly 
increasing  complications,  and  furnished  what 
was  taken  by  the  French  as  an  immediate 
cause  of  war.  This  was  the  declaration  of  the 
candidature  of  the  HohenzoUem  prince  Leo- 
pold for  the  throne  of  Spain.  On  July  6  Olli- 
vier  and  Gramont  declared  in  the  corps  16gis- 
latif  that  such  a  candidature,  agreed  upon 
without  the  knowledge  of  the  French  govern- 
ment, could  not  be  permitted  by  France.  The 
greatest  excitement  against  Prussia  followed, 
both  in  the  corps  l^gislatif  and  among  the  peo- 
ple.   The  voluntary  withdrawal  of  Prince  Leo- 


pold did  not  end  the  matter.  Benedetti,  the 
French  ambassador  to  the  Prussian  court,  who 
had  before  been  instructed  to  request  the  king 
of  Prussia  to  command  Prince  Leopold^s  retire- 
ment from  the  candidature,  was  now  instructed 
to  demand  of  that  monarch  an  explicit  promise 
that  no  prince  of  HohenzoUem  should  ever 
in  the  future  be  a  candidate  for  the  Spanish 
crown.  This  demand,  especially  when  pressed 
upon  the  king  (who  was  then  at  Eras)  in  an 
unwarranted  and  even  insolent  manner,  was 
decidedly  refused  (July  13).  The  king  denied 
to  Benedetti  another  interview ;  and  the  latter 
was  recalled  by  Napoleon,  while  Prussia  imme- 
diately withdrew  her  representative  from  the 
French  court  (July  14).  Five  days  later,  and 
after  the  failure  of  the  profier  of  mediation 
made  by  England  and  also  by  the  pope,  war 
was  formally  declared  by  France  (Jidy  19). 
The  short  time  elapsing  between  the  first  pub- 
lic warnings  of  approaching  hostilities  and  this 
formal  declaration  had  been  sufiicient  to  per- 
mit popular  enthusiasm  in  both  countries  to 
rise  to  the  highest  pitch ;  but  in  the  matter  of 
actual  military  preparations  the  two  nations 
found  themselves,  as  events  proved,  in  widdy 
different  conditions.  In  France,  where  mea- 
sures for  the  increase  and  reorganization  of  the 
army  and  for  the  improvement  of  the  military 
situation  in  all  respects  had  occupied  for  sev- 
eral years  a  considerable  part  of  the  attention 
of  the  legislature,  the  preparation  for  a  possible 
war  had  been  perhaps  more  conspicuous  tlian 
in  the  North  German  confederation;  but  so 
much  less  thorough  in  many  respects  had  been 
the  carrying  out  of  the  French  military  system 
that  its  results  did  not  bear  out  the  estimates 
upon  which  both  people  and  government  re- 
lied. The  French  army  at  the  beginning  of 
1870  nominally  numbered  on  a  peace  footing 
about  400,000  men ;  it  w^as  supposed  from  the 
estimates  that  it  could  be  raised  on  a  war  foot- 
ing, and  including  the  national  guard  and  all 
branches  of  the  service,  to  nearly  twice  that 
number.  That  these  expectations,  however, 
were  based  upon  exaggerated  estimates  of  the 
numbers  as  well  as  of  the  immediate  availabil- 
ity of  the  troops  at  command,  appeared  at  the 
very  beginning  of  military  movements.  The 
number  of  troops  in  the  active  army  at  the  dis- 
position of  France  at  the  beginning  of  the  wai 
was,  according  to  the  best  military  authoritiea 
about  427,000 ;  there  were  about  87,000  regu- 
lar reserve  troops  in  addition  to  these;  and 
the  entire  force  of  men  who,  besides  all  those 
just  nanxed,  could  still  be  called  out  in  the 
most  extreme  emergency  (chiefiy  those  em* 
ployed  in  garrison  duty),  was  about  157,000. 
The  active  or  field  army,  which  it  is  alone  ne- 
cessary to  consider  at  this  time,  had  been  rap- 
idly prepared  for  war  for  several  months  be- 
fore the  declaration.  The  preparation  of  mu- 
nitions and  the  purchase  of  horses  and  pro- 
visions were  carried  on  with  great  energy 
throughout  the  months  of  May  and  June; 
while  the  organization  of  the  line  and  the  as- 


FRANCE 


395 


rignments  of  officers  to  its  divisions  and  bri- 
guiles  were  at  the  same  time  pushed  forward. 
Tet  so  defective  had  been  the  arrangements  of 
the  government  that  the  outbreak  of  hostilities 
found  the  array  in  great  part,  unprepared,  while 
the  preparations  for  their  mobilization  were  in 
the  most  incomplete  condition.  The  ^^armj 
of  the  Rhine/*  the  first  portion  of  the  active 
force  which  was  in  any  way  ready  for  service, 
was  poshed  forward  as  rapidly  as  possible  to 
the  Khenish  frontier;  but  most  of  its  muni- 
tions and  equipments,  instead  of  going  forward 
at  the  same  time,  followed  at  irregular  inter- 
vals ;  and  the  troops,  arrived  at  their  destina- 
tions, were  subject  in  consequence  to  the  most 
fatal  delays.  The  whole  strength  of  this  first 
active  ahny  that  appeared  in  the  field  did  not 
exceed,  by  the  highest  estimates,  810,000  men ; 
and  of  these  probably  not  more  than  270,000 
constituted  the  *^army  of  invasion,''  with  the 
advance  of  which  at  the  frontier  actual  hostilities 
began.  In  contrast  with  this  state  of  affairs,  the 
military  system  of  Germany  exhibited  the  great- 
est advantages.  Not  only  did  the  immediate  sup- 
port of  the  South  German  states  (upon  whose 
neutrality,  if  not  upon  their  positive  opposition 
to  Prussia,  Napoleon  had  undoubtedly  relied) 
enable  King  William  to  bring  into  the  field  an 
active  army  more  than  one  third  greater  than 
that  of  France ;  but  the  perfect  organization 
which  prevailed  especially  in  the  Prussian,  and 
in  less  degree  throughout  the  whole  German 
military  force,  enabled  him  to  do  what  was 
of  perhaps  even  more  importance,  concentrate 
immediately  on  the  frontier  a  well  disciplin- 
ed, perfectly  trained,  and  completely  prepared 
body  of  men ;  anticipating  the  movements  of 
the  enemy  by  taking  advantage  of  his  delay. 
Directly  after  the  declaration  of  war,  Germany 
found  at  its  immediate  disposition  an  active 
force  of  about  447,000  men,  ready  for  the  very 
beginning  of  hostile  operations;  and  behind 
this  were  a  first  reserve  of  188,000,  and  a  second 
reserve  of  about  225,000,  to  say  nothing  of  the 
Landwehr^  or  home  militia.  From  the  active 
force  of  447,000,  three  armies  were  formed : 
the  first,  under  Gen.  von  Steinmetz,  took  up 
it3  position  (as  the  right  wing)  near  Treves; 
the  second,  under  Prince  Frederick  Charles, 
occupied  the  Rhenish  Palatinate ;  the  third,  un- 
der the  crown  prince  of  Prussia,  assembled  on 
the  frontier  of  Baden,  from  Mannheim  to  Ras- 
tadt.  While  the  German  forces  had  assembled 
in  these  positions,  the  French  army  of  the  Rhine 
had,  after  the  delays  we  have  explained,  arranged 
itself  as  follows :  The  1st  corps,  under  Maruial 
MacMahon,  was  posted  near  Strasburg;  the  5th 
corps  (Gen.  Failly)  further  to  the  northward, 
along  the  frontier  of  the  Palatinate,  near  Bitsch ; 
in  the  centre,  the  3d  corps,  under  Bazaine,  as- 
sembled near  Metz ;  the  2d  corps  (Gen.  Fros- 
•ard)  was  pushed  forward  toward  the  Prussian 
frontier  near  8t.  Avoid ;  the  4th  corps  (Gen. 
Ladmirault)  was  near  Thionville,  on  the  left 
wing ;  reserves,  under  Bourbaki  and  Canrobert, 
were  respectively  at  Nancy  and  at  the  camp 


of  OhAlons;  the  7th  corps,  under  Gen.  F61ix 
Douay,  occupied  the  fortress  of  Belfort.  In 
these  positions  the  opposing  armies  stood  ready 
for  action  in  the  last  days  of  the  month  of  July. 
A  few  skirmishes,  of  trifiing  importance,  had 
taken  place ;  but  no  decisive  movement  had  been 
made  on  either  side.  On  the  28th  Napoleon, 
who  had  from  the  beginning  announced  his 
intention  to  lead  the  army,  left  Paris  with  the 
prince  imperial,  and  proceeded  to  Metz  to  take 
the  actud  command,  having  on  the  2dd  ap- 
pointed the  empress  regent  of  France  during 
his  absence.  On  the  day  of  his  arrival  at  Metz 
he  issued  a  proclamation  to  the  troops.  On 
July  81  King  William  left  Berlin  for  the  field, 
accompanied  by  his  chief  political  and  military 
advisers,  Bismarck  and  Moltke ;  he  also  issued 
proclamations  of  encouragement,  one  to  tho 
people  of  Germany,  the  other  to  the  army.  On 
Aug.  2  he  established  his  headquarters  tempo- 
rarily at  Mentz.  On  the  same  day  active  hos- 
tilities began  with  the  attack  by  three  French 
divisions  of  Frossard's  corps  upon  the  garrison 
of  Saarbrflck,  about  1,800  men,  who  were  speed- 
ily driven  back ;  they  retreated  across  the  Saar 
to  St.  Johann,  while  the  French  occupied  the 
heights  before  the  first  named  town.  But  the 
results  of  the  engagement  were  unimportant, 
nor  did  the  French  use  even  the  slight  advan- 
tage they  had  gained.  Immediately  afterward 
the  three  German  armies  began  an  advance, 
in  which  (as  the  general  line  of  direction  pur- 
sued tended  toward  the  line  of  the  MoseUe  and 
the  French  centre)  the  third  army  took  the 
initiative,  inasmuch  as  it,  being  the  most  south- 
erly in  position,  had  the  most  ground  to  trav- 
erse in  executing  the  contemplated  movement. 
Beginning  the  march  on  Aug.  4  from  their  po- 
sition east  of  Landau,  the  forces  of  the  crown 
prince  pressed  forward  unmolested  as  far  as 
the  neighborhood  of  Weissenburg.  Here  their 
advance  guard  was  attacked  by  the  French 
under  Gen.  Abel  Douay,  and  the  first  serious 
conflict  of  the  war  began ;  ending,  after  five 
hours  of  fighting,  with  the  retreat  of  the 
French,  who  lost  their  general,  while  the  Ger- 
mans occupied  their  abandoned  position.  On 
the  6th  they  continued  the  advance  to  Sulz. 
MacMahon,  meanwhile,  with  the  main  body  of 
his  command,  of  which  Douay's  division  had 
been  but  an  advance  guard,  took  up  his  posi- 
tion at  Worth,  and  prepared  for  battle.  On 
the  morning  of  the  6th  the  greater  part  of 
the  crown  princess  forces  had  so  far  pushed 
forward  that  the  armies  stood  opposing  one 
another,  and  the  German  advance  guard  met 
the  French  left  wing  near  GOrsdorf,  some- 
what northwest  of  the  position  of  the  centre. 
The  engagement  that  ensued  there  became 
gradually  general,  and  spread  along  the  whole 
line  of  the  opposing  armies.  Wdrth,  Elsass- 
hausen,  and  Froschweiler,  the  main  points  of 
MacMahon's  position,  were  carried  after  des- 
perate resistance,  and  the  defeat  of  the  French 
terminated,  shortly  after  four  in  the  afternoon, 
in  a  retreat,  and  finally  almost  in  a  panic,  the 


396 


FRANCE 


scattered  forces  fleeing  through  the  passes  of 
the  Vosges,  pursued  by  tbe  German  cavalry. 
The  crown  prince  at  once  continued  his  march 
toward  a  junction  with  the  other  branches  of 
the  German  army.  While  these  events  had 
happened  in  the  march  of  the  crown  princess 
forces,  the  armies  of  Steinmetz  (first  army) 
and  Prince  Frederick  Charles  (second  army) 
had  effected  their  junction,  advanced  across 
the  Saar,  occupied  Saarbrack,  and,  on  Aug.  6, 
in  the  neighborhood  of  SaarbrQck  and  Forbach, 
after  a  most  bloody  conflict  for  the  possession 
of  the  French  position  on  the  heights  of  6pi- 
chem,  hdd  won  another  complete  victory,  dri- 
ving Frossard  both  from  his  first  line  of  battle 
and  from  the  position  he  afterward  endeavored 
to  take  up  near  St.  Avoid.  The  remnants  of 
his  corps  retreated  toward  Metz,  where  Ba- 
zaine^s  corps  was  also  joined  by  Ladmirault^s 
from  Thionville,  and  by  troops  under  Bourbaki 
and  Canrobert.  The  three  German  armies 
were  now  not  long  in  effecting  their  junction 
upon  French  territory.  The  first  and  second 
carried  on  their  gradual  advance ;  while  the 
third  passed  through  the  Vosges,  taking  Ltltz- 
elstein  and  Lichtenberg  after  short  resistance, 
and  leaving  Bitsch  and  Pfalzburg  surrounded 
by  detachments  of  troops.  By  the  11th  the 
three  armies  were  together,  forming  an  almost 
unbroken  line.  The  headquarters  were  estab- 
lished in  Saarbrtlck.  By  the  14th  the  first 
German  army  had  advanced  to  the  immediate 
neighborhood  of  Metz ;  and  there,  in  the  after- 
noon of  that  day,  by  a  successful  attack  upon 
the  8d  French  corps,  which  had  been  sent  out 
to  cover  the  withdrawal  of  troops  from  the 
fortress,  baffled  the  first  attempt  of  the  French 
to  retreat  to  the  line  of  the  Mame.  The  en- 
gagement, which  took  place  near  Courcelles, 
and  gradually  assumed  larger  proportions,  end- 
ed with  the  retreat  of  the  French  troops  into 
the  fortifications,  and  secured  to  the  forces  of 
Prince  Frederick  Charles  the  necessary  time  to 
take  up  a  position  for  cutting  off  the  French 
army  concentrated  at  Metz,  which  Napoleon 
now  left  under  the  chief  command  of  Bazaine, 
from  junction  with  other  French  forces.  On 
the  evening  of  the  15th  the  8d  corps  of  Prince 
Frederick  Charles's  command  took  up  their 
march  toward  the  river,  crossed  it,  and  pressed 
northward  as  far  as  the  villages  of  Gorze  and 
Orville.  The  next  morning  the  march  was 
continued  as  far  as  the  neighborhood  of  Mars- 
la-Tour  and  Vionville.  Here  began,  about  10 
A.  M.  on  the  16th,  the  engagement  which 
proved  to  be  the  most  bloody  and  sharply 
contested  struggle  of  the  war  thus  far.  Be- 
ginning by  an  attack  by  the  Germans  upon  the 
much  superior  force  of  the  enemy  which  had 
been  encamped  at  this  point,  and  sustained 
for  hours  by  the  8d  corps  alone  until  the  10th 
corps  and  Prince  Frederick  Charles  advanced 
to  its  aid  in  the  afternoon,  the  battle  ended 
in  the  defeat  of  the  French,  though  with  an 
immense  loss  of  men  to  the  German  army. 
Bazame  now  withdrew  his  troops  to  a  con- 


siderable distance,  took  up  a  position  between 
Gravelotte  and  St.  Privat-la-Montagne,  and 
there  massed  almost  his  whole  force,  prepara- 
tory to  a  final  and  decisive  engagement.  For 
this  the  Germans  also  made  ready,  and  on  the 
18th  the  hotly  contested  battle  of  Gravelotte 
began,  ending  in  a  renewed  defeat  of  the 
French,  and  in  their  retreat  within  the  fortifi- 
cations of  Metz.  The  results  of  this  engage- 
ment were  most  important.  By  it  nearly  one 
half  of  all  the  French  troops  in  the  field  were 
effectually  shut  up  within  a  surrounded  fortress; 
while  the  Germans,  leaving  the  greater  part  of 
the  first  and  second  armies  as  a  besieging  force 
before  the  city,  were  free  to  execute  the  move- 
ment which  was  now  at  once  begun — the  ad- 
vance against  the  army  of  MacMahon,  which 
was  reorganizing  at  Ch&lons,  reinforced  by 
Failly's  corps,  a  part  of  .F^lix  Douay^s,  and 
numerous  reserves.  For  the  purpose  of  this 
and  of  further  movements,  the  organization 
of  the  German  forces  was  now  somewhat 
changed.  A  fourth  army  was  formed,  under 
command  of  the  crown  prince  of  Saxony,  from 
portions  of  the  other  armies,  and  from  the 
troops  who  had  up  to  this  time  been  engaged 
in  guarding  the  German  coasts  against  a  na- 
val attack,  which  was  hardly  to  be  any  longer 
feared.  Less  important  changes  were  idso 
made  in  the  organization  of  the  first  and  second 
armies,  and  the  forces  of  the  third  were  con- 
siderably increased.  The  advance  of  the  last 
named  body  and  of  the  army  of  the  crown 
prince  of  Saxony  was  begun  on  the  19th,  the 
very  day  after  the  battle  of  Gravelotte;  the 
king  of  Prussia  assuming  the  command  of  the 
united  force,  which  was  now  to  enter  upon 
operations  which  continued  to  the  gates  of 
Paris.  The  army  under  the  crown  prince  of 
Saxony  (army  of  the  Meuse,  as  it  came  to  be 
called)  advanced  along  the  highway  toward 
Ch&lons.  The  third  army  at  the  same  timo 
crossed  the.  Meuse  and  advanced  toward  Bar<' 
le-Duc.  Toul  had  been  previously  attacked, 
and  a  besieging  force  was  now  left  to  invest  it, 
while  the  remainder  of  the  army  continued  its 
progress.  In  its  gradual  advance  it  was  met 
by  the  news  that  MacMahon  had  withdrawn 
from  ChAlons,  and  had  taken  up  his  march  to 
Rheims,  and  beyond  it  in  the  direction  of  Be- 
thel, evidently  with  the  intention  of  relieving 
Bazaine^s  army.  In  consequence  of  this  intel- 
ligence the  German  march  was  immediately 
turned  northward,  in  order  to  intercept  the 
French  army  and  occupy  a  position  between 
it  and  Bazaine.  The  opposing  armies  rapidly 
approached  each  other,  as  the  French  pressed 
forward  from  the  neighborhood  of  Vouziers 
along  the  Meuse ;  and  after  several  minor  en- 
gagements between  detached  parties,  on  Aug. 
80  a  large  body  of  the  Germans  surprised  the 
corps  of  Gen.  Failly  in  their  camp  near  Beau- 
mont, drove  them  from  it,  and  after  both  sides 
had  been  reinforced  began  a  battle  which  re- 
sulted in  the  retreat  of  the  French  beyond  the 
Meuse  and  their  further  withdrawal  toward 


FRANCE 


397 


Sedan.  Here  MacMahon  massed  his  army  and 
prepared  for  a  more  important  conflict.  The 
emperor  Napoleon  was  now  with  this  portion 
of  his  forces.  After  the  flrst  defeats  he  had 
relinquished  the  command  of  the  armies  to  his 
marshals  (Aug.  8),  and  the  management  of 
affairs  in  the  capital  to  a  new  ministry  (Pali- 
kao^s)  under  the'  empress  regent ;  and  leaving 
Metz  immediately  after  the  hattle  of  Couroelles, 
he  had  gone  to  MacMahon  at  Gh&lons.  The 
prince  imperial  had  heen  sent  to  Belgium  when 
the  situation  had  first  become  critical.  The  op- 
posing forces  were  now  prepared  for  an  inevi- 
table and  decisive  engagement.  The  battle  of 
Sedan  was  begun  by  the  Germans  Sept.  1. 
The  troops  of  the  array  of  the  Meuse  and  the 
third  army,  by  a  series  of  manoeuvres  and  after 
severe  fighting,  drove  the  French  from  all 
sides  to  that  fortress,  where,  almost  surround- 
ed, entirely  defeated,  and  without  provisions 
or  defences  sufficient  to  endure  a  siege  even 
of  a  day,  they  were  compelled  to  capitulate. 
The  emperor  surrendered  himself  to  King 
William  in  person,  Sept.  2,  and  was  carried  a 
prisoner  to  WilhelmshOhe.  In  dead,  wounded, 
and  the  vast  number  of  prisoners  of  war,  the 
French  had  thus  lost  in  a  few  days  an  army 
of  nearly  150,000  men.  The  news  of  Sedan 
created  intense  excitement  at  Paris.  In  the 
night  of  Sept.  3-4  Jules  Favre  demanded  in 
the  corps  legislatif  the  deposition  of  the  em- 
peror and  his  dynasty ;  the  popular  indignation 
against  Napoleon  and  his  party  was  without 
bounds.  On  the  4th  the  people  filled  the 
streets  and  thronged  to  the  nail  of  the  corps 
l^gialatif  and  thence  to  the  h6tel  de  ville.  Here 
Gambetta,  in  the  midst  of  the  most  tumultuous 
applause,  proclaimed  the  republic ;  and  a  pro- 
visional government  of  national  defence  was 
at  once  formed.  This  was  under  the  presi- 
dency of  Gen.  Trochu  and  the  vice-presidency 
of  Favre,  and  included  Emmanuel  Arago, 
Gr^mienx,  Ferry,  Gambetta,  Gamier-Pag^s, 
Glais-Bizoin,  Pelletan,  Picard,  Rochefort,  and 
Simon.  In  the  evening  a  decree  of  the  new 
government  declared  the  corps  l^gislatif  dis- 
solved and  the  senate  abolbhed.  Jules  Favre 
was  placed  in  charge  of  foreign  affairs.  The 
empress  fled  from  raris  and  took  refuge  in 
England.  The  government  of  nationnd  de- 
fence issued  an  address  to  the  army;  and  a 
circular  was  sent  to  the  European  powers  ex- 
plaining the  attitude  of  France.  The  most 
energetic  measures  were  begun  for  putting 
Paris  in  a  position  for  defence.  Later  in  the 
month  Favre  had  an  interview  with  Bismarck 
at  Ferridres,  in  which  he  unsuccessfully  sought 
to  negotiate  terms  of  peace.  A  similar  pur- 
pose was  the  cause  of  a  visit  of  Thiers  to  the 
principal  European  courts.  The  elections  for 
a  national  assembly,  to  immediately  regulate 
affairs,  which  were  decreed  during  the  month 
by  the  government  of  national  defence,  were 
postpon^  from  time  to  time  on  account  of 
the  difficulty  of  communicating  with  the  coun- 
try at  large.     After  the  battle  of  Sedan  there 


was  but  little  to  impede  the  advance  of  the 
German  army  to  the  capital.  On  the  6th 
they  entered  Rheims,  and  only  minor  skir- 
mishes and  trifling  engagements  attended  their 
further  march,  until  on  the  16th  they  had 
closely  approached  Paris,  advancing  in  the 
general  form  of  a  half  circle.  A  sortie  by 
Gen.  Ducrot  on  the  19th  was  repulsed,  and  a 
few  days  later  the  actual  investment  of  the 
city  was  begun,  with  the  army  of  tlie  Meuse 
on  the  northern  and  northeastern  sides,  the 
third  army  on  the  southern  and  southeastern, 
and  bodies  of  cavalry  guarding  the  approaches 
to  the  western  front.  The  German  head- 
quarters were  established  at  Versailles.  A 
Sortion  of  the  French  government  of  national 
efence  remained  in  the  capital ;  a  portion,  in 
order  to  be  in  communication  with  the  prov- 
inces, was  established  at  Tours;  among  the 
latter  was  Gambetta,  who  exercised  the  func- 
tions of  minister  of  war  at  the  same  time  that 
he  led  in  the  government  of  the  interior,  thus 
combining  in  bis  hands  most  of  the  executive 
power  of  the  governing  body.  The  siege  of 
the  capital,  which  now  began,  will  be  found  de- 
scribed in  the  article  Pabis.  Almost  simultane- 
ous with  its  beginning  was  the  fall  of  Stras- 
burg,  which  capitulated  in  the  night  of  Sept. 
27-28.  Toul  had  surrendered  on  the  28d.  Sois- 
sons  and  Schlettstadt,  among  the  chief  plaoea 
besides  Metz  which  still  resisted,  capitulated 
respectively  on  Got.  16  and  24,  and  on  the  27th 
Metz  itself  also  yielded,  Bazaine  surrendering 
178,000  men.  (See  Mstz.)  The  chief  atten- 
tion was  now  concentrated  upon  Paris.  All  the 
attempted  sorties  of  the  besieged  proved  use- 
less, while  great  discontent  and  suffering  pre- 
vailed within  the  city.  The  members  of  the 
government  in  the  capital  had  the  greatest  dif- 
ficulty in  repressing  popular  tumults  and  dis- 
order. The  military  situation  in  the  rest  of 
France  was  of  such  a  character  as  to  give  little 
hope  of  rescue  by  those  French  troops  still  in 
the  field.  After  the  fall  of  Metz,  Prince  Fred- 
erick Charles  had  marched  the  greater  part  of 
his  command  southward,  to  engage  the  ene- 
my's "  army  of  the  Loire,"  now  increased,  in 
Sart  by  the  addition  of  small  bodies  from  the 
efeated  troops  of  other  corps,  to  about  160,- 
000  men.  This  army,  under  Gen.  Aurelle  de 
Paladines,  had  at  first  won  some  successes,  de- 
feating Gen.  von  der  Tann,  the  German  com- 
mander who  held  Orleans,  and  retaking  that  city 
(Nov.  8,  9, 10).  The  latter,  retreating,  massed 
his  troops  on  the  Eure ;  but  Aurelle  de  Pala- 
dines did  not  follow  up  his  advantage,  and 
the  Germans  soon  took  the  offensive.  Several 
minor  engagecnents  occurred,  and  now  Aurelle 
attempted  to  march  almost  his  entire  force  to- 
ward Paris ;  but  meeting  and  attacking  the 
10th  division  of  Frederick  Charles's  army,  he 
was  defeated  near  Beanne-la-Rolande  (Nov. 
28)  and  forced  to  withdraw  again  to  Orleans, 
near  which  city  he  took  up  a  position  for  bat- 
tle. A  series  of  battles  followed,  ending  with 
a  decisive  defeat  of  the  French  on  Dec.  4,  the 


398 


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Germans  capturing  the  town  and  many  prison- 
ers, while  the  remainder  of  Aurelle^s  troops  re- 
treated in  confusion.  (See  Obleans.)  From 
the  remains  of  this  defeated  force  were  now 
organized  two  new  armies,  under  Bourbaki 
and  Ghanzy.  The  Germans  made  a  corre- 
sponding division,  Frederick  Charles  leading  a 
part  of  his  command  against  Bourbaki,  who 
took  up  a  position  near  Bourges,  while  the  re- 
mainder, with  other  troops,  under  the  com- 
mand of  the  grand  duke  of  Mecklenburg,  ad- 
vanced against  Chanzj,  whom  they  defeated 
at  Beaugencj,  Dec.  8,  and  followed  in  his 
subsequent  retreat  to  Blois  (13th),  Venddme 
(16th),  and  thence  (dividing  into  two  detach- 
ments) toward  Le  Mans  and  Tours.  On  the 
81st  Chanzy  made  an  attempt  to  recover  his 
ground,  but  was  again  defeated  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  yend6me.  Still  continuing  his 
efforts  at  advance,  the  forces  of  the  enemy 
were  now  concentrated  against  him,  and  he 
was  gradually  forced  back,  in  a  long  series  of 
minor  engagements  (Jan.  6  to  11).  Finally  he 
was  overwhelmingly  defeated  and  his  army 
fairly  broken  up  and  put  to  flight,  in  severe 
combats  at  Comeille,  Ste.  Croix,  and  Le  Mans 
(Jan.  12).  With  these  German  victories  the 
war  in  this  portion  of  France  may  be  said  to 
have  ended.  In  the  north,  the  newly  organ- 
ized army  under  Gen.  Faidherbe,  seeking  to 
advance  to  the  relief  of  Paris  from  that  di- 
rection, had  been  opposed  by  the  Germans  fa 
part  of  the  first  army)  under  Gen.  Manteuffel. 
Massed  at  first  chiefly  at  Amiens  and  Rouen, 
the  French  were  defeated  at  the  former  place 
on  Nov.  27,  the  town  being  occupied  on  the 
28th ;  from  the  latter  place  they  retreated,  and 
it  was  occupied  without  resistance  on  Dec.  6. 
From  Lille  and  Arras  Faidherbe  again  tried 
to  advance  toward  Paris  by  passing  behmd 
the  Germans;  but  Manteuffel  again  checked 
him  in  an  engagement  at  Pont  Noyelles,  near 
Amiens,  Dec.  23 ;  and  when  he  again  assumed 
the  offensive,  a  few  days  later,  defeated  him 
once  more  at  Bapaume,  Jan.  2  and  8,  1871. 
Manteuffel,  transferred  to  the  south,  was  now 
succeeded  by  Von  Goeben,  who  put  an  end 
to  Faidherbe^s  fourth  attempt  by  innicting  upon 
him  an  overwhelming  defeat  at  St.  Quentin, 
Jan.  19,  leaving  his  army  completely  disor- 
ganized, and  bringing  to  a  conclusion  all  se- 
rious operations  in  this  quarter.  The  few  for- 
tresses and  cities  that  had  still  held  out  after 
the  fall  of  Metz  had  also  surrendered  one  by 
one  before  this  time  (Thionville,  Nov.  24 ;  La 
Fdre,  Nov.  27 ;  M6zi^res,  Jan.  2 ;  Rocroy,  Jan. 
6) ;  and  only  in  the  south  did  any  really  seri- 
ous opposition  to  the  German  arms  remain  in 
the  field.  Here,  where  Gen.  Cambriels  had 
been  forced  back  during  the  month  of  October, 
1870,  by  the  Germans  under  Von  Werder,  until 
he  had  retreated  to  BesauQon,  the  aspect  of 
affairs  was  somewhat  different  from  that  pre- 
sented in  the  north.  Von  Werder,  whose  force 
was  too  small  to  take  Besan^on,  had  taken 
Dyon  (Oct.  80) ;  but  Ricciotti  Garibaldi,  who 


commanded  a  body  of  French  troops,  had,  by 
successive  advantages  gained  over  outlying  de- 
tachments of  German  troops,  approached  the 
place  during  November,  and  on  the  26th  he  be- 
gan an  attack.  This  was  only  repulsed  after  a 
fierce  struggle ;  and  the  French  were  pursued, 
but  without  important  results.  On  Dec.  18  Von 
Werder  again  defeated  the  French  near  Nuits ; 
but  on  the  27th  he  was  compelled  to  abandon 
Dyon  on  account  of  the  advance  of  an  army  un- 
der Bourbaki,  who  had  left  his  position  on  the 
Loire,  and  was  marching  to  the  relief  of  the 
fortress  of  Belfort,  which  had  been  besieged 
by  the  Germans  since  Nov.  8.  Von  Werder, 
withdrawing  from  D\jon  to  Vesoul,  and  thence 
to  Villersezel  (where  he  had  a  short  engage- 
ment with  the  enemy^s  left  wing),  finally  took 
up  a  position  near  H^ricourt,  where,  with  his 
small  force,  he  awaited  the  attack  of  Bourbaki^s 
army  of  160,000.  In  a  three  days^  fight  which 
followed  (Jan.  15-17,  1871)  he  so  completely 
repulsed  it  that  the  French  were  finally  driven 
into  full  retreat.  The  approach  of  the  army 
of  Manteuffel  at  almost  the  same  time  com- 
pelled the  French  troops  to  abandon  D\1on. 
The  retreating  army  of  Bourbaki  (who  nad 
now  been  succeeded  by  Clinchant)  did  not  again 
assume  the  offensive;  but,  slowly  pressed  to- 
ward the  southeastward  by  the  advancing  Ger- 
mans, who  had  several  conflicts  with  its  rear 
guard,  it  finally  ended  its  share  in  the  war 
by  retreating  over  the  Swiss  frontier  on  Feb. 
1,  thus  finely  withdrawing  from  the  field. 
In  the  mean  time  the  situation  of  Paris  had 
become  hopeless;  and  on  Jan.  28  arrange- 
ments for  its  capitulation  had  been  con- 
cluded between  Jules  Favre  and  Bismarck  by 
the  convention  of  Versailles,  which  also  pro- 
vided for  a  general  armistice  of  three  weeks 
(afterward  extended  to  March  18),  during 
which  there  should  be  general  elections  fur  a 
national  assembly  to  decide  ujpon  the  question 
of  further  war  or  peace.  By  the  terms  of 
the  convention,  the  Germans  took  possession 
of  the  forts,  the  army  of  Paris  were  declared 
prisoners  of  war  (except  the  national  guard 
and  a  division  of  12,000  others),  and  the  seat 
of  war  in  the  southeast  (near  Belfort)  was 
expressly  excepted  from  titie  armistice.  The 
elections,  after  a  violent  discussion  among  the 
members  of  the  government  of  defence  as  to 
the  course  to  be  pursued,  took  place  on  Feb. 
8,  and  resulted  in  the  choice  to  the  assembly  of 
a  minority  of  legitimist  and  Orleanist  mem- 
bers, as  opposed  to  republicans,  and  in  placing 
its  control  in  the  hands  of  the  more  conserva- 
tive or  prudent  party  as  regarded  the  concla- 
sion  of  peace.  The  first  sitting  of  the  new 
body  was  held  in  Bordeaux  on  the  12th,  and 
on  the  following  day  the  government  of  na- 
tional defence  formally  gave  up  to  it  their 
powers.  On  the  17th  Thiera  was  chosen  chief 
of  the  executive  of  the  republic.  On  the 
19th  he  delivered  an  address  to  the  assem- 
bly, urging  upon  it  the  duty  of  immediate- 
ly making  peace  and  endeavoring  to  restore 


FRANCE 


399 


the  prosperity  and  credit  of  the  country ;  and 
CD  the  same  day  he  nominated  the  following 
ministers,  who  were  confirmed :  foreign  af- 
fairs, Favre;  justice,  Dufaure;  interior.  Pi- 
card  ;  instmction,  Jules  Simon ;  public  works, 
De  Larcy;  commerce,  Lambrecht;  war,  Le- 
(16;  marine,  Admiral  Pothuau.  To  this  list 
Pouyet-Quertier  was  added  as  minister  of 
finance,  Feb.  24.  A  commission,  the  active 
members  of  which  were  Thiers,  Favre,  and 
Picard,  was  appointed  to  negotiate  with  the 
Germans.  They  arrived  at  Paris  Feb.  21,  to- 
gether with  a  supervising  committee  of  15 
members  of  the  assembly;  and  on  the  26th 
the  preliminary  treaty  of  peace  was  signed  at 
Versailles.  It  contained  the  following  provi- 
sions: France  ceded  to  Germany  the  greater 
part  of  Alsace  and  Lorraine  (see  Alsaoe-Lob- 
baine);  it  agreed  to  pay  as  war  indemnity 
five  milliards  of  francs,  one  milliard  during 
1871,  the  remainder  within  the  next  three 
years ;  the  German  troops  should  be  gradually 
withdrawn  from  French  soil  as  the  indemnity 
was  paid,  so  that  the  last  force  should  leave  it 
with  the  last  payment ;  the  indemnity  should 
carry  an  interest  of  5  per  cent,  till  paid ;  the 
French  troops  should  withdraw  and  remain 
beyond  the  Loire  until  the  conclusion  of  a  final 
treaty  of  peace  (except  garrisons  for  Paris  and 
the  other  fortified  towns) ;  the  inhabitants  of 
Alsace  and  Lorraine  should  ei\joy  for  a  certain 
period  (afterward  fixed  at  six  months)  certain 
privileges  in  respect  to  trade ;  the  negotiations 
for  a  definitive  treaty  of  peace  should  begin  at 
once  at  Brussels.  These  conditions  were  ac- 
cepted and  the  preliminary  treaty  confirmed  by 
the  assembly  March  1,  by  a  vote  of  646  to  107. 
In  the  same  session  the  deposition  of  Napo- 
leon and  his  dynasty  was  formally  declared. 
A  special  stipulation,  also  accepted  with  the 
treaty,  had  provided  for  the  entry  of  the  Ger- 
man troops  into  a  part  of  Paris,  which,  how- 
ever, they  were  immediately  to  evacuate  on 
the  acceptance  of  the  full  treaty  by  the  as- 
sembly. This  triumphal  entry  took  place  on 
March  1  and  2.  On  the  8d,  the  news  of  the 
acceptance  being  received,  the  Germans  again 
withdrew.  The  arrangements  for  the  negotia- 
tion of  final  peace  were  now  complete.  On 
the  12th  Versailles  was  evacuated  also,  and 
the  assembly  at  once  transferred  its  seat  from 
Bordeaux  to  that  city.  But  Paris  had  not  yet 
ended  its  suffering.  The  withdrawal  of  the 
enemy  was  almost  immediately  followed  by  the 
uprising  of  the  populace  and  the  rule  of  the 
commune ;  and  for  nearly  two  months  the  un- 
fortunate capital  endured  a  second  and  even 
more  terrible  siege  at  the  hands  of  the  French 
themselves.  (See  Commune  de  Pabis,  II.) 
Only  at  the  end  of  May  was  order  restored, 
and  the  whole  country  in  a  condition  of  ac- 
tual peace.  The  definitive  treaty  with  Ger- 
many, the  conditions  of  which  were  substan- 
tially the  same  as  those  agree<l  on  at  Versailles, 
had  been  signed  at  Frankfort  on  the  10th  of 
May. — ^The  first  measures  taken  by  the  assem- 
883  VOL.  VII.— 26 


bly  after  the  conclusion  of  the  war  (besides 
the  negotiation  of  a  most  successful  loan  of 
2,500,000,000  francs)  tended  naturally  toward 
the  more  permanent  constitution  of  the  gov- 
ernment. The  only  matter  bearing  upon  this 
hitherto  decided  had  been  the  law  providing 
for  more  liberal  measures  in  the  communal 
and  municipal  governments  and  elections, 
which  was  passed  by  the  assembly  on  April 
14.  The  legitimist  and  Orleanist  parties  in 
the  assembly  at  once  became  conspicuous  in 
the  discussion.  On  June  8  the  proscription  of 
the  Bourbon  and  Orleans  princes,  which  had 
been  in  force  respectively  since  1830  and  1848, 
was  revoked  ;  and  on  Dec.  19,  after  a  stipula- 
ted delay  for  confirmation,  the  latter  took  the 
seats  in  the  assembly  to  which  they  had  been 
elected.  The  count  de  Ohambord,  the  Bour- 
bon claimant  of  the  throne,  though  he  at  first 
returned  to  France,  soon  after  issued  a  procla- 
mation declaring  that  he  could  resign  none  of 
his  claims,  and  would  not  abandon  the  white 
fiag  of  the  Bourbons ;  and  this  done,  he  re- 
turned to  his  residence  at  Frohsdorf.  It  soon 
became  evident  that  for  the  time  being,  at 
least,  no  other  form  of  government  than  the 
republic  could  be  adopted.  The  elections  held 
July  2  to  fill  vacancies  in  the  assembly  resulted 
in  the  great  m^ority  of  cases  in  the  choice  of 
republican  members ;  and  the  tendency  of  even 
conservative  opinion  was  also  in  this  direction. 
On  Aug.  12  the  members  of  the  left  centre  in- 
troduced into  the  assembly  a  bill  prolonging 
the  presidency  of  Thiers  for  three  years,  con- 
ferring upon  him  the  official  title  of  ^*  president 
of  the  French  republic,"  and  providing  for  the 
appointment  by  him  of  a  ministry  responsible, 
like  himself,  to  the  assembly.  The  bill  also 
secured  to  the  assembly  the  constituent  power, 
thus  enabling  it  to  undertake  subsequently  the 
discussions  of  plans  for  the  permanent  consti- 
tution of  France.  After  a  violent  debate,  this 
proposition  passed  on  the  81st.  On  Oct.  12  a 
supplementary  treaty  with  Germany  was  signed 
at  Berlin,  providing  for  some  details,  and  ma- 
king some  few  changes  in  regard  to  the  ceded 
territory.  At  the  beginning  of  1872  the  dis- 
cussions as  to  a  permanent  form  of  government 
were  renewed.  Supplementary  elections  held 
on  Jan.  7  resulted  in  the  choice  of  four  radi- 
cals, nine  moderate  republicans,  and  four  con- 
servatives. The  conservatives  now  held  the 
ascendancy  in  the  assembly,  and  the  advocates 
of  a  monarchical  government  for  a  time  seemed 
likely  to  develop  sufficient  strength  to  carry 
through  their  plans.  Toward  the  end  of  Jan- 
uary the  count  de  Ghambord  published  another 
manifesto,  in  which  he  again  asserted  his  right 
to  the  throne.  But  neither  party  was  strong 
enough  to  insist  upon  any  decided  measures ; 
and  the  only  really  effective  legislative  action 
was  that  referring  to  the  material  affairs  of 
France.  In  January  a  tariff  bill  was  s\ibmitted 
to  the  assembly  by  Pouyer-Quertier,  imposing 
many  new  duties  and  taxes  on  raw  materials, 
which  provoked  great  opposition  both  through- 


400 


FRANCE 


out  the  country  and  in  the  legislature.    Presi- 
dent Thiers  vigorously  supported  the  bill ;  and 
when,  on  Jan.  19,  the  assembly  rejected  it,  he 
sent  in  his  resignation  (Jan.  20).  This  the  assem- 
bly almost  unanimously  begged  him  to  retract ; 
and  he  finally  consented  to  continue  in  office, 
as  did  also  the  ministers,  who  had  resigned 
with  him.     On  Feb.  2  the  assembly  passed  a 
bill  authorizing  the  government  to  inform  Eng- 
land and  Belgium  of  the  termination  of  the 
commercial  treaties  existing  with  those  nations. 
On  March  7  the  payment  of  two  milliards  of 
the  war  indemnity  was  formally  completed  at 
Strasburg ;  and,  in  accordance  with  the  terms 
of  the  treaty,  the  Grerman  troops  at  once  evac- 
uated a  large  portion  of  the  occupied  territory. 
After  a  long  debate,  the  army  bill  proposed  by 
the  government,  providing  for  the  enforcement 
of  compulsory  service,  fixing  the  term  of  service 
at  five  years,  and  making  other  provisions,  was 
adopted  on  June  22.     On  Aug.  20  the  sessions 
of  the  general  councils  of  the  French  depart- 
ments began ;  and  their  proceedings,  though 
of  course  principally  devoted  to  the  discussion 
of  departmental  affairs,  gave  incidentally  addi- 
tional evidences  of  the  strength  of  republican 
sentiment  and  the  improbability  of  success  for 
the  monarchists.    This  evidence  was  strongly 
confirmed  by  the  results  of  the  supplementuy 
elections  held  on  Oct.  2 1 .    The  assembly  never- 
theless, on  reconvening  after  a  recess  from 
Aug.  4  to  Nov.  11,  showed  a  strongly  conserva- 
tive tendency,  and  monarchical  projects  again 
became  conspicuous  in  political  discussions,  but 
without  result    A  fusion  of  the  right  and  right 
centre  added  to  the  conservative  strength.    On 
Nov.  18  an  exciting  debate  took  place  as  to 
whether  the  government  had  sufficiently  en- 
deavored to  suppress  the  radical  movements 
in  the  provinces,  especially  the  demonstrations 
excited  by  Gambetta.    Thiers  defended  his  ac- 
tion and  demanded  a  vote  of  confidence ;  but 
the  unsatisfactory  manner  in  which  this  was  car- 
ried gave  rise  to  a  new  disagreement  between 
the  president  and  assembly.    This  was  greatly 
increased  by  the  report  (Nov.  26)  of  a  com- 
mittee appointed  to  draft  an  address  in  reply 
to  the  president's  message,  in  which  that  docu- 
ment was  sharply  criticised.      Thiers  again 
threatened  resignation,  but  the  matter  was 
compromised  by  the  adoption  (Nov.  29)  of  a 
proposition  for  the  appointment  of  a  commit- 
tee of  80,  who  should  prepare  a  bill  strictly 
defining  the  relations  of  the  executive  and  the 
legislature  to  one  another,  and  otherwise  regu- 
lating the  responsibility  of  different  branches 
of  the  government.    This  committee  was  cho- 
sen on  Dec.  5.    On  the  10th  a  manifesto  was 
published  by  members  of  the  left  (including 
Gambetta,  Cr^mieux,  and  other  leaders),  de- 
manding the  dissolution  of  the  national  assem- 
bly, as  the  means  of  diverting  the  evils  threat- 
ened by  the  confiicts  of  party  in  the  existing 
body,  and  the  election  of  a  new  legislature. 
Petitions  to  the  same  effect,  received  from  the 
departments,  were  rejected  by  the  assembly 


on  the  14th.    On  the  19th  the  assembly  reject- 
ed a  motion  for  the  abolition  of  duties  on 
raw  material.    The  beginning  of  1878  put  an 
end  to  many  of  the  plans  of  the  Bonapartist 
party,  which  had  been  the  weakest  of  the  con- 
tending factions  in  the  assembly  and  the  coun- 
try; for  on  Jan.  9  the  ex-emperor  Napoleon 
died  at  Chiselhurst,  England.      Immediately 
after,  there  began  at  Yersaillefl  the  prolonged 
discussion  and  negotiation  excited  by  the  re- 
port of  the  committee  of  80  on  the  presidenrs 
powers  and  the  powers  of  the  assembly.    Be- 
ginning with  the  proposition  to  permit  the 
president  only  to  address  the  assembly  on  cer- 
tain specified  occasions,  and  otherwise  restrict- 
ing his  privileges,  the  constitutional  project  of 
the  committee  was  several  times  modified  on 
account  of  Thiers's  disagreement  with  it.    Da- 
ring the  long  debates  concerning  it  Thiers  sev- 
eral times  made  threats  of  tendering  his  resig- 
nation.   On  March  18  the  committee's  report 
was  finally  adopted  by  the  assembly  in  a  modi- 
fied form.     On  the  15th  a  new  agreement  with 
the  Germans  regarding  the  remainder  of  the 
indemnity  was  signed,  providing  for  the  pay- 
ment of  the  whole  during  the  year  1873,  and 
the  withdrawal  of  the  German  troops  during 
the  same  period.    A  bill  for  the  exile  of  the 
Bonaparte  family  was  passed  March  29.     On 
April  27  supplementary  elections  were  again 
held,  resulting  in  the  choice  of  several  prominent 
radicals.    During  the  month  of  May  President 
Thiers  made  a  number  of  changes  in  the  min- 
istry, which,  as  they  were  not  accepted  as  suf- 
ficiently conservative  by  the  members  of  the 
right,  placed  him  again  in  sharp  opposition  to 
that  portion  of  the  assembly,  and  precipitated 
the  decisive  conflict  which  had  so  long  been 
threatening  between  the  executive  and  the 
msgority  of  the  legislature.    Thiers  himself 
brought  about  the  crisis  by  urging  in  an  address 
to  the  assembly  on  May  24  the  definitive  estab- 
lishment of  the  republic.     This  definition  of 
his  policy  and  that  of  the  new  ministry  had 
indeed  been  forced  upon  him  by  an  interpella- 
tion presented  by  the  right,  witli  the  evident 
intention  of  compelling  a  vote  upon  his  expla- 
nation, which  should  be  decisive  in  regard  to 
the  continuance  of  himself  and  the  ministry  in 
power.     Accordingly,  no  sooner  had  the  presi- 
dent ended  his  address  than  the  right  present- 
ed an  order  of  the  day  refusing  to  consider  the 
form  of  government  as  under  discussion,  and 
regretting  that  the  new  ministry  did  not  afford 
sufficient  guarantees  of  a  conservative  policy. 
This,  which  was  equivalent  to  a  vote  or  want 
of  confidence,  was  passed  by  the  close  vote  of 
860  to  844.    Thiers  and  the  ministry  at  once 
sent  in  their  resignations,  which  were  accepted; 
and  Marshal  MacMahon  was  in  the  same  sitting 
chosen  president  of  the  republic.    The  impor- 
tant events  of  MacMahon's  administration  have 
thus  far  been  comparatively  few.    For  a  time 
after  his  election,  and  especially  during  the 
summer,  there  seemed  a  probability  that  the 
efforts  of  tlie  legitimists  to  restore  a  monarchy 


FRANCE 


FRANCE  (Language,  &a)        401 


nnder  the  count  de  Chambord  (in  whose  favor 
tlie  Orleanist  branch  of  the  Bourbons  had 
agreed  to  yield  their  claim)  might  be  success- 
ful. Many  monarchists  were  appointed  to 
office ;  the  party  daily  gained  in  apparent  in- 
fluence ;  the  celebration  of  the  anniversary  of 
the  declaration  of  the  republic  on  Sept.  4  was 
forbidden;  and  the  hopes  of  the  legitimists 
appeared  to  be  on  the  point  of  fulfilment,  when 
they  were  suddenly  brought  to  an  end  by  the 
letter  of  the  count  de  Chambord  to  M.  de 
Chesnelong  on  Oct.  30,  in  which  he  distinctly 
refused  to  make  the  concessions  that  were  ne- 
cessary to  the  acceptance  by  the  assembly  of  a 
monarchy  under  his  rule,  and  declared  his  de- 
termined adherence  to  the  white  flag  of  the 
Bourbons.  After  the  recess  of  the  assembly 
from  July  27  to  Nov.  5,  the  opening  message 
of  President  MacMahon  called  for  action  to 
secure  some  degree  of  permanence  and  stability 
to  the  government.  The  right  demanded  that 
the  executive  power ^e  conferred  on  MacMa- 
hon  for  a  term  of  ten  years.  By  a  compromise 
this  was  lessened;  and  in  the  night  of  the 
19th-20th  a  law  was  passed  making  his  term 
seven  years.  One  of  the  most  importont  events 
subsequent  to  this  was  the  conclusion  of  the 
long  trial  of  Marshal  Bazaine,  by  a  court  mar- 
^1  of  which  the  duke  d^Aumale  was  presi- 
dent, on  a  charge  of  treason  in  surrendering 
his  army  and  the  fortress  of  Metz  without  suffi- 
cient cause.  On  Deo.  10  he  was  found  guilty 
and  sentenced  to  death ;  which  sentence  was 
commuted  by  President  MacMahon  to  20  years^ 
seclusion,  after  degradation  from  his  rank.  The 
payment  of  the  last  instalment  of  the  war  in- 
demnity had  taken  place  on  Sept.  5,  and  by 
the  16th  France  was  free  from  foreign  occu- 
pation. During  the  period  since  the  war  her 
material  prosperity  has  been  restored  with  re- 
markable rapidity;  new  commercial  treaties 
with  Great  Britain  and  Belgium  were  approved 
in  July,  1878 ;  and  French  industries  and  trade 
have  again  reached  an  entirely  normal  condi- 
tion. But  the  political  situation  continued  to 
be  unsettled  in  the  early  part  of  1874,  owing 
to  the  systematic  agitation  of  monarchists 
against  the  republican  institutions  of  the  coun- 
try, to  which  new  elections  in  various  depart- 
ments have  given  repeated  sanction.  On  March 
16,  the  18th  birthday  of  the  prince  imperial, 
the  Bonapartists  celebrated  his  m^ority  at 
Chiselhnrst,  hailing  him  as  Napoleon  IV. ;  to 
which  he  replied  in  a  set  speech,  appealing  to 
the  decision  of  a  new  pUhiseite.  Foreign  rela- 
tions also  continued  complicated ;  the  German 
empire  proposed  increased  armaments,  avowed- 
ly from  fear  of  French  retaliation,  and  emphati- 
cally evinced  its  determination  to  wield  a  para- 
mount influence  in  Italinn  and  eastern  affairs. 
The  cabinet  of  the  duke  de  Broglie  resigned 
May  16,  in  consequence  of  the  defeat  of  the 
electoral  bill,  and  was  succeeded  on  the  22d  by 
one  under  Gen.  de  Cissey  as  minister  of  war, 
composed  of  anti-republicans,  and  with  little 
prospect  of  stability.    (See  MaoMahon.) 


FRANCE,  Isle  of.    See  MAUKirrcs. 

FRANCE,  Langaage   and  literature  of.     The 

French  is  the  most  important  of  the  six  Ro- 
manic languages  produced  from  Latin  by  the 
influence  of  other  tongues.  The  Italian,  the 
Roumanic  or  Wallachian,  the  Provencal,  Span- 
ish, and  Portuguese  are  its  sisters.  The  BelgSB 
of  Gaul  probably  spoke  Celto-Teutonic,  the 
Aquitani  Celto-Iberic,  while  the  Celts  or  Galli 
proper  occupied  the  centre  of  the  country,  and 
at  the  same  time  Greek  colonies  held  points  on 
the  Mediterranean  sea.  The  language  of  Rome 
overwhelmed  all  these  idioms.  The  Gallic, 
however,  was  yet  spoken  in  the  8d  century; 
Celticism  was  perceptible  in  the  lingua  rustiea^ 
or  degenerate  Latin,  at  the  close  of  the  5th 
century ;  and  the  ancient  vernaculars  continued 
to  exist  afterward.  The  ru8tiea  extended  from 
the  Rhine  to  the  Pyrenees  in  the  4th  century. 
The  corruption  of  the  Latin  was  similar  in  all 
countries  from  the  Danube  to  the  mouth  of  the 
Tagus,  and  the  above  mentioned  languages  dif- 
fer only  in  consequence  of  the  various  barba- 
rous tongues  that  have  acted  upon  them. 
Since  the  Suevi,  Visigoths,  Burgundiana^ 
Franks,  &o.,  made  no  efforts  to  destroy  the 
languages  of  the  inhabitants  of  Gaul,  compara- 
tively few  words  of  theirs  survived  in  the  lin- 
gua rustica.  Many  Celtic  elements  had  com^ 
bined  with  the  Latin  even  before  Cassar,  and 
some  were  introduced  afterward ;  but  it  is  dif- 
ficult to  distinguish  them  from  the  Latin  stock 
on  account  of  their  common  origin  from  the 
storehouse  of  the  Indo-European  family  of  lan- 
guages. The  Latin  jargon,  tainted  by  Ger^ 
manic  ingredients,  is  called  lingua  Romana^ 
and  also  Gallica  or  Gallicana.  It  coexisted 
for  some  time  with  the  FrenkUika  {Franei^cay 
Franeica),  or  Theotisca  or  Tudesque ;  and  al- 
though it  continued  to  exist  with  more  vigor 
than  the  last  named,  it  was  eventually  called 
lingua  Franco- Oalliea^  or  rather  Franeo-Ba^- 
mana^  langue  franpoise.  While  the  Frankish 
prevailed  in  the  north  and  east  of  the  country, 
the  rustiea  or  Romana  was  spoken  south  of 
the  Loire,  although  also  used  in  the  Frankish 
regions.  The  council  of  Tours  (818)  recom- 
mended the  use  of  both  the  rustic  and  Tudeso 
versions  of  the  homilies.  The  Latin  grammati^ 
cal  sufSxes  were  gradually  dropped,  and  the 
accusative  case  was  in  general  taken  as  the 
new  word.  Auxiliary  verbs  were  successively 
introduced  from  the  Teutonic  idioms,  the  case 
endings  were  supplied  by  prepositions,  the 
personal  endings  of  verbs  by  pronouns,  or  both 
by  the  fragments  of  ancient  endings  and  by 
pronouns  before  the  verb.  In  the  10th  cen- 
tury the  Latin  ille^  iste  were  converted  into 
the  article  le  and  the  pronouns  il  and  eet  (e«), 
the  latter  being  pronounced  st.  According  to 
Raynouard's  hypothesis,  the  lingua  Romana 
was  separated  into  two  dialects.  The  Visigoths 
and  Burgundians  S.  of  the  Loire  said  oe  (Latin 
ac^  German  auch^  also)  for  ye8^  for  which  the 
Franks  and  Normans  (who  established  them- 
selves in  France  in  912)  along  the  Seine  used 


402 


FRANCE  (Language  and  Litebatube) 


oil;  hence  the  southern  or  Provencal  dialect 
was  named  la  langue  d'oe,  and  the  northern 
(Roman- Wallonio)  la  langue  cToiL  After  879 
the  focas  of  the  former  was  at  the  court  of  the 
kings  of  Aries,  and  in  927  the  chief  point  of  the 
latter  was  at  the  court  of  the  duke  of  Normandy. 
Less  troubled  by  wars  and  more  thoroughly 
Romanized,  the  south  produced  distinguished 
troubadours  during  two  centuries,  while  the 
north  had,  somewhat  later,  its  trowo^res,  both 
named  from  trovare^  to  find :  finders  of  songs, 
poets.  From  the  beginning  of  the  crusades  to 
the  death  of  St.  Louis  (1095-1270)  the  two  dia- 
lects approached  toward  a  fusion.  The  vulgar 
language  was  employed  in  the  crusades  in 
rousing  the  populace,  whose  war  cry  was, 
J)iex  el  volt  (God  wills  it).  A  few  fragments 
of  the  Bible  date  before  1100;  but  popular 
heroic  and  religious  songs  appear  to  have  been 
composed  and  recited  by  the  jongleurs  (Joeula- 
tores)^  The  development  of  chivalric  poetry  in 
Provence  was  checked  by  the  persecution  of 
the  Albigenses;  the  language  of  the  trouba- 
dours was  proscribed,  and,  together  with  the 
political  rule  of  the  north,  the  idiom  of  Picardy 
(a  branch  of  the  langue  d^oil)  extended  toward 
the  south.  The  real  French  language  began  to 
be  developed  about  the  time  of  the  conquest  of 
Constantinople  by  the  French  crusaders,  at  the 
beginning  of  the  13th  century.  Already  be- 
fore the  conquest  of  England  by  William  (1066) 
English  youths  were  sent  to  be  educated  in 
France ;  but  the  conquest  made  the  Norman- 
French  the  official  and  court  language  in  Eng- 
land. Froissart^s  "Chronicles"  (14th  cen- 
tury) is  the  first  work  in  genuine  French. 
Francis  L  substituted  the  language  for  Latin  in 
public  transactions.  Rabelais  greatly  enriched 
it ;  Ronsard  and  Du  Bellay,  Amyot  and  Mon- 
taigne, and  others,  developed  it  further.  The 
religious  reform,  political  troubles,  the  influ- 
ence of  the  Italian  wars  and  queens,  modified 
k  greatly.  The  introduction  of  Arabic  words 
16  chiefly  due  to  the  crusades,  and  that  of  Greek 
uid  Latin  words  and  of  scientific  terms  to  the 
study  of  those  languages  and  to  the  cultivation 
of  the  natural  sciences.  The  aeademie  fran- 
faisSy  established  by  Richelieu  for  the  regula- 
tion of  the  national  language  (1685),  the  influ- 
ence of  the  court,  the  labors  of  the  Port-Royal- 
ists, especially  Pascal  (1656),  and  a  galaxy  of 
great  writers,  purified,  augmented,  and  diflTused 
it  more  and  more.  It  was  first  used  as  a  diplo- 
matic language  at  the  conferences  of  Nime- 
guen  (1678). — The  French  is  certainly  a  very 
clear  tongue,  on  account  of  the  strictly  logical 
order  of  its  syntax,  but  very  monotonous,  and 
incapable  of  the  composition  of  words  already 
fixed,  as  well  as  of  bold  poetic  turns.  The 
French  language,  in  short,  is,  like  every  other, 
the  exponent  of  the  nationality,  vicissitudes, 
intelligence,  culture,  and  taste  of  the  people 
that  speak  it.  It  is  written  witli  the  same  let- 
ters as  the  English.  K  and  W  occur  only  in 
Breton,  Norman,  and  Flemish  names  incorpo- 
rated into  French,  and  in  other  foreign  words. 


There  are  12  distinct  vowels  as  regards  their 
quantity;  they  are  represented  by  six  letters 
called  vowels,  or  by  their  combination,  and  by 
the  help  of  m,  n,  viz. :  a,  «,  e,  i,  0, 1/,  ouy  euy 
and  four  nasals,  an,  in,  on,  un.  Including  all 
modifications  (d,  S,  «,  6,  H,  o4,  and  the  so-called 
e  muet),  they  stand  for  20  sotmds,  of  which 
Malvin-Cazal  and  Michelet  of  the  conservatoire 
de  musique  count  17.  Of  consonants  there  are 
20,  represented  by  18  letters,  viz. :  &,  h  (also 
written  c  and  ch  as  in  chosur,  q,  qu,  and  ^  as  in 
sang  et  eaux\  d,  f  (and  />A),  g  hard  (also  gh, 
gu)j  the  sound  of  English  si  and  zi  in  vision, 
crosier  (written  g  before  e,  i,  and  y,  and  j  be- 
fore all  vowels  except  i  and  y),  h  (unless 
mute),  Z,  I  mouilU  as  in  the  English  million 
(written  ill,  il,  or  Ih,  and  now  generally 
dropping  the  sound  of  I,  as  mou-ye),  t»,  n^  n 
mouille  as  in  the  English  onion  (written  gn, 
nh\  py  r,  s  (also  c  before  e,  4,  y  ;  also  x  in  Bru- 
xelleSj  t  in  nation),  t  (also  final  d  when  pro- 
nounced with  the  next  word,  as  grand  homme), 
V  (also  final /j  when  pronounced  with  the  next 
word,  as  nevf  avnes),  y  as  in  the  English  yes, 
with  the  preceding  power  of  i  (for  instance, 
payer,  pronounced  p^-yi).,  «  (written  also  s,  x, 
when  pronounced  with  the  next  word,  as  les 
eaux,  aux  esprits),  and  the  sound  of  the  English 
shy  as  in  shall  ^written  ch).  Most  consonants 
are  not  utterea  when  final,  unless  they  are 
joined  to  a  succeeding  word  which  begins  witli 
a  vowel  or  h  mute.  S,  x,  z,  t,  being  the  prin- 
cipal grammatic  letters,  are  most  frequently 
joined  in  this  manner.  On  French  pronuncia- 
tion Malvin-Cazal,  Mme.  Sophie  Dupuis,  and 
Bescherelle  {Plus  de  grammaires)  may  oe  advan- 
tageously consulted. — The  dialects  hn^^patoit 
of  the  French  language  are:  I.  The  academic, 
consecrated  by  the  best  literature,  IL  Old 
French:  1,  Walloon  (rouchi),  in  Belgium 
and  West  Luxemburg ;  2,  Franco-Flemish ; 
8,  Picard  and  the  dialect  of  Artois.  All  these 
are  Franco-Romanic.  III.  New  French. 
A.  In  the  north:  1,  Norman;  2,  patois  of 
Paris  and  Champagne ;  8,  of  Lorraine  and  the 
Vosges ;  4,  the  Bourguignon ;  5,  patois  of  Or- 
leans and  Blois ;  6,  of  Aigou  and  Maine.  B.  In 
the  middle  and  west:  1,  Auvergnat;  2,  Poite- 
vin ;  3,  Vend^en ;  4,  Bas  Breton ;  5,  Berrichon ; 
6,  Bordelais  and  Gascon.  C.  In  the  east:  1, 
Franc-Comtois  and  its  varieties  in  Yalais  and 
Neufch&tel,  and  partly  in  the  cantons  of  Fri- 
bourg  and  Bern ;  2,  Vaudois  (Roman,  Romain) ; 
8,  Savoisien  and  G^nevois;  4,  Lyonnais;  6,  pa- 
tois of  the  cities  of  Dauphiny.  D.  In  the  isl- 
ands of  Jersey  and  Guernsey,  Anglo-Norman. 
French  is  also  spoken  with  various  local  pecu- 
liarities or  corruptions  in  Algeria,  on  the  Sene- 
gal, in  the  Mascarene  and  Seychelles  islands. 
French  Guiana,  the  French  West  Indies,  the 
greater  part  of  Hayti,  in  Illinois,  Michigan, 
Louisiana,  and  some  other  of  the  United  States, 
by  the  hahitans  of  Lower  Canada  and  even 

'  some  aboriginal  tribes,  and  in  some  settlements 
in  Asia  and  Oceanica.    There  are  also  small 

,  French  colonies  in  the  banat  of  Temesvdr  and 


FRANCE  (Lanouaoe  and  Litebature) 


403 


elsewhere.  It  is  the  roost  generally  known 
of  all  languages  among  civilized  nations,  and 
many  illustrious  foreigners,  as  Leibnitz,  Hum- 
boldt, Gibbon,  and  Sir  William  Jones,  have 
written  some  of  their  works  in  it.  The  dialects 
of  the  langue  d'oe^  particularly  the  Limousin, 
Languedocien,  and  Provencal,  are  spoken  S. 
of  a  line  passing  through  the  departments  of 
Charente,  Charente-Inferieure,  Haute  -  Vienne, 
Creuse,  Allier,  Puy-de-D6me,  Haute-Loire, 
Arddche,  Drome,  and  Is^re.  Celtic  {Breyzad) 
is  spoken  by  about  1,000,000  people  in  Finis- 
tc*re,  C6te-du-Nord,  and  Morbihan ;  Basque  by 
about  150,000  in  Basses- Pyr^n6es ;  Flemish  in 
parts  of  Le  Nord  and  Pas-de-Calais ;  Catalan 
in  Py r^n^es-Orientales ;  and  Italian  in  Corsica. 
— Among  the  authors  of  grammars  of  the 
French  tongue  are:  J.  Sylvius  (1537);  Robert 
and  Henry  Stephens  (Paris,  1558  and  1579) ; 
Ramus,  drammaire  fran^ise  (1571);  Vauge- 
las,  Remarques  sur  la  langue  franpaise  (1647) ; 
the  Port-Royal  writers,  Lancelot  and  Arnanld, 
Grammaire  generate  et  raieonnee  (1660,  often 
republished);  Wailly,  Orammaire  franfaise 
(1754);  Beauzde,  Grammaire  gSn^rale  (Paris, 
1767);  Levizac,  "Theoretical  and  Practical 
Grammar  of  the  French  Tongue"  (1801); 
Fabre,  Syntaxe  fran^ise  (1803);  Gu^roult, 
Grammaire  fran^ise  (1806);  Lnomond,  Ele- 
ments de  la  grammaire  fran^iee  (last  ed., 
1865);  Girault-Duvivier,  Grammaire  dee  gram- 
mairea  (1811,  many  times  reprinted);  Landais, 
Grammaire  generate  et  raieonnee,  a  compila- 
tion from  numerous  sources  (1886);  Ko5l  and 
Chapsal,  Nbuvelle  grammaire  franffaise  (1823, 
many  times  republished).  Still  later  are  the 
grammars  of  Letelher,  Poitevin,  and  Larousse. 
Among  the  best  dictionaries  are  those  by 
Robert  Stephens  (French  and  Latin,  1543); 
Aimar  de  Ranconnet  (1606);  Richelet  (1680); 
Foretidre  (1690);  Menage  (1694);  the  fa- 
mous dictionary  of  Tr6voux,  so  named  from 
its  place  of  publication  (1704) ;  those  of  Boiste 
and  Bastien  (1800),  Roquefort,  Raymond,  La- 
veaux,  and  Landais;  several  works  by  Charles 
Nodier ;  and  Bescherelle,  Dietionnaire  na- 
tionatj  ou  Grand  dietionnaire  critique  de  la 
langue  fran^ise  (2  vols.  4to,  1843-'6).  The 
Dietionnaire  de  Vacademie  /ranpaiae  was  pub- 
lished in  2  vols.  fol.  in  1694,  and  has  been 
several  times  reprinted.  A  Dietionnaire  his- 
torique  de  ta  langue  frangaiee^  on  a  grand 
scale,  is  in  preparation  by  the  academy.  The 
latest  and  best  dictionary  is  that  of  E.  Lit- 
tr^  in  4  vols.  4to  (Paris,  1863-73).  Girard 
(1786),  Beauz6e  (1769),  Roubaud  (1785),  and 
Guizot  (1809-'22)  have  written  on  French 
synonymes;  and  (36rusez  (1801),  Henry  (1811), 
Yillemain,  in  the  dictionary  of  the  academy, 
J.  J.  Ampere  (1841),  F.  Wey  (1845),  and  F. 
G^nin  (1845-^6),  on  the  history  of  the  French 
language. — Litbbatxtbe.  The  earliest  litera- 
ture of  France  is  that  of  the  trouv^es  and 
troubadours.  The  latter,  who  WTote  in  the 
soft  southern  langue  d*oc,  produced  short  lyri- 
cal effnnons  on  love   or  matters  of  trifling 


import;  they  flourished  most  during  the  11th 
and  12th  centuries.  The  trouv^reSy  on  the 
other  hand,  in  their  narrative  poems,  known 
as  chansons  de  geste^  and  written  in  the  ener- 
getic langue  d^oil,  treated  of  great  national 
subjects  and  celebrated  the  heroic  deeds  of  il- 
lustrious kings  and  knights.  Some  of  their 
compositions,  the  earliest  especially,  have  a 
striking  character  of  grandeur,  which  may 
sometimes  be  not  unfavorably  compared  with 
that  of  the  ancient  epic  poems.  These  chan- 
sons de  gestCy  which  are  also  called  romans^ 
are  very  numerous,  and  have  been  classified 
into  three  cycles,  bearing  respectively  the 
names  of  Charlemagne,  Xing  Arthur,  and 
Alexander.  The  first  cycle  of  course  includes 
all  the  poems  that  celebrate  the  deeds  of  the 
great  Prankish  emperor,  his  descendants  and 
vassals;  one  of  the  oldest  and  perhaps  the 
most  magnificent  of  this  category  is  entitled 
La  chanson  de  Roland  ou  de  Roneetaux.  The 
Armorican  cycle  or  that  of  King  Arthur  is 
filled  with  the  traditionary  legends  connected 
with  old  Britain  and  the  achievements  of  the 
Norman  warriors ;  the  Roman  de  Brut^  or  that 
of  King  Arthur  of  Britain,  on  one  side,  and  the 
Roman  de  RoUj  or  that  of  the  dukes  of  Nor- 
mandy, on  the  other,  may  be  said  to  be  the 
double  foundation  on  which  all  the  poems  be- 
longing to  this  series  rest.  The  cycle  of  Alex- 
ander consists  of  poems  in  which  recollections 
of  Greece  and  Rome  are  strangely  mixed  with 
chivalrio  notions  and  legends  of  fairy  land. 
The  "  History  of  the  Taking  of  Troy,"  com- 
posed about  1160  by  Benolt  de  St.  Maure,  and 
the  "Romance  of  Alexander,'*  about  1180,  by 
Lambert  11  Cors  and  Alexandre  of  Paris,  are 
fair  specimens  of  these  compositions.  They 
were  succeeded  by  satirical  and  allegorical 
poems  of  equally  vast  proportions,  some  of 
which  ei^joyed  unparalleled  popularity,  such  as 
the  Roman  du  renard  and  the  Roman  de  la 
rose,  from  which  Chaucer  afterward  adapted 
and  partly  translated  his  "Romaunt  of  the 
Rose.'*  The  fdbliaiLx  and  several  lighter  kinds 
of  poetry  cultivated  by  the  troubadours  were 
also  treated  by  the  trouveres,  who  found  here 
an  appropriate  field  for  their  ingenuity  and 
ready  wit.  Among  those  who  excelled  in  the 
fcMiaux  was  Rutebeuf,  who  lived  in  the  reign 
of  St.  Louis.  Songs  were  not  neglected,  and 
those  of  Ab^lard  in  the  12th  century  ei^joy- 
ed  a  wide  popularity.  Audefroy  le  Bastard, 
Quesnes  of  Bethune,  and  the  castellan  of  Coucy 
were  among  his  most  distinguished  successors. 
Thibaud,  count  of  Champagne  and  king  of  Na- 
varre, deserves  to  be  particularly  mentioned ; 
the  songs  in  which  he  alludes  to  his  love  for 
Queen  Blanche  of  Castile,  the  mother  of  King 
Louis  IX.  of  France,  have  given  him  historical 
celebrity.  The  progress  of  prose  was  slower 
than  that  of  poetry,  but  the  18th  century  pre- 
sents two  specimens  showing  that  it  had  al- 
ready acquired  a  certain  degree  of  power  and 
polish ;  these  are  the  "  Chronicle  of  the  Con- 
quest of  Constantinople,"  by  Villehardouin 


404 


FRANCE  (LAKotTAOE  asd  Litebatuke) 


(1207),  remarkable  for  its  soldier-like  sim- 
plicitj  and  straightforwardness,  and  tlie  Me- 
maire*  in  which  Joinville  tells  of  the  heroic 
deeds  and  private  virtues  of  the  good  king 
Louis  IX.  The  whole  literature  of  the  14th 
century  culminates  in  Froissart's  "Chroni- 
cles/^ which  remain  the  model  of  this  kind  of 
writing,  and  present  the  liveliest  pictures  of 
society  and  manners  during  that  period  of  war 
and  gallant  emprise.  Christine  de  Pisan  and 
Alain  Chartier  deserve  notice  for  their  intelli- 
gent efforts  toward  the  improvement  of  prose. 
This  improvement  is  fully  illustrated  in  the 
15th  century  by  the  Memoirea  of  Comines, 
which  present  a  striking  delineation  of  the 
characters  of  Louis  XI.  and  his  contempora- 
ries. Already  a  popular  poet,  Villon,  had 
given  evidence  in  his  poems  that  French  verse 
was  able  to  reach  a  high  sphere  of  excellence ; 
and  Duke  Charles  of  Orleans  that  it  had  lost 
nothing  of  its  gracefulness.  The  revival  of 
classical  learning  and  the  religious  reformation 
exercised  a  powerful  influence  on  French  lite- 
rature in  the  16th  century.  Its  principal  char- 
acteristics being  freedom  of  thought  and  vari- 
ety of  style,  writers  cannot  be  judged  accord- 
ing to  a  single  standard.  In  originality  Rabe- 
lais and  Montaigne  are  entitled  to  the  first 
rank.  The  former,  whom  Lord  Bacon  styled 
*Hhe  great  jester  of  France,*'  was  a  profound 
scholar,  physician,  and  philosopher,  and  con- 
tented himself  with  the  renown  of  a  pro- 
fane humorist.  His  nondescript  romance,  the 
"History  of  Gargantua  and  Pantagruel,"  is 
filled  with  strange  tales,  wild  notions,  amu- 
sing quibbles,  and  gross  buffooneries,  inter- 
spersed with  a  seasoning  of  good  sense,  sound 
philosophy,  and  raillery.  A  writer  of  more 
refinement  and  keener  wit  was  Montaigne, 
whose  "  Essays,*'  one  of  the  standards  of 
French  literature,  are  a  series  of  free  and  fa- 
miliar disquisitions  upon  every  subject,  couched 
in  the  most  easy  and  winning  style,  but  skepti- 
cal and  cynical  throughout.  His  views  wore 
partly  reduced  to  a  system  by  his  friend  and 
disciple  Charron,  in  his  treatises  De  la  sa- 
gesse  and  De»  trois  veritis.  Meanwhile  the 
reformation  had  been  vindicated  by  Calvin 
in  his  Institution  de  la  religion  ehretienne^ 
a  masterly  piece  of  writing,  which  afforded 
convincing  evidence  that  French  prose  had 
now  acquired  strength  and  gravity  enough  to 
become  a  fit  vehicle  of  religious  eloquence ; 
and,  later  in  the  century,  an  admirable  pam- 
phlet, the  Satire  Menippee,  and  some  speeches 
of  the  chancellor  L'Hopital,  proved  it  to  be 
flexible  enough  for  political  purposes.  Its  ca- 
pacity for  lighter  subjects  had  been  previously 
demonstrated  by  the  tales  of  Margaret  of  Na- 
varre. Amyot  invested  it  with  new  graces  by 
happily  blending  Grecian  and  French  beauties 
in  bis  translation  of  Plutarch's  "  Lives."  In 
poetry  this  period  was  less  successful.  Cle- 
ment Marot  (1495-1544)  had  indeed  exhibited 
elegance,  grace,  and  wit,  in  his  epistles,  epi- 
grams, and  elegies ;  but  he  had  merely  given 


perfection  to  inferior  branches  of  poetry.  Ron- 
sard  attempted  a  higher  flight ;  he  tried  to  in- 
vest French  verse  with  that  power,  variety, 
and  inspiration  which  he  so  much  admired  in 
Greek  metres;  but  his  violent  introduction  of 
foreign  forms  and  elements  into  the  vernacular 
was  far  from  attaining  the  fortunate  results  he 
anticipated ;  in  spite  of  all  his  defects,  how- 
ever, he  contributed  to  elevate  the  tone  of 
French  poetry.  In  the  17th  century,  Malherbe 
appeared  as  the  reformer,  or  rather  the  regu- 
lator, of  poetry ;  a  man  of  fastidious  taste  and 
meagre  imagination,  he  ridiculed  the  artistic 
luxuriance  of  Ronsard,  and  introduced  a  style 
of  grammatical  correctness  and  dry  elegance 
which  sometimes  reached  pomposity,  but  was 
destructive  of  feeling  and  enthusiasm.  His 
polishing  process  was  nevertheless  of  great  ser- 
vice to  poetical  language ;  and  his  odes,  stanzas, 
and  other  pieces  present  many  beautiful  lines, 
which  are  frequently  quoted.  Mathurin  Re- 
gnier  (1578-1618)  was  the  earliest  of  the  French 
satiric  poets,  and  his  verses  are  full  of  vigor. 
Balzac  devoted  his  attention  to  the  improve- 
ment of  prose ;  and  his  semi-philosophical  works, 
his  epistles  especially,  were  valuable  at  the  time 
as  models  of  careful  and  harmonious  rhetoric 
Such  were  also,  notwithstanding  their  manner- 
ism, the  frivolous  but  witty  letters  of  his  friend 
Voiture.  Both  were  great  favorites  at  the  h6- 
tel  Rambouillet,  the  headquarters  of  a  society 
of  wits  and  fashionable  ladies,  who  acted  as 
arbiters  of  good  taste  and  elegance.  Many  so- 
cial reunions  were  now  in  reality  literary  clubs, 
which  gave  particular  attention  to  philological 
propriety ;  one  of  these,  receiving  from  Car- 
dinal Richelieu  the  title  of  the  French  acade- 
my, was  especially  appointed  '*to  establish 
certain  rules  for  the  French  language,  and 
make  it  not  only  elegant  but  capable  of  treat- 
ing all  matters  of  art  and  science."  Leav- 
ing mere  disquisitions  about  words  to  such  so- 
cieties, three  great  men  now  enriched  French 
literature  with  works  in  which  style  was  only 
a  medium  for  conveying  original  conceptions 
or  powerful  thoughts.  Pierre  Corneille  brought 
tragedy  to  a  degree  of  grandeur  which  has 
not  been  surpassed  on  the  French  stage ; 
Le  Cidy  Horace,  Cinna,  and  Polyeuete  are 
still  the  objects  of  admiration;  while  Pom- 
pee^  JRodoguney  fferaclitiSy  Don  Sanche^  and 
Nicomkdey  though  less  perfect,  abound  with 
striking  beauties.  Descartes,  in  his  Discovre 
sur  la  methodsy  showed  that  the  French  ver- 
nacular was  now  equal  to  the  highest  philo- 
sophical subjects ;  and  Pascal,  in  his  Lettres 
provincialeSy  in  which  comic  pleasantry  and 
vehement  eloquence  are  happily  blended,  first 
framed  a  standard  of  French  prose.  Such  was 
the  opening  of  the  splendid  literary  epoch 
which  is  generally  styled  the  age  of  Louis 
XIV. ;  and  following  it  came  a  galaxy  of  supe- 
rior minds,  who,  under  the  royal  patronage, 
applied  themselves  to  perfecting  every  branch 
of  literature.  Sacred  eloquence  was  success- 
fully cultivated,  and  the  pulpit  was  adorned  by 


FRANCE  (Lanottaob  and  Literatube) 


405 


the  funeral  orations  of  Bossnet,  full  of  pathos 
and  religious  melancholy ;  of  F16chier,  remark- 
able for  artistic  finish ;  the  sermons  of  Bonrda- 
lone,  the  powerful  dialectician,  of  Massillou,  the 
most  exquisite  and  most  attractive  of  preachers, 
and  of  F^nelon,  two  of  whose  sermons  place  him 
in  the  same  rank  with  Bossuet.  Tragedy,  in 
the  hands  of  Racine,  lost  perhaps  a  little  of  the 
imposing  character  with  which  it  had  been  in- 
vested by  Gorneille,  but  teemed  wiih  the  most 
touching  human  feelings,  clothed  in  a  language 
unapproachable  for  correctness,  elegance,  and 
sweetness.  Andromaque^  IphigSnie,  and  Pkidre 
remind  us  of  the  productions  of  ancient  Greece, 
while  Athalie  brings  on  the  stage  in  a  style  of 
adequate  splendor  an  episode  of  the  Hebrew 
annals.  Comedy,  which  had  been  successfully 
attempted  by  ComeiUe  in  Z0  menteur^  reached 
its  highest  pitch  with  Molidre;  his  master- 
pieces, Le  misanthrope^  Tartu/e,  VAvare^  and 
Lea  femmea  ea/oantea^  are  profound  and  humor- 
ous creations.  V&coU  dee  marie  and  V&eole 
deefemme»y  which  are  scarcely  inferior,  Amphy- 
trion^  a  licentious  but  exceedingly  attractive 
comedy,  Lefeetin  de  Pierre^  a  strange  mixture 
of  the  comic  and  dramatic  elements,  several 
farces,  Le  bourgeois  gentilhomme  and  Le  ma- 
lade  imaginaire,  afford  abundant  evidence  of 
MoliSre's  fiexibUity  of  genius  no  less  than  of  his 
power  of  observation.  After  him,  but  at  a  great 
distance  in  point  of  merit,  Regnard,  Dancourt, 
and  Dnfresny  furnished  the  French  stage  with 
light  comic  sketches.  Fable,  through  La  Fon- 
taine^s  genius,  was  but  comedy  on  a  smaller 
scale ;  this  inimitable  poet,  whose  popularity  is 
unrivalled  as  it  is  unfailing,  had  presented  in 
his  collection  of  fables  **  a  drama  in  a  hundred 
acts,''  animated  by  truthfulness  and  keenness 
of  observation,  transparency  of  narrative,  and 
humorous  fancy.  Most  of  these  qualities  are 
also  found  in  his  miscellaneous  poems,  and 
especially  in  his  ^*  Tales,"  whose  licentiousness, 
however,  renders  them  unfit  for  general  read- 
ing. Didactic,  philosophical,  and  satirical 
poetry,  that  is,  poetry  under  its  less  poetical 
forms,  had  as  its  representative  Boileau,  who 
finished  the  work  previously  undertaken  by 
Malherbe;  his  Art  poetique,  his  Bpitree^  his 
Satires^  as  well  as  his  heroico-comic  poem  Le 
lutriny  are  remarkable  for  good  sense  and  sym- 
metry; they  abound  with  wise  maxims  and 
common  truths  finely  expressed,  but  are  en- 
tirely deficient  in  poetical  enthusiasm.  Moral 
philosophy  was  not  neglected.  Malebranche, 
the  disciple  of  Descartes,  the  sagacious  and 
imaginative  author  of  La  recherche  de  la  veriti, 
Bossuet  in  his  Connaisaanee  de  Dieu  et  de  aoi- 
mSme,  F^nelon  in  his  treatise  De  Vexiatenee  de 
IHeu^  and  Pascal  in  fragments  which  have  been 
collected  under  the  title  of  Penaeea^  consider- 
ed the  highest  problems  of  humanity  from  a 
Christian  point  of  view ;  while  La  Rochefou- 
cauld in  his  ^enteneea  et  maximea  wrote  a  libel 
upon  mankind,  and  La  Bruy^re  in  his  Carac- 
tirea  drew  vivid  and  amusing  sketches  of  human 
characters,  manners,  and   oddities.    History, 


which  under  the  pens  of  Saint-R^al  and  Vertot 
was  but  a  faint  imitation  of  the  style  of  ancient 
historians,  was  treated  with  some  energy  by 
M^zeray  in  his  Hiatoire  de  France^  and  with 
ingenuity  by  Fleury  in  his  Hiatoire  de  V^gliae, 
while  Bossuet  clothed  it  with  an  imposing  char- 
acter of  eloquence  in  his  Diaeoura  aur  Vhia- 
toire  univeraellej  and  with  the  earnestness  of 
theological  discussion  in  his  Hiatoire  dea  varior 
tiona  dea  JSgliaea  proteatantea.  The  personal 
Memoirea  of  Cardinal  de  Retz  concerning  the 
wars  of  the  Fronde  are  among  the  masterpieces 
of  familiar  history.  Hamilton's  Memoirea  du 
comte  de  Oramont  brings  us  to  lighter  kinds 
of  literature.  The  novels  of  Mme.  de  Lafay- 
ette, Zaide  and  La  prineeaae  de  CU/oeay  pre- 
sent a  faithful  though  somewhat  ideal  picture 
of  elegant  society,  into  which  we  penetrate 
through  the  familiar  letters  written  by  Mme. 
de  S6vign6  to  her  daughter  and  friends ;  these 
letters  furnish  us  with  a  complete  and  lively 
panorama  of  the  social  life  of  the  age.  F^ne- 
lon's  Telemaque^  which  is  written  in  an  epic 
form,  and  can  scarcely  be  ranked  among  nov- 
els, created  a  deep  sensation  at  the  end  of 
the  17th  century,  being  considered  an  indirect 
censure  of  Louis  XIV.,  gained  great  popularity 
on  the  same  account  during  the  following  reign, 
and  deservedly  keeps  a  high  rank  among  French 
standard  works ;  it  marks  the  crowning  point 
of  a  remarkable  literary  period. — We  now 
reach  the  age  that  has  been  called  philosophical 
par  exeelleriee,  A  number  of  free  thinkers, 
among  whom  Bayle,  the  author  of  the  great 
Dietionnaire  hiatoriqttSy  is  the  leading  spirit, 
and  certain  poets,  Chaulieu  especially,  had 
been  paving  the  way  for  the  coming  philoso- 
phers. The  17th  century  had  been  on  the 
whole  a  religious  age;  the  18th  was  eminently 
an  age  of  skepticism  and  infidelity.  Literature 
now  became  a  means  of  conveying  bold  opin- 
ions or  assaulting  time-honored  creeds  and  in- 
stitutions. Four  men  of  genius,  Montesquieu, 
Voltaire,  J.  J.  Rousseau,  and  Buffon,  exercised 
the  most  powerful  influence  over  their  con- 
temporaries, while  each  acted  a  different  part 
in  the  general  struggle.  Montesquieu,  a  writer 
of  unusual  scope  of  mind,  combining  a  mascu- 
line vigor  with  great  brilliancy  of  style,  com- 
menced his  career  by  publishing  Lea  lettrea 
peraanea^  a  satire  on  French  manners,  govern- 
ment, and  even  religion.  He  illustrated  the 
philosophy  of  history  in  his  CoTiaiderationa  aur 
la  grarideur  et  la  decadence  dea  Eomaina,  a  mas- 
terpiece of  historical  style;  and  finally  pro- 
duced the  Eaprit  dea  loia,  a  profound  disquisi- 
tion upon  general  legislation — *''•  a  book,"  says 
Vinet,  "  with  which  genius  was  inspired  by  jus- 
tice and  humanity."  Voltaire,  the  true  per- 
sonification of  his  age«  protean  in  disposition 
as  weU  as  in  talents,  was  destined  by  his 
faults  no  less  than  his  good  qualities  to  be- 
come at  once  a  leader ;  and  the  power  he  seized 
when  still  young,  he  preserved  unimpaired  to 
his  last  moment.  He  was  for  half  a  century 
the  king  of  public  opinion.    His  wonderftd  ver- 


406 


FRANCE  (Langtjaob  and  Liteeaturk) 


satility  enabled  him  to  treat  successfullj  almost 
all  branches  of  literature;  as  a  tragic  poet 
he  takes  rank  next  to  Corneille  and  Racine ; 
his  tragedies,  Merope,  Zaire,  Mahomet^  Alzire, 
«&c.,  combine  pathos  with  dramatic  interest  and 
liveliness  of  style;  his  Discours  sur  Thomme and 
other  philosophical  poems  are  to  be  classed 
with  the  first  of  their  kind ;  while  his  miscella- 
neous e^sions,  as  numerous  as  they  are  spright- 
ly, raise  him  in  this  sphere  above  any  other 
French  poet.  The  perspicuity  of  his  mind  ap- 
pears in  his  Dictionnaire  philosophique  and 
other  philosophical  works ;  and  his  wit  in  his 
novels,  which,  notwithstanding  their  licentious- 
ness, are  models  of  their  kind.  His  various 
books  on  history,  Charles  XII.,  Le  Steele  de 
Louis  XIV.,  UEssai  sur  les  maurs  des  nations, 
are  still  read  with  profit  and  pleasure;  while 
his  bulky  correspondence  is  scarcely  excelled 
by  that  of  Mme.  de  S6vign6.  If  Voltaire  may 
be  said  to  have  been  the  master  of  minds,  J. 
J.  Rousseau  was  the  master  of  souls.  His 
passionate  eloquence  conquered  the  coldest  and 
eyen  the  most  prejudiced;  eloquence  indeed  is 
the  mainspring  of  all  his  works.  As  a  writer 
of  impassioned  prose  he  has  no  superior,  scarce- 
ly an  equal,  among  the  most  perfect  of  his  rivals. 
His  first  essay,  I)iscours  contre  les  sciences  et 
les  arts^  which  he  wrote  when  88  years  of  age, 
was  a  declaration  of  war  against  civilization; 
the  second,  Origine  de  IHnegalite  parmi  les 
hommes,  was  an  attack  upon  the  existing  social 
order.  In  his  £mile  he  drew  a  visionary  plan 
of  education,  and  in  his  Contrat  social  pro- 
claimed the  principles  of  popular  sovereignty 
and  universal  sufiTrago.  His  Noutelle  Hiloise  is 
a  novel  in  which  love  and  paradox  are  blended 
together,  while  his  Co7{fessions  excite  a  mixed 
feeling  of  sympathy  and  disgust.  Buffon  occu- 
pied a  less  agitated  sphere,  devoting  his  labors 
to  the  description  of  nature;  and  his  great 
Histoire  naturelle  is  a  literary  masterpiece, 
though  its  scientific  reputation  has  passed  away. 
Diderot,  a  passionate  and  incorrect  writer,  and 
B^Alembert,  a  great  geometer,  founded  the 
Bneylopedie^  a  vast  review  of  human  knowl- 
edge, often  threatening  to  social  order,  always 
hostile  to  religion.  Helv6tius  in  his  treatise 
De  Vesprit,  D^Holbach  in  his  SysUme  de  la 
nature,  Lamettrie  in  his  Homme-machine,  and 
Raynal  in  his  Histoire  philosophique  des  deux 
Indes,  far  exceeded  the  doctrines  of  the  ency- 
clopaedists ;  while  other  writers,  such  as  Vau- 
venargues,  Fontenelle,  whose  style  is  yet  ad- 
mired for  its  clearness  and  elegance,  Condil- 
lao,  a  most  perspicuous  analytic  philosopher, 
Mably,  a  bold  publicist,  and  Condoroet,  who 
wrote  afterward  an  Esquisse  des  progrh  de 
Vesprit  humain^  mostly  kept  on  the  side  of 
moderation.  The  various  branches  of  litera- 
ture connected  with  philosophy  were  the  most 
productive ;  but  the  others  were  far  from  be- 
ing neglected,  as  appears  from  the  following 
names,  which  we  take  almost  at  random :  Cr4- 
billon  and  Ducis,  both  tragic  poets,  appeal- 
ing, the  former  to  terror,  the  latter  to  sym- 


pathy ;  Marivaux,  whose  novels  and  comedies 
were  very  famous  in  their  day,  and  some  of 
whose  plays  still  keep  the  stage ;  Gilbert,  a  sat- 
irist of  uncommon  power ;  Lb  Sage,  the  author 
of  Gil  Bias,  the  most  celebrated  novel  of  the 
age,  and  of  Turcaret^  perhaps  the  best  comedy 
next  to  those  of  Moli^re ;  Beaumarchais,  the 
author  of  the  Barhier  de  Setille;  Bernardin  de 
St.  Pierre,  the  author  of  Paul  et  Virginie; 
La  Harpe,  whose  Cours  de  litterature  was 
once  popular ;  Duclos,  Mile.  Delaunay,  and 
Saint-Simon,  ^vhose  Memoires  gained  a  de- 
served celebrity;  Barth^lemy,  who  wrote 
the  Voyage  du  jeune  Anacharsis  en  Grite ; 
Rulhi^re,  a  historical  essayist;  Provost,  who 
produced  the  novel  of  Manon  Lescaut ;  Mar- 
montel,  the  author  of  Belisaire;  Gresset,  the 
author  of  Vert-  Vert ;  and  J.  B.  Rousseau  and 
Lebrun,  the  lyric  poets.  The  age  was  not  poeti- 
cal ;  poetry  had  degenerated  into  verse  making, 
and  the  verse  makers,  in  imitation  of  Tliomson's 
^^  Seasons,"  indulged  in  all  sorts  of  descrip- 
tive pieces.  Deli  lie,  the  most  skilful  of  them, 
gained  a  reputation  by  various  didactic  po- 
ems, and  by  translating,  not  without  a  certain 
degree  of  accuracy,  the  **Georgic8"  of  Vir- 
gil. Florian  wrote  fables  which  rank  next  to 
those  of  La  Fontaine,  and  his  novels  are  yet 
popular.  Toward  the  end  of  the  century  imita- 
tion was  the  order  of  the  day,  and  the  only 
poet  who  was  gifted  with  originality,  Andr^ 
Ch^nier,  died  on  the  scaffold  before  his  best 
effusions  were  published. — Neither  the  revolu- 
tion nor  the  empire  was  favorable  to  literature. 
Some  tragedies  after  the  classical  pattern, 
among  which  those  of  Joseph  Ch^nier  may  be 
mentioned,  a  few  light  comedies,  besides  novels 
and  short  poems,  were  not  sufficient  to  relieve 
the  general  dulness.  Mme.  de  StaSl  and  Cha- 
teaubriand were  the  forerunners  of  a  revival ; 
but  the  improvement  was  perhaps  owing  less 
to  the  Corinne  and  VAllemagne  of  the  former, 
Le  ginie  du  Ckristianisme  and  Les  martyrs  of 
the  latter,  than  to  the  influence  upon  the  pub- 
lic taste  of  the  masterpieces  of  English  and 
German  literature,  which  found  more  and  more 
admirers  in  France.  The  romantic  school  now 
inaugurated  a  new  era.  Through  the  exertions 
of  many  young  and  original  writers  new  life 
was  infused  into  nearly  every  branch  of  lite- 
rature, poetry,  history,  philosophy,  and  the 
drama.  An  animated  controversy  was  main- 
tained in  pamphlets  and  periodicals,  between 
the  supporters  of  reform  and  the  adherents  of 
the  classical  school ;  but  the  contest  reached 
its  utmost  fury  when  Alexandre  Dumas,  Victor 
Hugo,  Alfred  de  Vigny,  Fr^l^ric  Souli6,  and 
others  produced  on  the  stage  dramas  framed 
according  to  their  own  ideas  of  the  Shakespear- 
ian style.  The  performances  of  these  dramas 
were  indeed  regular  battles  between  the  oppo- 
sing literary  parties ;  and  it  was  only  at  the  end 
of  several  years  that  the  yoxmger  body  of  com- 
batants came  out  victorious.  Among  the  plays 
thus  received  with  both  enthusiasm  and  cen- 
sure, Henri  III,  et  sa  cour,  Antony^  TSrisa, 


FRANCE  (Language  and  Litehatube) 


407 


and  An^iley  by  Dumas,  Hemani^  Ruy  Bias, 
Marion  Delarme^  Zucrice  Borgia^  and  Le  roi 
i amuse,  by  Hugo,  are  still  remembered;  while 
numberless  pieces,  successful  at  the  time,  have 
since  fallen  into  complete  oblivion.  In  fact, 
the  only  gain  resulting  from  this  protracted 
dispute  was  the  abrogation  of  the  obsolete 
rules  which  had  so  long  regulated  the  French 
stage.  A  reactionary  movement  was  attempted 
when  the  illustrious  actress  Kachel  appeared 
with  such  striking  effect  in  the  tragedies  of 
Comeille  and  Racine.  Ponsard  and  Latour 
St^  Ybars  returned  to  the  old  form  of  tragedy ; 
but  the  Luerice  of  the  former  and  the  Virgiiiie 
of  the  latter  enjoyed  but  ephemeral  success, 
while  the  '*  School  of  Good  Sense,"  as  the 
adherents  of  this  movement  were  styled,  reck- 
ons only  a  few  light  comedies  by  ^mile  Augier. 
This  school  had  been  preceded  in  the  line  of 
tragedy  by  Oasimir  Delavigne,  who,  gradually 
deviating  from  the  classical  model,  attempt- 
ed to  reconcile  the  classic  and  the  romantic 
systems,  in  his  Marino  Faliero,  Les  en/ants 
d'Bdouard  and  Louis  XL  Meanwhile  Eugdne 
Scribe  was  day  by  day  increasi]|g  his  enormous 
stock  of  successful  comedies,  or  rather  vaude- 
villes, on  a  larger  or  smaller  scale. — Novels, 
which,  with  the  exception  of  DeVigny's  Cinq- 
Mars,  had  been  scarcely  noticed  during  the 
excitement  of  dramatic  reform,  became  the 
rage  as  soon  as  this  was  on  the  point  of  being 
accomplished.  Foremost  among  the  noyelists 
of  the  present  century  in  point  of  power  and 
celebrity  is  the  poet  and  dramatist  Victor 
Hugo,  whose  Notre  Dame  de  Paris,  Les  mise- 
rabies,  Les  travailleurs  de  la  mer,  and  V Homme 
qui  rit  have  achieved  a  wide  renown.  George 
Sand  (Mme.  Dude  van  t)  acquired  reputation  by 
her  Indiana  (1832),  and  established  her  claim 
to  be  considered  one  of  the  foremost  writers 
of  her  time  by  her  subsequent  performances, 
Valentine,  Lelia,  Jacques,  Andre,  Simon,  Mau- 
prat,  Consuelo,  Le  ehampi,  La  mare  au  dia- 
ole,  La  petite  Fadette,  Lajilleule,  Vhomme  de 
neige,  and  by  her  Histoire  de  ma  vie,  Alex- 
andre Bamas,  the  inexhaustible  story-teller, 
won  unequalled  popularity  by  his  Trois  moutt- 
guetairesy  Vingt  ans  apris,  Le  vieomte  de 
Bragelonne,  Le  eomte  de  Monte  Oriato,  Joseph 
Balsamo,  Le  collier  de  la  reine,  Ange  Pitou, 
La  eomtesse  de  Charny,  and  other  romances, 
in  all  filling  n^ore  than  a  hundred  volumes. 
Eagene  Sue  also  achieved  great  popular  suc- 
cess with  Les  myntires  de  Paris^  Le  Juif  er- 
rant, and  Martin  Venfant  trouve,  depicting  in 
glaring  colors  the  miseries  of  society.  Hono- 
rs de  Balzac  undertook  to  present,  under  the 
title  of  La  eomedie  kumaine,  a  daguerrotype 
of  every  aspect  of  French  society  during  his 
time;  this  immense  work  was  interrupted  by 
death ;  but  some  parts  of  it,  complete  in  them- 
selves, are  invaluable  for  depth  of  observation 
and  acuteness  of  delineation :  Evgenie  Gran- 
det,  Le  pere  Goriot,  La  recherche  de  Vahsolit, 
Le  eontrat  de  mariage,  Modeste  Mignon,  Les  pa- 
rens pawcrcs,  Les  sconce  de  la  tie  pritee,  &c. 


Fr6d6ric  Souli6,  who,  although  his  popularity 
is  not  as  great,  is  nearly  the  equal  of  those  we 
have  just  named,  evinced  uncommon  talents 
in  his  historical  novels  of  southern  France, 
among  which  Le  vicomte  de  Beziers  specially 
deserves  to  be  mentioned.  Still  greater  power 
characterized  his  pictures  from  the  social  world : 
La  lionne.  La  eomtesse  de  Montrion,  Diane  et 
Louise,  Le  lion  amoureux,  and  Les  memoir es  du 
didble,  Alphonse  Earr,  in  his  Sous  Us  tilleuls, 
Midi  d  quatorze  heuree,  Genevihe,  Clotilde, 
and  numerous  short  tales,  has  given  unrivalled 
specimens  of  good  sense,  fine  feeling,  and  gen- 
uine humor.  By  the  originality,  delicacy  of 
style,  and  charm  of  fancy  which  Alfred  de 
Musset  displayed  in  his  nouvelles,  such  as  FrS- 
deric  et  Bemerette,  Bmmeline,  Les  deux  mat- 
tresses, Lefils  du  Titien,  and  Mimi  Pinson,  he 
is  entitled  to  a  high  rank  as  a  novelist.  Such 
is  also  the  case  with  Prosper  M^rim^e,  whose 
Chronique  du  temps  du  Charles  IX.,  Colomha, 
Le  ras  etrvsque,  and  Arsons  GuilUt  are  gems 
of  their  kind.  Prominent  among  the  comic 
writers  was  Paul  de  Eock,  whose  novels  were 
nearly  as  numerous  as  those  of  Dumas,  and 
who  wrote  also  many  vaudevilles.  Besides 
these  masters  of  novel  writing  we  can  merely 
mention  their  contemporaries,  >Ime.  Charles 
Reybaud,  Mme.  £mile  de  Gifardin,  Th^ophile 
Gautier,  Charles  de  Bernard,  £lie  Berthet,  Pon- 
son  du  Terrail,  Jules  Sandeau,  £mile  Souvestre, 
Paul  F^val,  and  M^ry.  Among  the  later  novel- 
ists, Henri  Murger,  Alexandre  Dumas ^Zs,  L^on 
Gozlan,  Arsdne  Houssaye,  Champfleury,  Ernest 
Feydeau,  Gustavo  Flaubert,  £mile  Gaboriau, 
Octave  Feuillet,  Hector  Malot,  Edmond  About, 
Cherbuliez,  and  the  literary  partners  Erckmann- 
Chatrian,  deserve  mention.  Jules  Yemo  has 
written  remarkable  scientific  romances,  which 
have  been  translated  into  English  and  widely 
read.  Of  nearly  the  same  class  are  the  fanci- 
ful scientific  works  of  Guillemin  and  £lys^e 
Reclus. — Poetry  is  far  from  being  as  popular  in 
France  as  the  novel,  and  poets  have  been  and 
are  still  very  slightly  regarded  by  the  public*; 
but  four  of  them  have  such  claims  to  admira- 
tion as  to  be  dear  even  to  the  least  poetical 
minds ;  these  are  B^ranger,  Lamartine,  Victor 
Hugo,  and  Alfred  de  Musse(.  The  first  named, 
who  wrote  nothing  but  songs,  is  at  once  the 
most  national  and  the  most  popular  of  all,  as 
well  as  the  best  known  in  foreign  countries. 
Although  song-makers  are  numerous  in  France, 
there  is  only  one  who  deserves  to  be  men- 
tioned after  B6ranger ;  this  is  Pierre  Dupont, 
who,  however,  stands  far  behind  his  master, 
Lamartine,  whose  efiusions  present  a  combi- 
nation of  harmony,  human  feeling,  and  reli- 
gious sentiment,  is  the  flivorite  of  minds  that 
incline  to  sentimentality  and  reverie.  His 
Meditations,  Harmonies,  and  BecueilUments 
poitiques,  his  Joeelyn  and  CJiute  d^un  ange, 
are  still  read  and  admired.  Victor  Hugo, 
though  a  leader  in  all  departments  of  French 
literature,  has  not  been  less  successful  as  poet 
than  novelist.    His  Odes  et  ballades,  Orientales^ 


408 


FRANCE  (Laxguagb  and  Litebatube) 


FeuUles  d*autamn&,  ChanU  du  erepuseule,  Voix 
interieurea,  Lea  rayons  et  Us  ombres^  and  Con- 
templations are  poems  of  sentiment  and  fancy ; 
while  his  Chdtirnents  are  bitter  satires  against 
Kapoleon  III.  and  his  associates.  His  latest 
poem,  DAnnee  terrible^  is  a  passionate  lament 
for  the  misfortunes  of  France  in  1871.  In 
1874  he  published  a  novel  called  Quatre-^ingt- 
treize^  which  delineates  the  great  year  of  the 
first  French  revolution,  1798.  Alfred  de  Mus- 
sel, perhaps  the  most  original  of  the  four,  is 
less  known  than  either  of  them  outside  of 
France,  but  in  his  own  country  his  reputation 
is  very  high.  Among  the  other  poets,  Oasi- 
mir  Delavigne,  whose  Messeniennes  rivalled  for 
a  while  the  success  of  Lamartine^s  Medita- 
tions^ Anguste  Barbier,  the  author  of  the 
lambes^  Victor  de  La  Prade,  and  the  brilliant 
and  original  Th^ophile  Gautier,  must  not  be 
omitted.  Nor  must  we  fail  to  mention  Jas- 
min, the  barber  poet,  whose  writings  in  the 
langue  d'oc  have  made  him  popular  in  the 
south  of  France  and  famous  abroad.  Fr6d^- 
ric  Mistral,  a  Provencal  writer,  has  acquired 
a  unique  reputation  by  his  works  in  the  lan- 
guage of  his  native  province. — History  is  un- 
doubtedly the  most  successful  branch  of  mod- 
ern French  literature.  A  larger  number  of 
valuable  historical  works  have  been  published 
within  the  last  60  years  than  during  any  other 
equal  period  of  time ;  and  the  taste  for  such  per- 
formances is  still  on  the  increase.  M.  Guizot, 
the  great  philosophical  expounder  of  social  in- 
stitutions and  moral  revolutions,  and  Aagustin 
Thierry,  the  artistio  historian  of  the  middle 
ages,  stand  foremost  among  the  promoters  of 
this  historical  movement.  The  Essais  sur  Vhis- 
toire  de  France^  by  the  former,  the  Eistoire 
generals  de  la  civilisation  en  Europe  and  ffis- 
toire  ghih'ale  de  la  civilisation  en  France^  which 
he  wrote  before  engaging  actively  in  political 
life,  and  his  Eistoire  de  la  revolution  d^Angle- 
terrCy  which  he  completed  after  leaving  the 
ministry  in  1848,  are  monuments  of  philosophi- 
cal history ;  while  the  Lettres  aur  Vhistoire  de 
France  of  Augustin  Thierry,  his  Eistoire  de  la 
conquite  de  VAngleterre  par  les  Normands^  his 
Recits  des  temps  merovingiens^  and  his  Eistoire 
de  laformation  du  tiers-etat  en  France^  present 
a  happy  combination  of  dramatic  narrative  and 
perspicuous  discrimination.  Am^d^e  Thierry, 
Augustin's  brother,  presents  lively  pictures  of 
Gaul  and  other  countries  before  and  during  the 
fall  of  the  West  Roman  empire.  Three  writers 
have  devoted  their  efforts  to  a  full  recital  of  the 
general  history  of  France:  Sismondi,  whose 
voluminous  work  is  an  inexhaustible  mine  of 
knowledge  and  thorough  research;  Michelet, 
who  combines  the  profound  learning  of  a  Bene- 
dictine monk  with  the  humorous  fancy  of  a 
poet;  and  last  but  not  least,  Henri  Martin,  who, 
under  the  impulse  of  patriotic  enthusiasm,  has 
successfully  embodied  in  his  book  the  results 
of  modern  science,  while  infusing  into  its 
pages  a  lively  and  never  slackening  interest. 
Barante,  after  giving  (1824-^6)  in  his  Eistoire 


des  dues  de  Bourgogne  an  attractive  specimen  of 
purely  narrative  history,  published  histories  of 
the  French  convention  and  of  the  directory,  in 
which,  though  he  is  accurate  and  impartial, 
his  monarchical  predilections  are  strongly  ap- 
parent. Capefigue,  who  died  toward  the  end 
of  1872,  wrote  voluminously  on  the  reaction- 
ary side  of  French  history  from  Philip  Augus- 
tus to  Louis  Philippe.  The  revolutionary 
period  has  engaged  the  attention  of  many 
historians,  among  whom  the  most  prominent 
are  Thiers,  Mignet,  Michelet,  and  Louis  Blanc. 
The  first,  by  his  Eistoire  de  la  revolution^  at 
once  gained  a  popularity  which  gave  him  an 
introduction  into  political  life.  His  subsequent 
Eistoire  du  consulat  et  de  V empire  has  given 
him  a  still  higher  rank  as  a  writer,  though  not 
as  an  impartial  and  trustworthy  historian. 
The  histories  of  Michelet  and  of  Louis  Blanc, 
who  has  also  written  a  brilliant  Eistoire  de 
dix  ans  (1830-'40),  besides  several  other 
works,  are  marked  with  strong  democratic 
opinions;  while  that  of  Mignet,  a  vivid  yet 
substantial  sketch,  bears  the  impress  of  philo- 
sophical impartiality.  This  writer  has  also  pro- 
duced several  miscellaneous  historical  works 
which  are  highly  valued:  Eistoire  de  Marie 
Stuart;  Charles  Quint^  son  abdication  et  sa 
mort;  Philippe  II,  et  Antonio  Perez;  and  a 
large  compilation,  Eistoire  des  negoeiations 
relatives  d  la  succession  d^EspagnCy  containing 
beautiful  narratives,  preceded  by  an  admirable 
introduction.  Lamartine  also  figures  among 
the  historians;  his  Eistoire  des  GirondinSy 
which  appeared  in  1847,  created  a  deep  sensa- 
tion by  its  magnificent  style  and  enthusiastic 
spirit.  He  subsequently  published  the  Eis- 
toire des  constituantSy  Eistoire  de  la  restaura- 
tiony  Eistoire  de  TurquiSy  &c.,  more  remarka- 
ble for  showy  eloquence  than  soundness  and 
accuracy.  Napoleon  III.  deserves  to  be  men- 
tioned among  the  historians  for  his  Eistoire 
de  Jules  Cesar ^  two  volumes  of  which  were 
published  in  1865-^6.  Great  historical  publi- 
cations have  appeared  under  the  patronage  of 
the  government  or  of  learned  societies,  the 
Collection  des  historiens  de  France^  ana  the 
Eistoire  litteraire  de  la  France,  among  the 
number.  Villemain  ought  to  be  reckoned 
among  the  historians,  not  only  for  his  Eistoire 
de  Cromwelly  but  for  the  admirable  pictures  of 
men  and  society  in  his  excellent  Tableaux  de  la 
litteraturey  and  his  Souvenirs  contemporains. 
Vaulabelle  has  written  an  excellent  Eistoire 
dt  la  restauration,  which  deserves  more  fame 
than  it  has  gained.  Lanfrey^s  historical  works 
are  eminently  judicious ;  his  Eistoire  de  Sa- 
poleon  has  attracted  much  attention  both  at 
home  and  abroad  by  its  new  views  about  the 
great  emperor.  Taxile  Delord^s  Eistoire  du 
Second  Empire  is  equally  judicious  and  more 
impartial.  Garnier-Pagds  completed  in  De- 
cember, 1873,  a  history  of  the  revolution  of 
1848. — Archaeology,  to  speak  only  of  produc- 
tions of  this  century,  has  not  been  neglected,  as 
is  evidenced  by  the  works  of  Letronne,  Raoul> 


FRANCE  (Language  and  LrrEBATUss) 


409 


Rochette,  and  more  recently  by  those  of  Benl6, 
Bellogaet,  De  Rividre,  Lartet,  and  Qnatrefages. 
Ghampollion  threw  new  light  npon  ancient 
Egypt  by  his  system  of  deciphering  hiero- 
glyphics. The  study  of  oriental  languages,  pro- 
moted by  Sylvestre  de  Sacy,  has  been  success- 
fully continued  by  De  Saulcy,  M^nant,  Oppert, 
and  Renan,  in  the  Semitic  languages.  Lenor- 
mant,  Mariette,  Ghabas,  and  De  Roug6  have  dis- 
tinguished themselves  as  Egyptologists.  The 
works  of  Abel  de  R^mnsat,  Stanislas  Julien, 
Bornou^  De  Rosny,  and  Hervey  de  St.  Denys 
are  valuable  contributions  to  the  occidental 
knowledge  of  the  Chinese,  Japanese,  and  San- 
skrit.— Philosophy  was  brought  back  to  spirit- 
ualist principles  by  the  natural  reaction  against 
the  materialism  of  the  preceding  age.  This  rev- 
olation,  prepared  by  Royer-Collard,  Maine  de 
Biran,  and  others,  has  been  accomplished  by 
Victor  Cousin  and  his  disciples,  who,  under 
the  name  of  eclecticism,  nnfurled  the  banner 
of  spiritualism.  The  eloquent  lectures  which 
Cousin  delivered  at  the  Sorbonne  exercised  a 
powerful  influence  over  the  rising  generation ; 
they  have  been  printed,  with  corrections  and 
considerable  additions,  under  the  title  of  Cours 
de  philosophies  Fragments  dephilosophie^  and  Du 
trai,  du  beau  et  du  hien,  Jouffroy  and  Dami- 
ron,  who  acknowledged  him  as  their  master, 
contributed  to  the  progress  of  the  same  doc- 
trines, which  were  advocated  by  Cousin's  young- 
er disciples,  £mile  Saisset,  Am6d6e  Jacques, 
Yacherot,  Paul  Janet,  Adolphe  Franck,  and 
Jules  Simon.  The  books  of  the  last  named, 
Du  devoir,  De  la  liberie  de  conscienee,  and 
De  la  liberte,  are  among  the  most  meritorious 
performances  for  heaithfulness  of  tone,  honesty 
of  purpose,  and  generosity  of  mind.  Besides 
the  eclectic  school,  four  philosophers  of  great 
originality  and  uncommon  power  have  shone 
each  in  his  own  sphere,  viz. :  Joseph  de  Mais- 
tre,  the  zealous  apologist  of  absolute  power,  in 
his  treatise  Du  pape,  and  the  eccentric  author 
of  the  Soirees  de  St,  Petersbourg ;  Bonald, 
who  in  his  Legislation  primitive^  as  well  as 
his  other  philosophical  writings,  upheld  the 
cause  of  monarchy  and  the  church ;  Ballanche, 
the  mystic  dreamer,  who  in  his  Palingenesie 
Bociale  attempted  to  represent  through  a  series 
of  symbolical  narratives  couched  in  a  poetical 
style  the  various  phases  of  the  history  of  man- 
kind ;  and  Lamennais,  who,  at  first  a  bold 
and  independent  defender  of  the  papal  power, 
was  gradually  led  to  become  the  advocate  of 
pure  democracy.  His  Essai  sur  Vindifferenee 
en  mati^re  de  religion,  Les  paroles  d^un  eroy- 
ant,  Le  livre  du  peuple,  Une  voix  de  prison, 
and  Esquisse  d'une  philosophie,  show  the  va- 
rious steps  of  this  transformation,  while  they 
are  placed  among  the  masterpieces  of  French 
eloquence.  The  Gours  de  philosophie  positive 
of  Auguste  Comte  offers  a  system  of  philoso- 
phy which  has  found  many  disciples  in  other 
countries,  especially  in  England  and  America. 
Among  the  writers  on  social  science,  Saint- 
Simon  and  Fourier  are  incontrovertibly  the 


most  conspicuous;  and  although  their  doc- 
trines have  been  rejected  as  a  whole,  they 
have  exercised  a  powerful  influence  over  the 
age.  Pierre  Leroux,  Louis  Blanc,  and  Proud- 
hon  may  be  mentioned  as  in  some  sort  their 
disciples.  The  historian  Michelet  and  Edgar 
Quinet  take  rank  among  fanciful  philosophers 
by  a  number  of  publications. — The  various 
branches  of  natural  science  boast  of  many  ori- 
ginal and  powerful  writers,  at  the  head  of 
whom  we  must  place  Georges  Cuvier,  author 
of  Le  rigne  animal  distribue  d^aprh  son  or- 
ganisation, and  Recherches  sur  les  ossements  fos- 
siles,  with  an  admirable  introduction  entitled 
Discours  sur  les  revolutions  du  globe,  Cuvier's 
great  contemporaries  Lamarck,  Jussieu,  De  Can- 
dolle,  Lac^p^de,  and  Latreille,  and  rival,  £tienne 
Geoffroy  Saint-Hilaire,  must  be  mentioned  with 
him.  The  son  of  the  latter,  Isidore,  is  worthy 
of  his  father,  and  many  disciples  of  these  great 
men,  among  whom  are  Dum^ril,  Jussieu,  and 
Alcide  d'Orbigny,  have  published  brilliant  sci- 
entific works.  Mineralogy  boasts  of  £lie  de 
Beaumont,  Beudant,  and  Dufr^noy ;  chemistry 
especially  of  Lavoisier;  and  chemistry  and 
physics  of  Th6nard  and  Dumas,  Gay-Lussac, 
Berthollet,  Despretz,  Pasteur,  Berthelot^  Che- 
vreuil,  and  Dumas.  French  medical  literature 
is  particularly  rich,  from  the  contributions  of 
Bichat,  Broussais,  Oorvisart,  Magendie,  Trous- 
seau, Claude  Bernard,  and  many  others.  Mathe- 
matical sciences  have  distinguished  representa- 
tives in  Lagrange,  Laplace,  Ampere,  Biot,  Le- 
verrier,  and  especially  Arago,  who  has  no  equal 
for  clearness  of  exposition  and  perspicuity  of 
style.  Among  the  travellers  of  this  century 
whose  writings  have  been  of  most  service  to 
science  or  who  have  attracted  particular  at- 
tention are  Bonpland,  Freycinet,  Duperrey, 
Dumont  d'Urville,  Ren6  Caill6,  Victor  Jacque- 
mont,  Fontanier,  Father  Hue,  Dubois  de 
Montpireux,  Saint-Martin,  Marcoy,  D'Abbadie, 
and  De  Beau  voir. — ^Many  able  pens  have  been 
devoted  to  political  economy  and  philosophy  : 
Michel  Chevalier,  whose  Lettressur  VAmerique 
have  made  him  known  in  the  United  States, 
L^on  Faucher,  Rossi,  Adolphe  Blanqui,  Fr6- 
d^ric  Bastiat,  Andr^  Cochnt,  De  Beaumont, 
and  De  Tocqueville.  The  last  is  well  known 
in  America  by  his  singularly  philosophic  trea- 
tise De  la  demoeratie  en  Amerique.  The  ad- 
mirable historical  essays  of  Laferri^re  npon 
French  jurisprudence  must  not  be  forgotten. 
The  political  writers  who  deserve  to  be  named, 
even  after  the  interest  of  the  daily  questions 
they  treated  is  gone,  are  numerous.  Among 
them  are  Annand  Carrel,  the  model  journalist 
Courier,  and  Cormenin,  his  imitator,  perhaps 
his  equal  in  point  of  pungency  and  wit,  though 
far  from  possessing  the  same  classical  perfec- 
tion. The  French  essayists  and  literary  critics 
are  a  legion.  Among  the  most  prominent  we 
may  mention  Sylvestre  de  Sacy  and  Saint-Marc 
Girardin,  who  were  admitted  to  the  French 
academy,  the  former  merely  as  a  journalist, 
the  latter  on  account  of  his  versatile  talents 


410 


FRANCE  (Wines  of) 


as  a  political  writer,  able  critic,  and  elegant 
lecturer;  Pliilar^te  Chasles,  Pr6vost-Paradol, 
Cuvillier  -  Fleury,  Ernest  Renan,  Hippolyte 
Rigaud,  Henri  Taine,  Edmond  Scherer,  Caro, 
and  Jules  Janin,  the  feuilletonist.  Gustave 
Planche  and  Sainte-Beave  are  entitled  to  a 
prominent  place  in  this  class  of  writers;  the 
former  was  a  sound  and  unsparing  critic,  in 
the  tine  arts  as  well  as  literature;  the  latter 
excelled  in  the  delineation  of  literary  charac- 
ters, and  also  published  a  Tableau  de  la  poesie 
franpaiM  au  16'  sieele  and  a  history  of  the 
Port-Royalists.  Charles  de  R^musat  and  Al- 
bert de  Broglie  have  treated  historical  mat- 
ters from  a  philosophical  or  religious  point  of 
view.  Th^ophile  Gantier,  Edmond  About,  Paul 
de  Saint- Victor,  L4on  Delaborde,  Vitet,  and  De- 
l^cluze  have  particularly  devoted  themselves  to 
fine-art  criticism ;  Del6cluze,  F6tis,  Hector  Ber- 
lioz, Fiorentino,  and  Scudo,  to  musical  matters. 
Of  recent  writers,  Ernest  Renan  by  his  Vie  de 
Jiiiis,  Les  apotres^  Saint  Paul^  and  VAnti- 
christe,  and  Hippolyte  Taine  by  his  ffistoire 
de  la  litterature  anglaiee  and  works  on  art, 
have  attracted  much  attention  throughout 
the  civilized  world.  Of  late  years  public  af- 
fairs and  political  questions  have  so  much 
occupied  the  mind  of  France  that  literature 
has  languished ;  and  although  there  has  prob- 
ably been  no  falling  off  in  intellectual  activity, 
the  rising  generation  of  writers  do  not  seem 
on  the  whole  to  equal  their  predecessors. — 
See  Histoire  Utter  aire  de  la  Prance^  by  Dom 
Rivet  and  other  Benedictine  monks,  continued 
by  members  of  the  institute  (22  vols.  4to, 
1738-1858) ;  La  France  litteraire  (1826-'42), 
and  La  Utteratvre  fran^ise  eontemporaine 
(1837-'44),  by  J.  M.  Qu6rard;  Histoire  litte- 
raire de  la  France  atant  le  12*  si^lCy  by  Ampere 
(8  vols.,  1838-'40) ;  Tableau  de  la  litterature 
au  may  en  dge,  by  Villemain  (2  vols.  12mo, 
last  ed.,  1857) ;  Eesaie  $ur  Vhietoire  litteraire 
du  16'  ei^le^  by  Saint-Marc  Girardin  and 
Philar^te  Chasles  (1827) ;  Tableau  de  la  poesie 
franpaise  au  16'«i^c^,  by  Sainte-Beuve  (1828) ; 
Histoire  de  la  litterature  frangaiee^  by  Demo- 
geot  (new  ed.,  1857) ;  Histoire  de  la  litterature 
/ranpaiscy  by  D.  Nisard  (last  ed.,  1867) ;  Cata- 
logue general  de  la  lib^rairie  franpaise,  from 
1840  to  1865,  by  Otto  Lorenz  (1871);  and 
Etudes  svr  la  litterature  eontemporaine^  by 
Edmond  Scherer  (1872-'3). 

FRANCE,  Wines  of*  In  respect  to  soil,  cli- 
mate, and  the  abundance  and  variety  of  the 
wines  which  she  produces,  France  has  been 
called  the  vineyard  of  the  earth.  Nearly  seven 
eighths  of  her  territory  is  grape-bearing,  and 
the  products  of  her  vines  being  for  the  most 
part  but  slightly  alcoholic,  her  people  are,  as  a 
rule,  wine  drinkers  without  being  addicted  to 
intemperance.  With  the  exception  of  the  ex- 
treme northern  and  northwestern  departments, 
the  whole  country  is  more  or  less  devoted  to 
the  culture  of  the  grape ;  but  as  certain  soils 
and  exposures  are  better  adapted  to  that  pur- 
pose than  others,  the  wines  of  high  commer- 


cial value  are  produced  in  limited  and  compara- 
tively isolated  districts.  By  far  the  greater 
part  of  the  French  vintage  is  consumed  within 
the  country,  or  is  mixed  with  or  employed  to 
imitate  various  wines  of  established  reputa- 
tion. The  total  product  of  the  country  amounts 
to  between  1,500,000,000  and  2,000,000,000 
gallons,  worth  about  $350,000,000.— First  in 
importance  as  an  article  of  commerce,  and  iu 
the  estimation  of  connoisseurs  for  their  intrin- 
sic excellence,  are  the  wines  produced  in  the 
department  of  Gironde,  a  part  of  the  old 
province  of  Guienne,  of  which  Bordeaux  is 
the  capital ;  whence  the  district  is  also  viticul- 
turally  known  by  its  old  name  of  the  Borde- 
lais.  Gironde  is  practically  divisible  into  five 
wine-producing  districts:  M^doc,  a  strip  of 
territory  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river  Gironde, 
extending  from  Blanquefort,  near  Bordeaux, 
to  the  sea;  the  Graves,  or  high  plains  near 
the  confluence  of  the  Garonne  and  the  Dor- 
dogne ;  the  C6tes,  or  slopes  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Garonne;  the  ralus,  or  low  marshy 
territory  on  both  banks  of  the  Garonne,  in 
the  immediate  neighborhood  of  Bordeaux; 
and  the  district  of  Entre-deux-Mers,  or  low 
lands  between  the  Dordogne  and  Garonne. 
Within  this  area  more  than  850,000  acres  are 
devoted  to  vineyards,  whose  annual  produc- 
tion exceeds  50,000,000  gallons,  five  eighths 
of  which  are  red  and  three  eighths  white 
wines,  worth  $56,000,000.  The  poorest  kinds 
are  sold  at  less  than  a  franc  the  gallon,  while 
the  best  fetch  in  favorable  seasons  considerably 
more  than  20  francs.  The  distinguishing  qual- 
ities of  the  wines  of  Gironde  are  purity,  sub- 
astringency,  lightness,  and  fragrance.  In  its 
general  features  Medoc  is  a  long,  narrow  plain, 
inclining  somewhat  to  the  Gironde,  and  con- 
taining about  45,000  acres  of  vineyards,  pro- 
ducing annually  8,000,000  gallons.  Of  these 
nearly  one  eighth  are  high-class  wines,  an  equal 
amount  are  simply  fine  wines,  and  the  remain- 
der are  ordinary  qualities.  The  two  first  men- 
tioned grades  yield  a  net  product  of  about 
5,000,000  bottles.  They  are  red  in  color,  and, 
notwithstanding  a  slight  characteristic  rough- 
ness, have  great  flavor  and  strength  without 
being  intoxicating,  and  after  lying  several  years 
in  the  bottle  acquire  a  delicious  bouquet.  They 
not  only  bear  transportation  better  than  other 
French  wines,  but  are  even  improved  by  long 
sea  voyages.  It  is  customary  to  arrange  them 
in  three  categories :  1,  the  classified  wines,  of 
which  there  are  about  60  growths  recognized 
by  the  commerce  of  Bordeaux ;  2,  the  citizen 
or  bourgeois  wines ;  8,  the  peasants,  or  wines 
of  the  small  proprietors.  The  classified  growths 
are  again  subdivided  into  four  or  five  kindb, 
the  first  of  which  comprises  the  celebrated  first 
three  growths  {les  trois  premiers  cms)  of  the 
whole  M6doc,  viz.,  the  Ch&teau  Margaux,  Cha- 
teau Laffitte,  and  Ch&tean  J^tour,  which  are 
of  equal  excellence  and  of  enormous  price  even 
in  France.  In  this  division  it  is  also  custom- 
ary to  include  the  Chdteau  Ilaut-Brion,  a  red 


FRANCE  (WixES  of) 


411 


wine  of  groat  richness  and  delicacy  belonging 
to  the  neighboring  district  of  Graves.    Among 
the  second  and  other  growths,  well  known 
and  excellent  wines  are  the  Monton,  L^oville, 
Gruau-Larose,    Pichon-Longueville,   Cos-Des- 
tonmel,   Pontet-Canet,   Ch&teau  de   Beyche- 
viile,  &c.      To  all  red  wines  exported  from 
M6doc,  and  in  fact  from  the  whole  Bordelais, 
to  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States,  it  has 
long  been  customary  to   apply  the   general 
name  of  claret,  derived  from  the  French  elai- 
reU  which  simply  means  a  clarified  wine.    The 
product  called  claret  is,  however,  properly  a 
mixture  of  several  kinds  of  wine,  the  strong- 
bodied  varieties  of  Spain  and  southern  and 
southeastern  France  being  mingled  with  the 
ordinary  growths  of  Gironde,  to  suit  the  Eng- 
lish and  American  palate.    The  term  is  un- 
known  in   France.     A  comparatively  small 
amount  of  genuine  M^doc  wine  reaches  this 
country,  as  the  popular  taste  here  inclines  to 
a  factitious,  reinforced  wine,  having  body  and 
spirituous  strength,  rather  than  to  the  natural 
product  of  the  vineyards.    The  same  may  be 
said  of  Great  Britain,  notwithstanding  she  is 
the  principal  consumer  of  the  first-class  wines 
of  M6doo.    The  amount  of  mixing  carried  on  at 
Bordeaux  is  prodigious.     Her  exports  of  wine 
are  twelve  times  greater  than  the  production 
of  the  entire  M6doc,  and  half  of  these  exports 
sell  as  Bordeaux  wine ;  so  that  it  is  fair  to  as- 
sume that  the  growths  of  Gironde  are  several 
times  multiplied  by  the  addition  or  substitution 
of  other  wines.    There  are  42  communes  in 
M4doc  in  which  wine  is  made,  from  each  of 
which  the  wine  takes  its  name,  although  the 
grand  w^ines  are  named  after  the  estates  on 
which  they  are  made.    A  Margaux  wine  means 
a  wine  from  the  commune  so  called,  and  must 
not  be  confounded  ^ith  Chateau  Margaux, 
which  is  wine  from  a  particular  estate  in  that 
commune.     Other  familiar  names  are  Pauillac, 
in  which  Gh&teau  Laffitte  is  situated,-  St.  Ju- 
lien  de  Reignac,  and  St.  Est^phe;    South  of 
M6doc  lies  the  district  of  Graves,  which  pro- 
duces wines,  both  red  and  white,  of  greater 
body  and  more  spirituous  than  those  just  de- 
scribed, and  bearing  some  resemblance  to  the 
growths  oT  Burgundy.     The  best  of  the  red 
wines  is  the  Haut-Brion,  heretofore  mentioned. 
The  district  of  Sautemes,  a  prolongation  of 
that  of  Graves,  extendmg  along  the  left  bank 
of  the  Garonne,  produces  exclusively  white 
wines,  the  best  of  which,  though  of  delicate 
flavor  and  pure  aroma,  are  excessively  sweet 
in  comparison  with  the  wines  of  M6doc.    The 
latter  quality  has  been  given  to  them  of  late 
years  by  the  makers  in  consequence  of  the 
growing  demand  for  sweet  Sautemes  wines  in 
Russia.    The  poorer  grades  of  Sautemes  are 
thin  and  acidulous.    The  principal  growths  of 
the  district  are  the  Barsacs,  Bommes,  and  Sau- 
temes, the  first  of  which  produces  the  Ohd- 
teau  Coutet,  the  second  the  Oh&teau  La  Tour 
Blanche,  and  the  third  the  world-renowned 
Gh&teau  Yquem,  which  sells  for  from  12,000 


to  15,000  francs  the  ionneau  of  200  gallons  at 
the  vineyard,  and  is  esteemed  almost  too  costly 
for  use.  The  wine  of  Oii&teau  Suduiraut,  of 
the  Preignac  growth,  also  very  celebrated,  is 
worth  not  above  4,000  to  5,000  francs  the  ton- 
neau.  The  remaining  districts  of  Gironde  pro- 
duce wines  of  a  quality  considerably  inferior 
to  those  above  described.  The  best  are  grown 
in  the  vineyards  of  St.  Emilion,  in  the  valley 
of  the  Dordogne,  and  difier  considerably  from 
the  M6doc  wines,  recalling  many  of  the  quali- 
ties of  fine  port  wine.  Acyoining  St.  £mi]ion 
is  the  district  called  Liboumais,  and  N.  W. 
of  that,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Gironde,  are 
Fronsadais  and  Blayais,  yielding  considerable 
quantities  of  red  and  white  wines  of  good 
quality,  much  of  which  is  exported  under  va- 
rious names  to  America. — Roussillon,  formerly 
a  province  in  the  extreme  southern  part  of 
France,  but  now  merged  in  the  department  of 
Pyr^n^es-Orientales,  contains  about  130,000 
acres  of  vineyards,  which  produce  liqueur 
wines,  dry  wines,  and  a  number  of  sound,  full- 
bodied  varieties,  employed,  with  the  addition 
of  spirits,  in  the  manufacture  of  imitation  port 
and  similar  wines.  The  most  esteemed  growths 
of  the  first  class  are  the  muscat,  the  Malvoisie, 
and  the  Macoab6o,  which  are  for  the  most  part 
sweet,  rich  in  aroma,  and  fiery.  There  is  but 
a  limited  demand  for  them  in  France,  and  the 
greater  part  go  to  Russia  and  America.  North 
of  Roussillon  lie  the  departments  of  Aude,  H6- 
rault,  and  Gard,  forming  part  of  the  old  prov- 
ince of  Languedoc,  in  which  more  than  650,- 
000  acres  are  devoted  to  vineyards.  The  wines 
are  rich  in  color,  spirituous,  and  full  of  body, 
but  coarser  and  less  finely  flavored  than  those 
of  Gironde,  and  are  exported  to  all  parts  of 
France  to  be  mixed  with  the  Burgundies,  Bor- 
deaux, and  other  famous  growths.  They  are 
generally  called  xtijis  du  midiy  wines  of  the 
south,  and  are  classified  as  wines  for  distillery 
and  wines  of  commerce,  the  latter  being  again 
subdivided  into  fine  and  ordinary  red,  and 
white  dry  and  white  liqueur  and  muscat  wines. 
The  choicest  growths  are  found  in  the  depart- 
ments of  H^rault  and  Gard,  the  former  of 
which  is  said  to  yield  more  wine  than  the 
whole  kingdom  of  Portugal.  The  St.  Gilles 
wines,  made  in  Gard,  are  of  a  brilliant  pur** 
pie  color  and  possess  unusual  strength  and 
body,  which  qualities  they  impart  to  weakef 
wines,  whence  they  are  called  vins  fermes  and 
mna  de  remMe,  Not  a  little  of  the  so-called 
sherry  and  port  wine  of  commerce  is  manu- 
factured from  the  St.  Gilles.  The  luscious  and 
fragrant  Frontignans  and  Lunels,  which  are 
made  from  muscat  grapes,  belong  to  H^rault, 
and  were  once  in  great  favor  as  liqueur  wines. 
Large  quantities  of  alcohol  are  also  distilled  in 
this  department,  most  of  which  is  sold  in 
France.  The  department  of  Basses-Pyr6n6e9 
produces  about  10,000,000  gallons  of  wine, 
of  which  the  growths  of  Jurangon  and  Gan, 
red  and  white,  are  most  esteemed.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  districts  above  mentioned,  every  de- 


412 


FRANCE  (Wines  of) 


partment  of  southern  France  produces  wines 
of  a  similar  character,  but  generally  of  an  in- 
ferior quality,  which  serve  their  purpose  as 
vins  de  remlde, — To  the  valley  of  the  Rh6ne 
belongs  another  division  of  wines,  the  greater 
and  more  reputed  part  of  which  are  produced 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  river.  The  06te  du 
Rh6ne,  as  that  part  of  the  department  of 
Card  is  called  which  borders  on  the  Rh6ne, 
produces  red  and  white  wines  not  unlike 
those  of  St.  Gilles,  but  of  finer  quality.  On 
the  left  bank  of  tlie  river,  in  the  neighboring 
department  of  Vaucluse,  are  the  vineyards 
of  Ch&teauneuf-du-Pape,  the  wines  of  which, 
being  spirituous  and  dark-colored,  are  exported 
in  large  quantities  to  Bordeaux  and  Burgundy 
to  be  mixed  with  the  poorer  growths  of  those 
districts.  Further  up  the  Rh6ne,  on  its  right 
bank,  in  the  department  of  Ard^he,  are  pro- 
duced the  white  wines  of  St.  P6ray,  both  dry 
and  effervescent.  The  former  are  spirituous, 
delicate,  and  of  an  agreeable  bouquet;  the 
latter  heady  and  sweet,  but  the  sweetness 
arises  from  the  natural  juice  of  the  grape,  and 
not  from  the  addition  of  sugar,  whence  it  is 
considered  more  wholesome  than  champagne. 
Grossing  to  the  left  bank  of  the  Rh6ne  again, 
we  find  at  Tain,  in  the  department  of  Dr6me, 
which  is  a  part  of  the  old  province  of  Dauphiny, 
the  famous  vineyards  of  the  Hermitage,  so 
called  from  the  retreat  which  one  Gaspard  de 
Sterimberg,  a  courtier  of  Queen  Blanche  of 
Castile,  is  said  to  have  built  early  in  the  18th 
century  on  a  lofty,  round-topped  hill  rising  ab- 
ruptly from  the  river.  Its  S.  and  8.  W.  sides 
descend  in  a  series  of  terraces  to  the  river  level, 
and  are  covered  with  vines  on  which'  the  sun 
plays  the  whole  day,  maturing  the  juices  of  the 
grapes  to  absolute  perfection.  The  vineyards 
are  of  three  kinds,  according  to  the  soil  of 
which  the  terraces  are  composed,  and  the  high 
quality  of  the  wine  depends  upon  the  combi- 
nation of  the  growths  of  these  vineyards,  which 
are  always  sold  mixed;  so  that  a  proprietor, 
in  order  to  have  his  produce  classified  as  of 
first  quality,  must  hold  property  in  the  three 
vineyards.  Nine  tenths  of  the  wines  are  red. 
The  first  growths  are  sent  to  Bordeaux  to  be 
mixed  with  the  clarets  which  are  made  up 
for  the  English  market,  and  only  the  second 
growths  are  sold  in  the  trade  as  Hermitage. 
But  these,  when  genuine,  areesteemed  the  best 
wines  of  southern  France,  being  distinguished 
by  body  and  richness,  a  lively  purple  color,  and 
a  peculiar  bouquet.  The  white  Hermitage  is 
of  great  rarity  and  delicacy,  and  will  keep  for 
60  years.  The  vineyards  of  Gondrieu,  in  the 
department  of  Rh6ne,  south  of  Lyons,  produce 
a  white  effervescent  wine  of  luscious  taste  and 
agreeable  aroma,  which  is  described  as  an  im- 
perfect champagne.  In  the  commune  of  Am- 
puls, a  few  miles  distant,  is  the  vineyard  of  the 
C6te-R6tie,  literally  the  "  burnt  side,"  which 
has  an  exposure  scarcely  less  favorable  than 
that  of  the  Hermitage.  It  produces  red  wines, 
of  remarkable  clearness,  strength,  and  bouquet, 


the  first  quality  of  which  ranks  among  the  best 
in  France.  North  of  Lyons  and  along  the 
Sa6ne  and  other  tributaries  of  the  Rh6ne  he 
the  districts  of  Beacgolais,  M&connais,  and  C6te 
de  Ch&lon,  the  wines  of  which,  while  difiering 
in  many  respects  from  those  of  Burgundy  and 
the  valley  of  the  Rh6ne,  may  be  said  to  form 
a  connecting  link  between  them.  The  Beaujo- 
lais,  formerly  part  of  the  province  of  Lyonnais, 
but  now  mainly  forming  an  arrondissement  of 
which  Villefranche  is  5ie  chief  place,  lies  be- 
tween M&con  and  Lyons  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  8a6ne.  The  district  being  hilly  in  parts,  the 
vineyards  are  designated  as  high  or  low  Beau- 
jolais,  according  to  their  situation  and  elevation. 
The  low  Bea^jolais  produces  a  greater  quantity 
of  wine,  but  of  a  coarser  quality,  than  the  high. 
The  best  growths  are  those  of  Chinas,  Fleu- 
ry,  Lanci6,  and  St.  ftienne-la-Varenne,  light- 
colored  wines,  and  the  Julli^nas,  which  repre- 
sents a  class  of  fine,  strong,  and  deep-colored 
wines.  The  products  of  the  Beaigolais  are  as 
a  rule  more  acid  and  delicate  than  those  of  the 
valley  of  the  Rh6ne,  and  are  largely  consumed 
in  France.  The  M4connais  is  the  district  lying 
around  M&con,  and  immediately  N.  of  the  Bean- 
jolais.  It  formed  part  of  ancient  Burgundy, 
and  its  wines  are  regarded  ^s  a  species  of  second 
class  Burgundies.  They  are  botn  red  and  white, 
the  former  class  greatly  predominating  in  quan- 
tity but  not  in  quality.  The  best  red  growths 
are  those  of  Thorins,  Romandche,  St.  Amour, 
and  Davay6,  the  finer  grades  of  which  are  not 
unfrequently  taken  into  Burgundy  and  sold  as 
wine  of  that  country.  Much  of  the  red  M4con 
is  alcoholic  and  exceedingly  acid ;  but  the  latter 
quality,  the  result  of  unscientific  methods  of 
making  the  wine,  is  not  considered  an  objection 
by  the  natives,  who  almost  invariably  drink 
their  wine  mixed  with  water.  White  M&con 
is  produced  in  the  vineyards  of  Pouilly  and 
Fuiss^,  in  the  extreme  northern  part  of  the 
district.  The  Pouilly  wine  is  the  finest  product 
of  the  M&connais,  and  in  good  years  is  scarcely 
surpassed  by  any  w  ine  made  in  France.  It  is  dry, 
of  a  deep  golden  hue  and  a  superb  bouquet,  but, 
like  all  the  wines  of  the  district,  is  a  little  too 
heady.  The  Fuiss6  is  inferior  in  quality,  and 
mostly  used  to  mix  with  the  Pouilly.  The  re 
maining  wines  of  the  Sa6ne  valley  are  those 
of  the  C6te  de  ChAlon,  under  which  name  are 
comprised  the  vineyards  of  the  arrondissement 
of  Ch41on-snr-Sa6ne.  The  best  growths  have 
an  admirable  exposure  and  are  nearly  related 
to  the  Burgundies  properly  so  called,  but,  owing 
to  a  vicious  system  of  culture,  are  of  vastly  in- 
ferior quality.  The  best  of  them  are  employed 
to  mix  with  Burgundies. — The  Burgundy  wine 
district  is  often  popularly  described  as  com- 
prehending the  departments  of  Tonne,  C6te- 
d'Or,  and  Sa6ne-et-IiOire,  which  were  all  in- 
cluded in  the  ancient  province  of  Burgundy. 
But  the  greater  part  of  the  last  named  depart- 
ment is  monopolized  by  the  M4con  and  C6tede 
Ch&lon  wines,  which  are  not  true  Burgundies ; 
and  the  products  of  Yonne  bear  no  closer  rela- 


FRANCE  (Wnras  of) 


413 


tioQ  to  the  latter  than  do  those  of  Sadne-et- 
Loire.  This  restricts  the  production  of  genuine 
Burgundy  wines  to  the  department  of  C6te 
d^Or,  literally  the  "golden  side,"  so  called  from 
a  series  of  low  hills,  about  86  miles  in  length, 
which  stretch  from  the  neighborhood  of  Ch&lon- 
sur-Sa6ne,  through  the  heart  of  the  department, 
to  Dijon.  Along  the  slopes  of  this  ridge,  which 
has  a  general  S.  S.  £.  exposure,  lie  the  vine- 
yards and  estates,  frequently  extending  a  mile 
or  two  on  the  plain  beneath,  which  produce  the 
famous  growths  of  Burgundy.  These  may  be 
divided  into  two  classes,  of  which  the  finer 
includes  Ghambertin,  the  favorite  wine  of 
Napoleon  I.,  Bichebourg,  Gorton,  T4che,  Ko- 
man^e  de  St.  Yivant,  Romance  Gonti,  and 
Glos  de  Vougeot,  all  of  superlative  excellence 
and  enormous  price,  and  some  of  them  of  very 
limited  supply.  The  Glos  de  Vougeot  vine- 
yard, one  of  the  largest,  contains  not  above 
120  acres,  some  of  which  is  poor  land,  while 
the  Ghambertin  contains  less  than  12,  and  the 
Romance  Gonti  only  6^  acres.  With  so  limited 
an  area  of  production,  the  choice  growths  of 
Burgundy  are  necessarily  rarely  met  with. 
Next  to  these  come  the  wines  of  Nuits,  Vol- 
nay,  Pommard,  Beaune,  Vosne,  Ghambolle,  and 
a  number  of  other  vineyards,  which  are  litUe 
inferior  to  those  of  the  first  class.  These 
winea  are  all  red  and  are  distinguished  by 
suavity  of  taste  and  spirituous  bouquet.  They 
possess  more  body  than  the  wines  of  the  Bor- 
delais,  and  are  more  heating ;  but  the  popular 
objections  to  them,  that  they  cause  gout  and 
will  not  bear  transportation,  are  not  entirely 
sustained.  Good  Burgundy  is  exported  to 
many  parts  of  the  world,  and  everywhere  is 
held  in  equal  esteem  with  the  best  Bordeaux 
wines,  although  in  the  opinion  of  experts  it 
can  only  be  drunk  in  absolute  perfection  in  or 
near  the  district  in  which  it  is  produced.  This 
may  account  for  the  fact  that  it  is  much  less  fre- 
quently found  in  America  than  the  wines  of 
Bordeaux.  As  to  its  effects  upon  the  physical 
system,  it  may  suffice  to  say  that  the  proportion 
of  gouty  persons  is  no  greater  in  Burgundy, 
where  the  wine  is  universally  drunk,  than  in 
parts  of  Europe  where  it  is  comparatively 
unknown.  A  marked  peculiarity  of  the  G6te 
d^Or  is  that  it  produces  not  only  some  of  the 
best  wines  in  the  world,  but  some  of  the  worst. 
Owing  to  rude  and  primitive  and  often  filthy 
processes  of  promoting  the  fermentation  of  the 
grape  juice,  which  are  in  a  measure  common 
to  all  the  vineyards  of  the  department,  a  large 
proportion  of  the  wine  has  a  harsh,  disagree- 
able taste,  and  will  not  keep;  and  it  is  said 
that  there  is  not  an  inn  or  hotel  along  the  G6te 
in  which  a  bottle  of  Burgundy  fit  for  travellers 
to  drink  can  be  obtained.  An  improvement 
in  the  making  of  the  wine  may  not  materially 
increase  the  production  of  the  first  growths, 
bnt  it  would  greatly  aid  the  reputation  of  the 
lower  grades.  The  white  wines  of  Burgundy 
are  less  numerous  than  the  red,  and  less  known 
outside  of  France.    The  purest  is  the  Mon- 


trachet,  produced  in  the  G6te  d'Or,  which  is 
noted  for  its  combination  of  body  and  strength 
with  an  exquisite  bouquet ;  after  which  rank 
the  products  of  the  vineyards  of  La  Perri^re, 
I^  Gombotte,  and  La  Goutte  d^Or  at  Meursault. 
In  the  department  of  Yonne  is  produced  an 
extensive  class  of  white  wines,  bearing  the 
general  name  of  Ghablis,  of  various  degrees  of 
excellence  and  generally  of  agreeable  flavor. 
They  are  much  exported  to  England  and 
America,  and  are  often  described  as  a  species 
of  Burgundy.  They  can,  however,  lay  no  bet- 
ter claim  to  this  title  than  the  wines  of  the  Md- 
connais  or  even  of  the  Beai\jolais. — Of  all  the 
wines  of  France,  the  products  of  the  Ghampagne 
country  are  the  most  popular  and  widely  dis- 
tributed, although,  in  consequence  of  their  cost- 
liness, they  are  perhaps  not  so  generally  con- 
sumed as  the  wines  of  Gironde.  As  early  as 
A.  D.  280  the  district  was  noted  for  its  red 
and  white  wines,  but  it  was  not  until  the  close 
of  the  17th  century  that  the  effervescent  pro- 
duct known  as  mottsseux,  the  typical  cham- 
pagne of  the  present  day,  was  discovered. 
Since  that  time  the  productiveness  of  the  dis- 
trict has  enormously  increased,  and  the  pro- 
cesses of  manufacture  have  reached  a  high 
degree  of  perfection.  The  old  province  of 
Ghampagne  is  now  distributed  among  several 
departments  and  portions  of  departments,  all 
wine-producing ;  but  in  only  one  of  them,  that 
of  Marne,  is  the  champagne  of  commerce  made. 
The  wines  of  the  other  departments  have  for 
the  most  part  a  local  reputation,  and  are  con- 
sumed in  the  immediate  neighborhood.  Marne 
is  subdivided  into  five  arrondissements,  two 
of  which,  Rheims  and  £pemay,  are  the  true 
seats  of  the  champagne  wine  manufacture. 
The  vineyards  of  Rheims  are  situated  around 
the  slopes  of  a  wooded  mountain,  called  the 
bois  et  mantaane  de  Rheims,  and  comprise  the 
famous  growths  of  Verzenay,  Bouzy,  Ay,  Verzy, 
Ambonay,  Trepail,  Mailly,  and  some  others. 
Those  of  £pernay  lie  south  of  the  Marne  and 
occupy  an  undulating  plain  extending  to  the  for- 
est of  Vertus.  Of  this  district  the  town  of  £per- 
nay  is  the  centre.  Hence  the  champagne  pro- 
duct of  Marne  may  be  divided  into  two  classes, 
the  vins  de  la  montagne,  or  mountain  wines, 
and  the  vint  de  la  HvUre,  or  river  wines.  The 
total  vintage  of  Marne  is  about  80,000,000  bot- 
tles, somewhat  more  than  one  fourth  part  of 
which  is  champagne  wine  made  in  Rheims  and 
£pernay.  The  champagne  vintage  begins  in 
the  latter  part  of  September  and  extends  into 
October.  The  grapes,  after  careful  selection, 
are  subjected  to  three  or  four  pressings,  of 
which  only  the  firat  three  are  employed  to 
make  wine  of  good  quality.  The  process  must 
be  performed  with  rapidity,  or  the  must  will 
become  colored.  The  must  obtained  by  the 
first  three  drawings  is  put  into  large  vats,  where 
during  the  next  12  or  18  hours  it  develops  a 
froth  on  the  top  and  depodts  a  mucous  matter 
at  the  bottom.  Having  been  freed  from  both 
of  these  impurities,  it  is  drawn  into  barrels 


414 


FRANCE  (Wnres  or) 


holding  44  gallons  each,  and  there  left  to  fer- 
ment. The  residne  of  the  grapes  left  in  the 
press  after  the  first  drawings  is  used  for  making 
a  common  red  wine.  About  the  beginning  of 
December  the  wine,  being  then  clear,  is  drawn 
from  the  lees,  and  the  mixing  of  various  growths, 
the  first  important  operation  in  the  production 
of  champagne,  commences.  This  process  re- 
quires great  skill  and  judgment,  for  upon  its 
successtlil  performance  the  flavor  and  bodj  of 
the  wine  in  great  measure  depend.  Cham- 
pagne is  seldom  the  product  of  a  single  vine- 
yard, but  is  a  combination  of  a  number  of 
growths.    In  this  respect  it  holds  a  peculiar 

Position  among  French  wines.  The  growths 
aving  been  mixed  in. large  vats  in  the  pro- 
portions determined  upon  by  the  manufacturer, 
the  combination  is  again  drawn  into  barrels, 
where  it  is  tined,  after  which  it  is  allowed  to 
rest  until  the  spring.  Up  to  this  time  the  wines 
are  rarely  tampered  with  by  the  introduction 
of  sugar  or  brandy ;  but  in  unfavorable  seasons 
the  former  substance  is  sometimes  necessary 
to  enable  them  to  undergo  the  operation  of  a 
second  fermentation,  without  which  it  is  im- 
possible to  make  them  sparkle  {mousser).  Next 
comes  the  operation  of  bottling,  which  com- 
mences in  April  and  continues  until  June.  The 
liquid  is  now  of  a  uniform  amber  color,  and, 
if  of  good  quality,  will  be  not  unpalatable.  The 
bottles,  which  are  the  same  as  those  from  which 
the  wine  is  drunk  when  finally  prepared  for 
drinking,  are  filled  to  within  an  inch  or  so 
of  their  mouths  and  then  corked.  The  corks 
having  been  fastened  down  securely  with  string 
and  wire,  or  by  the  more  recent  method  with 
clasps,  the  botties  are  conveyed  into  cellars  or 
caves  and  laid  carefully  on  their  sides.  The 
secondary  fermentation  ordinarily  commences 
in  June  and  continues  during  the  summer, 
pending  which,  especially  when  the  grapes  be- 
gin to  ripen,  or  in  stormy  weather,  a  loss  esti- 
mated At  from  10  to  15  per  cent.,  and  some- 
times reaching  25  per  cent.,  is  sustained  by  the 
bursting  of  the  bottles  and  the  consequent  es- 
cape of  the  liquor.  When  the  fermentation  is 
finished  and  the  breakage  has  nearly  ceased, 
the  stacks  of  bottles  are  overhauled,  and  those 
bottles  in  good  condition  are  restacked.  After 
a  lapse  of  18  months,  during  which  the  wine 
is  allowed  to  lie  at  rest,  it  is  shaken  at  intervals 
for  several  weeks,  until  a  thick  deposit  is  found 
in  the  neck  of  each  bottle,  which  is  removed 
by  the  process  of  disgorging.  The  cork  is  dis- 
charged with  a  loud  report,  and  the  froth, 
which  immediately  rises  and  is  partly  project- 
ed, carries  with  it  all  the  impurity  collected 
in  the  neck.  Champagne  prepared  in  this 
manner  is  quite  dry,  containing  no  sugar  what- 
ever perceptible  to  the  taste.  But  a  further 
operation  is  necessary  in  order  to  prepare  it 
for  exportation  or  commerce.  This  consists  in 
adding  to  each  bottle  a  certain  percentage  of 
melted  rock  candy  mixed  with  brandy  or  some 
finely  fiavored  wine.  The  amount  introduced 
varies  according  to  the  country  in  which  the 


wine  is  to  be  consumed,  England  using  the  min- 
imum and  Russia  the  maximum.    The  bottles 
are  then  recorked,  and  secured  by  strings  and 
wire  or  clasps,  and  the  air  is  excluded  by  cov- 
ering the  necks  with  tin  foil  or  sealing  wax. 
The  wine  is  now  between  two  and  three  years 
old  and  ready  for  use.   Of  the  bottled  w ines  pro- 
duced in  Champagne  four  varieties  are  known 
to  commerce:  1,  champagne  non-m&tiMsitx,  or 
still  champagne,  that  is,  wine  which  has  been 
fully  fermented,  fined,  bottled  in  the  usual 
manner  of  mousseux  wines,  and  allowed  to 
rest  a  long  time ;  2,  champagne  eremant,  which 
forms  a  slight  cream  of  enervescent  bubbles 
upon  its  surface  when  poured  into  a  glass ;  8, 
ehampa^e  moueseux^  which  upon  being  opened 
projects  the  cork  with  an  audible  report,  and 
rises  gently  over  the  mouth  of  the  bottle ;  and 
4,  champagne  grand  movMeux,  which  projects 
the  cork  with  a  loud  report  and  immediately 
overfiows  from  the   bottle.      The  prices   of 
champagne  vary  at  the  place  of  manufacture 
from  $4  the  dozen  bottles  to  $18  or  $20,  but 
$10  will  give  the  consumer  a  sound  wine  of 
excellent  quality.    Of  the  25,000,000  bottles 
or  upward  annually  produced,  one  sixth  part 
goes  to  the  United  States;  England,  Russia, 
and  the  East  Indies  consume  each  about  the 
same  quantity ;  and  the  remainder  is  distributed 
among  other  European  countries.    Most  of  the 
wine  sent  to  the  United  States  purports  to 
come  from  Rheims,  although  in  fact  it  is  the 
product  of  vineyards  scattered  throughout  the 
arrondissements  of  Rheims  and  £pernay ;  and 
its  reputation  rests  upon  the  names  of  its 
manufacturers  rather  than  upon  the  locality 
where  it  is  produced.    As  a  remedial  agent, 
champagne,  though  a  factitious  product,  is 
highly  esteemed  for  its  diuretic  and  strength- 
ening properties.     It  comforts  and  rests  the 
stomach,  and   is  a   recognized   antidote  to 
nausea. — To  the  wine  districts  above  described 
it  is  necessary  to  add  but  a  few  others.     The 
department  of  Dordogne,  the  ancient  prov- 
ince of  P^rigord,  which  lies  E.  of  the  Bordelais, 
yields  red  and  white  wines,  of  which  the  for- 
mer resemble  St.  £milion,   while  the  latter 
partake  partly  of  the  qualities  of  Frontignac 
and  partly  of  those  of  Barsac.    Bordeaux  is  the 
principal  receptacle  for  the  wines  of  this  dis- 
trict.    The  department  of  Vienne,  formerly 
Haut-Poitou,  produces  about  12,000,000  gal- 
lons of  mediocre  quality.    The  departments  of 
Lot  and  Lot-et-Garonne,  lying  S.  of  Dordogne, 
form  an  extensive  wine-producing  district,  of 
which  Cahors  is  the  central  point.    The  wines 
are  white,  rose-colored,  and  black,  and  much 
of  the  last  named  variety  is  sent  to  Bordeaux 
to  strengthen  and  color  light  wines,    llie  Ca- 
hors wines  have  little  bouquet,  but  are  strong 
in  body,  and  the  dark  varieties  will  keep  50 
years  in  the  bottle.    The  department  of  Cha- 
rente,  lying  N.  of   Dordogne,  and  through 
which  fiowB  the  river  Charente,  is  largely  de- 
voted to  the  culture  of  the  vine.    The  wines 
are  used  for  distillation  immediately  after  the 


FRANOHE-COMTfi 


FRANOIA 


415 


fermentation  is  over,  and  from  them  is  pro- 
duced the  best  brandj  made  Iq  France.  The 
centre  of  this  manafacture  is  the  town  of  Co- 
gnac, whence  the  name  fi^equentlj  applied  to 
French  brandies. 

FRABrCHE-COMTE  (free  connty),  an  ancient 
province  of  France,  now  comprised  in  the  de- 
partments of  Jura,  Doubs,  and  Haute-Sa6ne. 
Its  capital  was  Besan^on.  It  is  drained  by  the 
Sa6ne,  Doubs,  and  A  in,  is  partly  covered  with 
forests,  and  contains  iron  and  coal  mines,  mar- 
ble quarries,  and  salt  pits.  The  country  was 
originally  inhabited  by  the  Sequani,  and  was 
called  Maxima  Sequanorum  by  the  Romans. 
Iq  the  5th  century  it  was  occupied  by  the  Bur- 
gnndians,  and  subsequently  became  a  part  of 
the  Frankish  dominions.  After  the  disruption 
of  the  Carlovingian  empire  it  passed  through 
various  changes,  finally  falling  to  the  German 
empire.  It  was  then  governed  by  its  own 
coants,  although  the  name  of  Franche-Comt4 
does  not  occur  until  near  the  middle  of  the  12th 
century ;  the  origin  of  this  name  is  attributed  to 
the  freedom  of  tiie  country  from  all  taxes  and 
imposts,  save  a  certain  sum  granted  annually 
to  the  sovereign  under  the  tide  of  a  free  gift. 
A  little  later  it  was  also  styled  the  palatine 
county  of  Burgundy.  In  1884  it  fell  to  the 
Valois  house  of  Burgundy  in  consequence  of 
the  previous  marriage  of  Margaret  of  Flanders 
with  Philip  the  Bold.  On  the  death  of  the  last 
duke,  Charles  the  Bold,  it  passed  to  the  house 
of  Austria  by  the  marriage  of  his  daughter 
Mary  with  the  archduke  Maximilian,  through 
whose  son  Philip  it  became  attached  to  the 
crown  of  Spain.  Louis  XIV.  conquered  it  in 
1674,  during  his  war  against  Holland,  and  got 
definite  possession  of  it  by  the  treaty  of  Nime- 
guen  in  1678. 

FKiNCHI,  Ai§Ml«,  an  Italian  philosopher, 
whose  real  name  is  Fbanoesgo  Bonavino, 
born  at  Pegli,  in  the  province  of  Genoa,  in 
1820.  Having  adopted  rationalistic  views,  he 
left  in  1849  the  priesthood  and  an  institution 
over  which  he  presided  at  Genoa,  and  in  1852 
published  Za  iiUmfia  delle  scuole  italiane,  in 
opposition  to  the  doctrines  of  Rosmini,  Gioberti, 
and  Mamiani,  and  in  favor  of  the  French  phi- 
losophers of  the  18th  century.  His  treatise 
La  religions  delseeolo  XIX.  (1853),  his  review, 
La  Bagione,  established  in  1854,  and  II  raziona- 
lismo  del  vopolo  (1855),  indicate  his  adherence 
to  Feuerbach,  Oomte,  and  other  positivists, 
and  expound  humanitarian  and  rationalistic 
views  of  religion  and  civilization ;  and  in  his 
Del  9entimento  (1854)  he  makes  sensation  the 
basis  of  all  psychological  faculties.  Among  his 
more  recent  publications  are  Lezioni  sulla  sto- 
via  delta  filowfia  modema  (1863),  and  Sulla 
teoria  del  giuditio  (1871).  He  has  been  for 
some  time  professor  of  the  philosophy  of  his- 
tory in  the  university  of  Pavia. 

FRANCIA,  FrucMM,  a  punter  of  the  Bolo- 

gnese  school,  whose  real  name  was  Francesco 

Raibolini,  bom  in  Bologna  about  1450,  died 

in  1517,  or,  according  to  Lanzi,  in  1533.    He 

834  TOL.  vn.— 27 


was  originally  a  goldsmith,  and  acquired  great 
skill  in  his  profession,  under  the  direction  of  a 
master  named  Francia,  whose  name  he  took. 
In  1490  Giovanni  Bentivoglio  invited  the  art- 
ists of  neighboring  cities  to  adorn  his  palace  in 
Bologna.  Francia,  zealous  to  uphold  the  honor 
of  Bolognese  art,  competed  with  the  strangers, 
and  painted  some  noble  works  for  the  Benti- 
voglio chapel,  one  of  which,  an  altarpiece  with 
portraits  of  the  Bentivogli,  is  probably  as  fine  a 
specimen  of  his  style  as  exists.  Later  in  life 
Francia  attempted  ffesco  painting,  of  his  pro- 
ficiency in  which  he  has  left  a  notable  example 
in  the  series  illustrating  the  life  of  St.  Cecilia, 
now  in  decay.  His  style  partakes  of  the  char- 
acteristics of  Perugino  and  G.  BellinL 

FRAKCIA.  Jss6  €te§F«r  RedrigMz  (commonly 
called  Dr.  Francia),  dictator  of  Paraguay,  bom 
in  Asuncion  about  1757,  died  there,  Sept.  20, 
1840.  He  boasted  that  he  was  of  French  ex- 
traction, but  his  father  is  supposed  to  have 
been  born  in  Brazil,  of  Portuguese  descent,  and 
to  have  emigrated  to  Paraguay  as  an  agricul- 
turist along  with  other  settlers.  His  mother 
was  a  Creole.  He  was  educated  for  the  priest- 
hood, received  the  degree  of  doctor  of  divinity, 
was  for  a  short  time  a  professor  of  theology 
at  Cordova  de  Tucuman,  then  applied  himself 
to  the  practice  of  the  law,  and  gaining  a  repu- 
tation for  ability  and  rectitude,  was  appointed  to 
several  public  offices.  After  the  declaration  of 
independence  by  the  Paraguayans  in  1811,  he 
became  the  secretary  of  the  revolutionary  jun- 
ta, the  other  members  of  which  were  two  as- 
sessors and  a  president,  Don  Fulgencio  Yegros. 
The  latter  and  Francia  were  in  1813  appoint- 
ed joint  consuls  for  one  year,  but  Francia  was 
the  moving  spirit  of  the  govemment.  At  his 
instigation  the  consulship  was  abolished  in 
1814,  and  he  was  made  dictator  for  three  years, 
at  the  end  of  which  he  contrived  to  secure  his 
election  as  dictator  for  life.  He  combined  in  his 
own  person  almost  all  the  powers  of  the  govern- 
ment. He  monopolized  the  cultivation  of  mati 
or  Paraguay  tea,  and  of  other  products  of  the 
country,  but  husbanded  the  national  resources 
with  great  sagacity,  gave  a  powerful  impulse 
to  the  rearing  of  horses  and  cattle  and  to  the 
cultivation  of  rice  and  grain,  and  established 
a  standing  army  and  guard  houses  along  the 
frontiers,  to  protect  the  people  against  attacks 
from  the  Indians.  He  devised  a  code  of  laws, 
promoted  education,  checked  the  abuses  of  the 
clergy,  improved  the  appearance  of  the  capital, 
and,  while  neighboring  states  were  in  anarchy, 
secured  for  Paraguay  a  comparative  degree  <^ 
tranquillity.  He  peremptorily  declined  all  inter- 
course with  other  South  American  states,  and 
almost  all  foreign  nations,  and  detained  all  for- 
eigners who  set  foot  in  the  country.  No  ex- 
port or  import  trade  was  allowed  without  the 
dictator's  license,  and  death  awaited  those  who 
were  detected  in  leaving  the  country  without 
his  special  permission.  Those  opposed  to  his 
rule  were  either  shot  or  imprisoned.  The  prin- 
cipal victims  of  his  administration  were  pecu- 


416 


FRANCIA 


FRANCIS  (France) 


lating  officials,  ooimpt  priestA,  and  persons 
generally  who  endeavored  to  enrich  them- 
selves at  the  public  expense.  He  was  gene- 
rally humane  toward  the  poor,  and  professed 
to  be  impelled  to  rigorous  measures  by  a  sense 
of  justice.  He  was  most  unrelentingly  cruel 
toward  those  who  were  accused  of  conspiracy 
against  his  life.  About  1819  Gen.  Ramirez 
of  Entre  Rios  was  supposed  to  contemplate  an 
invasion  of  Paraguay.  A  letter  from  him  to 
Yegros,  Francia's  former  associate  in  the  con- 
sulate, fell  into  the  latter^B  hands.  Yegros  waff 
charged  with  plotting  against  the  country,  and, 
with  upward  of  40  others,  was  put  to  death, 
and  about  300  persons  were  imprisoned  for  18 
months,  when  they  were  only  released  upon 
the  payment  of  a  large  ransom.  Some  of 
Francia^s  prisoners  were  subjected  to  the  most 
cruel  tortures,  and  the  delight  which  he  seemed 
to  find  in  inflicting  torment  gave  rise  to  the 
belief  that,  like  some  of  his  brothers,  he  was 
occasionally  deranged.  In  his  habits  of  life  he 
was  peculiar.  After  having  been  fond  of  gam- 
bling and  social  and  sensual  enjoyments,  be  led 
a  life  of  the  utmost  retirement,  and  Paraguay 
was  not  more  isolated  from  the  rest  of  the 
world  than  he  from  the  rest  of  mankind.  He 
resided  in  the  palace  of  the  former  governors 
of  Paraguay,  attended  by  four  slaves.  His 
barber,  a  mulatto,  was  his  principal  channel  of 
communication  with  the  public,  and  a  half-breed 
named  Patiilos  was  his  principial  secretary. 
After  the  death  of  his  master  the  latter  was 
implicated  in  a  charge  of  conspiracy  against  the 
government,  and  hung  himself  in  prison.  To- 
ward the  end  of  his  reign  Francia  was  in  con- 
stant fear  of  assassination.  He  remained  a 
bachelor  until  his  70th  year,  when  he  was  re- 
ported to  have  married  a  young  French  woman. 
He  was  a  man  of  remarkable  physiognomy, 
with  dark,  piercing  eyes,  and  of  great  mental 
powers,  which  he  cultivated  by  study  and  read- 
mg.  He  was  especially  fond  of  the  French 
literature  of  the  18th  century,  and  an  admirer 
both  of  Robespierre  and  Napoleon.  The  anec- 
dotes of  his  eccentricities  were  almost  as  nu- 
merous as  the  reports  of  his  cruelties.  Yet  his 
death  was  deplored  as  a  public  calamity,  and 
the  people  seemed  to  recognize  in  him  a  friend 
and  a  benefactor.  His  reputation  as  the  ty- 
rant of  Paraguay  was  particularly  aggravated  in 
Europe  by  his  treatment  of  Bonpland  the  distin- 
guished botanist,  whom  he  detained  for  nearly 
ten  years,  and  by  the  accounts  given  of  him  by 
other  persons  whom  he  had  interfered  with. 
Among  these  were  two  Swiss  surgeons,  Rig- 
ger and  Longchamp  whom  he  detained  from 
1819  to  1825.  On  their  retui-n  they  related 
tlieir  observations,  and  expressed  their  dis- 
like of  Francia,  in  an  Essai  hutorique  svr  la 
revolution  de  Par<iguay  et  le  gouvemement  dic- 
tatorial du  docteur  Francia  (Paris,  1827).  Two 
young  Scotchmen,  J.  P.  and  W.  P.  Robertson, 
who  went  to  Paraguay  on  a  commercial  ven- 
ture, were  turned  out  of  the  country  by  the  dic- 
tator, and  they  gave  appalling  accounts  of  his 


administration  in  three  works:  ^^ Letters  on 
Paraguay"  (2  vols.,  London,  1838),  "Francia's 
Reign  of  Terror"  (1889),  and  "Letters  on 
South  America"  (3  vols.,  1843).  A  graphic 
sketch  of  his  life  and  character  was  given  by 
Thomas  Oarlyle  in  an  article  in  the  "Foreign 
Quarterly  Review "  (1848),  in  which  the  dic- 
tator is  greatly  lauded  for  his  eccentric  and 
ruthless  energy  and  justice.  0.  A.  Washburn, 
in  his  "History  of  Paraguay"  (1871)>  paints 
him  in  the  darkest  colors. 

FRANCIS)  the  name  of  several  sovereigns  of 
France,  Germany  (including  Austria),  and  the 
Two  Sicilies. 

I.   FSAKOE. 

FEANCIS  I.,  king  of  France,  son  of  Charles, 
count  of  Angoul^me  (cousin  german  of  Louis 
XII.),  and  Louisa  of  Savoy,  bom  at  Cognac, 
Sept.  12,  1494,  died  at  Rambouillet,  March  81, 
1547.  He  married  Claude,  daughter  of  Louis 
XII.,  in  1514,  and  succeeded  him  as  nearest 
heir,  Jan.  1,  1515.  Louis  was  meditating  the 
reconquest  of  the  Af  ilanese,  which  he  claimed 
as  heir  of  his  grandmother,  Valentina  Yisconti, 
at  the  moment  of  his  death ;  and  the  youthful 
king,  having  renewed  his  predecessor's  treaty 
with  England,  immediately  crossed  the  Alps 
with  an  army  of  about  40,000,  by  passes  previ- 
ously considered  impracticable.  Tlie  Swiss 
army  employed  by  the  duke  of  Milan  to  defend 
the  foot  of  the  Alps  was  driven  back,  but  being 
joined  by  reinforcements  gave  him  battle  at 
Marignano  (Melegnano),  10  m.  S.  E.  of  Milan, 
Sept.  13,  1515.  It  was  a  fierce  contest,  since 
called  the  battle  of  the  giants;  and  though  the 
Swiss  had  only  infantry  to  oppose  to  the  finest 
cavalry  in  Europe,  they  retired  only  on  the 
second  day  with  a  loss  of  12,000.  Francis  had 
lost  8,000  of  his  best  troops,  but  he  had  dis- 
played extraordinary  generalsliip  and  valor; 
and  his  name  became  at  once  the  most  distin- 
guished in  Europe.  In  the  chivalric  spirit  of 
the  age  he  accepted  knighthood  on  the  spot 
from  the  chevalier  Bayard,  whose  final  charge 
had  completed  the  victory.  After  the  battle 
Francis  wisely  granted  the  Swiss  an  honorable 
peace,  and  secured  their  constant  alliance.  He 
also  made  a  concordat  with  the  pope,  and, 
master  of  Milan,  returned  in  triumph  to  Paris. 
In  1517  he  made  a  treaty  of  friendship  and  al- 
liance against  the  Turks  with  the  emperor  Maxi- 
milian and  his  grandson  Charles  I.  of  Spain,  and 
in  1518  a  treaty  with  England,  by  which  Tour- 
nay  was  returned  to  France.  He  was  now  es- 
tablished firmly  at  home ;  the  power  of  the  feu- 
dal nobility  was  gone,  and  his  parliament  was 
wholly  subservient.  Maximilian  died  in  Jan- 
uary, 1519,  and  Francis  became  a  competitor 
with  Charles  L,  afterward  Charles  V.  of  Ger- 
many, for  the  imperial  sceptre.  Charles  pre- 
vailed in  the  electoral  council  in  consequence 
of  a  recommendation  of  Frederick  the  Wise, 
elector  of  Saxony,  and  Francis  betrayed  the 
passions  natural  to  disappointed  ambition.  His 
chagrin  forced  from  him  expressions  of  dispar- 


FRANCIS  (Fbanoe) 


417 


agement  of  his  saccessfol  rival,  which  were  re- 
sented; and  from  this  jealoasy,  as  much  as 
from  conflicting  interests,  arose  that  hostilitj 
between  these  princes  which  kept  Earope  in 
turmoil  during  their  reigns.  It  was  easy  to 
find  causes  of  strife;  Italy  and  Navarre  af- 
forded them  abundantly.  But  before  engaging 
in  war,  each  strove  to  gain  to  his  interests  the 
English  king  Henry  VIIL,  who  obviously  held 
the  balance  in  his  hand.  Charles  hastened  to 
pay  this  monarch  a  personal  visit  at  Dover  as 
he  passed  from  Spain  to  his  dominions  in  the 
Netherlands,  and  at  the  same  time  secured  the 
influence  of  Cardinal  Wolsey  by  a  virtual  prom- 
ise of  the  papacy.  Francis  invited  Henry  to 
France,  where,  by  a  splendid  hospitality,  he 
hoped  to  gain  both  the  cardinal  and  his  master. 
The  sumptuous  interview  took  place  in  the 
plain  between  Guinea  and  Ardres,  which  his- 
tory commemorates  as  the  field  of  the  cloth  of 
gold  (June  4-24,  1520).  Unprecedented  mag- 
nificence, feats  of  chivalry,  and  gallant  exercises 
uf  every  description,  occupied  the  two  courts. 
The  idngs  themselves,  according  to  Fleuranges, 
had  a  personal  wrestling  match  in  private.  Fran- 
cis easily  overthrew  his  antagonist,  but  by  his 
frank  and  generous  bearing  won  his  friendship. 
Henry,  however,  flattered  by  Charles,  whose 
visit  he  returned  after  his  conference  with 
Francis,  was  easily  secured  to  the  interest  of 
the  emperor,  and  declared  that  he  wished  to 
remain  unpartial,  but  should  pronounce  against 
the  aggressor.  The  French  king  began  hostili- 
ties by  seizing  Navarre.  His  troops  also  in- 
vaded Spain,  but  were  routed  and  chased  be- 
yond Navarre.  Charles  attempted  to  enter 
France  from  the  north.  He  was  repelled  at 
M^zi^res  by  the  chevalier  Bayard,  and  Fran- 
cis marched  into  the  Netherlands.  By  some 
strange  over-cautiousness  he  lost  an  oppor- 
tunity of  cutting  off  the  whole  imperial  army. 
Meanwhile  Cardinal  Wolsey  effected  a  league 
between  his  sovereign,  the  emperor,  and  the 
pope,  against  Francis.  A  papal  army,  under 
Prosper  Colonna,  seized  Milan,  and  dispossess- 
ed the  French  of  all  their  Italian  conquests 
except  the  fortress  of  Cremona.  Francis,  in 
the  midst  of  these  disasters,  received  from 
Henry  of  England  a  declaration  of  war  (May 
29,  1522).  Undaunted,  however,  although  his 
treasury  was  utterly  exhausted,  he  succeeded 
in  putting  the  kingdom  in  a  state  of  defence. 
The  constable  de  Bourbon  at  this  crisis,  reject- 
ing the  queen  mother's  invitation  to  marriage, 
and  robbed  by  the  incensed  woman  through 
legal  chicanery  of  his  family  estate,  not  only 
offered  his  sword  to  the  emperor,  but  proposed 
to  incite  a  rebellion  in  France.  The  conspiracy 
was  discovered,  and  Bourbon  fled ;  but  an  in- 
vasion of  English  and  imperialists,  which  ad- 
vanced to  within  11  leagues  of  Paris,  compelled 
Francis  to  abandon  his  plan  of  carrying  the 
war  into  Italy.  He  nevertheless  despatched 
an  army  of  30,000  men  against  Milan,  which 
iailed  through  the  incapacity  of  Bonnivet,  its 
commander.     Bourbon  principally  conducted 


the  imperial  operations  in  this  quarter,  and 
in  ooigunction  with  Pescara  (1524)  drove  the 
French,  after  a  rout  at  Biagrasso,  into  their 
own  country.  In  this  defeat  the  chevalier 
Bayard,  who  commanded  the  vanguard,  was 
killed.  The  imperialists  entered  Provence. 
Francis  hastened  in  person  to  relieve  Marseilles, 
carried  all  before  him,  pursued  the  enemy  again 
into  Piedmont,  and  laid  siege  to  Pavia.  He 
was  here  defeated  in  a  great  battle,  Feb.  24, 
15^.  His  Swiss  allies  fled;  and  Francis,  un- 
horsed, after  killing  with  his  own  hand  seven 
of  the  enemy,  at  length  yielded  his  sword  to 
the  Neapolitan  viceroy  Lannoy,  and  was  hur- 
ried a  prisoner  to  Madrid.  Europe  was  filled 
with  alarm.  The  emperor's  unworthy  behavior 
to  his  gallant  captive,  together  with  his  grow- 
ing power  and  ambition,  roused  the  animosity 
of  Henry  of  England,  who  now  declared  for 
France,  and  demanded  the  liberation  of  the 
king,  as  did  also  Rome,  Venice,  Florence,  and 
Genoa.  But  the  emperor  insisted  on  large 
cessions  of  territory,  the  restoration  of  the  con- 
stable de  Bourbon  to  all  his  rights,  the  mar- 
riage of  Francis  with  Charles's  sister  Eleanor, 
queen  dowager  of  Portugal,  and  the  delivery 
of  his  two  eldest  sons  as  hostages  for  his  good 
faith.  Francis  at  last  signed  a  treaty  on  these 
conditions,  but  at  the  same  time  caused  a  secret 
protest  against  them  to  be  drawn  up,  and  was 
liberated  March  17,  1526,  his  sons  taking  his 
place  at  Madrid.  He  at  once  demanded  and 
obtained  from  the  pope  absolution  frdm  his  oath 
to  fulfil  the  treaty,  and,  gracefully  thanking 
the  English  king  for  his  sympathy  and  alliance, 
sent  forth  armies  again  to  Italy.  If,  say  French 
historians,  he  was  guilty  of  peijury,  then  was 
every  man  in  France  his  accomplice.  Charles, 
overreached,  and  now  opposed  by  all  Italy  as 
well  as  France  and  England,  sent  Bourbon 
with  an  army  of  mercenaries  against  the  pope. 
Rome  was  sacked,  and  the  pope  was  imprison- 
ed. A  French  army  under  Lautrec  hastened 
to  avenge  the  insulted  pontiff,  but  after  a  series 
of  triumphs  was  destroyed  by  disease  before 
Naples.  Meanwhile  Francis  challenged  Charles 
V.  to  a  duel ;  the  emperor  accepted ;  but  the 
year  1528  was  consumed  in  their  mutual 
charges  and  recriminations.  Both  sovereigns 
were  exhausted  of  men  and  money,  and  peace, 
an  obvious  necessity  for  all  the  belligerentis,  was 
concluded  at  Cambrai  by  the  mother  of  Francis 
and  the  aunt  of  Charles  (Margaret  of  Austria) 
in  August,  1529.  The  king  of  France  retained 
Burgundy,  surrendered  his  Italian  claims,  and 
promised  2,000,000  crowns  ransom  for  his 
sons.  Francis  at  the  same  time  married  Queen 
Eleanor.  This  treaty  secured  to  France  a 
few  years  of  peace,  during  which  Francis  en- 
couraged letters  and  art,  and,  after  wavering 
for  a  time  between  the  influence  of  Louise 
of  Savoy  and  Margaret  of  Navarre,  decided 
against  the  reformation,  and  persecuted  the 
reformers  with  great  rigor.  On  July  16, 
1585,  however,  he  issued  an  edict  of  tolera- 
tion.   This  change  had  a  political  cause.    In 


418 


FRANCIS  (Fkakoe) 


1683  the  duke  of  MUan  pat  to  death  an  agent 
of  the  king  of  France,  oharged  with  marder. 
Seizing  this  as  a  pretext  for  war,  Francis  took 
np  arms  again,  and  in  1535  overran  Savoy. 
Oharles  in  the  spring  of  1586  marched  upon 
Provence,  and  the  French  troops  harried  again 
to  the  defence  of  that  region.  Charles  lost 
half  his  army  throogh  famine  and  disease,  the 
coantry  having  heen  laid  waste  parposely  by 
the  French  oommaader,  and  with  the  remg^in- 
der  fled  before  the  light  troops  of  the  province. 
At  the  same  time  the  prince  of  Nassau,  who 
had  invaded  the  north  of  France,  was  com- 
pelled to  retreat.  Soon  after  these  events,  the 
eldest  son  of  Francis  died,  poisoned,  as  was 
supposed.  The  crime  was  laid  to  the  charge 
of  the  emperor,  probably  withoat  any  foanda- 
tion;  bat  the  circamstance  carried  the  exas- 
peration of  the  two  sovereigns  to  the  extreme 
of  decency.  Francis  attacked  the  Netherlands, 
and  even  formed  an  offensive  alliance  with  the 
Turkish  saltan  Solyman ;  bat  the  pope  and  the 
queen  of  Hungary  interposing  with  offers  of 
mediation,  a  truce  of  ten  years  was  concluded 
at  Nice  (1588).  The  rivals  exchanged  visits 
and  embraced ;  and  Charles  promised  to  invest 
a  son  of  the  French  king  with  the  sovereignty 
of  Milan,  but  the  promise  was  never  falfiUed, 
Charles  giving  the  duchy  instead  to  his  son 
Philip.  War  again  broke  out  in  1542,  and 
Francis  sent  five  armies  against  various  quar- 
ters of  the  imperial  dominions,  and  gained  a 
great  battle  at  Ceresole  (April  14,  1544),  but 
withoat  important  consequences.  After  a  short 
invasion  of  France  by  Henry  VIII.  and  Charles 
in  alliance,  peace  was  concluded  with  the  em- 
peror at  Crespy,  Sept.  18, 1544.  The  war  with 
England  continued!,  but  without  remarkable 
actions,  until  June  7,  1546.  This  treaty,  like 
that  of  Nice,  was  followed  by  renewed  perse- 
cution of  the  reformers.  Having  no  more  need 
to  maintain  his  Protestant  alUanoee,  Francis 
carried  out  a  most  cruel  decree  against  the 
Yaudois,  desolating  the  country  and  killing  the 
inhabitants  by  thousands.  The  king's  health 
had  been  hopelessly  ruined  some  years  before 
in  consequence  of  one  of  his  many  amours,  and 
death  at  length  ensued.  Francis  was  an  unhesi- 
tating libertine,  though  during  the  latter  years 
of  his  life  his  attention  was  given  to  wiser 
thoughts ;  but  notwithstanding  his  vices  and  his 
cruelty  to  the  Protestants,  admiration  cannot  be 
withheld  from  many  gallant  and  noble  traits 
of  character,  which  might  have  been  blessings 
to  his  country  had  he  been  content  with  any 
other  than  military  glory.  His  challenge  to 
Charles  Y.,  and  his  court  rules  of  honor  and 
chivalry,  did  much  to  establish  the  practice  of 
duelling.  Yet  he  introduced  into  France  many 
improvements  of  art  and  learning.  Of  his 
munificence  many  monuments  remain ;  as  the 
national  library  of  Paris,  the  original  Louvre, 
Fontainebleau,  and  Chambord.  By  his  first 
wife  he  had  seven  children ;  by  the  second 
none.  To  his  son  Henry  II.  he  bequeathed  a 
treasury  with  a  surplus  of  400,000  crowns. 


FRANCIS  II.,  king  of  France,  bom  in  Fon- 
tainebleau, Jan.  19,  1548,  died  in  Orleans,  Dec. 
5,  1560.    He  was  the  eldest  son  of  Henry  II. 
and  Catharine  de^  Medici.    His  father  had  suc- 
ceeded in  obtaining  some  important  advantages 
over  the  emperor  Charles  Y.  and  the  house  of 
Spain,  and  in  terminating  favorably  a  long 
series  of  wars,  chiefly  in  Italy  and  the  Nether- 
lands, against  the  growing  might  of  that  house. 
Henry  died  in  1559  of  a  wound  accidentally 
received  in  a  tournament.     Francis,  then  a 
sickly  boy  of  16  years,  possessed  of  neither 
character  nor  talent,  succeeded  to  the  throne. 
He  had  already  (in  April,  1558)  married  the 
daughter  of  James  Y.  of  Scotland,  the  beauti- 
ful and  afterward  unhappy  Mary  Stuart.    Her 
influence  gave  the  reins  of  government  to  her 
uncles,  Francis,  duke  of  Guise,  and  the  cardi- 
nal of  Lorraine.    The  arrogant  sway  of  these 
two  ambitious  and  unscrupulous  princes  alarm- 
ed and  irritated  the  princes  of  the  blood,  An* 
thony,  king  of  Navarre  and  his  brother  Louis 
of  Cond6,  who  became  the  leaders  of  a  Prot- 
estant party  in  opposition  to  the  court.    Every- 
thing concurred  to  produce  civil  commotion. 
Protestantism  had  penetrated,  in  the  form  of 
Calvinism,  into  France.    Its  spirit  suited  that 
of  the  feudal  nobility,  and  the  profligacy  and 
corruption  introduced  by  the  Italian  Medicis 
into  the  court  and  manners  of  France,  and  the 
influence  of  strangers,  disposed  the  people  to 
rebellion.    It  was  by  secret  plots,  however, 
rather  than  by  open  revolt,  that  the  Protestant 
princes  tried  to  wrest  power  from  the  hands 
of  the  Guises.    A  great  conspiracy  was  organ- 
ized, having  Cond^  at  its  head,  and  embracing 
the  most  prominent  nobles  of  France.     It  was 
agreed  to  enter  Amboise  on  a  certain  day 
in  detached  parties,  to  mtissacre  the  Guises, 
and  seize  the  person  of  the  kinft.    But  the  plot 
was  disclosed  almost  at  the  moment  of  execu- 
tion, by  two  Protestants;  the  duke  of  Guise 
secretly  assembled  a  body  of  troops,  and  cut 
to  pieces  the  forces  of  the  conspirators  as  they 
were  entering  the  town.    His  triumph  was 
stained  with  barbarous  cruelty,  and  the  waters 
of  the  Loire  were  colored  with  the  blood  of 
those  who  fell  in  combat  or  perished  on  the 
scaffold.    The  court  gazed  at  the  executions, 
as  scenes  of  public  ^tivity,  from  platforms 
and  the  windows  of  the  castle.    Arrests  and 
executions  throughout  the  country  followed. 
The  duke  of  Guise  was  made  lieutenant  general 
of  the  kingdom.    The  axe  was  brought  into 
play  to  stifle  the  opposition  of  the  princes,  and 
the  inquisition  was  set  up  to  repress  Calvinism. 
A  royal  edict  made  the  bishops,  instead  of  the 
parliaments,  judges  of  heresy.    The  Huguenots, 
seeing  in  this  edict  their  speedy  destruction, 
prepared  to  resist,  and  the  court  convoked  at 
Fontainebleau  an  assembly,  with  the  purpose 
of  seizing  the  two  princes  of  Bourbon;  but 
they  came  with  an  escort  strong  enough  to  pro- 
tect them.    The  princes  of  Lorraine  convened 
the  states  general  at  Orleans.    Cond6  had  tried 
to  dissemble  his  mortification  after  the  failure 


FRANCIS  (Gebmakt  and  Austria) 


419 


of  Amboise,  aod  was  now  imprndent  enongli 
to  appear.  He  was  arrested,  tried,  and  soon 
condemned  to  die  as  a  traitor.  The  death  of 
Francis,  however,  saved  his  life,  and  restored 
him  to  the  leadership  of  the  Hnguenots.  The 
young  king  had  long  suffered  from  an  abscess 
in  his  ear,  and  died  after  a  reign  of  17  months, 
so  saddenly  that  rumors  of  poison,  now  re- 
garded as  unfounded,  spread,  and  wer^  believ- 
ed throughout  the  country;  the  more  easily, 
as  assassination  was  becoming  fashionable  in 
France,  and  the  queen  mother  was  renowned 
for  her  love  of  alchemy  and  the  use  of  poisons. 
Francis  bequeathed  to  his  brother  and  succes- 
sor, Charles  IX.,  then  a  boy  of  ten  years,  a 
treasury  loaded  with  debt,  and  a  state  full  of 
tho  elements  of  civil  war.  The  regency  was 
intmsted  to  Catharine  de^  Medici,  whose  in- 
trigues fostered  civil  and  religious  dissensions. 

II.   OESMAKY  AND  AUSTRIA. 

FRANCIS  I.  (Stephen),  emperor  of  Germany, 
bom  Dec.  8,  1708,  died  at  Innspruck,  Aug.  18, 
1765.  He  was  the  son  of  Leopold,  duke  of 
Ix>rraine,  and  of  a  niece  of  Louis  XIV.,  and 
was  the  great-grandson  of  the  emperor  Ferdi- 
nand III.  In  1729  he  succeeded  his  father, 
but  in  consequence  of  the  war  of  the  Polish 
succession,  his  duchy  was  given  in  1735  to  the 
ex-king  Stanislas,  father-in-law  of  Louis  XV., 
to  revert  after  his  death  to  France,  and  he 
received  the  reversion  of  the  duchy  of  Tus- 
cany, where  the  house  of  Medici  was  about 
becoming  extinct.  Francis  in  1736  married 
Maria  Theresa,  daughter  and  heiress  of  the 
emperor  Charles  VI.  Charles  appointed  him 
generalissimo,  and  he  subsequently  fought  in  a 
successful  campaign  against  the  Turks.  After 
the  death  of  the  last  of  the  Medicis  in  1737, 
Francis  went  with  Maria  to  Florence,  the 
capital  of  his  new  dominion.  The  emperor 
dying  in  1740,  he  returned  to  share  with  his 
wife  the  regency  of  the  Austrian  dominions, 
though  without  any  real  power  in  the  admin- 
istration, and  fought  for  her  rights  in  the 
wars  which  ensued.  Francis  was  elected  em- 
peror of  Germany  in  1745,  and  acknowledged 
by  Bavaria  and  Prussia  in  the  same  year,  but 
not  by  France  and  Spain  until  the  peace  of 
Aiz-la-Chapelle  in  1748.  Being  of  a  mild  and 
peaceful  disposition,  and  influenced  more  by 
avarice  than  by  ambition,  he  promoted  com- 
merce and  agriculture,  particularly  in  Tuscany, 
but  left  the  heavier  cares  of  government  to 
his  wife,  who  in  1756  became  involved  in  the 
seven  years'  war  with  Prussia.  Two  years 
after  the  termination  of  this  war  Francis  died, 
leaving  the  German  crown  to  his  son  Joseph 
II.,  for  whom,  however,  his  mother  reigned 
till  1780,  and  Tuscany  to  his  younger  son, 
afterward  Leopold  II. 

FKANCI8  IL,  emperor  of  Germany  (I.  of 
Austria),  bom  in  Florence,  Feb.  12,  1768,  died 
in  Vienna,  March  2,  1835.  He  was  the  son  of 
the  emperor  Leopold  II.  and  of  Maria  Louisa, 
daughter  of  Charles  III.,  king  of  Spain.    He 


was  educated  first  at  the  polished  and  popular 
court  of  Florence,  then  at  that  of  Vienna.  He 
accompanied  his  uncle  Joseph  II.  in  his  cam- 
paign against  the  Turks  in  1788,  and  in  1789 
received  the  title  of  commander-in-chief  of 
the  army,  though  still  a  youth  of  21  years, 
the  old  and  experienced  general  Laudon  being 
his  assistant  and  adviser.  After  the  death  of 
Joseph  (1790),  Francis  held  the  r^ins  of  the 
empire  for  a  few  days,  till  the  arrival  of  his 
father  from  Florence,  whom  he  followed  in  the 
next  year  to  the  convention  of  Pilnitz,  where 
the  emperor  and  the  king  of  Prussia  formed 
the  first  coalition  against  revolutionary  France. 
Leopold  died  in  1792,  and  Francis  was  suc- 
cessively crowned  king  of  Hungary,  emperor 
of  Germany,  and  king  of  Bohemia.  He  was 
soon  surrounded  with  difficulties  and  dangers. 
Hungary  was  in  a  state  of  national  excitement, 
and  the  Belgian  provinces  were  ripe  for  revolt. 
The  legislative  assembly  of  France  obliged 
Louis  XVI.  to  declare  war  against  him  in 
April,  1792.  The  victories  of  Dumouriez  and 
the  revolt  of  Belgium,  the  victories  of  Custine 
on  the  Rhine,  the  execution  of  Louis  XVI., 
and  that  of  Marie  Antoinette,  the  aunt  of 
Francis,  rapidly  followed.  It  was  in  vain  that 
Clerfayt  obtained  some  advantages  over  the 
French,  and  that  Francis  took  the  command  of 
the  army  in  person.  The  armies  of  the  repub- 
lic soon  drove  back  the  allies;  Francises  con- 
federates deserted  him,  and  in  1795  Tuscany, 
Sweden,  Spain,  and  Prussia  concluded  at  Basel 
a  treaty  of  peace  with  the  republic,  whose 
Italian  army,  now  commanded  by  Bonaparte, 
conquered  in  the  next  two  years  the  whole 
north  of  Italy.  Francis  himself,  notwithstand- 
ing some  slight  advantages  gained  by  his  bro- 
ther the  archduke  Charles  over  Morean,  in 
southern  Germany,  was  finally  forced  to  con- 
clude the  treaty  of  Campo  Formio  (Oct.  17, 
1797),  in  which  he  sacrificed  Belgium,  Milan, 
and  a  Rhenish  province  of  the  empire,  in  ex- 
change for  Venice.  Changes  in  France  and  new 
French  aggressions  tempted  Austria,  Russia, 
and  England  to  another  war  in  1799.  The 
allied  armies  were  successful  for  a  while  un- 
der the  archduke  Charles  in  Germany,  under 
Hotze  in  Switzerland,  and  imder  Kray  and 
Suvaroff  in  Italy.  But  reverses  came ;  Suva- 
roff  was  recalled  by  his  emperor,  and  Bona- 
parte became  master  of  France  by  a  coup  d'etat 
and  of  Italy  by  the  passage  of  the  Alps  ana 
the  battle  of  Marengo  (June  14,  1800),  while 
Moreau  fought  his  way  through  southern  Ger- 
many toward  Vienna.  These  disasters  com- 
pelled Francis  to  tlie  peace  of  Lun6ville  in  1801, 
by  which  he  lost  a  portion  of  Germany  and 
acquired  a  portion  of  Italy.  Fngland  made 
peace  with  France  at  Amiens,  but  broke  it 
again,  and  framed  a  new  coalition,  in  which 
the  emperors  Francis  and  Alexander  and  the 
king  of  Sweden  took  part,  while  Prussia  re- 
mained neutral,  and  Bavaria,  Wartemberg,  and 
Baden  were  ready  to  side  with  the  French. 
Francis  expected  the  first  attack  from  Italy, 


420 


FRANCIS  (Gebmaky  and  Austbia) 


and  sent  thither  his  brother  Charles,  who 
gained  a  battle  over  Mass^na;  but  Napoleon 
broke  through  Germany,  and  his  sudden 
marches,  the  surrender  of  Ulm  with  its  24,000 
men  under  Mack,  the  retreat  of  the  archduke 
Ferdinand,  and  the  great  battle  of  Austerlitz 
(Dec.  2,  1805),  in  which  the  two  allied  empe- 
rors were  present,  made  him  the  dictator  of 
the  treaty  concluded  at  Presburg,  Dec.  26, 
in  which  Francis  lost  the  Tyrol,  Venice,  and 
3,000,000  subjects,  and  received  only  Salzburg. 
The  electors  of  Bavaria  and  WUrtemberg  now 
took  the  title  of  kings  as  a  reward  for  their 
support  of  the  victor.  Francis  was  compelled 
to  remain  neutral  in  the  fourth  coalition,  and 
to  acknowledge  the  confederation  of  the  Rhine 
founded  under  Napoleon^s  protectorate.  The 
French  ambassadors  declared  that  they  no 
longer  recognized  a  German  empire  or  a  Ger- 
man constitution;  and  Francis,  who  had  in 
1804  assumed  the  title  of  hereditary  emperor 
of  Austria,  solemnly  laid  down  that  of  empe- 
ror of  Germany  in  August,  1806.  The  peace  of 
Tilsit  and  the  alliance  of  Napoleon  and  Alex- 
ander threatened  Austria  with  destruction  and 
drove  Francis  to  the  most  energetic  measures. 
He  armed  the  ancient  German  militia,  and 
summoned  the  Hungarian  nobles  to  a  general 
rising  in  their  old  fashion.  Three  brothers 
of  the  emperor  were  sent  with  armies  across 
the  German,  Italian,  and  Polish  frontiers ;  but 
Austria  stood  this  time  alone,  while  Napoleon 
was  assisted  by  Poles,  Russians,  and  Germans. 
"With  the  exception  of  the  battle  of  Aspern 
and  Essling,  May  21  and  22,  1809,  in  which 
Napoleon  suffered  his  first  check,  the  whole 
campaign  in  Germany  was  a  series  of  French 
victories.  The  Austrians  were  forced  to  evac- 
uate Vienna,  driven  from  Poland,  and  signally 
defeated  at  Wagram  ;  the  Hungarian  nobles 
were  dispersed,  and  a  rising  of  the  Tyrolese 
in  favor  of  Austria  proved  abortive.  The 
peace  of  Schdnbrunn  (Oct.  14)  cost  Francis 
some  rich  provinces  and  more  than  8,500,000 
subjects.  The  resources  of  his  empire  were 
exhausted,  and  his  treasury  had  long  been 
bankrupt.  In  this  situation  he  consented  to 
give  his  daughter  Maria  Louisa  in  marriage  to 
Napoleon,  and  soon  saw  the  title  of  king  of 
Rome,  once  his  own,  bestowed  upon  her  child. 
In  the  disastrous  Russian  campaign  of  1812  an 
auxiliary  Austrian  force  occupied  Poland  in  the 
French  interest,  but  effected  little.  In  1818 
Francis  declared  his  neutrality,  negotiated 
secretly  with  Great  Britain  and  Russia,  took 
part  in  the  congress  of  Prague,  and  on  Napo- 
leon's refusal  to  accept  his  mediation  with 
Russia  joined  the  allies,  and  contributed  large- 
ly to  their  victory  at  Leipsio.  In  the  following 
year  he  entered  France  with  his  army,  and 
remained  two  months  in  Paris  after  its  occu- 
pation by  the  allies,  March  81.  In  June  the 
European  congress  assembled  at  Vienna,  but 
the  brilliant  festivals  with  which  Francis  en- 
tertained his  guests  were  interrupted  in  March, 
1815,  by  the  news  of  Napoleon^s  return  from 


Elba.  An  Austrian  army  now  crossed  the 
Simplon  and  occupied  Lyons,  while  another 
marched  into  Italy,  overthrew  Murat,  and  re- 
stored to  the  old  king  Ferdinand  the  crown 
of  Naples.  On  the  restoration  of  peace  after 
the  battle  of  Waterloo,  Francis,  having  ceded 
Belgium  to  the  Netherlands,  and  acquired 
Lombardy  and  Venice,  saw  his  empire  greater 
than  it  had  ever  been  before.  He  became  a 
party  to  the  *^  Holy  Alliance  "  in  1816,  and  his 
policy,  developed  by  Mettemich,  became  the 
policy  of  Europe.  Based  on  a  horror  of  rev- 
olution and  a  reverence  for  hereditary  right, 
it  took  the  form  of  a  thorough  conservatism 
and  centralization,  supported  by  a  large  stand- 
ing army,  a  secret  police,  strict  subordination, 
a  literary  censorship,  and  other  measures  of 
repression.  Austria  was  the  centre  of  all  the 
reactionary  movements  of  the  period  following 
the  French  restoration.  Monarchical  congress- 
es for  the  suppression  of  the  revolutionary 
spirit  of  Germany,  Spain,  and  Italy  were  held 
on  its  territory  at  Carlsbad  in  1819,  at  Troppau 
in  1820,  at  Lay  bach  in  1821,  and  at  Verona  in 
1822 ;  Austrian  armies  arrested  a  revolntionarj 
movement  in  Piedmont  and  annulled  the  con- 
stitution of  Naples,  and  Austrian  influence 
prevailed  in  Spain,  Portugal,  and  the  German 
confederacy  at  Frankfort.  Francis  sanctioned 
even  the  despotic  rule  of  Turkey  over  Greece, 
and  imprisoned  the  Greek  refugee  Ypsilantl. 
He  w^as  the  first  to  counteract  in  Italy  the  in- 
fluence of  the  French  revolution  of  July,  1880, 
crushing  the  feeble  revolutionary  attempts  of 
1881,  and  was  of  aid  to  Czar  Nicholas  in  re- 

fressing  the  Polish  struggle  for  independence, 
t  was  neverthless  a  constant  though  secret 
part  of  his  policy  to  check  the  growing  and 
threatening  power  of  Russia.  At  home  his 
chief  embarrassments  sprang  from  an  exhaust- 
ed treasury,  enormous  debts,  and  the  uneasi- 
ness of  the  Italians,  Hungarians,  and  Slavs. 
New  loans  and  taxes  relieved  his  finances; 
state  prisons  and  rigorous  punishments  were 
used  to  crush  the  spirit  of  independence  in 
Italy ;  while  the  diet  of  Presburg  was  appeased 
by  reluctant  concessions,  and  German  ofliciale 
kept  order  in  Galicia  and  Bohemia.  In  the 
promotion  of  industry,  commerce,  and  the  art« 
in  the  German  provinces,  and  the  advancement 
of  German  influence,  he  showed  a  wiser  pol- 
icy. The  courts  of  law  were  reorganized,  and 
the  ancient  codes  were  revised  and  modified. 
Francis  was  economical,  industrious,  and  cor- 
rect in  his  personal  habits,  popular  with  the 
Germans,  but  little  known  and  less  liked  by 
his  other  subjects.  The  antipathies  inspired 
by  the  reactionary  measures  of  his  gqjvemment, 
and  the  attacks  of  the  liberal  press  in  foreign 
countries  (for  there  was  none  in  Austria),  and 
of  the  Hungarian  patriots  in  their  diets  and 
county  assemblies,  were  directed  less  against  the 
emperor  than  against  his  minister  Mettemich. 
His  private  treasury  was  in  an  incomparablj 
better  condition  than  that  of  the  state,  and 
his  family  was  large  and  prosperous.    The  lat- 


FRANCIS  JOSEPH  (Austbia) 


FRANCIS  (Two  Sicilies)         421 


ter  part  of  his  reign  was  nnclisturbed.  Of  his 
foar  wives,  princesses  of  Wtlrtemberg,  Sicily, 
Modena,  and  Bavaria,  the  second,  Maria  The- 
resa, was  the  mother  of  13  children,  among 
whom  were  Maria  Louisa,  wife  of  Napoleon  I., 
Ferdinand,  who  succeeded  to  the  tlirone,  and 
Francis  Charles,  father  of  Francis  Joseph. 

FRAi\ClS  JOSEPH,  emperor  of  Austria,  grand- 
son of  the  preceding,  eldest  son  of  the  arch- 
duke Francis  Charles,  and  nephew  of  the  em- 
peror Ferdinand  I.,  born  Aug.  18,  1880.  He 
was  educated  under  the  care  of  Count  Bom- 
belles,  and  was  oarlj  inspired  with  ambition 
by  his  mother,  the  archduchess  Sophia  (died 
May  28,  1872),  daughter  of  the  king  of  Bava- 
ria and  sister  of  the  queens  of  Prussia  and 
Saxony,  who  possessed  more  influence  and  en- 
terprise than  either  the  emperor  or  her  hus- 
band, the  heir  presumptive  to  the  throne. 
Like  his  uncle  Ferdinand,  Francis  Joseph  was 
taught  to  speak  the  various  languages  of  his 
polyglot  empire,  and  also  became  a  skilful  rider, 
and  fond  of  military  displays.  Sent  to  Pesth 
in  1847  to  instaU  his  cousin  Stephen  as  palatine 
of  Hungary,  he  spoke  Hungarian  to  the  assem- 
bled nobles,  and  gained  some  popularity.  The 
revolutions  of  1848  brought  the  Austrian  em- 
pire to  the  brink  of  dissolution.  It  seemed 
that  the  accession  of  a  prince  who  had  no  un- 
popular record  was  a  necessity,  and  the  arch- 
duchess, who  was  the  leading  spirit  of  the 
counter-revolutionists,  contrived  that  Francis 
Joseph,  though  only  18  years  old,  should  be  de- 
clared of  age,  Dec  1, 1848 ;  and  on  the  follow- 
ing day  his  father  resigned  his  right  to  the  suc- 
cession, and  his  uncle  the  emperor  abdicated, 
in  favor  of  the  young  prince.  For  the  political 
and  military  events  of  the  reign  of  Francis  Jo- 
seph down  to  the  close  of  1872,  see  Austria  (vol. 
ii.,  pp.  146-153).  In  November,  1809,  Fran- 
cis Joseph  assisted  at  the  formal  inauguration 
of  the  Suez  canal.  On  April  8,  1878,  the  em- 
peror gave  his  sanction  to  a  new  electoral  re- 
form bill  for  Cisleithan  Austria,  of  which  the 
leading  features  are:  The  members  of  the 
lower  house  henceforth  to  be  elected  by  all 
persons  entitled  to  the  suffrage;  the  number 
of  members  of  the  lower  house  to  be  increased 
to  120;  each  electoral  district  will  elect  one 
deputy ;  every  one  entitled  to  vote  for  a  mem- 
ber of  a  provincial  diet  will  also  be  entitled  to 
vote  for  a  member  of  the  Reichsrath ;  the  votes 
to  be  given  in  writing;  an  absolute  m^ority 
will  be  necessary  for  the  election  of  a  candi- 
date ;  those  entitled  to  vote  in  any  one  province 
to  be  eligible  in  all  the  provinces ;  the  period 
for  which  a  member  is  elected  is  six  years. 
Francis  Joseph  was  married,  April  24,  1854, 
to  a  daughter  of  Maximilian,  duke  of  Bavaria. 
The  heir  apparent  of  the  Austro-Hungarian 
crown  is  his  son,  the  archduke  Rudolph  Fran- 
cis Charles  Joseph,  bom  Aug.  21,  1858. 

III.   TWO   SICILIES. 

FRAMCIS  I.,  king  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  bom 
in  Naples,  Aug.  19,  1777,  died  there,  Nov.  8, 


1830.  He  was  the  son  of  Ferdinand  I.  and 
Caroline  Maria.  The  death  of  his  elder  broth- 
er in  1778  made  him  heir  to  the  throne,  and 
he  married  a  daughter  of  the  emperor  Leopold 
II.,  who  became  the  mother  of  the  future 
duchess  of  Berry.  After  the  death  of  his  wife 
in  1801  he  contracted  a  second  marriage  with 
the  daughter  of  Charles  IV.  of  Spain.  His 
father  appointed  him  regent  of  Naples  in  1812, 
and  on  the  advice  of  Lord  Bentinck  he  pro- 
claimed a  constitutional  form  of  government ; 
but  in  November,  1813,  Ferdinand  dissolved 
the  parliament  and  deposed  his  son.  In  1815 
Francis  returned  to  Naples,  and  succeeded  in 
making  himself  so  popular  that  his  father  was 
obliged  to  appoint  him  governor  of  Sicily  under 
the  title  of  duke  of  Calabria ;  and  on  the  out- 
break of  the  revolution  in  1820  he  was  obliged 
to  reinstate  him  as  regent  at  Naples.  Francis, 
siding  with  the  revolutionists,  restored  consti- 
tutional institutions;  but  subsequently,  being 
informed  of  the  proiected  Austrian  interven- 
tion in  favor  of  absolutism,  he  reconciled  him- 
self with  his  father,  on  whose  death,  Jan.  4, 
1825,  he  succeeded  to  the  throne.  Contrary 
to  his  antecedents,  his  short  reign  became  no- 
torious for  subserviency  to  Austria,  mismanage- 
ment, oorraption,  and  cruelty,  and  especi^y 
for  the  wholesale  massacre  of  the  revolted  in- 
habitants of  Bosco  and  the  ntter  destmction 
of  that  little  town.  His  second  wife  bore 
him  seven  daughters,  one  of  whom,  Maria 
Christina,  became  the  wife  of  Ferdinand  VII. 
of  Spain  and  the  mother  of  Queen  Isabella,  and 
five  sons,  the  eldest  of  whom  was  his  successoi^, 
Ferdinand  II. 

FRANCIS  II.,  son  of  Ferdinand  II.  and  of 
the  princess  Christina  of  Savoy,  bom  Jan.  16, 
1880.  His  mother  died  two  weeks  after  his 
birth,  and  his  father,  contracting  a  second 
marringe  with  the  archduchess  Maria  Theresa, 
paid  greater  attention  to  his  children  by  the 
latter  wife  than  to  Francis,  whose  education 
was  conducted  by  Jesuits.  Soon  after  his 
marriage  with  a  Bavarian  princess,  sister  of 
the  present  empress  of  Austria,  he  succeeded 
to  the  throne.  May  22,  1859.  Rejecting  the 
request  of  Victor  Emanuel  to  ioin  him  against 
Austria,  he  adhered  to  the  system  of  his  father, 
and  marked  his  accession  by  arresting  thou- 
sands of  his  subjects  and  banishing  others. 
After  the  landmg  of  Garibaldi  at  Marsala  in 
May,  1860,  and  the  capitulation  of  all  Sicily 
excepting  Messina,  he  endeavored  in  vain  to 
obtain  the  intervention  of  foreign  powers  in 
his  favor,  especially  of  Napoleon  III.  He  like- 
wise failed  to  conciliate  his  subjects  by  a  resto- 
ration of  constitutional  government  (June  25), 
and  by  granting  an  amnesty.  He  was  obliged 
to  leave  Naples  on  the  eve  of  Garibaldi^s  en- 
trance into  the  city,  and  retired  to  Capua, 
whence  he  sallied  forth  (Oct.  1)  with  a  rather 
numerous  army,  but  was  routed  by  the  Gari- 
baldians,  and  after  the  arrival  of  the  Sardinian 
army  Capua  was  compelled  to  surrender  (Nov. 
2)  with  about  11,000  troops.     He  next  shut 


422 


FRANCIS 


himself  up  with  his  remaining  forces  in  the 
citadel  of  Ga^ta,  which  after  a  siege  of  a  few 
weeks  surrendered  to  Cialdini,  Feh.  18,  1861, 
and  Francis  took  refuge  on  a  French  frigate, 
landing  at  Civitil  Vecchia.  His  dominions 
were  merged  in  the  kingdom  of  Italy,  and  he 
afterward  lived  chiefly  at  Rome  till  it  became 
the  capital  of  that  kingdom. 

FKAVCI89  €«BTen,  an  American  clergyman 
and  author,  bora  at  West  Cambridge,  Mass., 
Nov.  9,  1795,  died  at  Cambridge,  April  7, 
1863.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  college  in 
1815,  and  after  completing  his  studies  at  the 
divinity  schooljbecame  in  1819  minister  of  the 
Unitarian  church  at  Watertown,  Mass.  In 
1842  he  was  appointed  Parkman  professor  of 
pnlpit  eloquence  and  the  pastoral  care  in  Har- 
vard university.  He  published  a  number  of 
discourses  and  lectures,  and  wrote  the  lives  of 
John  Eliot  and  Sebastian  RMe  for  *'  Sparks's 
*^  American  Biography,"  and  memoirs  of  Dr. 
John  Allyn,  Dr.  Gamdiel  Bradford,  and  Judge 
John  Davis  for  the  *^  Massachusetts  Historical 
Collections." 

FBANCIS)  Mm  Wakefield,  an  American  physi- 
cian and  author,  born  in  New  York,  Nov.  17, 
1789,  died  there,  Feb.  8, 1861.  His  father  was 
a  German,  and  his  mother  of  Swiss  descent. 
In  his  youth  he  was  employed  as  a  printer. 
Subsequently  he  entered  an  advanced  class  at 
Columbia  college,  and  graduated  A.  B.  in  1809, 
and  M.  D.  at  the  college  of  physicians  and  sur- 
geons in  1811,  this  being  the  first  degree  con- 
ferred by  the  latter  institution.  He  was  a  part- 
ner of  Dr.  Hosack,  with  whom  he  had  studied 
medicine,  until  1820.  In  1813  he  was  ap- 
pointed lecturer  on  the  institutes  of  medicine 
and  materia  medica  at  the  college  of  physicians 
and  surgeons,  and  soon  afterward,  the  medical 
faculty  of  Columbia  college  having  been  con- 
solidated with  that  institution,  he  received  the 
chair  of  materia  medica  in  the  united  body. 
He  would  accept  no  fees  for  his  first  course, 
fearing  lest  some  might  be  excluded  from  the 
lectures  by  the  expense.  In  1816  he  went 
to  Europe,  and  completed  his  studies  under 
Abemethy.  On  his  return  to  New  York  he 
was  appointed  professor  of  the  institutes  of 
medicine,  and  in  1817  of  medical  Jurispru- 
dence. From  1819  he  was  professor  of  ob- 
stetrics, in  addition  to  his  otner  duties,  until 
1826,  when  the  whole  faculty  resigned,  and  a 
m^ority  of  them  founded  the  Rutgers  medi- 
cal school.  Dr.  Francis  filling  the  chair  of  ob- 
stetrics and  forensic  medicine  four  years,  until 
the  institution  was  closed  by  the  legislature. 
Subsequently  he  devoted  himself  to  practice 
and  the  pursuit  of  literature.  In  1810,.  while 
yet  a  student,  he  prepared  with  Dr.  Hosack 
the  prospectus  of  the  *'  American  Medical  and 
Philosophical  Register."  In  1822-'4  he  was 
one  of  the  editors  of  the  ^'  New  York  Medical 
and  Physicd  Journal."  He  actively  promoted 
the  objects  of  the  New  York  historical  so- 
ciety, the  woman^B  hospital,  the  state  inebriate 


asylum,  the  cause  of  natural  history,  the  typo- 
graphical guild,  and  the  fine  arts.  He  was  the 
author  of  biographical  sketches  of  many  dis- 
tinguished men  of  his  time,  and  articles  in 
medical  periodicals,  and  published  ^*  The  Use  of 
Mercury  "  (1811),  "  Cases  of  Morbid  Anatomy  " 
(1814),  "Febrile  Contagion"  (1816),  "Notice 
of  Thomas  Eddy  the  Philanthropist "  (1823), 
"Denman's  Practice  of  Midwifery"  (1825), 
"  Letter  on  Cholera  Asphyxia  "  (1832),  "  The 
Anatomy  of  Drunkenness"  (1841),  "A  Me- 
moir of  Christoper  Colles"  (1855),  and  "Old 
New  York,  or  Reminiscences  of  the  past  Sixty 
Years  "  (1857 ;  republii^hed,  with  a  memoir  of 
the  author,  by  H.  T.  Tuokerman,  1865).  He 
was  the  first  president  of  the  New  York  acad- 
emy of  medidne  in  1847. 

FRANCIS,  Joseph*    See  supplement. 

FRAHC18,  Sir  Philip,  a  British  poUtician  and 
pamphleteer,  bom  in  Dublin,  Oct.  22,  1740, 
died  in  London,  Dec.  22,  1818.  He  was  the 
son  of  the  Rev.  Philip  Francis,  author  of  an 
elegant  and  popular  translation  of  Horace,  and 
also  of  several  tragedies  and  some  liberal  polit- 
ical pamphlets.  The  son  removed  with  his 
father  to  England  in  1750,  and  was  placed  on 
the  foundation  of  St  Paulas  school,  where  he 
remained  about  three  years.  Here  Woodfallf 
afterward  the  printer  of  the  *^  Public  Adver- 
tiser "  and  publisher  of  the  *^  Letters  of  Ju- 
nius," was  his  fellow  pupil.  In  1756  he  was  ap- 
pointed to  a  place  in  tne  office  of  his  father -s  pa- 
tron, Henry  Fox,  then  secretary  of  state,  which 
he  continued  to  retain  under  the  secretaryship 
of  Mr.  Pitt.  In  1758  he  went  as  private  sec- 
retary to  Gen.  Bligh  in  an  expedition  against 
the  French  coast,  and  was  present  in  a  battle 
near  Cherbourg.  In  1760  he  was  secretary  to 
the  earl  of  Kinnoul,  ambassador  to  Portugal, 
and  on  his  return  to  England  in  1768  received 
an  appointment  in  the  war  office.  Here  he 
remained  till  March,  1772,  when  he  resigned 
in  consequence  of  a  quarrel  with  Lord  Barring- 
ton,  the  new  secretary  at  war.  The  remainder 
of  that  year  he  passed  in  travelling  through 
Flanders,  Germany,  Italy,  and  France.  In 
June,  1773,  soon  after  his  return,  he  was  ap- 
pointed one  of  the  council  of  Bengal  with  a 
salary  of  £10,000.  He  went  to  India  in  the 
summer  of  1774,  and  remained  there  till  De- 
cember, 1780,  when  he  resigned  on  account  of 
a  quarrel  with  Warren  Hastings.  This  quarrel 
led  to  a  duel,  in  which  Francis  was  shot  through 
the  body.  His  active  and  somewhat  austere 
disposition  had  brought  him  into  constant  op- 
position to  Hastings,  and  for  a  time  he  con- 
trolled the  m^'ority  in  the  council.  Two  of 
the  members  naving  died,  Hastings  obtained 
the  mastery ;  and  ^ter  their  duel  Francis  re- 
tamed  to  England  in  disappointment  and  an- 
ger. To  revenge  himself  upon  Hastings  seems 
to  have  been  the  ruling  motive  of  his  later 
life.  In  1784  he  became  member  of  parliament 
for  Yarmouth  in  the  isle  of  Wight»  He  was 
a  bold,  severe,  and  frequent  speaker,  but  he 
never  became  distinguished  as  an  orator.    His 


FRANCIS  OF  ASSIST 


423 


politics  were  always  extremely  liberal.  When 
the  prosecution  of  Hastings  began  in  1786,  its 
leaders  would  have  committed  the  manage- 
ment to  Francis.  The  house  of  commons, 
however,  because  of  his  personal  quarrel  with 
Hastings,  refused  twice,  by  large  mtgorities,  to 
permit  this  appointment,  and  fiurke,  Fox,  and 
Windham  labored  in  vain  to  change  this  deter- 
mination. Francis,  however,  consented  to  a 
written  request  of  the  committee  of  managers 
inviting  him  to  aid  them  in  their  labors,  and 
passed  many  years  in  this  occupation.  When 
others  tired,  he  never  flagged.  He  embittered 
the  existence  of  his  enemy,  and  no  doubt  de- 
stroyed his  own  peace  in  the  effort.  Hastings, 
however,  finally  triumphed  and  was  acquitted. 
When  the  French  revolution  broke  out,  Fran- 
cis was  its  firm  friend,  and  became  an  active 
member  of  the  revolutionary  association  of 
'*  Friends  of  the  People."  He  was  defeated 
at  the  election  of  1796,  when  he  stood  for 
Tewkesbury,  but  in  1802  was  returned  by  Lord 
Thanet  for  the  borough  of  Appleby,  and  con- 
tinaed  to  sit  for  that  borougn  while  he  re- 
mained in  parliament.  He  sustained  Fox  and 
Grey  in  their  plans  of  reform,  and  advocated 
the  abolition  of  the  slave  trade  with  unfailing 
ardor.  In  October,  1806,  on  the  formation 
of  the  Grenville  ministry,  Francis  was  made  a 
knight  of  the  bath.  It  is  believed  that  it  was 
also  designed  to  send  him  to  India  as  governor 
general,  but  this  appointment  never  took  place. 
He  retired  from  parliament  in  1807,  and  after- 
ward wrote  pamphlets  and  political  articles  in 
the  newspapers.  From  the  obscurity  of  old 
age  he  was  suddenly  recalled  to  the  attention 
of  the  public.  In  1816  John  Taylor  published 
his  "Junius  identified  with  a  Distinguished 
Living  Character,"  viz..  Sir  Philip  Francis. 
The  argument  is  ingenious,  the  coincidences 
are  remarkable,  and  his  authorship  has  since 
been  maintained  by  several  other  writers ;  but 
none  of  Francises  acknowledged  writings  equal 
the  fierce  eloquence  of  Junius.  The  represen- 
tations of  what  Francis  himself  said  on  the 
subject  are  contradictory.  (See  Jukiub.)  He 
was  the  author  of  about  26  political.pamphlets. 
FEANCIS  OF  iSSISI,  a  saint  of  the  Koman 
Catholic  church,  an4  founder  of  the  order  of 
Franciscans,  bom  in  Assisi  in  1182,  died  near 
that  city,  Oct  4,  1226.  His  father  was  Pie- 
tro  Bemardone,  a  wealthy  merchant,  and  his 
mother  Pica  Moriconi.  Bemardone  was  trav- 
elling in  France  when  the  child  was  bom,  and 
the  mother  had  him  baptized  under  the  name 
of  GKovanni.  On  his  return  the  &ther  added 
the  surname  of  Francesco,  in  remembrance 
of  the  country  where  he  had  made  his  fortune ; 
and  as  the  boy  while  growing  up  spoke  French 
with  ease,  he  was  exclusively  known  as  Fran- 
cesco. He  led  a  gay  life  until  he  was  captured 
in  a  civU  confiict  of  Assisi  with  Perugia,  and 
kept  for  a  year  prisoner  in  the  city  of  his  ene- 
mies. Daring  nis  detention  he  formed  the 
design  of  renouncing  the  world ;  and  fancying 
that  he  heard  one  day  while  praying  in  a  church 


a  voice  from  the  crucifix,  bidding  him  repair 
the  falling  walls  of  Christ's  house,  he  gave  the 
proceeds  of  some  goods  he  had  sold  to  the  priest 
of  the  church,  offering  himself  as  an  assistant. 
This  act  brought  upon  him  the  displeasure  of 
his  father,  who  threatened  if  he  persisted  to 
deprive  him  of  his  inheritance.  But  neither 
this  threat  nor  the  popular  ridicule  which  salu- 
ted his  seeming  insanity  could  turn  liim  from 
his  purpose.  He  formally  renounced  his  right 
of  heirship,  emptied  his  pockets,  and  even 
stripped  himself  of  his  clothing,  putting  on  the 
cloak  of  a  laborer.  He  was  then  (1206)  24 
years  old.  From  this  time  he  gave  himself  ex- 
clusively to  works  of  piety  and  charity.  He 
begged  in  the  streets  for  money  to  repair  the 
church,  aod  assisted  the  masons  by  carrying 
the  stones  with  bis  own  hands.  He  frequented 
the  hospitals,  washing  the  feet  and  kissing  the 
ulcers  of  the  lepers.  Sometimes  he  was  stripped 
of  his  coarse  raiment  bj  robbers,  and  sometimes 
he  gave  it  to  the  poor  whom  he  met  by  the  way. 
His  exceeding  humility  in  dress  and  demeanor 
began  after  a  time  to  win  sympathy  for  him. 
Prominent  men  desired  to  imitate  him,  and  to 
become  his  companions.  The  rich  merchant 
Bernardo  de  Quintavalle,  in  whose  house  Fran- 
cis had  been  a  guest,  sold  all  his  estate,  dis- 
tributed it  to  the  poor,  and  came  to  praj  with 
his  friend.  To  him  was  soon  joinea  a  canon 
of  the  cathedral,  Pietro  di  Oatana.  These 
brethren  received  the  dress  of  Francis,  a  coarse 
robe  of  serge  girded  with  a  cord,  Aug.  16, 1209, 
from  which  day  the  foundation  of  the  Francis- 
can order  properly  dates.  At  the  beginning 
Francis  and  his  companions  occupied  a  little  • 
cottage  Just  outside  the  walls  of  the  city ;  but 
as  their  number  increased  they  removed  to  the 
premises  of  the  Portiuncula,  which  had  been 
offered  them  by  the  Benedictines,  refusing, 
however,  to  accept  this  as  a  gift.  He  slept 
upon  the  ground,  with  a  block  of  wood  or  stone 
for  his  pillow,  ate  his  scanty  food  cold,  with 
ashes  strewed  upon  it,  sewed  his  garments  with 
packthread  to  make  them  coarser,  rolled  him- 
self in  snow  to  extinguish  the  fires  of  sensual 
desire,  obeyed  the  orders  of  his  novices,  fasted 
long  and  rigorously,  and  shed  tears  so  freely 
that  he  became  nearly  blind.  He  preached 
wherever  he  could  find  hearers,  yet  he  would 
never  take  priest*s  orders,  and  contented  him- 
self with  the  humble  place  of  a  deacon.  He 
abhorred  disputes  and  controversies,  held  up 
the  spirit  of  peace  as  the  only  Christian  spirit, 
and,  amid  the  fierce  and  bloody  contentions 
which  desolated  Italy  in  the  18th  century, 
made  his  followers  act  everywhere  as  peace- 
makers. He  was  a  zealous  missionary,  and 
made  long  Journeys  in  behalf  of  the  Catholic 
faith.  His  cherished  design  was  to  lay  down 
his  life  in  the  Holy  Land  in  behalf  of  Christ's 
religion.     His  first  attempt  to  reach  Syria 

E roved  ineffectual ;  contrary  winds  hindered 
is  vessel.  But  the  plan  was  not  relinquished, 
and  after  a  brief  sojourn  in  Acre,  he  joined  the 
camp  of  the  crusaders  at  Damietta  in  1219. 


42^ 


FRANCIS  OF  PAULA 


FRANCIS  DE  SALES 


He  arriveil  only  to  witness  the  failure  of  the 
Christian  armj,  bat  he  was  gratified  in  his 
desire  for  an  interview  with  the  Saracen  chief, 
and  was  permitted  to  testify  in  presence  of 
the  infidels  concerning  Christ  and  the  Chris- 
tian faith.  On  the  occasion  of  the  formal  ap- 
probation of  his  order  in  1223,  he  preached  a 
sermon  before  the  sacred  college,  which  seems 
to  have  been  the  last  of  his  important  public 
performances.  His  failing  health  and  growing 
blindness  confined  him  more  and  more  to  that 
favorite  seclusion  of  the  hill  of  Alverno,  on 
which  a  nobleman  had  buUt  a  church  and  con- 
vent for  the  Franciscan  brethren.  In  this  soli- 
tude he  gave  himself  more  ardently  to  prayer 
and  religious  exercises.  His  enthusiasm  became 
rapture.  His  visions  were  multiplied.  The 
Saviour  and  the  saints  seemed  to  appear,  and 
the  legend  teUs  of  the  stigmata^  the  print  of 
nails  in  the  hands  and  feet,  and  of  a  wound  in 
the  side,  corresponding  to  similar  marks  on  the 
person  of  the  Saviour,  which  Francis  brought 
away  with  him  from  one  of  these  interviews. 
It  was  even  affirmed  that  blood  continued  to 
flow  from  his  wounds;  and  portions  of  this 
blood  were  long  after  exhibited  for  the  rever- 
ence of  the  faithful.  He  was  canonized  July 
16,  1228. —The  literary  remains  of  St.  Francis 
are  neither  numerous  nor  especially  remark- 
able. They  consist  of  letters,  monastic  con- 
ferences, parables,  and  poems  in  the  Italian 
tongue.  The  best  edition  is  that  of  1641  (folio, 
Paris).  The  life  of  the  saint  has  been  many 
times  written  by  brethren  of  the  various  branch- 
es into  which  his  order  has  been  divided ;  by 
•  Thomas  de  Celano,  his  disciple;  by  St.  Bo- 
naventura ;  by  Helyot;  by  Chalippe  (4to,  1728, 
and  2  vols.  12mo,  1786);  by  Chavin  (8vo, 
Paris,  1841) ;  by  Bdhringer ;  and  by  Fr6d6ric 
Morin  (16mo,  Paris,  1858). 

FKANCIS  OF  PAVii,  Satot,  founder  of  the 
order  of  Minims,  bom  at  Paula  or  Paola,  Cala- 
bria, in  1416,  died  at  Plessis-les-Tours,  France, 
April  2,  1507.  His  family  name  has  been  va- 
riously given  as  Martorello,  Martotillo,  and  Re- 
tortillo.  Commines,  who  gives  all  the  details 
of  his  stay  in  France,  constantly  calls  him 
Frdre  Robert.  This  may  have  been  his  first 
name,  to  which  that  of  Francis  was  added  at 
a  later  date.  He  was  devoted  by  his  parents 
to  St.  Francis  of  Assisi,  to  whose  intercession 
they  ascribed  his  birth,  after  their  marriage 
had  been  long  childless.  He  was  early  placed 
in  an  unreformed  convent  of  Franciscans  in 
Calabria,  where  he  surpassed  all  the  monks  in 
the  strict  observance  of  the  rule.  In  1428  he 
returned  to  Paula,  resigned  his  right  of  inheri- 
tance, and  retired  to  a  grotto  to  lead  the  life 
of  a  hermit  He  was  hardly  20  years  old  when 
he  found  many  followers,  who  built  them- 
selves cells  near  his  grotto.  He  received  from 
the  archbishop  of  Cosenza  permission  to  build 
a  church  and  convent,  which  were  completed 
in  1486.  From  this  year  dates  the  establish- 
ment of  the  order  of  Minims,  which  adopted 
the  name  of  hermits  of  St.  Francis.     To  the 


usual  three  monastic  vows  (poverty,  chastitjp 
obedience)  St.  Francis  added  as  a  fourth  per' 
petual  abstinence,  not  only  from  meat,  but  also 
from  eggs  and  milk,  except  in  sickness.  He 
himself  was  still  more  ascetic.  He  slept  on 
the  bare  ground,  took  no  food  before  sunset, 
often  contented  himself  with  bread  and  water, 
and  sometimes  ate  only  every  other  day.  The 
fame  of  miracles  reported  of  him  induced 
Pope  Paid  II.  in  1469  to  send  his  chamberlain 
to  investigate  the  facts.  The  report  was  very 
favorable.  Pope  Sixtus  IV.  confirmed  the  new 
order,  appointed  the  founder  superior  general, 
and  permitted  him  to  establish  as  many  con- 
vents as  he  could.  King  Loui.<^  XI.  of  France, 
attacked  by  a  fatal  disease,  sent  for  him  in  the 
hope  of  being  cured ;  but  Francis  waited  until, 
in  1482,  the  pope  ordered  him  to  go.  He  met 
the  sick  king  in  Tours,  and  exhorted  him  to 
leave  the  issue  of  his  sickness  to  the  will  of  God, 
and  to  prepare  himself  for  death.  The  succes- 
sor of  Louis,  Charles  VIII.,  retained  the  saint 
in  France,  and  consulted  him  in  cases  of  con- 
science as  well  as  in  state  afiairs,  and  built  for 
him  two  convents  in  France  and  one  in  Rome. 
Francis  was  canonized  by  Leo  X.  in  1519. 

FBANCI8  DE  SALES,  a  saint  and  bishop  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  church,  born  at  the  chateau 
de  Sales,  near  Annecy,  Savoy,  Aug.  21, 1667, 
died  in  Lyons,  Dec.  28, 1622.  Both  his  parents 
were  of  noble  birth.  Francis,  their  eldest  son, 
was  sent  successively  to  the  college  of  Annecy, 
to  the  Jesuits*  school  in  Paris,  and  to  Padna, 
where  he  studied  law,  and  at  the  age  of  20 
received  the  degree  of  doctor  of  laws.  His 
inclination,  nevertheless,  was  toward  the  eccle- 
siastical life.  He  refused  repeatedly  the  offered 
dignity  of  senator,  and  finally  obtained  his  fa- 
ther's permission  to  accept  the  place  of  pro- 
vost in  the  cathedral  at  Geneva.  On  being 
ordained  deacon,  he  gave  the  first  proofs  of  his 
eloquence  as  a  preacher.  His  earnest  manner, 
and  the  spiritual  elevation  and  beauty  of  his 
thought,  gave  him  a  powerful  hold  on  his  audi- 
ences. He  was  raised  to  the  priesthood  in 
1598,  and  immediately  gave  himself  up  to  the 
impidses  of  his  zeal.  .  He  went  on  foot  through 
the  neighboring  villages,  visited  the  prisons, 
and  became  everywhere  known  as  the  friend 
of  the  sick  and  the  poor.  Accompanied  by 
his  cousin,  Louis  de  Sales,  he  went  on  a  mis- 
sion among  the  Protestants  of  the  province  of 
Chablais.  All  sorts  of  difficulties  were  thrown 
in  his  way,  and  nearly  four  years  passed  by 
without  any  considerable  impression  upon  the 
masses.  At  last,  however,  conversions  multi- 
plied ;  new  missionaries  came  to  his  aid,  and 
in  1598  the  Catholic  religion  was  publicly  re- 
stored and  the  reformed  faith  was  suppressed 
throughout  the  province.  Repeated  conferen- 
ces were  held  with  distinguished  Protestant 
leaders,  and  the  brilliant  success  of  Francis  in 
the  argument  with  La  Faye  led  the  pope  to 
select  him  to  deal  with  Theodore  Beza;  but 
in  this  case  he  was  not  able  to  report  a  con- 
version.   In  1599  he  was  chosen  ooa^utor  to 


FRANCISCANS 


425 


the  bishop  of  Geneva,  whose  death  in  1602 
left  to  Francis  the  fall  charge  of  the  diocese. 
His  episcopial  life  was  characterized  by  the 
same  zeal,  vigor,  and  devotion  whicii  had 
marked  his  missionary  career.  He  went  first 
to  Paris,  where  he  preached  before  Henry  IV. 
in  the  chapel  of  the  Loavre,  and  the  most 
tempting  offers  of  wealth  and  position  were 
made  to  retain  him  in  France.  Bat  he  pre- 
ferred to  return,  and  after  assisting  the  cardinal 
de  B6rnll6  in  the  establishment  of  the  Carme- 
lite order  and  the  congregation  of  the  Oratory, 
he  went  back  to  Switzerland.  He  established 
new  and  stricter  rules,  not  only  for  the  clergy 
and  laity  of  his  diocese,  but  for  his  own  per- 
sonal conduct.  He  renounced  all  luxuries, 
multiplied  fasts,  discouraged  lawsuits,  and  re- 
formed the  lax  discipline  of  the  monasteries. 
His  fame  as  a  preacher  led  various  cities  to 
solicit  his  aid  in  the  services  of  the  Lenten 
season.  He  was  more  than  once  chosen,  from 
his  moderate  and  peaceful  temper,  to  reconcile 
dissenting  parties  and  orders  in  the  church. 
A  still  wider  renown  was  given  to  his  name 
by  the  publication  (in  1608)  oi  V Introduetion 
d  la  vie  denote.  It  was  translated  into  many 
tongues,  and  in  less  than  60  years  40  editions 
of  it  were  published.  Francis  was  far  from 
undervaluing  monastic  institutions.  He  not 
only  established  convents  of  existing  orders, 
but,  in  coi\junction  with  the  widowed  baroness 
de  Ohantal,  founded  the  order  of  the  Visita- 
tion. Having  become  acquainted  with  that 
lady  during  a  visit  to  Paris  in  1604,  he  com- 
municated to  her  his  plan  of  a  new  order  of 
nuns.  In  1610,  at  Annecy,  he  gave  the  habit 
of  the  new  society  to  her  and  two  other  ladies. 
In  1616  he  published  his  TraiU  de  V amour 
de  Dieu^  a  nt  sequel  to  His  ^'  Introduction." 
The  appointment  of  a  younger  brother  as  as- 
sistant bishop  enabled  him  to  give  himself 
more  fhlly  to  the  work  of  conversion.  The 
famous  Calvinistio  leader  Lesdiguidres  became 
one  of  his  converts.  In  1619  he  visited  Paris 
as  one  of  the  embassy  sent  to  secure  the  hand 
of  the  princess  Christine  for  the  young  prince 
of  Piedmont.  His  preaching  in  this  visit  re- 
vived the  impression  which  it  had  made  in  the 
previous  reign.  On  his  return  to  his  own 
diocese  he  applied  himself  more  resolutely  than 
ever  to  the  ministration  of  alms,  the  suppres- 
sion of  scandals/  and  exercises  of  personal 
discipline.  In  1622  he  accompanied  Louis  XIII. 
of  France  from  Avignon  to  Lyons,  where  on 
Christmas  day,  after  preaching,  he  was  attacked 
with  apoplexy,  and  died.  The  works  of  St. 
Francis  have  been  often  published.  The  best 
editions  are  that  of  Louis  Viv^s  (14  vols.  8vo, 
Paris,  1857-'9),  and  that  of  P6risse  fr^res  (6 
vols.  8vo,  Lyons,  1866  and  1864). 

FKUVCISCANS,  Gray  Frian,  or  MfaitritM  (I.at. 
Fratres  Minares)^  a  religious  order  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  church,  founded  in  1209  by  St.  Francis 
of  Assisi.  When  the  number  of  his  disciples 
had  increased  to  ten,  he  gave  them  in  1210  a 
rule,  in  which  strict  poverty  and  a  onion  of  the 


active  and  contemplative  life  are  the  principal 
points.  The  order  was  orally  confirmed  by 
Innocent  HI.  in  1210,  and  again  in  1216,  and 
spread  with  such  rapidity  that  6,000  brethren 
were  assembled  at  the  general  chapter  in  1219. 
In  1223  Honorius  III.  by  a  bull  confirmed  the 
order  as  the  first  among  the  mendicant  orders, 
gave  them  the  right  of  collecting  alms,  con- 
firmed to  the  church  of  Portiuncula  the  cele- 
brated indulgence  which  was  afterward  extend- 
ed to  all  the  churches  of  the  Franciscans,  and 
granted  them  several  other  privileges.  The 
vow  of  poverty  made  the  Franciscans  favorites 
with  all  classes  of  the  people,  and  thus  secured 
them  large  numbers  of  novices.  Forty-two 
years  after  the  death  of  the  founder  the  num- 
ber of  Franciscans  was  estimated  at  about  200,- 
000,  with  8,000  convents  in  28  provinces.  At 
the  head  of  each  convent  was  a  guardian ;  the 
guardians  of  a  province  chose  a  provincial, 
who  was  assisted  by  d^nitoree;  the  general 
assembly  of  all  the  provincials  (general  chap- 
ter) elected  a  general,  and  likewise  definitores. 
The  simplicity  of  the  rule  left  room  for  the 
greatest  variety  of  opinions.  This  showed  it- 
self during  the  lifetime  of  the  founder,  one 
party  wishing  to  have  the  vow  of  poverty 
mitigated,  the  other  strenuously  opposing  any 
such  change.  The  strife  continued  from  1219, 
when  Eli  as  of  Cortona,  the  first  leader  of  the 
milder  party,  was  made  by  St.  Francis  himself 
vicar  general  of  the  order,  till  1617,  when  Leo 
X.  divided  them  into  two  separate  organiza^ 
tions.  At  the  election  of  almost  every  new  gen- 
eral we  find  the  two  parties  in  competition,  the 
popes  themselves  sometimes  siding  with  the 
one,  sometimes  with  the  other.  The  milder 
party,  when  in  a  minority,  submitted ;  but  the 
rigorous  party,  when  prevented  from  uphold- 
ing  the  whole  rule  of  St  Francis,  preferred  to 
form  separate  branches.  In  several  cases  they 
went  so  &r  as  to  appeal  from  a  decision  of  the 
pope  to  a  general  council.  As  early  as  1286, 
when  Elias  of  Cortona,  after  having  been  once 
expelled,  was  reelected  general  of  the  order, 
Cffisarius  of  Spire  left  it,  followed  by  72  others, 
called  after  him  the  Cessarines  or  Caesarians ; 
but  they  were  reconciled  with  their  brethren 
in  1266,  at'  the  restoration  of  a  stricter  obser- 
vance by  St.  Bonaventura.  The  lax  government 
of  the  general  Matteo  di  Aquas  Spartas  caused 
in  1294  the  foundation  of  the  Minorite  Celes- 
tines,  who  after  the  death  of  their  protector, 
Celestine  V.,  were  in  1307  condemned  as  here- 
tics and  suppressed.  Some  of  them  who  fied 
to  France  established  in  1808  the  Minorites  of 
Narbonne  and  the  Spirituals,  who  were  like- 
w ise  condemned  in  1 8 1 8.  Another  ofishoot  of 
Celestines,  the  Minorite  Clarenines,  founded  in 
1802  by  Angelo  di  Cortona,  was  tolerated  till 
1606,  when  they  united  with  the  Observants. 
Much  more  successful  than  these  secessions 
was  the  undertaking  of  Paoletto  di  Foligno 
in  1868  to  restore  the  strict  observance  of  the 
rule.  His  followers  were  called  Observants, 
and  those  who  adhered  to  the  milder  rule 


426 


FRANCISCANS 


Conyentuals.  Henceforth  these  two  names 
distinguished  the  two  great  parties.  By  tlie 
15th  centary  the  number  of  new  congrega- 
tions had  thrown  the  order  into  great  contu- 
sion. Leo  X.  made  an  attempt  in  1517  to  re- 
unite them,  but  succeeded  only  with  the  va- 
rious congregations  of  Observants,  on  whom  he 
therefore  conferred  the  right  of  electing  the 
general  (minister  generalis),  while  the  Conven- 
tuals could  only  elect  a  magister  general  {ma- 
gitter  generalis),  whose  election  had  to  be  con- 
firmed by  the  general.  From  that  time  the 
quarrels  between  the  Observants  and  Conven- 
tuals were  less  violent.  The  Conventuals 
made  several  attempts  to  regain  the  ascen- 
dancy, but  in  1681  Urban  VIII.  commanded 
them  to  abandon  their  claims  for  ever.  Not- 
withstanding the  desire  of  the  pope  that  no 
further  separations  should  occur,  several  con- 
gregations arose,  mostly  for  the  purpose  of  still 
surpassing  the  strict  observance  of  the  Obser- 
vants. These  communities  were  styled  Minor- 
ites of  the  stricter  observance,  and,  though 
forming  separate  provinces  from  the  main  body 
of  the  regular  Observants,  were  always  under 
the  same  general.  They  were  called  Aloanta- 
rines  in  Spain  from  St.  Peter  of  Alcantara, 
Reformed  in  Italy  and  Germany,  and  Recollects 
in  France,  England,  Ireland,  Belgium,  and  Hol- 
land. The  Capuchins,  originally  a  congrega- 
tion of  reformed  Franciscans,  became  after- 
ward an  independent  order.  (See  Capuchins.) 
— ^The  number  of  Franciscans  has  been  great- 
ly reduced  by  political  revolutions  since  1789. 
In  the  18th  century  the  order,  including  the 
Capuchins,  still  counted  nearly  200,000  mem- 
bers with  about  26,000  convents;  in  1843 
the  number  of  the  Observants,  the  most  nu- 
merous branch,  was  estimated  at  about  80,000. 
Since  1848  the  number  of  the  order  has  been 
gradually  increasing  in  the  British  empire,  the 
United  States,  Belgium,  Holland,  France,  and 
Germany ;  in  the  Italian  and  Spanish  peninsu- 
las they  have  now  completely  ceased  to  exist 
as  religious  corporations;  while  in  Mexico  a 
law  has  recently  been  passed  abolishing  all  re- 
ligious orders,  secularizing  their  members,  and 
sequestrating  their  property.  In  Asia  they 
have  a  province  in  Palestine,  whose  members 
are  the  guardians  of  the  holy  sepulchre  and 
other  Christian  sanctuaries,  and  are  celebrated 
for  their  hospitality  to  pilgrims  and  travellers. 
In  China  they  have  charge  of  two  apostolic  vi- 
cariates. The  Franciscans  were  the  earliest 
missionaries  to  America,  having  come  over 
with  Columbus  on  his  second  voyage  in  1498. 
Their  first  formnl  establishment  in  the  new 
world  was  in  1502,  when  12  friars,  with  a  pre- 
late named  Antonio  de  Espinal,  accompanied 
Ovando  to  Santo  Domingo.  They  went  to 
Florida  with  Pamfilo  de  Narvaez  in  1528,  one 
of  their  number,  Juan  Juarez,  bearing  the  rank 
of  bishop;  but  of  this  band  of  missionaries 
we  know  little ;  they  seem  to  have  efifected  no 
establishment,  and  all  perished.  An  Italian 
Franciscan,  Mark  of  Nice,  penetrated  into  New 


Mexico  and  California  in  1539,  and  gave  the 
name  San  Francisco  to  the  country  which  he 
visited.  The  exaggerated  reports,  of  what  he 
had  seen  and  heajrd  led  adventurers  to  those 
regions,  and  with  them  came  a  number  of 
Franciscans,  some  of  whom  remained  behind 
after  the  return  of  the  expedition  and  were 
martyred.  Father  Andres  de  Olmos  founded 
a  successful  mission  in  Texas  in  1544.  Subse- 
quently priests  of  this  order  established  them- 
selves permanently  in  Florida,  California,  Mexi- 
co, and  other  parts  of  the  south  and  west,  and 
were  among  the  first  to  plant  Christianity  in 
Canada,  and  in  what  are  now  the  northern  and 
northwestern  states  of  the  Union.  Their  labors 
in  Canada  date  from  1615,  when  four  Recol- 
lects (three  priests  and  one  lay  brother)  came 
over  from  France  and  took  charge  of  the 
Huron,  Algonquin,  and  Montagnais  missions, 
which  they  and  their  brethren  conducted  alone 
until  the  Jesuits  came  to  aid  them  in  1625. 
The  Recollects  "figured  largely  in  the  missionary 
history  of  Canada  for  many  years.  The  cele- 
brated explorer  Hennepin  was  a  Franciscan 
missionary.  The  foundations  of  the  order  in 
Califomia,  notwithstanding  the  numbers  who 
were  put  to  death  by  the  Indians,  still  remain, 
and  have  recently  been  reenforced  by  acces- 
sions from  Europe.  They  are  numeroas  in  all 
parts  of  Central  and  South  America.  Their 
present  houses  in  the  United  States,  except 
those  in  California,  have  been  founded  very 
recently,  chiefly  by  Italians  and  Germans.  In 
1878  the  following  establishments  existed  in 
the  United  States,  having  altogether  80  priests : 
two  convents  in  New  York  city ;  a  college 
and  convent  in  Alleghany,  N.  Y. ;  a  convent 
in  Buffalo ;  a  college  and  convent  in  Teutopo- 
lis,  111. ;  besides  convents  in  Winsted,  Conn., 
Cleveland,  Detroit,  Cincinnati,  St.  Louis,  Lou- 
isville, Nashville,  Oldenburg,  Ind.,  and  Quin- 
cy.  111.  The  Conventuals  have  convents  in 
Austria,  Bavaria,  Switzerland,  Malta,  Poland, 
and  Turkey. — We  find  Franciscans  soon  after 
the  death  of  St.  Francis  as  professors  of  the- 
ology at  the  university  of  Paris,  which  in  124^ 
was  commanded  by  Pope  Innocent  IV.  to  ad- 
mit Franciscans  and  Dominicans  to  academical 
dignities.  In  union  with  the  Dominicans  they 
strove  for  several  centuries  to  extend  in  the 
theological  schools  the  influence  of  the  monas- 
tic orders  at  the  expense  of  the  secular  clergy. 
With  the  Dominicans  they  maintained  various 
philosophical  and  theological  controversies,  the 
Franciscans  being  realists,  anti-Augustinians, 
and  defenders  of  the  immaculate  conception, 
while  the  Dominicans  are  nominalists  and  Au- 
gustinians,  and  were  formerly  opponents  of  the 
immaculate  conception.  Among  the  celebrated 
men  produced  by  the  order  are  Anthony  of 
Padua,  Bonaventura,  Alexander  of  H^tles,  Duns 
Scotus,  Roger  Bacon,  NicolausdeMyra,  Occam, 
Cardinal  Ximenes,  and  the  popes  Nicholas  IV., 
Alexander  V.,  Sixtus  IV.,  Sixtus  V.,  and  Clem- 
ent XIV.  In  the  flrst  period  of  their  history 
they  had  a  considerable  number  of  mystical 


FRANCK 


FRANOOLIN 


427 


writerB  and  composers  of  hymns,  as  Thomas  de 
Celano,  the  reputed  aathor  of  Dies  Ira^  and 
Giaoopone  da  Todi,  the  author  of  the  Stahat 
Mater.-St.  Francis  also  estahlished  an  order 
of  nuns,  who  are  generally  called,  from  its  first 
abhess  Clara  of  Assisi,  Poor  Clares  or  Clarisses. 
Another  branch  were  the  Tertiarians  or  peni- 
tents of  the  third  order  of  St.  Francis,  who  re- 
mained in  the  world,  but  followed  a  rule  and 
discipline  similar  to  those  of  the  first  and  sec- 
4>nd  orders.  They  received  their  rule  from  St. 
Francis  in  1 221 .  This  order  has  included  many 
kings  and  queens  (as  Louis  IX.  of  France,  and 
the  mother  and  wife  of  Louis  XIV.)  and  popes 
among  its  members,  Pius  IX.  being  one.  The 
Tertiarians  afterward  began  to  live  in  commu- 
nity and  take  vows,  but  this  practice  was  in 
time  abandoned.  New  communities  of  Ter- 
tiarians subsequently  sprang  up,  devoted  to 
teaching,  and  became  independent  of  the  pa- 
rent order.  They  have  houses  in  Pennsylvania, 
Indifiia,  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  and  Brooklyn, 
N.  T.  Among  the  communities  of  women,  the 
Elizabethines,  founded  in  1395  by  Angelina  di 
Corbaro-,  are  the  most  important.  In  France 
they  were  also  called  daughters  of  charity.  In 
184d  they  had  about  1,000  members ;  but  since 
then  their  numbers  have  much  increased.  In 
the  United  States  there  are  establishments  of 
sisters  of  the  third  order  of  St.  Francis  in  the 
dioceses  of  Vincennes,  Milwaukee,  Cincinnati, 
and  Sault  Ste.  Marie.— The  habit  of  the  Ob- 
servants consists  of  a  cowl  with  a  pointed  ca- 
poche,  a  cord  as  a  girdle,  and  sandals.  Its 
color  differs  in  different  localities.  In  England 
and  Ireland  it  is  gray,  whence  tlie  name  ^'  gray 
frinrs.''  Some  congregations  let  the  beard 
grow.  The  Conventuals  generally  wear  a  black 
cowl  and  capoohe.  They  also  wear  shoes,  and 
are  always  without  beards. — The  principal 
work  on  the  Franciscans  is  that  of  the  Irish 
Franciscan,  Lucas  Wadding  (died  in  1657). 
His  Annales  Minarum  (8  vols.  foL,  Lyons, 
1625-^48,  and  Rome,  1654)  was  continued  by 
De  Lnoa,  Fonseca,  and  others.  In  the  latest 
edition  (24  vols,  fol.,  Rome,  1781-1860),  Wad- 
ding's work  terminates  with  vol.  xvi. 

FEiNCK,  Adtlphe,  a  French  philosopher  of 
Jewish  parentage,  born  at  Liocourt,  department 
of  Menrthe,  Oct.  9, 1809.  He  studied  at  Nancy 
and  Toulouse,  taught  in  various  institutions, 
and  since  1854  has  been  professor  of  interna- 
tional law  at  the  college  de  France.  His  La 
KabhtUe^  ou  Philosophie  religiettte  dsi  Hebrevx 
(1843),  was  translated  into  German  by  Jellinek 
(1844),  and  he  has  written  on  penal  and  ec- 
clesiastical law  and  various  other  subjects. 
He  edited  the  Dictionnaite  des  seiencea  phiUh 
sophiques  (6  vols.,  1844~*52),  and  has  contrib- 
uted to  the  Journal  de»  D«i>aU  and  to  the  an- 
nals of  the  academy  of  moral  and  political  sci- 
ences, of  which  he  is  a  member.  Since  1805 
he  has  been  a  member  of  the  superior  council 
of  public  instruction.  In  1878  he  resigned  the 
olce  of  vice  president  of  the  Hebrew  consis- 
tory. 


FRANCILE,  Aigiist  HenMiu,  a  German  preach- 
er, founder  of  the  orphan  house  at  Halle,  bom 
in  Labeck,  March  23,  1663,  died  June  8,  1727. 
He  studied  at  the  universities  of  Erfurt,  Kiel, 
Gotha,  and  Leipsic,  and  founded  in  Leipsic  a 
school  for  the  interpretation  of  the  Scriptures, 
which  attracted  a  great  number  of  students. 
Accused  of  pietism,  he  was  obliged  to  renounce 
this  employment  in  1691,  and  passed  to  Halle, 
where  he  taught  the  Greek  and  oriental  lan- 
guages in  the  university,  and  also  became  pas- 
tor of  the  church  of  St.  George.  Here  he 
founded  a  charitable  institution  for  the  educa- 
cation  of  poor  children  and  orphans,  which 
soon  became  one  of  the  most  considerable  in 
Germany.  A  chemist,  whom  he  had  visited 
on  his  deathbed,  bequeathed  to  him  the  recipe 
for  compounding  certain  medicines,  which 
afterward  yielded  an  annual  income  of  more 
than  $20,000,  and  made  the  institution  inde- 
pendent. It  combines  an  orphan  asylum,  a 
psBdagogium,  a  Latin  school,  a  German  scliool, 
and  a  printing  press  for  issuing  cheap  copies 
of  the  Bible.     It  now  contains  800  inmates. 

FRANCOIS*  I.  Jean  Charles,  a  French  engraver, 
born  in  Nancy  in  1717,  died  in  Paris  in  1769. 
He  was  among  the  first  to  introduce  engravings 
representing  crayon  and  chalk  drawings,  and 
was  pensioned  by  Louis  XV.,  who  employed 
him  extensively.  His  best  known  works  rep- 
resent that  king  and  his  queen,  Bayle,  Eras- 
mus, Locke,  and  Malebranche.  IL  Charles  Reay 
Jules,  a  French  engraver,  bom  in  Paris,  Dec. 
24,  1809.  He  early  produced,  after  the  man- 
ner of  his  master  Henriquel-Dupont,  admira- 
ble engravings  of  pictures  by  Vandyke  and  Ra- 
phael, and  subsequently  was  exclusively  em- 
ployed in  reproducing  the  paintings  of  Dela^ 
roche.  He  has  resided  in  Brussels  since  1858. 
— His  brother  Alphonse,  born  in  Paris  in  1811, 
excels  in  the  same  branch  of  art. 

FRAHCOLIN,  a  gallinaceous  bird  of  the  grouse 
family,  subfamily  perdieiruB  or  partridges,  and 
^<&nx\A  fran^linus  (Steph.).  There  are  about 
30  species  found  in  the  warm  parts  of  the 
eastern  hemisphere,  especially  in  Africa ;  some 
prefer  open  plains,  where  they  roost  in  trees, 
and  others  woolly  places ;  when  alarmed,  they 
conceal  themselves  in  the  brushwood,  or  mo 
with  considerable  speed,  taking  wing  only  when 
hard  pressed;  their  food  consists  of  bulbous 
roots,  grains,  and  insects,  and  thpy  feed  in  early 
morning  and  at  evening.  The  bill  is  longer 
than  in  the  common  partridge ;  the  wings  are 
moderate  and  rounded,  the  third,  fourth,  and 
fifth  quills  the  longest ;  the  tarsi  are  strong  and 
spurred ;  the  feet  four-toed.  The  francolin  of 
Europe  {F.  vulgaris^  Steph.),  in.  the  male,  has 
the  plumage  of  a  general  yellowish  brown  color, 
each  feather  with  a  dark  centre ;  the  ear  cov- 
erts white ;  circle  round  the  eyes,  cheeks,  and 
sides  of  head,  and  the  throat,  deep  black,  be- 
low which  is  a  broad  chestnut  collar  extending 
around  the  neck;  the  rump  and  tail  white 
barred  with  black,  the  outer  feather  of  the 
latter  entirely  black ;  breast  and  lower  parts 


428  FRANCONIA 

bl&clc ;  Bides  blotohed  with  bltiok  and  white ; 
nnder  tail  coverts  oliestnut ;  hill  black.  The 
female  is  without  the  black  markings  and  chest- 
out  collar,  and  lier  bill  is  browD.  This  is  the 
odIj'  species  iodigenons  in  Europe,  where  it  is 
found  in  the  southern  parts;  it  also  occurs  in 


northern  Africa  and  the  greater  part  of  Asis. 
liie  flesh  is  delicate,  ana  much  esteemed  in 
India.  According  to  Gould,  this  genus  seems 
to  form  a  counectiag  link  between  the  brilliant 
pheasants  and  tragopans  of  the  East  and  the 
sober-colored  partridges  of  Enrope ;  to  the 
splendid  colors  of  the  former  it  nuites  the  form 
and  habits  of  the  tatter. 

FUNCONIA  (Ger.  Franhea,  or  Frankenlajid, 
land  of  the  Franks),  an  old  dochy  and  after- 
ward a  circle  of  the  German  empire.  In  the 
6th  ceotnr;  it  formed  a  part  of  the  Thuringian 
kingdom,  on  its  dismemberment  fell  to  the 
Franks,  and  on  the  breaking  up  of  the  Carlo- 
vingian  empire  to  Germanj.  In  tlie  latter 
empire  it  rose  to  foremost  importance,  and 
five  Franconian  dnkes  were  elected  emperors 
(Conrsd  I.  and  II.,  Henry  III.,  IV.,  and  V.). 
it  then  embraced  extensive  lands,  chiefly  be- 
tween the  Rhine  and  the  Bohemian  mountains, 
but  subsequently  was  weakened  bj  divisions, 
was  broken  up  into  small  territories,  and  dis- 
appeared as  a  duchy.  In  1512  Uaximilian  I. 
erected  a  port  of  it  into  a  circle  of  the  empire, 
including  the  ecclesiastical  dominions  of  Warz- 
burg,  Bamberg,  and  Eichstidt,  tlie  principali- 
ties of  Baireuth  and  Anspacb,  and  the  imperial 
cities  of  Nuremberg,  Schweinfurt.  Rothenburg, 
Weissenburg,  and  Windsheim.  During  and  after 
the  Napoleonic  wars  it  was  partitioned  among 
WQrtemberg,  Baden,  Heese-Cassel,  Saxony,  and 
Bavaria,  the  lest  named  state  receiving  the 
largest  portion,  and  still  retaining  the  name  in 
the  three  districts  of  Upper,  Middle,  and  Low- 
er Franconia.— Uppbb  Frahoonia  (Ger.  Ober- 
franken)  nearly  corresponds  with  the  former 
oircle  of  Upper  Main,  and  lies  in  the  N.  £, 
part  of  the  kingdom,  bordering  on  Bohemia 
and  Saiony ;  area,  2,702  aq.  m, ;  pop.  in  1872, 
&40,9S3.  It  is  a  mountain  region,  occupied  in 
the  east  by  a  portion  of  the  Ficbtelgebirge,  and 


FRANK 

rich  in  gypsnm,  marble,  gold,  silver,  lead,  and 
iron.  Agncnlture  and  cattle  raising  are  carried 
on  with  success.  Capital,  Baireoth, — Middle 
Fbanconia  (Ger.  MilUl/ivnken)  comjirisea  that 
portion  of  territory  anciently  knoiiu  as  tlio 
circle  of  Rezat,  and  includes  the  former  aar- 
graviate  of  Anspach,  the  bishopric  of  EicbsUidt, 
and  part  of  Baireuth  ;  area,  2,918  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1872,  583,*17.  It  touches  Wartcra berg  on 
the  west.  It  is  intersected  by  branches  of  tho 
Franconian  Jura,  and  a  small  portion  of  tbc 
mount^nous  district  is  too  ronf^h  for  tillage, 
but  three  foortlis  of  the  circle  is  in  a  high  state 
of  cultivation,  producing  tlie  grape,  tol>acco, 
pasturage,  and  hops.  There  are  few  minerals, 
but  important  inannfactnres  are  carried  on  in 
most  of  the  towns.  Capital,  Nuremberg. — 
Lower  Fbakconia  (Ger.  Unta^ranken),  near- 
ly identical  with  the  former  circle  of  Lower 
Main,  comprises  the  old  bisliopric  of  Wnrzharg 
and  pail  of  that  of  Fulda,  witli  several  smaller 
territories ;  area,  8,842  sii.  m. ;  pop.  in  fSTB, 
G86,122.  It  is  bounded  N.  E.  by  the  Ssie 
duchies,  E.  by  Upper  and  Middle  Franconia, 
S.  by  WOrtembei^  and  Baden,  W.  by  Barm- 
Btadt,  and  N.  W.  by  Prussia.  Tlie  N.  part  is 
traversed  by  the  Bhi^n  mountains,  and  the 
S.  W.  by  the  Spessart  There  are  several  ei- 
tensive  forests,  but  the  plains  and  river  bot- 
toms are  well  cultivated,  producing  grun,  pota- 
toes, hops,  and  the  grape.     Capital,  WUnbni^. 

IBiNCONU  KOTCU.    SeeWfliTE  Uountaikb. 

FUJiEKEB,  a  town  of  the  Netherlands,  b 
the  province  of  Friesland,  on  the  Trekschnyten 
canal,  between  Harlingen  and  Leenwaroen, 
lOm.  W.  ofthe  latter;  pop.  in  !S6T,  6,2BS. 
In  1686  a  university  was  establislied  here, 
which  iong  occupied  a  high  position  among  the 
learned  institutions  of  Enrope,  and  coonted 
among  its  professors  such  men  as  Schultens, 
Hemsterhuis,  and  Valckenaer,  Napoleon  1. 
abolished  it  in  1811;  in  1816  an  athenmani 
was  established  in  its  place,  which  was  subse- 
quently changed  intoagymnasium,  with  which 
a  physiological  cabinet,  a  botanical  garden, 
&c.,  are  connected.  The  university  buildings 
have  been  appropriated  for  an  insane  asylnm. 

FRANK.  L  Jtban  Peter,  a  German  physi- 
cian, bom  at  Rothalben,  ISaden,  March  19, 
1745,  died  in  Vienna,  April  24,  1621.  He  first 
studied  theology,  then  medicine,  taking  his  de- 
gree at  Heidelberg  in  1766,  and  after  practising 
at  Brochsal  and  elsewhere,  became  phywcian 
to  the  prince-bishop  of  Spire.  Acquiring  promi- 
nence as  a  lecturer  and  in  the  training  of  mid- 
wives,  be  was  appointed  professor  of  physiology 
and  medical  police  at  GOttingen  in  1764;  but 
on  account  of  liis  health  he  went  to  Italy  the 
next  year,  succeeded  Tissot  in  the  chair  of 
clinics  at  Favia,  was  appointed  sanitary  inspec- 
tor general  of  Lombardy,  and  introduced  re- 
forms in  medical  instruction  and  practice.  Tho 
rank  of  councillor  was  conferred  on  him  by  the 
king  of  England,  and  later  by  the  emperor  of 
Austria,  who  employed  hira  in  17S6  for  tlie 
regulation  of  the  sanitary  service  of  the  army 


FRANKEL 


FRANKFORT-ON-THE-MAIN     429 


and  as  director  general  of  the  principal  hospital 
of  Vienna.  In  1804  he  went  to  Wibia  as  pro- 
fessor of  clinics,  was  afterward  first  medical 
adviser  of  the  czar  and  professor  at  the  medical 
and  surgical  academy  of  St.  Petersburg,  and  re- 
turned to  Vienna  in  1808.  Napoleon  consulted 
him  in  respect  to  Marshal  Lannes,  and  offered 
him  a  brilliant  post  in  France ;  but  he  remained 
in  Germany.  His  advice  was  sought  in  1814 
for  Mnria  Louisa.  Among  his  principal  works 
are :  System  einer  tolUi&ndigen  medicinisehen 
Polizei  (9  vols.,  including  supplement,  1784- 
1827),  and  the  unfinished  Epitome  de  Gurandu 
Haminum  Morhia  (6  parts,  1792-1800;  7th 
part,  by  Eyerel,  1821).  His  autobiography  ap- 
peared in  1821,  and  his  Opuaeula  Poithuma 
were  published  in  1824  by  his  son.  n«  JMsph,  a 
German  physician,  son  of  the  preceding,  bom 
at  Rastadt,  Dec.  28,  1771,  died  at  Oomo,  Dec. 
18,  1842.  He  was  assistant  of  his  father  in 
Pavia  and  Vienna,  and  became  in  1804  profes- 
sor of  pathology  at  Wilna,  retiring  in  1824  on 
account  of  a  disease  of  the  eyes.  He  was  one 
of  the  most  influential  advocates  of  the  Bru- 
nonian  system  of  physic,  and  published  Orund- 
riu  der  Pathologie  neteh  den  Oesetzen  der  Er- 
reyunffstheorie  (Vienna,  1803).  His  PraxeoB 
Medusa  Uhiversa  Prcscepta  (Leipsic,  2d  ed., 
1825-'43)  has  been  translated  into  German 
(9  vols.,  1828-'4d)  and  French. 

ntANkHi,  Ztcluntiis  a  German  rabbi  and 
author,  bom  in  Prague,  Oct.  18,  1801,  died 
Feb.  18,  1875.  He  studied  in  Pesth,  became 
rabbi  at  Leitmeritz  in  1882,  and  chief  rabbi  for 
Ih*e8den  and  Leipsic  in  1836.  He  contributed 
greatly  to  improve  the  civil  status  of  the  Jews 
in  Saxony,  and  indirectly  in  other  parts  of  Ger- 
many. In  1864  he  became  director  of  the  Jew- 
ish seminary  at  Breslau,  which  was  opened  in 
that  year,  and  which  has  become  through  his 
Influence  a  celebrated  seat  of  Hebrew  learning. 
His  principal  writings  are :  Die  Eideeleutung 
der  Juden  (Dresden,  1840),  which  led  to  a  lib- 
eral modification  of  the  oath  required  from 
Jews  in  Saxon,  Prussian,  and  other  German 
courts  of  law ;  Eodegetica  in  Misehnam  (Leip- 
sic, 1859,  with  additions  in  1866) ;  Orundlinien 
dee  mosaiseh-talmudiechen  .Ehereehts  (Breslau, 
1850);  Entwurfeiner  Geaehiehte  der  Literatur 
der  naehtalmudieehen  Eeeponaen  (1865);  and 
Einleitung  in  den  Jerusalemiaehen  Talmud 
(1870).  He  was  also  editor  of  the  MonaU 
tchrifb  fufr  Qeechichte  und  WiMenschqft  dee 
JudenthumSy  begun  in  1851. 

fBAHKENHACSEN,  a  town  of  Germany,  capi- 
tal of  one  of  the  two  sections  of  the  princi- 
pality of  Schwarzburg-Sondershausen,  on  a 
branch  of  the  "Wipper,  10  m,  E.  of  Sonders- 
hausen;  pop.  in  1871,  about  4,900.  It  has 
salt  works  which  furnish  about  20,000  tons 
annually,  and  several  manufactures. 

FSiNKENSTEDr,  a  town  of  Pmssian  Silesia, 
capital  of  a  circle  of  the  same  name,  86  m.  S. 
W.  of  Breslau;  pop.  in  1871,  7,328.  It  has 
manufactures  of  stockings,  saltpetre,  and  aqua- 
fortis, and  a  trade  in  flax,  yam,  and  grain. 


FBAinLFORT,  a  city  of  Franklin  co.,  Ken- 
tucky, capital  of  the  county  and  state,  situated 
on  both  banks  of  the  Kentucky  river,  here  250 
yards  wide  and  spanned  by  two  bridges,  62  m. 
above  its  mouth,  and  on  the  I^uisville,  Cincin- 
nati, and  Lexington  railroad,  24  m.  W.  N.  W. 
of  Lexington,  and  45  m.  E.  of  Louisville ;  pop. 
in  1860,  3,808;  in  1860,  8,702;  in  1870,  5,396, 
of  whom  2,335  were  colored.  It  is  built  on  a 
high  plain  lyinsr  between  the  river  and  a  blufi' 
150  or  200  ft.  high,  and  is  regularly  laid  out,  with 
neat-looking  houses.  The  portion  on  the  S.  side 
is  called  South  Frankfort.  The  surrounding 
country  is  remarkable  tor  its  picturesque  sce- 
nery. On  one  of  the  hills  which  overlook  the 
city  is  a  handsome  cemetery,  in  which  are  buried 
several  of  the  governors  and  other  state  oflicers, 
and  also  the  remains  of  Daniel  Boone,  the 
pioneer  in  the  settlement  of  Kentucky.  The 
state  monument  to  those  who  fell  in  the  war  of 
1812  and  the  Mexican  war  is  of  white  Italian 
marble.  The  principal  public  buildings  are 
the  state  house,  built  in  1825  of  a  light-colored 
marble  quarried  from  the  hills  near  by,  with 
a  handsome  Ionic  portico;  a  new  structure 
known  as  the  fire-proof  public  offices,  adapted 
for  the  wing  of  a  new  capitol ;  the  state  in- 
stitution for  the  training  of  feeble-minded 
children ;  the  state  penitentiary,  with  650  con- 
victs ;  a  county  court  house,  and  a  handsome 
public  school  building.  The  river  is  navigable 
by  means  of  locks  and  dams  for  steamboats  40 
m.  above  the  city,  and  for  flat  boats  100  m. 
higher.  Frankfort  has  an  important  trade  in 
poplar,  cherry,  walnut,  ash,  and  oak  lumber, 
the  logs  being  rafted  down  the  river  and  ship- 
ped by  rail  to  the  east.  There  are  two  flour- 
mg  mills,  a  cotton  mill,  six  saw  mills,  five  dis- 
tilleries, three  banks  with  an  aggregate  capital 
of  $1,726,000,  a  tri-weekly  and  two  weekly 
newspapers,  and  six  churches.  The  city  was 
laid  out  in  1787,  and  became  the  seat  of  gov- 
emment  in  1792.  It  was  occupied  by  the  con- 
federates for  about  a  month  in  1862. 

FRAinLFORT-OIV-THE-MAIll  (Ger.  FranJ^rt 
am  Main\  a  city  of  Germany,  in  the  Pmssian 
province  of  Hesse-Nassau,  formerly  a  free  city 
and  the  seat  of  the  Germanic  diet,  situated  in 
a  fertile  valley  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river 
Main,  20  m.  above  its  confluence  with  the 
Rhine,  near  the  Taunus  mountains,  266  m.  S. 
W.  of  Berlin;  pop.  in  1871,  90,922,  of  whom 
about  12,000  were  Roman  Catholics,  7,500 
Jews,  and  the  remainder  Protestants.  The 
flnest  street  is  the  Zeil,  united  in  1866  with 
the  Neue  Kr&me,  and  also  through  the  new 
Liebfrauenstrasse  with  one  of  the  principal 
squares,  the  Liebfrauenberg.  The  other  re- 
markable public  squares  are  the  Rossmarkt, 
with  a'monument  in  honor  of  the  art  of  print- 
ing inaugurated  in  1857,  the  Goethe  square, 
with  Schwanthaler^s  statue  of  Goethe,  who 
was  born  here,  the  Schiller  square,  with  Schil- 
ler^B  statue,  and  the  RCmerberg.  In  the  latter 
is  the  ROmer,  or  council  house,  where  the  Ger- 
man emperors  were  elected  and  entertained  in 


430 


FBANKFOKT-OH-TEE-MAIN 


the  KfLisersoal,  the  walls  of  which  are  coTered 
with  portraits  of  the  emperors.  The  golden 
bull  of  Charles  IV.,  wliicb  regulated  the  elec- 
tion of  the  emperors,  is  preserved  in  the  build- 
ing. The  founder  of  the  house  of  Rothschild 
and  his  children  were  bom  in  the  Judenstrasse, 
bntaluioat  tlie  whole  W.  part  of  this  street  has 
since  been  pulled  down.  The  streets  whicli 
command  most  traffic  ore  the  Fohrgasse  and 
Schnnrgasse,  and  among  the  fiue  streets  are 
the  avenues  near  the  city  gates  and  the  Sch^ne 
Auasicht  idong  the  qua;.  Fraukfort  ia  sur- 
rounded bj  a  belt  of  promenades  ^.<ln^«n)  con- 
necting the  gates  of  the  city,  which  are  among 
the  finest  pleaauregrounds  in  Europe.  DeligW 
ful  villages,  as  Bockenheiin,  Bornheim,  Ober- 
rad,  dec,  are  within  a  short  distance  of  the 
citj,  as  well  as  several  watering  places,  such  as 
UoinbDrg,  Soden,  and  Wiesbaden.    There  are 


who  bequeathed  to  it  $400,000  besides  valu- 
able art  collections,  contains  a  library  and  a 
school  of  art.  Bethmann's  garden  contdus 
Dannecker's  "  Ariadne  "  and  his  colossal  bust 
of  Schiller.  In  the  pnbho  library  are  about 
100,000  volumes  and  many  important  M6S. 
The  museum  of  the  Senkenberg  society  of  natu- 
ralists contains  among  its  principal  collectioDS 
that  of  Dr,  Kuppell,  the  Abyssinian  traveller. 
Besides  a  gymnasium,  there  are  many  public 
and  private  schoob.  The  city  is  divided  into 
90  alms  districts  for  the  relief  of  the  poor,  and 
there  are  more  than  80  charitable  institu- 
tions and  hospitals.  There  are  four  CathoUc, 
six  Ludieran,  and  two  Reformed  churches, 
four  Lutheran  chapels,  an  English  chapel,  and 
two  new  synagogues.  The  principal  of  the 
Catholic  churches  is  the  cathedral  or  church 
of  St.  Bartlioloniew,  a  Gothic  structure,  in 
which  i^om  1711  the  German  emperors  were 
crowned.     The  tower  of  the  church  had  in 


1512  attained  267  ft.,  when  the  work  was 
diaoontiuued.     Tbe  interior  of  the  tower  was 
destroyed  by  fire  In  1867,  bnt  by  the  aid  of 
tbe  Prussian  government  it  is  to  1>«  restored 
and  to  be  finiabed  according  to  the  original 
plan.    The  most  celebrated  Lutheran  churches 
are  the  Katharinen  Kirche,  where  the  first 
Lutheran  sermon  was  preached  in  1522,  and 
that  of  St.   Paul  (formerly  BarfCsserkirche), 
where   tike  German   parliament   was   held   in 
l&ie  and  1B49.    Tbe  theatre  of  Frankfort  is 
among  the  best  in  Germany,    The  post  office 
on  tbe  Zeil  is  a  stately  building,  as  well  as  the 
eichange,     Tbe   once  famous   foirs   have  de- 
clined in  importance  since  the  opening  of  rail- 
ways, and  while  the  quantity  of  goods  hrought 
to  them  in  1842  amounted  to  102,000  quintals, 
it  was  only  84,500  qnictolsin  1870.    The  hotae 
fairs,  however,  are  still  active.    Frankfort  con- 
tinues to  be  a  good  market  for  wine,  cider, 
beer,  brcadstufis,  and  meata.    I'he  amoont  of 
duties  paid  on  imports 
during   the    year    end- 
ing Sept.  80,  1S73,  was 
about  1775,000.    Many 
diamond    dealers    hav- 
ing removed  from  Paris 
to  Frankfort  during  the 
Franco  -  German     war, 
.    the  export   of  jewelry 
',  has  increased  from  on^ 
I   about  (6,000  in   previ- 
,  ons  years  to  upward  of 
I   $200,000  in  1871.     Tbe 
export   of  human   bur 
]  and  hair  work  has  also 
.    increased    from     about 
'  $400  to  over  (70,000, 
I  ondnearlyhalf of  itgoes 
I  to   the    United  States. 
I   The  total  exports  to  the 
United  States  from  Oct. 
1,  I8T1,  to  Oct  1,  1872, 
amounted  to$l,448,d25, 
being    chiefly    leather, 
hides,  skins,  batter's  fnr,  jewelry  and  precions 
atones,  and  linen,  woollen,  and  cotton  goods. 
There    are    many  banking  houses,  foremost 
among  which  are  those  of  Botbschild  and 
Bethmann.     The  number  of  Jiousea,  chiefly 
Jewish,  engaged  in  the  stock  and  exchange 
business  amounta  to  at  leaat  200.    The  magni- 
tude of  tliia  business  is  dne  partly  to  the  great 
wealth  of  the  city,  and  partly  to  ita  geographi- 
cal sitnation,  which  makes  it  a  convenient  me- 
dium of  exchange ;  and  it  ia  the  moat  important 
continental  market  for  American  securities. 
The  chief  local  manufactures  are  carpeta,  ta- 
ble covers,  jewelry,  playing  cinls,  oilcloth,  to- 
bacco, snuff,  and  Frankfort  black.    The  exten- 
sive manufactories  at  Offenbach  and  in  other 
neighboring  locahties  are  mainly  conducted  by 
Frankfort  houses.    Since  the  annexation  of  the 
city  to  Prussia,  a  great  impulse  has  been  given 
to  ita  industry ;  aud  in  particular,  extensive 
type  founderies  and  manufactories  of  sewing 


FBANKFORT-ON-THE-ODEE 

niachines  and  chemioalB  have  been  established. 
The  eubnrb  of  Sachsenhaasen,  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Main,  and  anited  to  Frankfort  hj  a  fine 
stone  bridge,  is  on  important  market  for  fraits 
and  v«)(etablea.  Leipsic  has  taken  from  Frank- 
fort the  SQpremacj  which  it  once  poMesaed  in 
the  book  trade,  bnt  there  are  40  booksellers  in 
the  cit7,  and  several  important  pnbiishiDg  and 
enrravins  establiabmenta.  There  are  about  SO 
dailj  and  periodical  publications.  Seven  rail- 
wayB  proceed  from  Frankfort,  two  only  for  a 
abort  distance.  The  trade  on  the  Main  was 
in  1870  carried  on  by  T28  veasels.— Frankfort 
is  mentioned  in  794,  nnder  the  name  of  Palo- 
tium  Franconenford.,  as  the  place  selected  by 
Charlemagne  for  the  seat  of  an  imperial  con- 
vention and  religious  coancil.  The  indepen- 
dence of  the  city  dates  to  some  extent  from  the 
13th  centary.  Many  privileges  were  conferred 
upon  it  in  the  next  century,  and  it  acquired 
etil!  grater  importance  by  the  eleotdons  and 
subsequently  by  the  coronations  of  the  German 
emperors  which  took  place  here,  Frankfort 
was  captured  by  the  French  in  1769, 1T92,  and 
1790.     In  1806  it  became  the  residence  of  the 

Erince-primate  of  the  confederation  of  the 
hine,  and  in  18]0,  under  the  same,  the  capital 
of  a  grand  duchy,  with  an  area  of  about  S,000 
sq.  m.,  and  a  popalation  of  300,000.  In  1815 
it  was  recognized  aa  one  of  the  free  citiea  of 
Germany,  and  in  1818  as  the  seat  of  the  Ger- 
manic diet  From  184S  to  1896  it  was  gov- 
erned by  a  senate  of  21  members  elected  for 
life,  who  annually  chose  a  senior  and  a  junior 
burgomaster,  and  a  legLilative  assembly  of  88 
members,  elected  from  ail  classes  and  religious 
denominations.  The  financial  affairs  were 
muoly  controlled  by  a  standing  committee  of 
Gl  citizens,  who  were  elected  for  life.  Changes 
in  the  constitution  could  not  be  made  without 
the  consent  of  the  whole  body  of  citizens.  The 
cit;  had  together  with  the  other  three  free 
cities  the  ITth  vote  in  the  narrower  council  of 
the  diet,  and  was  entitled  to  a  [nil  vote  in  the 
plenum.  On  A^ril  3,  1883,  the  city  was  the 
theatre  of  a  political  ontbreak,  for  which  many 
stodents  were  arrested.  In  183S  it  joined  the 
ZoUverein.  In  1843  and  1849  it  derived  politi- 
cal importance  from  the  German  parliament 
held  there.  A  riot  broke  oot  during  the  ex- 
citement about  the  Sebleawig-Holstein  war 
(Sept.  IS,  1848),  in  which  the  Prussian  miyDr 
general  Auerswald  and  Prince  Felis  Lichnow- 
sky  were  killed  by  the  mob.  In  the  German 
war  of  1888  Frankfort  sided  with  Austria,  and 
was  on  that  account  annexed  to  Pmssia.  On 
May  10,  1871,  a  treaty  of  peace  between  Ger- 
many and  France  was  concluded  here. 

nUSlLFORTmK-THE-ODEK,  a  city  of  Bran- 
denburg, Prussia,  capital  of  a  district  of  the 
same  name,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river  Oder, 
4S  m.  E.  a.  E.  of  Berlin;  pop.  in  1871,  43,211. 
The  prosperity  of  tiie  town  is  due  to  its 
sitoation  on  the  rulway  between  Berlin  and 
Breslan,  to  its  navigable  river,  which  is  con- 
nected by  canals  wjUi  the  Vistnls  and  the  Elbe, 
88S  vou  VH.— 28 


FRANKINCENSE 


431 


and  to  its  three  annual  fairs,  at  which  large 
quantities  of  cotton,  woollen,  si!k,  and  other 
goods  are  sold,  though  to  a  less  extent  than 
formerly.  The  city  has  three  suburbs,  fine 
streets,  public  aqnares,  and  gardens,  a  theatre, 
many  charitable  institutions,  a  Roman  Catho- 
lic church,  a  synagogue,  and  several  Protestant 
churches.  The  university  was  removed  to  Brea- 
lau  In  1810 ;  a  gymnasium  still  remains.  Be- 
yond the  wooden  bridge  which  connects  the 
old  town  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Oder  with  the 
suburb  on  the  right  bank  is  a  roonnment  to 
Prince  Leopold  of  Brunswick,  who  was  drown- 
ed here  in  1765,  while  attempting  to  rescue  a 
family  during  an  innndation.  The  battle  of 
Knnersdorf  was  fought  within  3  m.  of  the 
town  in  17C9,  and  there  is  in  Frankfort  a  mon- 
ument of  the  poet  Kleist,  who  died  from  a 
wound  received  in  thia  battle. 

FmiHUHCEHSE,  a  designation  of  reainoos 
substances  which  when  burned  give  out  an 
agreeable  odor,  and  are  used  in  the  ceremoniet 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  church.  The  common 
frankincense  of  commerce,  also  called  gnm 
thus,  is  an  exudation  of  the  Norway  spruce 
(abia  exeeUd).  The  turpentine  from  our  sonth- 
ern  pine  foresta,  also  called  white  turpentine, 
when  old  and  hard,  is  often  sold  as  a  substi- 
tute for  the  European. — The  trne  frankincense 
of  the  ancients  is  the  fragrant  gnm  resin 
known  in  medicine  aa  ol3)annm,  the  product 
of  the  tree  Botviellia  terrata,  which  grows 
among  the  mountains  of  central  India  and  upon 
the  Coromandel  coast.  It  is  imported  from 
Calcutta  in  the  form  of  ronndiah  Inmps  or 
tears,  which  have  a  pale  yellow  color^  are 
somewhat  translucent,  and  are  covered  with  a 


OUbunm  (BonelUi  Hmts). 

whitish  powder  produced  by  friction.  It  has 
an  agreeable  balsamic  odor,  bat  its  taste  is  acid 
and  bitter;  it  softens  when  chewed,  adheres  to 
the  teeth,  and  whiteuathe  saliva.  It  readily  in- 
flames, and  imparts  in  burning  n  fragrant  odor. 
Thisia  the  property  which  rendered  it  so  highly 


432 


FRANKL 


FRANKLIN 


esteemed  with  the  ancients,  by  whom  it  was  in- 
troduced as  one  of  the  ingredients  in  their  in- 
cense, which  was  burned  (ineen«uin\  according 
to  Maimonides,  to  conceal  the  smell  arising 
from  the  slaughtered  animals  of  the  sacrifices. 
According  to  others,  the  smoke  of  its  burning 
was  regarded  as  in  itself  an  acceptable  offering, 
because  it  was  symbolical  of  prayer  and  of  in- 
terior worship.  Olibanum  is  but  imperfectly 
soluble  in  water.  Alcohol  takes  up  about  three 
fourths  of  it,  forming  a  transparent  solution. 
Braconnot  obtained  8  parts  of  volatile  oil,  56  of 
resin,  SO  of  gum,  and  6 '2  of  insoluble  glutinous 
matter ;  loss  6*8.  The  article  finds  but  little  use 
in  medicine  except  for  fumigations,  and  rarely 
as  an  ingredient  of  plasters. — Another  variety 
of  frankincense,  the  source  of  which  is  not  well 
ascertained,  is  brought  from  Arabia. 

FRANKL,  Lndwlg  Aigist,  a  German  poet  of 
Jewish  parentage,  born  at  Chrast,  Bohemia, 
Feb.  8, 1810.  He  received  a  diploma  as  physi- 
cian in  Italy  in  1837,  but  devoted  himself  to 
poetry  and  journalism,  was  secretary  and  archi- 
vist of  the  Hebrew  community  in  Vienna,  and 
became  in  1851  professor  of  aesthetics.  In 
1866  he  founded  a  school  in  Jerusalem,  and  de- 
scribed the  condition  of  the  Jews  in  the  East 
in  Nach  Jerusalem  (Leipsic,  1858)  and  Aus 
Aegypten  (Vienna,  1860),  having  sketched  that 
of  his  Viennese  co-religionists  in  a  previous 
work,  Zur  Geeehichte  der  Jttden  in  Wien  (2 
vols.,  1847-'58).  Of  his  little  poem  Die  Uni- 
versitdt^  500,000  copies  were  sold  in  Austria  in 
1848,  owing  to  its  being  the  first  publication  is- 
sued after  the  abolition  of  the  censorship.  His 
anonymous  Magyarenhonig  made  him  popular 
among  the  Hungarians,  the  work  having  been 
publicly  destroyed  by  the  Austrian  authorities 
in  Pesdi  (1850).  His  Ahnenbilder  (2d  ed.,  Leip- 
sic, 1864),  and  his  Lihanon  (4th  ed.,  Vienna, 
1867),  include  poems  suggested  by  his  travels 
in  the  East.  His  Helden  und  Liederbuch  (2d 
ed.,  Prague,  1863)  contains  his  shorter  pieces. 
His  finest  productions  are  his  epic  poems,  Cris" 
tofoTO  Colombo  (Stuttgart,  1836),  Don  Juan 
W Austria  (Leipsic,  1846),  and  Der  Primator 
(8d  ed.,  1864).  He  has  also  translated  several 
of  Moore's  and  Byron's  poems  and  Servian  bal- 
lads, the  latter  under  the  title  of  Gusle, 

FRANKLIN,  the  name  of  counties  in  22  of 
the  United  States.  I«  A  W.  county  of  Maine, 
bordering  on  Canada,  and  drained  by  Dead 
and  Sandy  rivers,  branches  of  the  Kennebec ; 
area,  1,600  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  35,868.  It 
has  no  navigable  streams,  but  there  are  several 
mill  creeks  and  small  ponds.  The  Androscog- 
gin railroad  terminates  at  Fannington.  The 
surface  is  undulating,  with  a  few  mountainous 
elevations,  the  chief  of  which  are  Mt.  Blue, 
Mt.  Abraham,  and  Saddleback.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  26,407  bushels  of 
wheat,  64,267  of  Indian  corn,  151,032  of  oats, 
825,513  of  potatoes,  71,211  tons  of  hay,  101,007 
lbs.  of  cheese,  562,470  of  butter,  and  267,369 
of  wool.  There  were  4,096  horses,  7,108  milch 
cows,  13,901  other  cattle,  57,093  sheep,  and 


1,604  swine;  5  manufactories  of  agricultural 
implements,  6  of  boots  and  shoes,  8  of  boxes, 
80  of  carriages  and  wagons,  8  of  sashes,  doors, 
and  blinds,  1  of  shoe  pegs,  4  of  wood  turned 
and  carved,  1  of  woollen  goods,  12  saw  mills, 
5  tanneries,  and  4  currying  establishments. 
Capital,  Fannington.  U.  A  N.  W.  county 
of  Vermont,  bordering  on  Canada  and  Lake 
Champlain,  and  drained  by  Missisque  and  La- 
moille rivers ;  area,  630  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
80,291.  The  surface  is  irregular,  and  the  soil 
fertile.  There  are  marble  quarries  and  iron 
mines.  The  commerce  of  the  county  is  carried 
on  through  Lake  Champlain,  which  is  naviga- 
ble here  for  vessels  of  90  tons,  and  over  tiie 
Vermont  Central  railroad.  The  chief  produc- 
tions in  1870  were  49,481  bushels  of  wheat, 
116,826  of  Indian  corn,  808,587  of  oats,  885,- 
122  of  potatoes,  104,075  tons  of  hay,  510,226 
lbs.  of  cheese,  2,984,520  of  butter,  92,178  of 
wool,  and  830,844  of  maple  sugar.  There 
were  6,025  horses,  27,624  milch  cows,  12,012 
other  cattle,  20,054  sheep,  and  4,564  swine; 
19  manufactories  of  carriages  and  wagons,  3 
of  agricultural  implements,  1  of  cars,  6  of 
cheese,  1  of  confectionery,  4  of  barrels  and 
casks,  2  of  drugs  and  chemicals,  1  of  iron 
castings,  8  of  lime,  1  of  engines  and  boilers, 
11  of  saddlery  and  harness,  6  of  sashes,  doors, 
and  blinds,  11  of  tin,  copper,  and  sheet-iron 
ware,  6  of  woollen  goods,  16  tanneries,  15 
currying  establishments,  14  saw  mills,  and  3 
flour  mills.  Capital,  St.  Albans.  IIL  A  N. 
.W.  county  of  Massachusetts,  bordering  on  Ver- 
mont and  New  Hampshire,  intersected  by  the 
Connecticut  and  drained  by  Miller's  and  Deer- 
field  rivers;  area  about  650  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  82,635.  The  surface  is  hilly  and  m  some 
places  mountainous,  and  the  soil  is  good.  The 
principal  channels  of  transportation  are  the 
Connecticut  River  railroad,  the  Vermont  and 
Massachusetts,  the  New  London  Northern,  the 
Rutland  division  of  the  Vermont  Central,  and 
the  Troy  and  Greenfield  railroads.  The  Connec - 
ticut  river  has  been  made  navigable  here  for 
boats.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
9,686  bushels  of  wheat,  28,827  of  rye,  159,588 
of  Indian  com,  76,553  of  oats,  8,980  of  bar- 
ley, 221,638  of  potatoes,  63,456  tons  of  hay, 
996,548  lbs.  of  butter,  70,882  of  wool,  2,473,- 
265  of  tobacco,  and  137,258  of  maple  sugar. 
There  were  4,245  horses,  8,779  mUch  cows, 
14,850  other  cattle,  15,959  sheep,  and  8,652 
swine ;  20  fiour  and  46  saw  mills,  7  tanneries, 
4  currying  establishments,  6  manufactories  of 
agricultural  implements,  2  of  bricks,  2  of 
children's  carriages  and  sleds,  12  of  wagons, 
4  of  cotton  goods,  2  of  cutlery,  18  of  furni- 
ture, 5  of  hardware,  4  of  iron  castings,  8  of 
machinery,  1  of  pianos,  1  of  printing  paper,  7 
of  pocketbooks,  1  of  sewing  machines,  8  of 
wooden  ware,  and  3  of  woollen  goods.  Capi- 
tal, Greenfield.  IV.  A  N.  E.  county  of  New 
York,  bordering  on  Canada,  drained  by  Sara- 
nac,  Clhateaugay,  St.  Regis,  and  Raquette  rivers; 
area,  1,764  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  80,271.     The 


FRANKLIN 


433 


St  Lawrence  touches  its  N.  W.  corner.  It 
has  an  uneven  surface,  diversified  by  a  great 
number  of  small  lakes.  The  S.  £.  portion  is 
occupied  by  the  Adirondack  mountains,  the 
highest  peak  of  which  in  this  county  is  Mt. 
Seward,  which,  according  to  the  survey  of 
1872,  is  4,462  ft.  high.  Bog  iron  is  found  in 
considerable  quantities.  Much  of  the  soil  con- 
sists of  rich  sandy  loam.  The  Ogdensburgh 
and  Lake  Champlain  railroad  passes  through 
the  county.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  85,049  bushels  of  wheat,  20,249  of  rye, 
69,005  of  Indian  com,  862,640  of  oats,  15,621 
of  barley,  47,548  of  buckwheat,  1,068,083  of 
potatoes,  66,883  tons  of  hay,  1,628,045  lbs.  of 
butter,  106,270  of  wool,  351,580  of  maple  sugar, 
41,100  of  fiax,  and  753,408  of  hops.  There 
were  6,816  horses,  17,138  milch  cows,  10,514 
other  cattle,  25,130  sheep,  and  4,625  swine;  8 
manufactories  of  pot  and  pearl  ashes,  4  of  boots 
and  shoes,  22  of  carriages  and  wagons,  18  of 
clothing,  2  of  stoves,  &c.,  1  of  engines  and 
boilers,  12  of  saddlery  and  harness,  30  of 
starch,  3  of  woollen  goods,  6  planing  and  37 
saw  mills,  9  tanneries,  6  currying  establish- 
ments, and  12  floiir  mills.  Capital,  Malone. 
¥•  A  S.  county  of  Pennsylvania,  bordering  on 
Maryland,  bounded  £.  by  South,  mountain, 
N.  W.  by  Tuscarora  or  Cove  mountain,  and 
drained  by  several  creeks ;  area,  740  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  45,365.  Most  of  it  consists  of  a 
rich  limestone  valley,  well  watered,  and  abound- 
ing in  slate,  marble,  and  iron.  In  the  N.  part 
rises  Parneirs  Knob,  a  lofty  peak  forming  the 
S.  W.  termination  of  the  Kittatinny  range. 
The  county  is  traversed  by  the  Cumberland 
Valley  railroad.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  888,727  bushels  of  wheat,  47,047  of  rye, 
948,618  of  Indian  com,  731,911  of  oats,  146,- 
735  of  potatoes,  55,439  tons  of  hay,  and  900,- 
710  lbs.  of  butter.  There  were  11,278  horses, 
10,503  milch  cows,  13,704  other  cattle,  9,081 
aheep,  and  28,577  swine;  11  manufactories  of 
agricultural  implements,  41  of  ciarriages  and 
wagons,  12  of  clothing,  19  of  barrels  and  casks, 
18  of  furniture,  12  of  iron  and  iron  castings,  4 
of  engines  and  boilers,  3  of  printing  paper, 
23  of  saddlery  and  harness,  5  of  sashes,  doors, 
and  blinds,  19  of  tin,  copper,  and  sheet-iron 
ware,  6  of  woollen  goods,  63  four  mills,  20 
tanneries,  15  currying  establishments,  4  distil- 
leries, 3  breweries,  1  planing  and  10  saw  mills. 
Capital,  Chambersburg.  VL  A  S.  W.  county 
of  Virginia,  bounded  N.  E.  by  Staunton  river, 
and  N.  W.  by  the  Blue  Ridge ;  area,  864  sq. 
m.;  pop.  in  1870,  18,264,  of  whom  5,996  were 
colored.  The  surface  is  undulating  or  moder- 
ately uneven ;  the  principal  mineral  is  iron ; 
the  soil  is  fertile.  The  chief  productions  in 
1870  were  77,722  bushels  of  wheat,  241,919  of 
Indian  com,  178,231  of  oats,  23,218  of  Irish 
and  10,056  of  sweet  potatoes,  165,499  lbs.  of 
butter,  and  1,696,549  of  tobacco.  There  were 
2,410  horses,  3,550  milch  cows,  5,787  other  cat- 
tle, 8,848  sheep,  and  13,808  swine,  and  4  to- 
bacco factories.    Capital,  Rocky  Mount.    YIL 


A  K  £.  county  of  North  Carolina,  intersected 
by  Tar  river;  area  about  450  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  14,134,  of  whom  7,601  were  colored. 
The  surface  is  level  and  the  soil  fertile.  The 
Raleigh  and  Gaston  railroad  passes  along  or 
near  the  W.  border  of  the  county.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  23,241  bushels  of 
wheat,  241,435  of  Indian  corn,  31,659  of  oats, 
30,135  of  sweet  potatoes,  2,522  tons  of  hay, 
36,243  lbs.  of  tobacco,  and  3,356  bales  of  cot- 
ton. There  were  1,442  horses,  2,593  milch 
cows,  4,224  other  cattle,  3,621  sheep,  4,530 
swine,  and  2  four  mills.  Capital,  Louisburg. 
VIIL  A  N.  E.  county  of  Georgia,  bordering  on 
South  Carolina,  drained  by  North  and  Hud- 
son's forks  of  Broad  river ;  area,  450  sq.  m.  ; 
pop.  in  1870,  7,893,  of  whom  1,859  were  col- 
ored. It  has  a  hilly  surface  and  a  productive 
soil,  the  river  bottoms  being  particularly  fertile. 
Gold  has  been  found  in  small  quantities,  and 
iron  is  abundant.  The  chief  productions  in 
1870  were  18,863  bushels  of  wheat,  173,007  of 
Indian  com,  14,151  of  oata,  12,335  of  sweet 
potatoes,  and  687  bales  of  cotton.  There  were 
1,093  horses,  1,630  milch  cows,' 2,590  other  cat- 
tle, 4,963  sheep,  and  6,822  swine.  Capital, 
Oamesville.  IX*  A  N.  W.  county  of  Florida, 
bounded  S.  by  the  gulf  of  Mexico ;  area,  476 
sq.  m.,  including  the  islands  of  St.  George  and 
St.  Vincent;  pop.  in  1870,  1,256,  of  whom  475 
were  colored.  The  Appalachicola  river,  here 
navigable  by  steamboats,  flows  for  some  dis- 
tance along  its  W.  border,  and  then  traverses 
its  centre.  Its  valley  is  very  fertile,  but  the 
soil  elsewhere  is  sandy  and  little  cultivated. 
The  surface  is  low,  and  much  of  it  covered 
with  swamps  and  ponds.  In  1870  there  were 
only  237  acres  of  improved  land.  There  was 
one  saw  mill.  Capital,  Appalachicola.  \»  A 
N.  W.  county  of  Alabama,  bordering  on  Mis- 
sissippi; area  about  700  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
8,006,  of  whom  1,313  were  colored.  It  has 
a  fertile  soil,  and  a  hilly  surface  partly  cov- 
ered with  oak- and  other  timber.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  9,070  bushels  of 
wheat,  264,136  of  Indian  corn,  7,055  of  oats, 
10,584  of  sweet  potatoes,  and  2,072  bales  of 
cotton.  There  were  1,882  horses,  2,156  milch 
cows,  3,386  other  cattle,  3,705  sheep,  and 
8,608  swine.  Capital,  Russell ville.  XI«  A  S. 
W.  county  of  Mississippi,  watered  by  Homo- 
chitto  river ;  area  about  600  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  7,498,  of  whom  3,800  were  colored. 
Its  surface  is  uneven,  and  its  soil  fertile  near 
the  rivers,  but  the  land  elsewhere  consists 
chiefly  of  pine  barrens.  The  chief  productions 
in  1870  were  124,846  bushels  of  Indian  com, 
28,085  of  sweet  potatoes,  and  5,079  bales  of  cot- 
ton. There  were  977  horses,  2,297  milch  cows, 
4,940  other  cattle,  and  8,038  swine.  Capital, 
Meadville.  XII.  A  N.  £.  parish  of  Louisiana, 
watered  by  Boeuf  and  Macon  bayous,  the 
former  of  which  is  navigable  by  steamboats ; 
area  about  500  sq.  ra. ;  pop.  in  1870,  6,078, 
of  whom  2,844  were  colored.  Its  surface  is 
hilly  and  its  soil  fertile.    The  chief  produc- 


434 


FRANKLIN 


tions  in  1870  were  85,794  bushels  of  In- 
dian corn,  6,804  of  sweet  potatoes,  and  8,498 
bales  of  cotton.  There  were  4,982  cattle,  and 
4,105  swine.  Capital,  Winnsborough.  XUL  A 
N.  W.  county  of  Arkansas,  bounded  S.  by  the 
Arkansas  river ;  area  about  450  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1870,  9,627,  of  whom  651  were  colored. 
The  surface  is  hilly  and  the  soil  fertile.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  18,085  bushels 
of  wheat,  828,444  of  Indian  com,  18,620  of 
Irish  and  28,689  of  sweet  potatoes,  and  4,796 
bales  of  cotton.  There  were  2,561  horses, 
8,118  milch  cows,  5,928  other  cattle,  and 
27,828  swine ;  6  flour  and  5  saw  mills.  Capi- 
tal, Ozark.  XIV*  A  S.  county  of  Tennessee, 
bordering  on  Alabama,  and  intersected  by  Elk 
river;  area,  780  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  14,970, 
of  whom  2,972  were  colored.  Tlie  surface  is 
mountainous,  especially  in  the  S.  £.  part.  The 
soil  is  fertile.  Ihe  county  is  traversed  by  the 
Nashville  and  Chattanooga  and  the  Winches- 
ter and  Alabama  railroads.  The  chief  produc- 
tions in  1870  were  84,357  bushels  of  wheat, 
467,757  of  Indian  com,  68,871  of  oats,  127,880 
lbs.  of  butter,  and  289  bales  of  cotton.  There 
were  2,945  horses,  8,043  milch  cows,  4,778  other 
cattle,  8,820  sheep,  and  24,074  swine;  8  flour 
and  4  saw  mills,  8  tanneries,  8  currying  estab- 
lishments, 8  for  wool-carding  and  cloth-dressing, 
and  2  cotton  factories.  Capital,  Winchester. 
XV«  A  N.  county  of  Kentucky,  intersected  by 
the  Kentucky  river,  which  is  here  naviga- 
ble; area,  212  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  in  1870,  15,800, 
of  whom  4,668  were  colored.  The  surface  is 
diversified  and  the  soil  productive.  The  Louis- 
ville, Cincinnati,  and  Lexington  railroad  passes 
through  it.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  28,981  bushels  of  wheat,  19,887  of  ^ye, 
428,295  of  Indian  corn,  58,688  of  oats,  16,472 
of  potatoes,  and  128,250  lbs.  of  tobacco.  There 
were  2,651  horses,  1,642  milch  cows,  2,388 
other  cattle,  4,170  sheep,  and  11,588  swine; 
5  manufactories  of  carriages  and  wagons,  1  of 
bagging,  8  of  clothing,  8  of  barrels  and  casks, 
1  of  cotton  goods,  1  of  malt,  1  of  wrapping 
paper,  1  book-printing  establishment,  8  saw 
mills,  8  distilleries,  and  8  flour  mills.  Capi- 
tal, Frankfort,  which  is  also  the  state  capital. 
XVI.  A  central  county  of  Ohio,  watered  by 
Scioto  and  Olentangy  rivers ;  area,  580  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  68,019.  It  has  a  level  surface 
and  a  rich  and  generally  well  cultivated  soil. 
Several  railroads  centre  at  Columbus.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  428,166  bushels 
of  wheat,  1,824,818  of  Indian  com,  246,217  of 
oats,  828,525  of  potatoes,  29,484  tons  of  hay, 
688,819  lbs.  of  butter,  and  144,018  of  wool. 
There  were  10,565  horses,  7,841  milch  cows, 
12,271  other  cattle,  40,588  sheep,  and  48,288 
swine;  522  manufacturing  establishments,  of 
which  the  most  important  were  8  of  agricultu- 
ral implements,  2  of  boots  and  shoes,  12  of 
bread,  &c.,  7  of  brooms  and  wisp  brushes,  2 
of  brashes,  82  of  carriages  and  wagons,  1  of 
cars,  40  of  clothing,  1  of  rectified  coal  oil,  2 
of  vegetable  food  preparations,  11  of  fumiture. 


1  of  gas,  2  of  hardware,  1  of  saddlery  hard- 
ware, 1  of  hubs  and  wagon  material,  1  of  forged 
and  rolled  iron,  7  of  iron  castings,  10  of  ma- 
chinery, 1  of  saws,  28  of  tin,  copper,  and  sheet- 
iron  ware,  1  of  wire,  2  of  woollen  goods,  8 
printing  and  publishing  establishments,  1  dis- 
tillery, 5  breweries,  6  flour  mills,  and  4  book- 
binderies.  Capital,  Columbus,  which  is  also 
the  capital  of  the  state.  XVIL  A  S.  £.  county 
of  Indiana,  bordering  on  Ohio,  and  drained  by 
Whitewater  river ;  area,  880  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  20,228.  The  surface  is  diversified  and 
the  soil  fertile.  Blue  limestone  is  found.  The 
Whitewater  canal  and  the  Whitewater  Val- 
ley railroad  pass  through  the  county.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  896,774  bushels 
of  wheat,  771,074  of  Indian  com,  148,148  of 
oats,  21,727  of  barley,  59,562  of  potatoes,  9,267 
tons  of  hay,  869,005  lbs.  of  butter,  and  40,883 
of  wool.  There  were  6,049  horses,  6,082  milch 
cows,  7,517  other  cattle,  11,284  sheep,  and 
22,489  swine;  8  manufactories  of  carriages 
and  wagons,  7  of  bricks,  10  of  barrels  and 
casks,  2  of  furniture,  5  of  machinery,  2  of 
printing  paper,  10  of  saddlery  and  harness,  1 
of  woollen  goods,  7  flour  and  19  saw  mills, 
and  2  distilleries.  Capital,  Brook vilie.  XVIIL 
A  S.  county  of  Illinois,  watered  by  Big  Muddy 
river ;  area  about  400  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
12,652.  The  county  is  heavily  timbered ;  the 
soil  is  fertile.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  111,689  bushels  of  wheat,  658,299  of  In- 
dian com,  222,426  of  oats,  27,968  of  potatoes, 
28,385  of  peas  and  beans,  4,885  tons  of  hay, 
48,956  lbs.  of  butter,  and  887,882  of  tobac- 
co. There  were  4,806  horses,  8,280  milch 
cows,  6,210  other  cattle,  18,196  sheep,  25,490 
swine,  and  8  flour  mills.  Capital,  Benton. 
XIX«  A  N.  central  county  of  Iowa,  drained 
by  Iowa  river  and  branches  of  the  Red  Ce- 
dar; area,  576  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  4,788. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  268,281 
bushels  of  wheat,  189,188  of  Indian  corn, 
149,810  of  oats,  26,312  of  potatoes,  12,008 
tons  of  hay,  and  180,882  lbs.  of  butter.  There 
were  2,870  horses,  1,868  mUch  cows,  2,882 
other  cattle,  and  8,488  swine.  Capital,  Hamp- 
ton. XX.  An  £.  county  of  Missouri,  bounded 
N.  by  the  Missouri  river;  area,  874  sq.  m.; 
pop.  in  1870,  80,098,  of  whom  2,178  were 
colored.  It  is  drained  by  Maramec  river, 
which  is  navigable  by  small  steamboats.  Rich 
mines  of  copper,  lead,  and  coal  are  found  on 
its  banks  and  in  other  parts  of  the  county. 
The  surface  is  uneven  and  well  timbered.  It  is 
traversed  by  the  Paciflc  railroad  of  Missouri  and 
the  Atlantic  and  Paciflc  railroad.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  586,921  bushels  of 
wheat,  853,297  of  Indian  corn,  851,840  of  oats, 
114,984  of  potatoes,  18,017  tons  of  hay,  278,789 
lbs.  of  butter,  62,988  of  wool,  783,270  of  to- 
bacco, and  75,954  gallons  of  wine.  There 
were  6,804  horses,  2,175  mules  and  asses,  7,477 
milch  cows,  10,841  other  cattle,  16,792  sheep, 
and  48,703  swine;  80  manufactories  of  car- 
riages and  wagons,  1  of  cars,  18  of  barrels  and 


FRANKLIN 


435 


casks,  7  of  furnitare,  1  of  pig  iron,  2  of  pig 
lead,  185  of  wine,  1  railroad  repair  shop,  2 
pork-packing  establishments,  1  planing,  13 
saw,  and  11  flour  mills,  1  box  factory,  and  8 
*  bride  kilns.  Capital,  Union.  XXI«  An  £. 
county  of  Kansas,  intersected  by  the  Osage 
river;  area,  576  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  10,886. 
The  surface  is  undalating  and  the  soil  fertile. 
The  Leavenworth,  Lawrence,  and  Galveston 
railroad  passes  through  the  county.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  44,471  bushels  of 
wheat,  618,840  of  Indian  corn,  181,515  of  oats, 
54,618  of  potatoes,  17,644  tons  of  hay,  185,640 
lbs.  of  butter,  and  20,498  of  wool.  There  were 
8,706  horses,  8,818  milch  cows,  7,108  other 
cattle,  5,182  sheep,  and  6,686  swine;  2  manu- 
factories of  boots  and  shoes,  1  of  brooms,  8  of 
saddlery  and  harness,  1  flour  and  8  saw  mills. 
Capital,  Ottawa.  XXII.  A  S.  county  of  Ne- 
braska, bordering  on  Kansas,  intersected  by 
Republican  river ;  area,  576  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  26. 

lUinUJlff*  h  A  borough  and  the  capital  of 
Venango  co.,  Pennsylvania,  on  French  creek 
or  Venango  river,  just  above  its  entrance  into 
the  Alleghany,  52  m.  S.  by  £.  of  Erie,  and  64 
m.  N.  of  Pittsburgh;  pop.  in  1870,  8,908. 
Small  steamers  run  to  Pittsburgh,  and  railroad 
communication  is  furnished  by  the  Franklin 
branch  of  the  Atlantic  and  Great  Western,  the 
Franklin  division  of  the  Lake  Shore  and  Michi- 

r  Southern,  and  the  Alleghany  Valley  line. 
>W6S  its  prosperity  mainly  to  the  trade  in 
petroleum,  oi  which  there  are  many  wells  in 
the  vicinity.  It  has  two  weekly  newspapers, 
a  national  bank,  several  oil  refineries,  a  num- 
ber of  schools,  and  six  or  seven  churches.  II« 
A  town  and  the  capital  of  Williamson  co., 
Tennessee,  on  the  Harpeth  river,  18  m.  S.  of 
Nashville ;  pop.  in  1870, 1,552.  A  severe  bat- 
tle was  fought  here,  Nov.  80,  1864,  between 
the  Union  forces  under  Gen.  Schofield  and  the 
confederates  under  Gen.  Hood,  brought  on  by 
the  latter  to  prevent  the  former  from  reach- 
ing Nashville.  After  a  determined  attack  the 
confederates  were  repulsed.  The  confederate 
loss  is  stated  at  from  4,500  to  6,000 ;  that 
of  the  Union  army  at  2,326.  The  result  was 
that  Nashville  remained  in  the  possession  of 
the  Unionists  during  the  remainder  of  the  war. 
IlL  A  town  and  the  capital  of  St.  Mary  parish, 
Louisiana,  port  of  entry  of  the  district  of  Teohe, 
situated  on  the  right  bank  of  Bayou  Teche,  65 
m.  by  water  from  the  gulf  of  Mexico,  and  88 
m.  W.  by  S.  of  New  Orleans ;  pop.  in  1870, 
1,265,  of  whom  503  were  colored.  It  is  the 
shipping  point  for  large  quantities  of  cotton, 
sugar,  and  com  produced  in  the  neighborhood, 
and  is  accessible  by  large  steamboats.  In  1872 
there  were  belonging  to  the  port  52  vessels 
with  an  aggregate  tonnage  of  8,858.  !¥•  A 
city  and  the  capital  of  Johnson  co.,  Indiana, 
situated  on  Young^s  creek,  and  on  the  Cincin- 
nati and  Martinsville,  and  the  Jeffersonville, 
Madison,  and  Indianopolis  railroads,  20  m.  S. 
by  E.  of  Indianapolis ;  pop.  in  1870,  2,707.   It 


is  the  seat  of  Franklin  college  (Baptist),  found- 
ed in  1835,  which  in  1872  had  8  professors 
and  instructors,  38  students,  and  a  library  of 
1,000  volumes.  It  also  contains  two  national 
banks,  two  weekly  newspapers,  ten  public 
schools,  and  several  churches. 

FKANKLDV,  Beitfamin,  an  American  philoso- 
pher and  statesman,  born  in  Boston,  Jan.  17, 
1706,  died  in  Philadelphia,  April  17, 1790.  He 
was  the  youngest,  except  two  daughters,  of  a 
family  of  17  children.  His  father,  a  noncon- 
formist, emigrated  to  New  England  in  1682  in 
search  of  religious  freedom ;  his  mother,  his  fa- 
ther's second  wife,  was  Abiah  Folger,  daughter 
of  a  distinguished  colonist,  Peter  Folger,  author 
of  a  poem  in  defence  of  liberty  of  conscience. 
Franklin's  father,  originally  a  dyer,  became  in 
Boston  a  tallow  chandler  and  soap  boiler.  Hav- 
ing bound  out  his  elder  sons  apprentices  to 
trades,  he  designed  the  youngest  "as  a  tithe 
of  his  sons ''  for  the  church.  The  child  was 
placed  at  school  at  the  age  of  eight,  and  mani- 
fested an  aptitude  for  study ;  but  narrowed  cir- 
cumstances compelled  his  early  withdrawal,  and 
at  the  age  of  ten  he  was  employed  in  cutting 
wicks  and  attending  to  the  shop.  This  was  so 
distasteful  to  Benjamin  that  he  began  to  talk 
of  going  to  sea,  to  prevent  which  his  father 
bound  him  apprentice  to  his  brother  James,  a 
printer.  The  boy,  always  fond  of  reading,  now 
sat  up  nights  engaged  in  study.  His  earliest 
favorites  were  Defoe's  "Essay  on  Projects," 
Mather's  V*  Essays  to  do  Good,"  Bunyan's  works, 
Plutarch,  and  Burton's  historical  collections. 
He  conceived  also  a  fancy  for  poetry,  and 
wrote  ballads,  the  "  I^ighthouse  Tragedy,"  and 
the  "Pirate  Teach,  or  Blackbeard."  These 
were  published,  but  his  father  looked  discour- 
agingly  upon  this  proceeding,  and  "thus," 
humorously  says  Franklin  in  his  autobiography, 
"I  escaped  being  a  poet."  Meeting  with  an 
odd  volume  of  the  "Spectator,"  he  was  so 
much  delighted  that  he  contrived  ingenious 
methods  of  mastering  the  style  and  acquiring 
an  ability  in  composition  which  he  considered 
a  principal  means  of  his  subsequent  advance- 
ment. At  the  age  of  16  he  mastered  arithme- 
tic without  assistance,  and  studied  navigation. 
He  read  also  at  this  period  "  Locke  on  the  Hu- 
man Understanding,"  the  "Port  Royal  Logic," 
and  a  translation  of  Xenophon's  "  MemorabUia." 
He  had  read  Shaftesbury  and  Collins,  and  be- 
coming a  skeptic,  applied  himself  to  skilful 
devices  of  argumentation  gathered  from  the 
"  Memorabilia,"  practised  them  as  exercises  in 
conversation,  and  often  defeated  antagonists 
whose  cause  and  understanding  were,  as  he 
afterward  confessed,  deserving  of  the  victory. 
When  about  16  years  of  age  he  met  with  a 
book  by  "one  Try  on,"  recommending  vegeta- 
ble diet,  which  he  adopted ;  it  proved  econom- 
ical, and  he  gained  thus  an  additional  fund 
for  purchasing  books.    Meantime  he  wrote  a 

{>aper  in  a  disguised  hand  for  the  "  New  £ng- 
and  Courant,"  published  by  his  brother;  it 
was  printed  anonymously,  met  with  approba- 


436 


FRANKLIN 


tion,  and  excited  cnriosity.  Other  oommuni- 
cations  followed  in  the  same  manner,  and  at 
length  the  author  was  discovered.  The  brother 
took  it  amiss,  the  circumstance  was  a  firat  oc- 
casion  of  hard  words,  and  the  young  appren- 
tice was  beaten.  Exception  was  taken  by  the 
general  court  to  the  political  character  of 
Franklin's  newspaper.  The  elder  brother  was 
imprisoned,  and  the  future  publication  of  the 
journal  by  James  Franklin  was  forbidden. 
The  younger  Franklin  undertook  to  elude  the 
interdict  by  consenting  to  be  nominal  printer. 
This  required  the  cancelling  of  his  indentures 
as  apprentice,  but  the  brother  required  new 
and  secret  indentures.  The  paper  reappeared, 
and  was  continued  for  several  months,  nomi- 
nally printed  and  published  by  Benjamin 
Franklin.  A  fresli  difference  soon  arose  be- 
tween the  brothers,  and  the  apprentice,  sup- 
posing his  master  would  not  produce  the  secret 
articles  of  agreement,  assert^  his  liberty.  His 
brother^s  influence,  however,  pi'evented  him 
from  getting  employment  at  any  of  the  print- 
ing oilices  in  Boston,  and  he  resolved  to  go  to 
New  York  in  search  of  work.  He  accordingly 
induced  the  captain  of  a  trading  vessel  to  take 
him  secretly  on  board,  on  pretence  of  escaping 
the  consequences  of  an  unfortunate  intrigue. 
He  sold  his  books,  and  in  three  days  was  in 
New  York,  at  the  age  of  17,  friendless,  almost 
penniless,  and  without  recommendations.  Dis- 
appointed there,  he  went  to  Philadelphia.  His 
voyage  from  New  York  to  Perth  Amboy  in  an 
open  boat  was  eventful ;  he  saved  the  life  of  a 
drunken  Dutchman,  who  fell  overboard;  and 
after  being  80  hours  without  food  or  water,  he 
landed  at  Amboy,  suffering  from  fever,  which 
he  says  he  cured  by  drinking  plentifully  of 
cold  water.  He  walked  thence  to  Burling- 
ton, and  took  boat  to  Philadelphia,  arriving 
after  some  difficulty  and  danger  at  the  foot  of 
Market  street  at  9  oVlock  on  a  Sunday  morn- 
ing. He  had  one  dollar,  and  about  a  shilling 
in  copper  coin ;  the  latter  he  gave  to  the  boat- 
men. He  bought  three  rolls  of  bread,  and  ate 
one  as  he  walked  up  the  street  with  the  others 
under  his  arms,  and  his  pockets  stuffed  with 
stockings  and  shirts.  Thus  equipped  he  passed 
by  the  house  of  his  future  father-in-law ;  his 
future  wife  was  at  the  door,  and  remarked 
the  awkward  and  ridiculous  appearance  of  the 
passer-by.  1  fe  gave  his  rolls  to  a  poor  woman, 
and  walked  idly  into  a  Quaker  meeting  house, 
where  he  fell  into  a  comfortable  sleep ;  it  was 
the  flrst  house  and  the  first  repose  of  which  he 
had  the  benefit  in  Philadelphia.  He  found 
employment  with  an  unskilful  printer  named 
Keimer,  and  obtained  lodging  at  Mr.  Read's, 
the  father  of  the  young  lady  who  had  noticed 
him  eating  his  roll.  The  governor  of  the  prov- 
ince, Sir  William  Keith,  accidentally  saw  one 
of  his  letters,  and  was  struck  with  evidences 
of  the  writer's  superiority.  To  the  amazement 
of  Franklin,  Sir  William  sought  him  out,  pro- 
posed to  him  to  set  up  business  for  himself, 
and  promised  him  the  public  printing.    He  was 


induced  by  these  promises  to  agree  to  go  to 
England  to  purchase  types  and  material ;  and 
previously  to  doing  so,  to  return  to  Boston  to 
obtain  his  father's  consent.  This  was  with- 
held, and  Franklin  returning  to  Philadelphia 
remained  some  time  longer  with  his  first  em- 
ployer. In  the  mean  time  he  had  made  prog- 
ress in  his  courtship  of  Miss  Read.  The  gov- 
ernor invited  him  often  to  his  house,  and 
adhered  apparently  to  his  original  intention 
of  setting  him  up  in  independent  business. 
Arrangements  therefore  were  completed  for  the 
voyage  to  London.  His  father's  permission  was 
no  longer  withheld.  Miss  Read  consented  to  an 
engagement,  and  he  embarked,  being  just  18. 
On  arriving  in  London  he  discovered  that  he 
had  been  grossly  deceived  by  the  governor.  Sir 
William  Keith,  "  a  good  governor  for  the  peo- 
ple, planned  many  excellent  laws,"  but  having 
^*  nothing  else  to  give,  had  given  expectations." 
Franklin  was  alone  in  a  foreign  country,  without 
credit  or  acquaintance,  and  almost  penniless.  He 
promptly  sought  a  printer,  and  took  service 
for  nearly  a  year.  He  fell  into  some  extrava- 
gance, and  conunitted  follies  of  which  he  be- 
came ashamed,  and  from  which  he  returned 
self-rebuked  to  industry  and  temperance.  He 
wrote  and  published  a  metaphysical  criticism 
upon  WoUaston's  "Religion  of  Nature;"  his 
employer  saw  his  talent  and  ingenuity,  but 
expostulated  against  the  principles  advanced 
in  his  essay.  The  pamphlet  was  an  introduc- 
tion to  some  literary  acquaintances.  He  had 
altercations  with  his  fellow  journeymen  on  the 
subject  of  temperance ;  they  were  beer-drink- 
ing sots,  and  many  of  them  he  reformed  al- 
together; he  was  strong  and  athletic,  while 
they  could  carry  less  and  did  less  work.  His 
skill  in  swimming  attracted  observation,  and 
he  gave  exhibitions  of  the  art  at  Chelsea  and 
Blackfriars,  which  excited  so  much  attention 
that  he  meditated  opening  a  swimming  school, 
and  wrote  two  essays  upon  swimming ;  but  in 
the  mean  time  he  entered  into  engagements 
with  a  good  man,  Mr.  Denham,  to  return  to 
Philadelphia  and  be  his  clerk  in  a  dry-goods 
shop.  They  sailed  from  Gravesend  July  23, 
1726,  and  landed  at  Philadelphia  Oct.  11.  He 
kept  an  interesting  journal  of  the  voyage.  He 
had  been  18  months  in  London,  had  profited  by 
advantages  of  acquaintanceship  and  books,  but 
was  unimproved  in  his  fortunes.  Sir  William 
Keith  had  been  superseded  as  governor ;  Frank- 
lin met  him  in  the  street,  but  seeing  that  he 
looked  ashamed,  passed  on  without  remark. 
To  Miss  Read  he  had  written  but  once  during 
his  absence,  and  that  was  to  say  that  she  was 
not  likely  to  see  him  soon.  She  had  been 
persuaded  to  marry  another,  but  her  husband 
had  absconded  in  debt,  and  under  suspicion  of 
bigamy.  Franklin  attributed  her  misfortunes 
to  his  own  conduct,  and  resolved  to  repair  his 
error.  It  was  doubtful  whether  a  marriage 
with  her  would  be  valid;  it  had  not  been 
clearly  ascertained  that  his  "  predecessor,"  as  he 
styles  him,  had  had  a  previous  wife,  and  Frank- 


FRAlfKLIN 


487 


tin,  whom  Mr.  Tuckerman  calls  the  incarnated 
common  sense  of  hb  time,  did  not  forget  that 
he  might  he  called  upon  to  pay  his  predeces- 
sor's debts.  "We  ventured,  however,"  he 
adds,  "  over  all  the  difficulties,  and  I  took  her 
to  wife  on  the  Ist  of  September,  1780,"  She 
proved  a  good  and  faithful  helpmate.  Some 
time  before  his  marriage  he  suffered  a  serious 
illness;  a  similar  illness  carried  off  his  em- 
ployer; and  Franklin,  forming  a  connection 
sliortly  afterward  with  a  person  who  had 
monev,  established  the  "Pennsylvania  Ga- 
zette," which  was  managed  with  great  abihty. 
He  had  already  written  the  "Busybody,"  a  se- 
ries of  amusing  papers,  for  another  journal, 
and  was  the  leading  member  of  a  club  called 
the  Junto,  in  which  questions  of  morals,  poli- 
tics, and  philosophy  were  discussed.  He  very 
soon  became  a  man  of  mark;  his  great  intelli- 
gence and  industry,  his  ingenuity  in  devising 
better  systems  of  economy,  education,  and 
improvement,  now  establishing  a  subscription 
and  circulating  library,  now  publishing  a  popu- 
lar pamphlet  on  the  necessity  of  paper  cur- 
rency (having  previously  invented  a  copper- 
5 late  press,  and  engraved  and  printed  the  New 
ersey  paper  money),  and  presently  also  his 
valuable  municipal  services,  rapidly  won  for 
him  the  respect  and  admiration  of  the  colonies. 
In  1782  he  first  published  his  almanac,  under 
the  name  of  Richard  Saunders.  It  took  the 
name  of  "Poor  Richard's  Almanac,"  and  was 
continued  profitably  about  25  years.  The  wise 
saws,  the  aphorisms,  and  encouragement  to 
virtue  and  prosperity  through  the  excellent 
proverbial  sentences  with  which  he  filled  the 
comers  and  spaces,  became  very  popular,  and 
they  were  at  length  spread  over  England  and 
France  in  reprint  and  translations.  In  1788, 
at  the  age  of  27,  he  began  to  study  the  French, 
Italian,  Spanish,  and  Latin  languages;  and 
after  ten  years^  absence  from  Boston,  he  re- 
visited the  scenes  of  his  childhood,  healing 
family  differences,  and  cons<ftling  the  deathbed 
of  his  brother  with  promises  of  provision  for 
his  son.  Returning  to  Philadelphia,  he  was 
elected  clerk  to  the  assembly.  Soon  afterward 
he  was  appointed  postmaster,  and  turning  his 
mind  upon  municipal  affairs,  wrote  papers  and 
effected  improvements  in  the  city  watch,  and 
established  a  fire  company.  He  became  the 
founder  of  the  university  of  Pennsylvania  and 
of  the  American  philosophical  society  (1744), 
took  an  active  part  in  providing  for  defence 
against  a  threatened  Spanish  and  French  inva- 
sion, and  invented  the  economical  stove  which 
bears  his  name;  he  declined  to  profit  pecu- 
niarily from  this  invention,  although  invited 
to  do  so  by  the  offer  of  a  patent.  While  in 
Boston  in  1746,  he  witnessed  some  imperfect 
experiments  in  electricity;  and  having  now 
means  sufficient  to  withdraw  from  private  busi- 
ness, he  purchased  philosophical  apparatus  and 
began  his  investigations  (for  an  account  of 
which  see  Eleotbo-Maostetism,  and  Lioht- 
ninq).    The  invention  of  the  lightning  rod  was 


a  practical  application  of  discoveries  the  most 
brilliant  which  had  yet  been  made  in  natural 
philosophy.  But  he  was  not  allowed  to  pro- 
ceed immediately  with  his  scientific  pursuits. 
He  was  elected  to  the  assembly  in  1750 ;  was 
appointed  commissioner  for  making  an  Indian 
treaty,  and  in  1758  deputy  postmaster  general 
for  America ;  and  was  presented  with  the  de- 
gree of  master  of  arts  by  Harvard  and  Yale 
colleges.  In  1754,  the  French  war  impending, 
he  was  named  a  deputy  to  the  general  con- 
gress at  Albany.  He  proposed  a  plan  of  union 
for  the  colonies,  which  was  unanimously  adopt- 
ed by  the  convention,  but  rejected  by  the  board 
of  trade  in  England  as  too  democratic.  He  was 
ever  afterward  actively  and  zealously  engaged 
in  national  affairs.  We  find  him  in  Boston  in 
1754;  and  the  French  war  having  begun,  he 
assisted  Mr.  Quincy  in  procuring  a  loan  in 
Philadelphia  for  New  England.  He  visited 
Braddock  in  Maryland,  and  modestly  remon- 
strated against  that  general^s  expedition  which 
resulted  so  disastrously.  As  postmaster  gen- 
eral he  was  called  upon  to  facilitate  the  march 
of  the  army,  and  labored  faithfully,  and  even 
to  his  own  pecuniary  disadvantage,  in  the  ser- 
vice. After  the  defeat  of  Braddock,  he  was 
the  means  of  establishing  a  volunteer  militia, 
and  took  the  field  as  military  commander.  Af- 
ter a  laborious  campaign  it  was  proposed  to 
commission  Franklin  as  general  in  command 
of  a  distant  expedition ;  but  he  distrusted  his 
military  capacities  and  waived  the  proposal. 
He  resumed  his  electrical  researches,  and  wrote 
accounts  of  experiments,  which  were  read  be- 
fore the  royal  society  of  London,  and  procured 
for  him  the  honor  of  membership  and  the  Cop- 
ley gold  medal,  and  were  published  in  England 
and  France.  Sir  Humphry  Davy  says  of  these 
papers  that  their  style  and  manner  are  almost 
as  admirable  as  tlie  doctrine  they  advance. 
Franklin,  he  said  subsequently,  seeks  rather  to 
make  philosophy  a  useful  inmate  and  servant 
in  the  common  habitations  of  man,  than  to 
preserve  her  merely  as  an  object  of  admiration 
in  temples  and  palaces.  Though  it  has  been 
said  of  him  by  English  historians  that  he  had 
usually  a  keen  eye  to  his  own  interests,  they 
are  forced  to  add  that  he  had  ever  a  benevo- 
lent concern  for  the  public  good.  While  an 
active  member  of  the  Pennsylvania  assembly, 
he  was  indefatigable  with  his  pen.  The  pro- 
prietary persisted  in  measures  confiicting  with 
the  privileges  of  the  inhabitants  and  with  the 
public  good;  in  consequence  of  which  the 
deputies  resolved  to  petition  the  home  gov- 
ernment for  redress,  and  appointed  Franklin 
their  commissioner  for  the  purpose.  He  pub- 
lished afterward  (1759)  the  "Historical  Re- 
view," which  contained  his  papers  in  aid  of 
the  cause  of  his  constituents,  and  had  mean- 
while obtained  so  much  reputation  that  Mas- 
sachusetts, Maryland,  and  Georgia  intrusted 
him  with  the  agency  of  their  affairs  also.  On 
making  the  English  coast,  the  ship  in  which 
he  had  embarked  narrowly  escaped  the  rocks. 


438 


FRAITKLIN 


In  describing  the  cironmstance  to  his  wife 
he  said:  ^^Were  I  a  Roman  Catholic,  I 
should  perhaps  vow  to  build  a  chapel  in  grati- 
tude for  this  escape ;  but  as  I  am  not,  if  I 
were  to  tow  at  all,  it  should  be  to  build  a 
lighthouse/'  He  arrived  in  London  July  27, 
1757.  Honors  and  compliments  in  abundance 
awaited  him.  Oxford  and  Edinburgh  con- 
ferred upon  him  their  highest  academical  de- 
grees. He  made  personal  acquaintance  with 
the  most  distinguished  men  of  the  day,  but 
never  failed  to  bestow  his  principal  attention 
upon  the  object  of  his  mission.  An  illness  of 
eight  weeks  retarded  progress,  and  great  diffi- 
culties followed  from  many  circumstances. 
Three  years  elapsed,  and  at  length  he  succeeded 
in  the  principal  objects  of  his  mission,  to  the 
entire  satisfaction  of  his  constituents.  He  sug- 
gested to  the  ministry  the  conquest  of  Cana- 
da, and  his  scheme  was  adopted.  With  Lord 
Karnes  and  others  in  Scotland  he  passed  six 
weeks  of  the  ^^  densest  happiness,"  as  he  called 
it,  of  his  life.  He  gave  Lord  Eames  the  fa- 
mous ^ ^  Parable  against  Persecution. "  He  made 
further  experiments  in  electricity,  invented  a 
musical  instrument,  the  armonica  (musical 
glasses),  and  received  from  the  ministry  the 
appointment  of  his  son  to  the  governorship  of 
New  Jersey.  At  the  end  of  five  years  he  em- 
barked for  home,  reached  Philadelphia  Nov. 
1,  1762,  and  received  the  official  thanks  of  the 
assembly.  New  difficulties  arising  between 
the  province  and  the  proprietaries,  he  was 
again  appointed  agent  to  the  English  govern- 
ment, to  petition  that  the  king  take  Pennsyl- 
vania affairs  into  his  own  hands.  He  reached 
London  early  in  December,  1764.  The  revo- 
lution was  imminent.  The  project  of  taxing 
the  colonies  had  been  announced,  and  Franklin 
was  the  bearer  of  a  remonstrance  against  it  on 
the  part  of  the  provincial  government  of  Penn- 
sylvania. He  was  indefatigable  in  his  exer- 
tions to  prove  the  unconstitutionality  and  im- 
policy of  the  stamp  act ;  and  when  the  repeal 
of  this  obnoxious  measure  was  attempted  he 
underwent  an  examination  before  the  house  of 
commons  (Feb.  3,  1766).  His  conduct  made  it 
aa  everlasting  record  of  his  firm  and  patriotic 
spirit,  of  his  wise  and  prompt  foresight,  the 
semblance  of  an  almost  inspired  sagacity.  The 
repeal  of  the  stamp  act  was  an  inevitable  con- 
sequence. He  subsequently  travelled  in  Hol- 
land and  Germany  with  his  friend  Sir  John 
Pringle,  and  visited  Paris,  where  he  met  with 
much  attention.  Temporary  tranquillity  in 
America  after  the  repeal  of  the  stamp  act  was 
followed  by  commotions  in  Boston  occasioned 
by  the  equally  offensive  revenue  act,  and  others 
subversive  of  colonial  rights.  In  1772  a  mem- 
ber of  parliament,  to  convince  Franklin  that 
every  grievance  complained  of  by  the  Amer- 
icans originated  not  with  the  British  govern- 
ment, but  with  tories  in  America,  gave  him  a 
number  of  letters  written  from  Massachusetts 
by  Gov.  Hutchinson  and  Lieut.  Gov.  Oliver, 
warmly  urging  coercive  measures  against  the 


colonies.    Franklin  immediately  sent  these  let- 
ters to  tlie  speaker  of  the  Massachusetts  house 
of  representatives.    Their  publication  caused 
great  indignation  in  America,  and  was  of  in- 
valuable service  to  the  popular  cause.    The 
Massachusetts  house  petitioned  the  king  that  he 
would  remove  Hutchinson  and  Oliver  from  the 
government.     Franklin  appeared   before  the 
privy  council,  Jan.  29,  1774,  to  present  their 
petition  and  advocate  the  removal.     "  He  was 
now,"  says  Bancroft,  **  thrice  venerable,  from 
genius,  fame  in  the  world  of  science,  and  age, 
being  already  nearly  threescore  years  and  ten." 
He  was  grossly  reviled  and  shamefully  insult- 
ed by  Wedderbum,  the  solicitor  general,  who 
made  against  him  a  long  personal  harangue, 
amid  the  applauding  laughter  and  cheering  of 
the  lords  in  council.    Franklin  bore  this  con- 
tumely with  his  accustomed  patience  and  digni- 
fied equanimity.    The  petition  was  rejected, 
and  the  next  day  he  was  dismissed  from  the 
office  of  deputy  postmaster  general.     Mean- 
while he  found  time  for  further  research  in 
science,  for  journeys  again  to  Paris,  Scotland, 
and  Wales,  and  a  visit  to  Ireland.    He  had 
determined  to  await  in  England  the  result  of 
the  continental  congress.    In  the  mean  time 
Mrs.  Franklin  died.    His  parents  and  15  of  his 
sisters  and  brothers  had  long  been  dead.    A 
daughter  alone  was  to  remain  to  his  solitude, 
his  cherished  son  being  about  to  sacrifice  the 
ties  of  kindred  to  loyalty  or  political  ambition. 
Franklin  embarked  for  home  in  March,  and  ar- 
rived May  5,  1775,  16  days  after  the  battle  of 
Lexington.    He  had  labored  faithfully  in  Eng- 
land to  prevent  the  final  outbreak,  and  now 
repaired  as  faithfully  to  his  duties  in  the  con- 
gress.   As  a  member  of  the  committees  of 
safety  and  foreign  correspondence  he  performed 
most  valuable  services,  exerting  all  his  infiu- 
ence  for  a  declaration  of  independence.    That 
instrument  he  had  the  honor  to  assist  in  draft- 
ing, and  to  sign,  July  4,  1776.    He  was  sent 
soon  after  to  Paris  as  commissioner  plenipoten- 
tiary, together  with  Silas  Deane  and  Arthur 
Lee.    During  the  voyage  he  continued  some 
interesting  experiments  which  he  had  begun  in 
the  spring  of  the  same  year  in  relation  to  the 
Gulf  stream.    He  was  the  first  to  make  obser- 
vations of  this  current;   and  his  chart  of  it, 
published  90  years  ago,  still  forms  the  basis  of 
charts  now  in  use.    On  arriving  in  France 
Franklin  established  himself  almost  immediate- 
ly at  Passy.    A  French  writer,  Lacretelle,  says 
that  **  by  the  effect  which  Franklin  produced, 
he  appears  to  have  fulfilled  his  mission,  not 
with  a  court,  but  with  a  free  people."    He  was 
not  at  first  received  officially,  but  soon  gdned 
influence  with  the  ministry;    and  after   the 
news  of  Burgoyne^s  disaster  he  concluded  the 
treaty  of  Feb.   6,   1778.     English  emissaries 
came  to  Paris  thereupon  to  sound  Franklin 
on  the  subject  of  reconciliation,  of  which  they 
discovered  that  independence  was  to  be  the 
sole  basis.    His  prudence  and  sagacious  firm- 
ness defeated  every  attempt  of  the  British 


FRANKLIN 


439 


government  to  sow  discord  between  America 
and  her  ally.  He  was  now  accredited  to  the 
French  king  as  minister  plenipotentiary  (1778), 
and  subsequently  one  of  the  commissioners  for 
negotiating  peace  with  the  mother  country. 
His  diplomatic  career  forms  a  chief  chapter  in 
the  history  of  his  country.  lie  signed  the  peace 
Nov.  80,  1782,  and  now  longed  to  return,  but 
was  not  able  to  do  so  till  1785,  when,  after 
53  years  in  the  service  of  his  country,  he  re- 
tired to  private  repose.  Before  leaving  Paris 
he  ooDclnded  the  treaties  with  Sweden  and 
Prossia,  embodying  many  of  his  great  interna- 
tional principles.  He  had  been  throughout  the 
whole  period  of  his  mission  an  object  of  marked 
enthusiasm.  His  venerable  age,  his  plain  de- 
portment, his  fame  as  a  philosopher  and  states- 
man, the  charm  of  his  conversation,  his  wit, 
bis  vast  information,  his  varied  aptitudes  and 
discoveries,  all  secured  for  him  not  only  the 
enthusiastic  admiration  of  Europe,  but  a  circle 
of  ardeut  Mends,  embracing  the  very  widest 
range  of  human  characters.  His  simple  cos- 
tume and  address,  and  dignified  aspect,  among 
a  splendidly  embroidered  court,  commanded  the 
respect  of  all.  *^  His  virtues  and  renown,"  says 
Lacretelle,  ^* negotiated  for  him;  and  before 
the  second  year  of  his  mission  had  expired,  no 
one  conceived  it  possible  to  refuse  fleets  and 
armies  to  the  countrymen  of  Franklin.''  On 
his  return  to  Philadelphia  (Sept.  14,  1785), 
he  was  elected  ^^  president  of  Pennsylvania." 
Washington,  with  whom  he  enjoyed  an  un- 
interrupted fHendship,  was  among  the  first 
to  welcome  him.  At  the  age  of  82  he  was 
a  delegate  to  the  convention  for  forming  the 
federal  constitution,  and  entered  actively  and 
heartily  into  the  business  of  that  body.  He 
served  also  as  president  of  the  society  for  po- 
litical inquiries,  and  wrote  interesting  and  vig- 
orous papers  upon  many  important  subjects. 
In  his  84th  year  he  wrote  to  Washington: 
^^For  my  personal  ease  I  should  have  died 
two  years  ago ;  but  though  those  years  have 
been  spent  in  excruciating  pain,  I  am  glad 
to  have  lived  them,  since  I  can  look  upon  our 
present  situation."  His  faculties  and  affections 
were  unimpaired  to  the  last.  At  his  fimeral 
20,000  persons  assembled  to  do  honor  to  his 
remains.  He  was  interred  by  the  side  of 
his  wife  in  the  cemetery  of  Christ  church. 
Throughout  the  country  every  species  of  re- 
spect was  manifested  to  his  memory ;  and  in 
Eorope  extraordinary  public  testimonials  are 
on  record  of  honors  to  one  of  the  greatest  bene- 
factors of  mankind.  Fault  has  been  found 
with  his  religious  character.  He  confesses  that 
for  a  time  before  the  age  of  21  he  had  been  a 
thorough  deist ;  and  it  has  been  said  that  ^ve 
weeks  before  his  death  he  expressed  a  ^*  cold 
approbation  "  of  the  '^  system  of  morals  "  of 
"  Jesus  of  Nazareth."  Whatever  his  faith  and 
doctrine  may  have  been,  his  reverence  for  reli- 
gion and  Christian  institutions  was  constantly 
manifest.  It  was  Franklin  who  brought  for- 
ward a  motion  for  daily  prayers  in  the  Philadel- 


phia convention.  The  motion  was  rejected,  as 
^^  the  convention,  except  three  or  four  persons, 
thought  prayers  unnecessary."  We  find  him 
advising  his  daughter  to  rely  more  upon  prayer 
than  upon  preaching ;  and  as  a  practical  mor- 
al adviser  he  has  lett  us  beautiful  teachings, 
at  least,  of  scarcely  surpassed  human  wisdom. 
At  the  most  critical  epoch  of  his  public  life, 
when  beset  with  menace,  jealousy,  bribery,  and 
ofiScial  caprice  and  ixgustice,  he  said:  ^^My 
rule  is  to  go  straight  forward  in  doing  what 
appears  to  me  to  be  right,  leaving  the  conse- 
quences to  Providence."  His  epitaph,  written 
by  himself  many  years  before  his  death,  has 
become  famous: 

»*  The  Body 

of 

Benjamin  Franklin,  Printer, 

(like  the  cover  of  an  old  book, 

It«  contenta  torn  oat, 

And  atript  of  Ita  lettering  and  gilding,) 

Llea  here  food  for  wonna. 

Yet  the  work  itaelf  shall  not  be  k>at, 

For  It  will  (aa  he  believed)  appear  once  more 

In  a  new 

And  more  beaatifhl  Edition, 

Corrected  and  Amended 

By 

The  Author.^* 

Franklin  was  strong  and  well  formed.  His 
stature  was  6  ft.  9  or  10  in.  His  complexion 
was  light,  his  eyes  gray.  His  manners  were 
extremely  winning  and  affable.  His  daughter 
Sari^i  married  Kichard  Bache. — The  last  of 
his  race  who  bore  his  name  was  his  grandson, 
William  Tbmplb  Fbanklin,  who  died  in  Paris, 
May  25,  1828,  and  who  published  in  London 
and  Philadelphia,  between  1816  and  1819,  edi- 
tions of  his  grandfather^s  works.  The  complete 
edition  of  the  works  of  Franklin,  edited  by 
Jared  Sparks,  appeared  in  Boston  in  12  vols. 
6vo  in  1886-^40,  with  notes  and  a  life  of  the 
author.  A  new  edition  was  published  in  Phil- 
adelphia in  1868.  Franklin^s  autobiography, 
one  of  the  most  interesting  works  of  the  kind 
ever  written,  was  first  published  in  Paris  in 
1791,  in  a  French  translation  made  from  a 
copy  of  the  author's  manuscript  This  version 
was  retranslated  into  English  and  published 
in  London  in  1793.  This  English  version  was 
again  translated  into  French  and  published  in 
Paris  in  1798.  The  copy  of  the  original  auto- 
graph from  which  the  first  French  version  was 
made  was  published  in  Temple  Franklin's  col- 
lection of  Franklin's  writings  in  1817.  A  new 
edition  of  the  work,  edited  by  John  Bigelow 
from  an  original  autograph  which  he  had  ob- 
tained in  France,  was  published  in  Philadel- 
phia in  1868. — See  Parton's  ^'  Life  and  Times 
of  Franklin"  (2  vols.,  New  York,  1864). 

FRANKUH.  L  Sir  John,  an  English  naval 
ofiicer  and  arctic  explorer,  bom  at  Spilsby, 
Lincolnshire,  April  16,  1786,  died  in  the  arc- 
tic regions,  near  lat  69°  87'  K,  Ion.  98"*  4'  W., 
June  11,  1847.  He  was  the  youngest  son  of  a 
respectable  yeoman,  who  was  obliged  to  sell 
his  estate  and  engage  in  trade.  John  was  in- 
tended for  the  clerical  profession,  and  received 
his  early  education  at  St.  Ives  and  at  the  gram- 


440 


FRAJSTKLm 


mar  school  of  Louth.  Bnt  he  soon  showed  a 
decided  predilection  for  the  sea;  and  his  father, 
hoping  that  his  inclination  for  the  life  of  a  sailor 
would  be  removed  by  an  experience  of  its  dis- 
comforts, permitted  him  to  make  a  voyage  to 
Lisbon  in  a  smaU  merchant  vessel.  As  he  re- 
turned with  his  enthusiasm  increased,  his  father 
yielded,  and  procured  him  admission  to  the 
navy  as  a  midshipman  at  the  age  of  14.  He 
served  on  board  the  Polyphemus  at  the  battle 
of  Copenhagen,  April  2,  1801.  In  the  ensuing 
summer  he  joined  the  Investigator,  which  was 
commanded  by  his  cousin,  Gnpt.  Flinders,  and 
was  commissioned  by  the  English  government 
to  explore  the  coasts  of  Austriuia.  After 
nearly  two  years  spent  in  this  service,  the  In- 
vestigator proving  unseaworthy,  her  officers 
sailed  for  home  in  the  store  ship  Porpoise ;  but 
that  vessel  was  wrecked  Aug.  18,  1803,  on  a 
reef  about  200  m.  from  the  coast  of  Australia, 
and  Franklin  and  his  companions  remained  on 
a  sand  bank  600  ft.  long  for  60  days,  when  re- 
lief arrived  from  Port  Jackson.  Franklin  was 
carried  to  Canton,  where  he  obtained  passage 
to  England  in  a  vessel  of  the  China  fleet  of 
Indiameu,  commanded  by  Sir  Nathaniel  Dance. 
On  reaching  England  he  joined  the  ship  of  the 
line  Bellerophon,  and  in  1805  took  part  in 
the  battle  of  Trafalgar  as  signal  midshipman, 
performing  his  functions  with  distinguished 
courage.  Of  40  persons  who  stood  round  him 
on  the  poop,  only  seven  escaped  unhurt.  For 
several  years  afterward  he  served  in  the  Bed- 
ford on  various  stations,  the  last  of  which  was 
the  coast  of  the  United  States  during  the  war 
of  1812-15.  He  commanded  the  boats  of  the 
Bedford  in  a  fight  with  the  American  gunboats 
at  New  Orleans,  one  of  which  he  boarded  and 
captured;  he  was  wounded,  and  for  his  gal- 
lantry was  made  a  lieutenant.  In  1818,  the 
British  government  having  fitted  out  an  expe- 
dition to  attempt  the  passage  to  India  by  cross- 
ing the  polar  sea  to  the  north  of  Spitzbei^en, 
Franklin  was  appointed  to  the  command  of  the 
Trent,  one  of  the  two  vessels  of  the  expedition ; 
the  other,  the  Dorothea,  being  commanded  by 
Capt.  Buchan.  After  passing  lat.  80°  N.  the 
Dorothea  received  so  much  damage  from  the 
ice  that  her  immediate  return  to  England  was 
decided  on.  Franklin  begged  to  be  permitted 
to  continue  the  voyage  with  the  Trent  alone, 
but  Capt.  Buchan  would  not  consent.  Frank- 
lin^s  condnct  on  this  occasion  gave  him  a  high 
reputation  as  a  bold  and  thorough  seaman  and 
a  competent  surveyor  and  scientific  observer. 
In  1819  he  was  appointed  to  the  command  of 
an  expedition  to  travel  overland  from  Hudson 
bay  to  the  Arctic  ocean,  and  explore  the  coast 
of  America  eastward  from  the  Coppermine 
river.  (For  an  account  of  this  and  his  other 
arctic  expeditions,  see  Arctio  Disco vebt.) 
Franklin  returned  to  England  in  1822.  Shortly 
after  his  arrival  he  was  made  a  post  captain 
and  elected  a  fellow  of  the  royal  society.  In 
1823  he  published  "Narrative  of  a  Journey  to 
the  Shores  of  the  Polar  Sea  in  1819-*22 ;"  and 


in  August  of  the  same  year  he  married  Eleanor 
Porden.  In  1825  he  was  appointed  to  the 
command  of  another  overland  expedition  to 
the  Arctic  ocean.  When  the  day  assigned  for 
his  departure  arrived,  his  wife  was  lying  at  the 
point  of  death.  She,  however,  insisted  that  he 
should  not  delay  his  voyage  on  her  account, 
and  gave  him  a  silk  flag,  which  she  requested 
him  to  hoist  when  he  reached  the  polar  sea. 
She  died  the  day  after  he  left  England.  He 
returned  home  by  way  of  New  York,  arriving 
at  Liverpool,  Sept.  24,  1827 ;  and  on  March  8, 
1828,  he  married  Jane  Griffin,  the  present 
Lady  Franklin.  In  the  same  year  he  published 
his  ^*  Narrative  of  a  Second  Expedition  to  the 
Shores  of  the  Polar  Sea  in  1825-'7."  In  1829 
he  was  knighted,  and  received  the  degree  of 
D.  C.  L.  from  Oxford  university  and  the  gold 
medal  of  the  geographical  society  of  Paris.  In 
1830  he  was  sent  to  the  Mediterranean  in  com- 
mand of  the  Rainbow.  While  on  this  station 
he  was  noted  for  his  attention  to  the  comfort 
of  his  crew,  and  the  sailors  expressed  their 
sense  of  his  kindness  by  calling  his  vessel  the 
"  Celestial  Rainbow  "  and  "  Franklin's  Para- 
dise.'^  In  1886  he  was  made  governor  of  Tas- 
mania or  Van  Diemen's  Land,  in  which  office 
he  continued  till  1843.  He  was  a  very  popular 
governor,  and  originated  and  carried  out  many 
measures  of  great  importance  to  the  colony. 
He  founded  a  college  and  gave  it  large  endow- 
ments from  his  own  funds,  and  exerted  himself 
to  have  it  conducted  without  regard  to  distinc- 
tions of  sect.  In  1838  he  founded  the  scientific 
association  now  known  as  the  royal  society  of 
Hobarton ;  during  his  administration  its  papers 
were  printed  at  his  expense.  When  the  colo- 
nial legislature  voted  an  increase  to  the  gover- 
nor's salary,  Sir  John  refused  to  accept  it  for 
himself,  but  secured  it  for  the  benefit  of  his 
successor.  Long  after  his  departure  from  the 
colony  the  remembrance  of  nis  virtues  drew 
from  the  inhabitants  of  Tasmania  a  contribu- 
tion of  £1,700,  which  was  sent  to  Lady  Frank- 
lin to  assist  in  paying  the  expenses  of  the  search 
for  her  missing  husband.  In  1845  Sir  John 
was  appointed  to  the  command  of  a  new  expe- 
dition to  discover  the  northwest  passage.  It 
consisted  of  the  ships  Erebus  and  Terror,  which 
were  fitted  out  in  the  strongest  and  most  com- 
plete manner,  and  manned  by  picked  crews, 
amounting,  officers  and  men,  to  138  persons. 
They  sailed  from  Sheerness  May  19,  1845. 
Franklin's  orders  were  to  return  in  1847.  He 
was  last  seen  by  a  whaler  in  Baffin  bay,  July 
26,  1845.  In  1848,  no  tidings  of  the  expedi- 
tion having  reached  England,  the  anxiety  of 
the  public  led  to  the  fitting  out  of  several  ex- 
peditions in  search  of  him.  (See  Abctic  Diboov- 
ERY.)  After  long  and  persistent  endeavors  oo 
the  part  of  Lady  Franklin,  of  the  British  gov- 
ernment, and  of  private  explorers,  the  mystery 
was  finally  solved  by  the  expedition  of  McClin- 
tock  in  1859.  A  record  then  discovered  made 
it  certain  that  Franklin  died  on  June  11,  1847, 
and  that  his  men,  some  of  whom  long  survived 


FRANKLIN 


441 


hfm,  perished  one  hj  one  in  their  journey 
southward.    He  had  reached  the  rank  of  rear 
admiral.     In  1860  parliament  voted  £2,000 
for  a  statoe  of  Franklin,  to  be  erected  in  Lon- 
don.— See  Capt.  F.  L.  McOlintock,  "  Narrative 
of  the  Discovery  of  the  Fate  of  Sir  John  Frank- 
lin "  (London  and  Boston,  1860) ;  Capt.  S.  Os- 
bom,  "  The  Career,  Last  Voyage,  and  Fate  of 
Sir  John  Franklin  ^'  (London,  1860)  ;  also  the 
works  of  Kane,  Richardson,   Inglefield,  &c. 
IL  Eteaaar  Ans,  an  English  poetess,  first  wife 
of  the  preceding,  born  in  July,  1796.      Her 
father,  William  Porden,  was  the  architect  of 
Eaton  hall,  and  of  other  noted  buildings.    Al- 
most unassisted  she  taught  herself  Greek  and 
Latin  when  only  11  or  12  years  old.    She  soon 
acquired  several  other  languages,  and  a  general 
knowledge  of  all  the  principal  sciences,  espe- 
cially of  botany,  chemistry,  and  geology.     At 
the  age  of  15  she  began  to  write,  and  in  her 
17th  year  she  produced  a  poem  in  6  cantos, 
"  The  Veils,  or  the  Triumphs  of  Constancy," 
.which  attracted  considerable  attention  on  its 
publication  in  1815.     Her  next  publication, 
"  The  Arctic  Expedition,  a  Poem  "  (1818),  led 
to  her  acquaintance  with  Capt.  Franklin,  and 
to  their  marriage  in  August,  1823.     In  1822 
lier  longest  and  best  poem,  *^  Coeur  de  Lion,  or 
the  Third  Crusade,"  in  16  cantos,  was  published. 
She  died  of  consumption,  Feb.  22,  1825,  the 
day  after  her  husband  sailed  on  his  second  ex- 
pedition to  the  Arctic  shores.     Her  poems, 
with  the  exception  of  "  Coeur  de  Lion,"  wero 
collected  and  published  in  London  in  1827. 
Ill*  Lady  Jane,  second  wife  of  Sir  John  Frank- 
Un,  distinguished  for  the  devoted  perseyerance 
with  which  she  labored  for  the  rescue  of  her 
husband,  and  for  the  discovery  of  his  fate,  born 
about  1805,  died  July  18,  1875.    She  was  the 
second  daughter  of  John  Griffin,  and  whs  of 
French  Huguenot  descent  on  her  mother's  side. 
While  in  Tasmania  she  paid  out  of  her  private 
purse  a  bounty  of  10  shillings  each  for  the  de- 
struction of  a  dangerous  species  of  serpent, 
which  in  consequence  was  soon  exterminated. 
She  expended  nearly  all  her  fortune  in  the 
search  for  her  husband,  and  after  the  certain 
news  of  his  death  she  continued  to  be  identified 
with  philanthropic  and  scientific  plans,  having 
been  a  promoter  of  many  of  the  most  useful 
public  charities  in  England,   while  taking  a 
keen  interest  in  all  schemes  of  foreign  explora- 
tion.   In  February,  1872,  she  bought  Franklin 
house,  in   Lincolnshire,   intending  to  collect 
there  the  relics  of  Sir  John's  expeditions. 

FRANKLIBr,  WIlliaH,  the  last  royal  governor 
of  New  Jersey,  an  illegitimate  son  of  Bei^amin 
Franklin,  bom  in  Philadelphia  in  1729,  died 
in  England,  Nov.  17,  1818.  It  is  not  known 
who  his  mother  was.  About  a  year  after  his 
birth  his  father  married,  took  the  child  into 
his  house,  and  brought  him  up  as  his  son.  In 
childhood  he  was  remarkably  fond  of  books, 
and  of  an  adventurous  disposition.  During  the 
French  war  (1744-'8)  he  obtained  a  commis- 
sion in  the  Pennsylvania  forces,  with  which  he 


served  in  one  or  two  campaigns  on  the  Canadian 
frontier,  and  rose  to  be  captain  before  he  was 
of  age.  From  1754  to  1756  he  was  comptroller 
of  the  general  post  office,  and  during  part  of 
the  same  period  was  clerk  of  the  provincial 
assembly.  In  1757  he  accompanied  his  father 
to  London,  where  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar 
in  1758.  In  1762  he  was  appointed  governor 
of  New  Jersey,  to  which  province  he  returned 
the  next  year.  In  the  revolutionary  contest  he 
remained  loyal  to  Great  Britain,  and  some  of 
his  letters  containing  strong  expressions  of  tory 
sentiments  having  been  intercepted,  a  guard 
was  put  over  him  in  January,  1776,  to  prevent 
his  escape  from  Perth  Amboy.  He  gave  his 
parole  that  he  would  not  leave  the  province, 
but  in  June  he  issued  a  proclamation  as  gover- 
nor of  New  Jersey  summoning  a  meeting  of 
the  abrogated  legislative  assembly.  For  this 
he  was  arrested  by  order  of  the  provincial  con- 
gress of  New  Jersey  and  removed  to  Burling- 
ton. He  was  soon  after  sent  to  Connecticut, 
where  he  was  strictly  guarded  for  upward  of 
two  years,  till  in  November,  1778,  he  was  ex- 
changed'for  Mr.  MoKinley,  president  of  Dela- 
ware, who  had  fallen  into  the  hands  of  the 
enemy.  Gov.  Franklin  after  his  liberation  re- 
mained in  New  York  till  August,  1782,  when 
he  sailed  for  England^  in  which  country  he  con- 
tinued to  reside  till  his  death.  The  English 
government  granted  him  £1,800  in  remunera- 
tion of  his  losses,  and  a  pension  of  £800  per 
annum.  William  Franklin's  adhesion  to  the 
royal  cause  led  to  an  estrangement  between 
him  and  his  father,  which  continued  after  the 
revolutionary  contest  was  over.  Dr.  Franklin 
beaueathed  to  William  his  lands  in  Nova  Scotia, 
ana  released  him  from  all  debts  that  his  execu- 
tors might  find  to  be  due  fk'om  him,  and  added 
this  clause :  *^  The  part  he  acted  against  me  in 
the  late  war,  which  is  of  public  notoriety,  will 
account  for  my  leaving  him  no  more  of  an 
estate  he  endeavored  to  deprive  me  of" 

FRANlLLIIf,  WilUaa  Bael,  an  American  soldier, 
bom  in  York,  Penn.,  Feb.  27, 1828.  He  gradu- 
ated first  in  his  class  at  West  Point  in  1848,  and 
was  stationed  on  the  survey  of  the  northern 
lakes.  In  the  summer  of  1845  he  accompanied 
an  expedition  to  the  South  pass  of  the  Rocky 
mountains  under  command  of  Brig.  Gen.  Kear- 
ny, and  in  the  following  year  was  engaged 
in  the  survey  of  Ossabaw  sound,  Georgia.  He 
served  on  the  staff  of  Gen.  Taylor  at  the  bat- 
tle of  Buena  Vista,  and  was  brevetted  first  lien- 
tenant  for  his  part  in  it.  In  June,  1848,  he 
was  ordered  to  West  Point  as  assistant  pro- 
fessor of  natural  and  experimental  philosophy ; 
and  in  February,  1852,  he  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  natural  and  experimental  philosophy 
and  civil  engineering  at  the  New  York  city  free 
academy.  During  the  next  eight  years  he  was 
continually  employed  as  consulting  engineer 
and  inspector  on  various  public  works,  par- 
ticularly harbors  and  lighthouses,  having  been 
engineer  secretary  of  the  lighthouse  board,  and 
superintendent  of  the  capitol  extension  and 


442 


FRANKLINITE 


FRANKS 


other  government  buildings  at  Washington. 
On  May  14,  1861,  he  was  appointed  colonel  of 
the  12th  (new)  regiment  of  infantry,  and  in  Jaly 
was  assigned  a  brigade  in  Ueintzelman^s  divi- 
sion of  the  army  of  N.  E.  Virginia,  At  the 
battle  of  Boll  Ron  he  was  **  in  the  hottest  of  the 
fight,"  according  to  the  official  report  of  Gen. 
McDowell.  In  August  he  received  the  com- 
mission of  brigadier  general  of  volunteers,  to 
date  from  May  17, 1861.  In  September  he  was 
appointed  to  the  command  of  a  division  in  the 
army  of  the  Potomac.  Sent  to  reinforce  Gen. 
McClellan  after  the  evacuation  of  Yorktown, 
he  transported  his  division  by  water  to  West 
Point  on  York  river,  and  repulsed  the  enemy 
under  Gens.  Whiting  and  G.  W.  Smith,  who 
attempted  to  prevent  his  landing,  May  7, 1862. 
On  the  15th  he  was  appointed  to  the  command 
of  the  6th  provisional  army  corps.  During  the 
movement  to  the  James  river,  which  began  June 
27,  he  was  charged  with  covering  the  retreat, 
and  repulsed  the  enemy  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Chickahominy,  June  27  and  28,  and  again 
in  conjunction  with  the  corps  of  Gen.  Sumner 
at  Savage^s  Station,  June  29.  He  commanded 
at  the  battle  of  White  Oak  swamp  bridge  on 
the  80th,  and  the  next  day  joined  the  main 
body  of  the  army  on  the  banks  of  the  Jame&. 
He  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  migor  general 
of  volunteers  July  4,  and  brevet  brigadier  gen- 
eral in  the  regular  army,  June  80.  In  the  bat- 
tle of  South  mountain,  Sept.  14,  he  distinguish- 
ed himself  by  storming  Crampton^s  gap.  He 
was  in  the  battle  of  Antietam,  Sept  17,  and 
in  November  was  placed  in  command  of  the 
left  grand  division  of  the  army  of  the  Potomac, 
induding  the  1st  and  6th  corps,  which  he  com- 
manded in  the  battle  of  Fredericksburg,  Dec. 
18.  The  next  year  he  was  transferred  to  the 
department  of  the  gulf,  commanded  the  expe- 
dition to  Sabine  pass,  September,  1868,  and  was 
second  in  command  in  Banks's  Red  river  expe- 
dition, April,  1864,  being  wounded  in  the  battle 
of  Sabine  cross  roads.  He  was  brevetted  migor 
general  in  the  United  States  army  March  18, 
1865,  and  resigned  March  15, 1866.  He  is  now 
n874)  vice  president  and  general  agent  of  the 
Colt  firearms  manufacturing  company,  at  Hart- 
ford, Conn.,  and  consulting  engineer  of  the 
commission  for  the  erection  of  a  new  state 

house.  

FRAllKLIinTE,  a  mineral  composed  of  perox- 
ide of  iron,  oxide  of  zinc,  and  oxide  of  manga- 
nese, in  appearance  much  like  the  magnetic 
oxide  of  iron.  It  is  found  in  considerable  quan- 
tity only  in  Sussex  co.,  N.  J.,  although  it  is 
also  mentioned  as  accompanying  ores  of  zinc 
in  amorphous  masses  at  the  mines  of  Altenberg 
(Vieille-Montagne),  near  Aix-la-Ohapelle.  The 
composition  of  the  franklinite  of  New  Jersey  is : 


OOlfSTrrDENTS. 

BwthlOT. 

ThoinpMB. 

DIckloMB. 

AlUeh. 

PorozideofiroD.... 

Oxide  of  doe 

Oxide  of  manganeae. 
Sfflca 

66-00 
17-00 
1600 

66-10 
17-48 
14-96 

66-116 
21-771 
11-987 

0-m 

68*86 
10-81 
18-17 

Its  hardness  is  5*6-6 '5;  specific  gravity,  5-5*09. 
It  occurs  in  large  veins  or  beds  at  the  mines  of 
the  New  Jersey  zinc  company  at  Stirling  hill 
and  Mine  hill  in  Sussex  co.,  accompanied  by 
the  red  oxide  of  zinc,  lying  between  the  crys- 
talline limestone  and  the  gneiss  rocks.  At 
Stirling  hill  it  constitutes  the  main  substance 
of  two  beds  of  considerable  magnitude,  lying 
in  immediate  contact  with  each  other,  divided 
only  by  a  parting  seam,  running  S.  W.  and 
N.  E.,  and  dipping  S.  £.  about  40*^  from  the  hill 
against  which  the  beds  seem  to  repose,  toward 
and  under  the  bed  of  the  Walkill  river.  The 
upper  of  these  beds,  lying  immediately  under 
the  crystalline  limestone,  is  composed  chiefly 
of  the  red  oxide  of  zinc  with  the  franklinite 
interspersed  in  granular  masses,  often  assa- 
ming  the  appearance  of  imperfect  crystals.  It 
presents  a  thickness  varying  from  8  to  8  ft., 
and  is  traced  with  great  uniformity  of  structure. 
At  times  almost  perfect  crystals  of  franklinite 
are  found,  particularly  where  the  bed  comes 
in  contact  with  the  superincumbent  limestone ; 
these  crystals  are  of  the  regular  octahedral 
form  with  the  edges  replaced.  The  franklinite 
constitutes  about  45  per  cent,  of  the  mineral 
contents,  the  rest  being  mainly  red  oxide  of 
zinc.  This  bed  is  extensively  worked  for  the 
manufacture  of  white  oxide  of  zinc,  which  is 
used  for  paint ;  the  residuum,  after  the  oxide 
of  zinc  is  driven  off,  being  franklinite,  is  smelt- 
ed into  iron.  The  underlying  bed  appears  on 
the  surface  or  outcrop  to  be  almost  a  pure 
massive  franklinite,  amorphous  in  structure,  al- 
though occasionally  also  exhibiting  very  large 
and  nearly  perfect  crystals  of  the  franklinite ; 
it  contains  no  red  oxide  of  zinc,  which  fact  is 
the  dbtinotive  feature  between  this  and  the 
overlying  bed,  which  is  generally  known  as  the 
bed  of  red  zinc  The  other  locality  where  the 
franklinite  is  found  in  large  masses  is  on  Mine 
hill,  about  1^  m.  N.  E.  of  Stirling  hill,  follow- 
ing the  course  of  the  Walkill  to  the  village  of 
Franklin.  Here  there  are  also  found  two  dis- 
tinct beds  in  immediate  juxtaposition ;  but  their 
relative  position,  as  compared  with  that  at 
Stirling  hill,  is  reversed,  the  franklinite  being 
the  easternmost  and  uppermost,  and  the  zinc 
being  the  underlying  and  westernmost 

nUBnLS)  a  confederacy  of  German  tribes, 
which  first  appeared  under  this  name  near  the 
lower  Rhine  about  the  middle  of  the  8d  cen- 
tury. It  is  now  generally  believed  that  the 
tribes  which  constituted  the  bulk  of  the  Frank- 
ish  confederacy  were  the  same  which  were 
known  to  the  Romans  in  the  time  of  the  first 
emperors  under  the  names  of  Sigambri,  Oha- 
mavi,  Ampsivarii,  Bructeri,  Catti,  &c.  The 
first  mentioned  were  the  most  powerful.  A 
part  of  these  tribes  had  passed  the  Rhine  as 
early  as  the  first  half  of  the  1  st  century.  In  the 
8d  and  4th  larger  bodies  successively  passed 
into  the  N.  E.  part  of  Gaul,  which  country 
they  finally  wrested  from  the  Romans  in  the 
5th  century.  Under  Probus  they  appear  as 
dangerous  enemies  of  the  Romans.    Garausius, 


FRANZ 


ERASER 


443 


irho  was  appointed  to  defend  the  province 
against  them  both  hy  land  and  sea,  having  be- 
trayed his  master  and  assumed  the  purple  in 
Britain,  made  them  his  allies,  surrendering  to 
them  the  islands  of  the  Batavi  and  the  country 
on  the  Scheldt.  Constantius  I.  and  Constan- 
tino the  Great  expelled  them  from  this  terri- 
tory, but  they  soon  invaded  it  again^  and  were 
finally  left  in  its  possession  by  Julian.  From 
that  period  they  appear  to  have  formed  two 
separate  groups,  the  Salian  (from  the  old  Ger- 
man $alj  sea,  or  from  Sala,  the  ancient  name 
of  the  river  Tssel),  and  RIpuarian  (from  the 
Latin  ri^?*,.  bank  of  a  river).  The  former  con- 
tinued the  attacks  on  Gaul  during  the  5th  cen- 
tury, and  established  an  empire  under  Olovis 
and  his  successors  (see  France);  the  latter 
spread  southward  on  both  sides  of  the  Rhine, 
extending  their  conquests  W.  as  far  as  the 
Mouse,  and  £.  as  far  as  the  head  of  the  Main. 
From  them  the  country  ac^acent  to  the  Main 
derives  its  modem  name  of  Franconia.  The 
Franks  form  an  element  in  the  modem  popula- 
tion of  France,  which  received  its  name  from 
them,  as  well  as  of  S.  W.  Germany.  Their  two 
divisions  had  separate  laws,  which  were  after- 
ward collected  in  two  codes,  known  as  Lex 
Saliea  and  Lex  Bipuariorum, 

FRANZ,  Mhtrty  a  German  composer,  bom  at 
Halle,  Jane  28,  1815.  His  parents  were  in 
moderate  circumstances,  and  having  themselves 
DO  love  for  music  discountenanced  it  in  their 
son.  It  was  not  till  his  14th  year  that  he  ob- 
tained even  elementary  instmction  in  music, 
and  that  of  the  most  imperfect  kind  and  under 
every  disadvantage.  His  passion  was  however 
so  great  that  he  was  unable  to  follow  his 
studies  at  college  to  any  good  purpose,  and  at 
last  his  parents  were  obliged  to  yield,  and  sent 
him  for  musical  tuition  to  Schneider  at  Dessau. 
Here  he  learned  but  little,  and  retuming  to 
Halle  was  left  to  grope  his  own  way.  He  ob- 
tained the  works  of  Bach,  Handel,  and  Schu- 
bert, and  studied  them.  He  now  began  to 
compose,  and  Schumann  obtained  for  him  a 
publisher  for  his  early  songs.  It  was  at  once 
seen  that  he  possessed  individuality  of  style, 
elevated  feeling,  and  a  happy  gift  of  melody. 
His  songs  are  several  hundred  in  number,  and 
in  merit  they  rank  next  after  Schubert^s.  They 
have  obtained  a  great  popularity  in  the  United 
States  as  well  as  in  Germany.  He  has  written 
very  valuable  accompaniments  for  many  of  the 
arias  from  Hande^s  Italian  operas  that  other- 
wise would  have  become  obsolete;  also  new 
accompaniments  to  the  Matth&us  passion  mu- 
sic of  Bach ;  and  so  thoroughly  has  he  imbued 
himself  with  the  spirit  and  forms  of  these  old 
masters  that  the  new  work  adapts  itself  per- 
fectly to  the  old,  and  restores  to  the  world 
some  most  valuable  works.  Franz  has  always 
lived  at  Halle,  in  the  conservatory  of  which 
he  is  professor.    He  is  blind. 

FIA8CAT1,  a  town  of  central  Italy,  in  the 
province  and  8  m.  E.  S.  E.  of  the  city  of  Rome, 
on  the  N.  W.  declivity  of  the  Tusculan  mount ; 


pop.  about  6,000,  chiefly  engaged  in  agricul- 
ture. It  was  the  favorite  summer  residence  of 
the  Roman  nobility  and  cardinals  for  some  cen- 
turies ;  and  many  of  their  magnificent  villas  re- 
main. Of  these  the  most  celebrated  is  the  villa 
Aldobrandini,  which  is  adorned  with  numerous 
fountains,  water  works,  and  paintings.  The 
villa  Rufinella  was  once  the  property  and  abode 
of  Lucien  Bonaparte.  On  the  summit  of  the 
mountain,  2,000  ft.  above  the  sea,  and  about  2 
m.  from  Frascati,  are  the  ruins  of  Tusculum, 
round  which  clustered  in  the  days  of  republi- 
can and  imperial  Rome  the  villas  of  her  patri- 
cians, orators,  and  emperors. 

RA8CHIK1,  GaitaM,  an  Italian  vocalist,  bom 
in  Pavia  in  1817.  He  studied  under  Moretti, 
and  has  been  distinguished  in  Italy  since  1887, 
and  at  the  Italian  opera  in  Vienna  since  1862, 
as  a  powerful  and  brilliant  tenor  singer.  His 
greatest  successes  have  been  achieved  in  H 
trovatare,  Ernani^  and  Un  hallo  in  nuucherOy 
which  last  was  composed  for  him  by  Verdi. 

FRASEB,  Aleuider  Canpbell,  a  Scottish  meta- 

ghysician,  bom  at  Ardchattan,  Argyleshire,  in 
eptember,  1819.  He  was  educated  at  the  uni- 
versity of  Edinburgh,  and  in  1846  was  appoint- 
ed lecturer  on  mental  philosophy  in  New  col- 
lege, Edinburgh.  He  was  editor  of  the  *^  North 
British  Review  "  from  1850  to  1867,  when  he 
succeeded  Sir  William  Hamilton  as  professor 
of  logic  and  metaphysics  in  the  university  of 
Edinburgh,  which  chair  he  still  retains  (1874). 
He  has  published  ^* Essays  in  Philosophy" 
(1856);  "  Rational  Philosophy  "  (1868);  "Col- 
lected Edition  of  the  Works  of  Bishop  Berke- 
ley, with  Dissertations  and  Annotations ''  (Ox- 
ford, 1871) ;  and  "  Life  and  Letters  of  Bishop 
Berkeley"  (Oxford,  1871).  The  last  named 
work  contains  many  of  Bishop  Berkeley's 
writings  hitherto  unpublished,  and  an  account 
of  his  philosophy.  PrOf.  Eraser  has  been  a 
frequent  contributor  of  educational,  philosophi- 
cal, and  miscellaneous  papers  to  the  "  North 
British  Review,"  "Macmillan^s  Magazine," 
and  other  periodicals. 

FRASER,  Chtries.  an  American  artist,  born 
in  Charleston,  S.  0.,  Aug.  20, 1782,  died  there, 
Oct.  5,  1860.  At  12  or  14  years  of  age  he  was 
in  the  habit  of  sketching  the  scenery  of  Charles- 
ton and  its  neighborhood.  At  the  age  of  1 6  he 
became  a  student  of  law.  Three  years  later  he 
commenced  the  study  of  art,  but  becoming  dis- 
couraged resumed  his  legal  studies,  and  in  1807 
was  admitted  to  practice.  He  retired  at  the  end 
of  11  years  with  a  competency,  and  in  1818 
resumed  his  art,  giving  his  attention  chiefly  to 
miniature  painting,  in  which  he  attained  emi- 
nent success.  He  painted  portraits  of  Lafay- 
ette (1825)  and  of  a  large  number  of  distin- 
guished Carolinians,  and  also  produced  land- 
scapes, interiors,  historical  pieces,  and  pictures 
of  genre  and  still  life,  the  greater  part  of  which 
are  owned  in  South  Carolina.  In  1867  an  ex- 
hibition of  his  collected  works  was  opened  in 
Charleston,  numbering  818  miniatures  and  139 
landscapes  and  other  pieces  in  oil.    He  was 


U4: 


FRASEB 


FRAUD 


the  author  of  ^^  Reminisoences  of  Charleston," 
several  poems  and  addresses,  and  varions  con- 
tributions to  periodical  literature. 

FRiSER,  StBOU.    See  Lot  at,  Lobd. 

FRA8ER  RIVEB.    See  British  Oolitmbia. 

FIUTERM1TUS8.    See  Guild. 

FRAUD*  Few  principles  of  law  are  oftener 
or  more  emphatically  asserted  than  that  fraud 
avoids  every  contract-  tainted  with  it,  and  an- 
nuls every  transaction.  It  is  seldom  that  this 
is  not  true;  but  there  are  certain  rules  and 
qualifications  which  must  be  known  for  the  un- 
derstanding of  the  practical  application  of  the 
principle.  Thus,  fraud  does  not  so  much  make 
the  contract  tainted  with  it  void,  as  voidable. 
This  is  an  important  practical  distinction,  for  a 
void  contract  has,  and  can'  have,  no  efficacy 
whatever,  being  simply  nothing;  whereas  he 
who  is  defrauded  in  a  contract  or  transaction 
may  still  be  on  the  whole  benefited  by  it,  and 
he  may  certainly  waive  his  right  to  avoid  it  for 
the  fraud;  and  if  he  does  so,  the  fraudulent 
party  cannot  insist  that  his  own  fraud  has  lib- 
erated him  from  his  own  engagements,  and 
annulled  his  obligations.  It  is  very  difficult  to 
give  a  legal  definition  of  fraud ;  but  it  may  be 
said  to  be  any  deception  by  which  another 
person  is  injured.  This  definition  leaves  it  ne- 
cessary to  explain  how  far  such  deception  may 
be  carried,  and  what  its  character  must  be,  be- 
fore the  law  recognizes  it  as  fraud,  and  will 
Sermit  a  party  iigured  by  it  to  find  legal  re- 
ress,  either  by  annulling  his  engagements  or 
otherwise.  For  it  is  certain  that  not  all  de- 
ception is  fraud  in  law.  The  Roman  civil  law 
used  the  phrase  doltts  maluSy  evil  deceit,  to 
express  the  fraud  which  the  law  dealt  with. 
We  have  no  similar  phrase  in  our  law,  but  we 
have  an  exactly  similar  distinction,  although  it 
is  difficult  to  define  or  even  to  illustrate  it. 
The  law  of  morality  and  of  religion  is  plain  and 
simple :  *^  Bo  unto  others  as  you  would  have 
them  do  unto  you ;''  and  any  craft  or  cunning, 
any  concealment  or  prevarication,  or  consent 
to  self-deception,  by  which  one  may  make  gain 
over  another,  is  clearly  a  violation  of  this  law. 
But  it  is  certain  that  there  is  a  large  amount 
of  craft,  and  a  very  cunning  kind  of  deception, 
active  or  passive,  of  which  the  law  takes  no 
cognizance,  and  which  characterize  a  very  large 
proportion  of  the  common  transactions  of  so- 
ciety. Somewhere  the  law  draws  a  line  be- 
tween that  measure  and  that  manner  of  decep- 
tion against  which  it  directs  men  to  protect 
themselves  by  their  own  caution,  under  the 
penalty  of  sufiering  without  remedy  any  mis- 
chiefs which  may  result  from  their  want  of 
skill  or  care,  and  that  larger  or  deeper  or  more 
important  kind  of  deception  which  it  considers 
it  unreasonable  to  require  that  men  should 
guard  themselves  from  without  its  aid.  But 
where  this  line  is  drawn  it  would  be  impossible 
to  declare  by  any  formula.  Indeed,  there  are 
whole  classes  of  cases  in  which  it  may  be  con- 
sidered as  not  yet  settled  what  the  law  is  in 
this  respect.    Thus,  the  law  of  warranty  has 


been  expressly  founded  in  England  and  the 
United  States  upon  the  rule  caveat  emptor^  or, 
let  the  buyer  beware ;  and  it  was  once  applied 
almost  to  the  extent  of  holding  that  if  a  buyer 
did  not  choose  to  obtain  an  express  warranty 
of  the  thing  sold,  he  was  remediless,  whatever 
might  be  Qie  amount  of  deception  practised 
upon  him,  or  rather  whatever  might  be  the 
degree  or  the  way  in  which  he  was  permitted 
to  deceive  himself.  But  in  the  article  Was- 
BANTT  we  shall  show  that  there  has  been  an 
important  modification  of  the  law  in  this  re- 
spect.— While  it  is  impossible  to  state  precisely 
by  definition  what  frauds  the  law  will  recog- 
nize and  treat  as  such,  and  what  it  will  not, 
some  leading  principles  run  through  the  a^a- 
dication  on  this  subject,  and  may  help  to  a  just 
understanding  of  the  matter.  One  is,  that  the 
fraud  must  be  material  to  the  contract  or  trans- 
action, and  as  it  were  enter  into  its  very  es- 
sence and  substance ;  and  the  best  test  of  this 
may  be  found  in  the  question,  would  the  trans- 
action have  taken  place  if  the  fraud  had  not 
been  practised  ?  For  if  it  would  not,  the  fraud 
was  material.  Another  is,  that  the  fraud  must 
work  an  actual  and  substantial  injury,  for  mere 
intention  or  expectation  is  not  enough.  Another 
is,  that  the  defrauded  party  must  not  only  have 
believed  in  point  of  fact  the  false  statement, 
but  must  have  had  a  rational  right  to  believe 
it,  because  he  cannot  call  upon  the  law  to  pro- 
tect him  from  the  consequences  of  his  own  neg- 
lect or  folly.  Here  the  law  looks  carefully  at 
the  injured  person^s  ability  to  protect  himself; 
and  it  is  far  more  liberal  in  its  suppression  of 
fraud,  or  in  remedying  its  consequences,  when 
that  fraud  was  practised  against  one  who  from 
age,  infirmity  of  mind  or  body,  or  the  confi- 
dence arising  from  a  fiduciary  relation,  has  a 
right  to  call  on  the  law  for  its  protection. 
Another  distinction  which  the  law  makes  is 
founded  on  practical  reasons,  which  amount 
indeed  to  a  necessity,  but  is  scarcely  sustained 
by  principles  of  morality ;  it  is  that  between 
concealment  and  misrepresentation.  In  some 
branches  of  the  law,  as  that  of  insurance,  the 
distinction  is  of  little  value,  but  generally  it 
has  much  force.  Thus,  if  one  buys  goods  on 
credit  who  is  at  the  time  insolvent,  but  says 
nothing  about  his  afiairs,  the  sale  is  valid,  and 
the  property  passes  to  the  buyer,  leaving  the 
seller  only  his  claim  for  the  price.  But  if  the 
buyer,  being  insolvent,  falsely  represents  him- 
self to  the  seller  as  having  sufficient  resources 
to  justify  the  sale  or  credit,  this  is  a  fraud 
which  permits  the  seller  to  avoid  the  sale,  and 
to  reclaim  the  goods.  (See  False  Prbtenobb.) 
The  question  how  far  one  is  bouud  to  commu- 
nicate to  another  any  special  facts  which  he 
knows,  or  indeed  any  information  which  he 
possesses,  has  often  passed  under  adjudication. 
That  a  sale  is  not  voidable  merely  because  one 
party  knew  what  the  other  did  not,  and  bought 
or  sold  because  of  his  better  knowledge,  is  both 
certain  and  obvious ;  and  perhaps  it  is  equally 
coiiiain  and  obvious  that  if  the  law  annulled  all 


FRAUDS  (Statute  of) 


445 


traiiflftctions  of  this  kind,  a  very  large  propor- 
tion of  all  the  baying  and  selling,  of  all  that 
goes  nnder  the  name  of  speculation,  must  come 
to  an  end.  The  courts  of  the  United  States 
have  held  that  a  buyer  is  not  bound  to  com- 
municate to  a  seller  extrinsic  circumstances 
which  were  very  material  to  the  price,  and 
were  known  to  the  buyer  alone.  Still,  while 
the  law  is  so  in  general,  there  are  cases  in 
which  the  concealment  of  special  knowledge 
invalidates  a  transaction  founded  upon  that 
concealment.  If  one  injures  another  by  such 
fraud  as  the  law  recognizes,  he  is  responsible 
although  not  interested  in  the  transaction,  and 
not  himself  gaining  by  the  fraud ;  as,  for  ex- 
ample, when  one  knowingly  gives  false  recom- 
mendations of  a  person  seeking  employment. — 
It  may  be  proper  to  mention  the  doctrine  of 
constructive  fraud,  or  that  by  which  the  law 
treats  as  fraudulent  certain  acts  which  have, 
or  which  are  adapted  to  have,  the  effect  of 
fraud,  although  none  be  intended ;  as,  for  ex- 
ample, if  one  buys  a  chattel,  and  leaves  it, 
however  honestly,  in  the  possession  of  the  sell- 
er, this*  is  a  void  sale  as  against  a  third  party 
who  buys  of  the  seller  not  knowing  the  pre- 
vious sale.  This  not  taking  away  what  one 
buys  is  held  in  some  courts  to  be  conclusive 
evidence  of  constructive  fraud,  and  in  others 
to  be  only  what  is  called  a  badge  of  fraud,  or 
a  verj  suspicious  circumstance  indicating  fraud, 
but  open  to  explanation.    (See  Sale.) 

FRAUDS,  Statute  vf.  This  is  a  very  peculiar 
law,  and  in  its  extent  and  systematic  form  is 
quite  unknown  out  of  the  British  empire  and 
the  United  States.  It  originated,  nearly  two 
centuries  ago,  in  the  earnest  desire  of  eminent 
English  jurists  to  prevent  the  numerous  frauds 
which  were  perpetrated  by  means  of  suborned 
and  perjured  witnesses;  and  it  was  thought 
that  the  more  effectual  way  of  doing  this  would 
be  a  provision  that  a  large  number  of  the  most 
common  contracts  should  be  incapable  of  legal 
enforcement  unless  they  were  reduced  to  wri- 
ting and  signed  by  the  party  whom  it  w^as 
sought  to  charge.  For  this  purpose,  in  the 
29th  year  of  Charles  II.  (1678),  the  "statute 
for  the  prevention  of  frauds  and  perjuries"  was 
enacted;  and  it  is  commonly  known  by  the 
shorter  name  of  the  "statute  of  frauds."  It 
has  always  been  doubted  by  wise  lawyers  and 
judges  whether  this  statute  has  not  caused  and 
protected  as  many  frauds  as  it  has  prevented. 
But  the  same  reasons  which  led  to  its  enact- 
ment have  always  produced  a  prevailing  belief 
that  on  the  whole  it  was  useful.  Hence,  its 
provisions  have  been  enacted  more  or  less  en- 
tirely, or  declared  to  be  law  by  adoption,  in 
nearly  if  not  quite  all  the  states  of  the  Union. 
In  no  one  of  them  is  the  English  statute  ver- 
baUy  copied ;  and  perhaps  the  provisions  are 
not  precisely  the  same  in  any  two  states.  But 
they  all  copy  parts  of  the  original  statute,  and 
most  of  them  enact  its  most  material  parts; 
and  the  difference  between  the  enactments  of 
different  states  is,  generally  speaking,  not  im- 


portant. The  reason  why  so  many  have  deemed 
the  statute  useless  or  worse  is,  that  it  has  been 
found  impossible  to  make  all  its  provisions, 
or  even  its  more  important  ones,  universally 
known.  Hence,  while  by  its  requirement  of 
written  evidence  it  tends  strongly  to  suppress 
that  large  class  of  frauds  which  was  founded 
upon  mere  peijury,  it  tends  also  to  expose  in- 
nocent parties  to  grievous  fraud  through  their 
ignorance  of  this  requirement.  They  make,  and 
perhaps  with  much  care,  important  bargains, 
with  all  the  details  well  ai^usted ;  but  they  do 
not  take  the  precaution  to  have  their  agree- 
ments reduced  to  writing  and  verified  by  signa- 
ture ;  and  after  complying  with  their  part  of 
the  bargain  in  good  faith,  they  learn  for  the 
first  time  in  court,  or  from  their  counsel,  that 
their  bargain  gives  them  no  legal  right  or 
remedy,  because  of  the  omission  of  that  which 
they  had  never  supposed  to  be  requisite.  We 
shall  proceed  to  give  the  most  general  rules  in 
regard  to  the  provisions  of  this  statute  (mean- 
ing thereby  both  those  which  are  most  widely 
adopted,  and  those  of  the  most  important  and 
frequent  application)  which  have  been  sanc- 
tioned by  tlie  jurisprudence  of  the  United 
States;  without,  however,  attempting  to  go 
into  a  close  consideration  of  the  details  and 
diversities  of  state  enactment  or  abjudication. 
— By  the  fourth  section  of  the  English  statute, 
which  is  the  one  that  our  statutes  copy  most 
frequently,  no  action  can  be  brought  upon  an 
agreement  not  reduced  to  writing  and  signed 
by  the  party  to  be  charged  therewith,  or  by 
some  person  by  him  authorized,  if  by  the  ac- 
tion :  1,  anv  executor  or  administrator  is  to  be 
charged  to  answer  damages  for  the  deceased 
out  of  his  own  estate;  2,  or  if  any  person  is 
to  answer  for  the  debt,  default,  or  miscarriage 
of  another ;  8,  or  upon  any  agreement  in  con- 
sideration of  marriage ;  4,  or  upon  any  contract 
for  the  sale  of  lands,  or  any  interest  in  or  con- 
cerning them ;  5,  or  any  agreement  not  to  be 
performed  within  one  year  from  the  making 
thereof.  In  reference  to  all  these,  it  is  held 
that  a  signing  is  sufScient  if  substantial,  al- 
though not  literal  and  formal :  as  if  in  a 
letter  signed  by  the  party  he  alludes  to  and 
recognizes  the  agreement;  or  if  the  party 
writes  his  name  at  the  beginning  or  in  any 
part  of  the  agreement,  with  the  intention  that 
it  shall  verify  the  instrument  as  his  own ;  or 
if  a  broker,  for  both  parties  or  either  party, 
writes  their  or  his  name  in  his  book,  they  or 
he  assenting.  But  where,  as  in  some  of  our 
statutes,  the  word  used  is  not  "  signed "  but 
"subscribed,"  there  it  has  been  said,  but  may 
not  be  certain,  that  the  name  must  be  written 
at  the  bottom  of  the  agreement.  So  the  name 
maybe  printed,  or  written  in  pencil.  An  agent 
may  sign,  and  may  sign  sufficiently  although 
he  write  only  his  own  name ;  and  any  ratifica- 
tion of  his  signature  would  be  equivalent  to  a 
previous  authority.  But  one  of  the  contract- 
ing parties  cannot  sign  as  the  agent  of  the 
other.    An  auctioneer  or  his  clerk,  or  a  broker, 


U6 


FRAUDS  (Statute  of) 


may  be  agent  for  either  party  or  both ;  and  his 
entry  of  the  name  of  a  seller  or  purchaser,  at 
the  time  of  the  sale,  satisfies  the  requirement 
of  the  statute,  unless  there  be  some  agreement 
or  condition  to  the  contrary.  The  written 
agreement  need  not  be  in  any  precise  or  regu- 
lar form,  but  must  contain  all  the  substantial 
elements  of  the  bargain.  In  England,  and  in 
some  of  our  states,  it  must  recite  the  considera- 
tion of  the  contract,  while  in  others,  if  the 
promise  be  in  writing  and  signed,  the  considera- 
tion may  be  proved  by  other  evidence.  The 
agreement  may  be  contained  in  letters,  and 
written  on  several  pieces  of  paper,  if  they  are 
such  that  they  can  be  read  together  consis- 
tently with  their  purpose  and  character.  And 
if  a  contract  be  severable  in  its  own  nature, 
and  in  some  of  its  parts  the  statutory  require- 
ment is  satisfied  and  in  some  not,  the  contract 
is  still  enforceable  for  those  parts  which  comply 
with  the  statute.  If  a  written  contract  be 
sued,  it  may  be  shown  in  defence  that  it  has 
been  altered.  But  if  a  plaintiff  rests  upon  his 
written  contract,  but  can  maintain  his  action 
by  it  only  by  showing  that  it  was  orally  altered, 
it  is  no  longer  the  written  contract  on  which 
he  rests,  and  the  action  is  defeated.  Of  the 
special  clauses,  the  second,  relating  to  a  promise 
*^to  answer  for  the  debt,  default,  or  miscar- 
riage of  another,"  makes  this  statute  cover  all 
guaranties;  and  it  is  of  great  importance  in 
respect  to  them.  But  it  will  be  more  conve- 
nient to  state  the  law  in  this  behalf  under  the 
title  GuASANTT.  The  third  clause,  which 
relates  to  promises  *^  in  consideration  of  mar- 
riage," is  held  not  to  apply  to  a  promise  or 
contract  to  marry,  but  to  ail  promises  of  set- 
tlement, advancement,  or  other  provision  in 
view  of  marriage,  and  therefore  all  these  must 
be  in  writing  and  signed.  And  it  must  be  a 
promise  to  the  other  party;  thus  a  promise 
of  an  advancement  made  to  a  daughter,  in 
writing,  not  known  to  the  intended  husband 
until  aifter  the  marriage,  is  not  a  promise  to 
him  and  cannot  be  enforced  by  him.  The 
fonrth  clause  relates  to  any  promise  or  con- 
tract for  "  the  sale  of  lands,  tenements,  or  he- 
reditaments, or  any  interest  in  or  concerning 
them."  The  very  broad  scope  of  this  phrase- 
ology has  been  considerably  curtailed  by  ad- 
judication. Thus,  a  contract  for  the  saJe  of 
growing  crops  may  be  within  the  requirement 
of  the  statute  or  without  it,  according  to  cir- 
cumstances. If  the  crop  is  already  reaped^  it 
is  certainly  severed  from  the  land,  and  is  of 
course  a  mere  chattel ;  but  even  if.  it  be  still 
growing,  if  the  intention  of  the  parties  be  to 
reap  it  when  grown  and  remove  it  at  once  from 
the  land,  this  is  not  held  to  be  a  contract  for  a 
sale  of  an  interest  in  lands ;  and  the  same  rule 
was  applied  to  a  sale  of  mulberry  trees  in  a  nur- 
sery. While  there  is  some  uncertainty  in  the 
cases,  we  think  the  same  rule  of  construction 
applies  to  growing  grass,  trees,  or  fruits,  making 
writing  unnecessary  for  the  enforcement  of  a 
contract  respecting  them ;  at  least,  if  the  seller 


himself  is  to  sever  and  deliver  them.  A  mere 
license  to  use  land  for  some  special  purpose,  as 
to  stack  hay,  or  leave  a  wagon  on  it  for  a  short 
time,  is  not  a  bargain  for  an  interest  in  lands. 
But  a  contract  to  convey  lands  for  certain  ser- 
vices is  within  the  statute ;  and  if  it  be  not  in 
writing,  and  the  services  be  rendered,  the  par- 
ty rendering  them  cannot  enforce  the  contract 
or  have  the  lands ;  but  he  may  sue  for  the  value 
of  his  services,  and  in  determining  that  value 
the  value  of  the  lands  may  be  taken  into  con- 
sideration. The  fifth  clause  relates  to  an  agree- 
ment ^*  that  is  not  to  be  performed  within  one 
year  from  the  making  thereof."  Here  the  im- 
portant principle  has  become  well  settled  that 
a  contract  or  agreement  is  not  within  the  stat- 
ute, and  therefore  need  not  be  in  writing,  tf  it 
be  in  reality  and  in  good  faith  capable  of  a  full 
and  substantial  performance  within  one  year, 
unless  extraordinary  circumstances  interfere  to 
prevent  it ;  and  this  principle  is  applied  even 
where  the  parties  themselves  do  not  contem- 
plate any  performance  of  the  contract  within  a 
year  from  the  making  of  it.  Thus,  if  one  agrees 
to  work  for  another  "for  one  year,"  no  time 
for  the  beginning  of  the  service  being  fixed,  he 
has  a  right  to  begin  instantly,  and  then  all  his 
service  will  be  rendered  within  the  year,  and 
the  contract  need  not  be  in  writing.  It  is  im- 
portant to  remember,  that  if  a  contract  which 
should  have  been  in  writing,  but  Is  not,  is 
wholly  performed  on  one  side,  and  is  such  that 
nothing  remains  but  the  payment  of  the  con- 
sideration money,  there  are  many  oases  in  which 
an  action  may  be  maintained  in  some  form  for 
the  money  due. — Another  section  (the  17th 
of  the  English  statute)  enacts  that  *^no  con- 
tract for  the  sale  of  any  goods,  wares,  or  mer- 
chandises, for  the  price  of  £10  or  upward,  shall 
be  good,  except  the  buyer  shall  accept  part  of 
the  goods  so  sold  and  actually  receive  the  same, 
or  give  something  by  way  of  earnest  to  bind 
the  bargain,  or  in  part  payment,"  or  that  some 
note  or  memorandum  be  signed  as  before. 
This  provision,  in  some  form  or  other,  is  very 
common  in  the  United  States.  The  sum  is  va- 
riously fixed,  in  different  states,  at  about  $80 
to  $50,  rarely  less  or  more.  The  principal 
questions  which  have  arisen  under  this  clause 
are,  what  delivery  and  acceptance,  or  what 
earnest,  or  what  part  payment,  will  satisfy  tlie 
statute,  so  as  to  make  the  writing  unneces^ 
sary.  In  the  first  place,  there  must  be  both 
delivery  and  acceptance.  A  meets  B,  and  they 
agree  orally  that  A  shall  buy  100  bales  of  cot- 
ton which  B  has  for  sale  for  $25,000.  B  sends 
the  cotton  forthwith  to  A^s  store.  This,  ac- 
cording to  common  law,  completes  Uie  sale  and 
B^s  right  to  demand  the  price.  But  by  the 
statute  of  frauds,  if  there  be  no  note  or  memo- 
randum in  writing  signed  by  A,  he  may  in- 
stantly, and  without  assigning  any  reason,  send 
all  the  cotton  back  to  B.  As  to  what  is  a  de- 
livery, it  may  be  said,  in  general,  that  it  is  any 
transfer  of  possession  and  control,  made  by  the 
seUer,  for  the  purpose  and  with  the  effect  of 


FRAUDS  (Statute  of) 


FRAUENSTXDT 


447 


Eutting  the  goods  oat  of  his  hands  and  into  the 
ands  of  the  buyer.  It  may  be  an  actual  de- 
livery ;  or  it  may  be  constructive,  as  by  the  de- 
livery of  the  key  of  a  warehouse,  or  making  an 
entry  in  the  books  of  the  warehouse  keeper,  or 
the  delivery  of  an  indorsed  bill  of  ladmg,  or 
even  pointing  out  as  the  buyer's  own  massy 
goods  tliat  are  difficult  of  removal,  as  timber 
in  a  dock,  or  a  large  stack  of  hay.  So  a  part 
may  be  delivered  for  the  whole,  and  carry  with 
it  constructively  the  delivery  of  the  whole.  On 
the  other  hand,  as  to  what  constitutes  accept- 
ance, we  must  look  mainly  at  the  intention  of 
the  party ;  for  if  he  so  acts  as  to  manifest  his 
assent  to  the  delivery,  and  his  intention  to  ac- 
cept and  retain  the  goods,  or  so  as  to  justify 
the  seller  in  believing  that  the  buyer  so  assents 
and  intends,  this  will  have  the  effect  of  fixing 
his  liability  for  the  price,  whatever  be  the  way 
in  which  he  expresses  this  assent  and  intention. 
Hence,  mere  delay,  or  holding  the  goods  for  a 
considerable  time  in  silence,  is  an  a.ssent  and 
acceptance.  But  as  he  has  a  right  to  examine 
the  goods  aiyl  see  whether  he  chooses  to  accept 
them,  he  must  be  allowed  time  enough  for  this 
purpose;  and  his  silence  during  a  period  of 
time  that  is  not  more  than  sufficient  for  this  is 
not  evidence  of  acceptance.  It  has  been  much 
questioned  whether  the  sale  of  shares  oi*  stocks 
in  incorporated  companies,  as,  for  example,  in 
corporations  for  manufacturing  purposes,  for 
railroads,  and  the  like,  is  a  sale  of  ^*  goods, 
wares,  and  merchandises,"  within  the  meaning 
and  operation  of  the  statute.  In  England  the 
prevailing  authority  is  that  these  shares  are 
not  *^ goods,  wares,  or  merchandises"  within 
the  statute,  and  therefore  the  bargain  need  not 
be  in  writing.  Perhaps  the  prevailing  rule  in 
the  United  States  is  the  other  way.  But  the 
authorities  are  to  some  extent  conflicting,  and 
the  question  may  not  be  considered  settled. 
As  to  giving  something  by  way  of  earnest  (the 
exact  words  of  the  English  statute  are  ^Mn 
earnest"),  almost  anything  which  has  an  actual 
value,  though  a  small  one,  may  suffice.  Thus, 
a  dime,  or  even  a  cent,  might  be  sufficient,  but 
not  a  straw  or  a  chip,  though  it  were  called 
**  earnest  money ;"  it  would  be  safe,  however, 
if  earnest  were  relied  upon  as  clinching  the 
bargain  (to  use  an  old  phrase),  to  give  money 
of  some  real  and  considerable  value.  So,  part 
payment  has  the  same  effect  as  earnest  money ; 
but  it  must  be  an  actual  part  payment.  There- 
fore, if  the  seller  owes  the  buyer,  and  it  is  a 
part  of  the  bargain  that  the  debt  shall  be  dis- 
charged and  be  considered  as  a  part  of  the 
price  to  be  paid,  the  contract  must  neverthe- 
less be  in  writing,  because  this  is  not  a  part 
payment  within  the  meaning  and  requirement 
of  the  statute.  If,  however,  the  debt  were 
certainly  and  irrevocably  discharged,  as  by  the 
giving  up  of  a  note  of  hand,  the  decision  might 
be  otherwise.  The  difficult  question  has  been 
much  considered  whether  a  bargain  that  A 
should  make  and  sell  a  certain  article  to  B  is  a 
contract  for  the  sale  of  the  thing,  which  must 
836  VOL.  vu.— 29 


be  in  wnting,  or  a  mere  bargfun  whereby  B 
hires  A  to  work  for  him  in  a  certain  way, 
which  need  not  be  in  writing.  Perhaps  no 
better  rule  or  principle  for  deciding  this  ques- 
tion can  be  found  than  the  following :  A  con- 
tract to  buy  a  thing  presently,  which  the  seller 
has  not  now,  is  just  as  much  within  the  require- 
ment of  the  statute  as  a  bargain  for  &  present 
sale ;  and  if  by  the  bargain  the  seller  may  him- 
self buy,  or  make,  or  procure  in  any  way  he 
likes,  the  thing  he  agrees  to  sell,  this  is  only  a 
contract  for  the  sale  of  the  goods,  and  must  be 
in  writing.  But  if  the  seller,  and  he  alone,  is 
by  the  bargain  to  manufacture  these,  and  in  a 
certain  way,  and  of  certain  materials,  or  after 
a  certain  model,  or  if  in  any  way  it  appears 
that  the  seller  is  to  make  certain  things  and 
charge  therefor  a  price  for  his  labor,  skill,  and 
material,  although  all  these  are  included  in  the 
mere  sale  price  of  the  article,  then  it  is  a  con- 
tract for  the  manufacture  of  the  goods,  and  not 
merely  a  contract  for  their  sale,  and  it  need  not 
be  in  writing.  The  statute  itself,  both  in  Eng- 
land and  the  United  States,  speaks  of  part 
payment  only ;  but  courts  of  equity,  both  there 
and  here,  have  strongly  inclined  to  the  rule 
that  part  performance  of  any  of  the  contracts 
within  the  statute  of  frauds  shall  have  the  same 
effect  that  part  payment  has  upon  a  contract 
of  sale  by  the  statute.  Some  doubt  has  been 
expressed  as  to  the  expediency  of  the  rule ;  but 
it  may  now  be  considered  settled  that  courts 
of  equity,  or  courts  of  law  having  equity  pow- 
ers (as  most  American  courts  of  law  now  have), 
will  enforce  an  oral  contract  which  should  have 
been  in  writing,  provided  there  has  been  an 
actual  and  substantial  part  performance  of  it 
by  the  party  sought  to  be  charged. — In  regard 
to  other  sections  of  the  English  and  some  of 
the  American  statutes  of  frauds,  or  analogous 
statutes,  see  Lease,  Trusts,  and  Will. 

FRAPENBIHG,  a  town  of  Prussia,  in  the  prov- 
ince of  East  Prussia,  41  m.  S.  W.  of  K5nig8- 
berg,  on  the  Frische  Ilaff*,  and  at  the  month  of 
the  Baude;  pop.  about  4,000'  ^^  is  the  seat 
of  the  Catholic  bishop  of  Ermeland.  The 
cathedral,  which  is  on  an  elevation,  has  six 
towers,  and  with  its  surroundings  constitutes 
a  kind  of  fortress ;  it  contains  the  tomb  of  Co- 
pernicus, who  in  1543  died  here. 

FRAUENFELD,  a  town  of  Switzerland,  capital 
of  the  canton  of  Thurgau,  on  the  Murg,  an 
affluent  of  the  Thur,  23  ra.  N.  E.  of  Zttrich ; 
pop.  in  1870,  5,138,  most  of  whom  belong  to 
the  Reformed  church.  It  has  a  cantonal  school^ 
which  was  founded  in  1853,  and  consit^ts  of  a. 
gymnasium  and  an  industrial  establishment. 

FBAUENStIdT,  Christtan  Martin  Jvllis,  a  Ger- 
man philosopher,  bom  at  Bojanowo,  in  Posen,. 
April  17, 1813.  He  studied  in  Berlin,  wastutOR- 
in  the  family  of  Baron  Meyendorff  in  1841-* 
'4,  and  next  in  that  of  Prince  Sayn-Wittgeii*- 
stein  in  Russia  till  1846.  Since  1848  he  has 
resided  in  Berlin.  He  was  at  ffrst  to  some  ex- 
tent an  adherent  of  Hegel,  the  influence  of 
whose  doctrines  is  apparent  in  his  works.  Ueber 


448 


FRAUNHOFER 


FREDERICK 


da8  wahre  VerJuUtnm  der  Vemunft  mir  Offen- 
hwrun^  (1848),  Aesthetuehe  Fragen  (1853),  &c. 
He  afterward  made  the  acquaintance  of  Scho- 
penhauer and  became  his  most  distinguished 
follower.  Among  his  subsequent  works  are: 
Veber  die  NaturwisseMehqfty  &c,  (1855);  Der 
Materialismus  (1856);  Das  sittliehe  Leben^ 
ethische  Studien  (Leipsic,  1868) ;  and  Blieke  in 
die  intellektuellejphysische  und  moralisehe  Welt 
(1869).  He  published  several  works  relating 
to  Schopenhauer  and  to  his  literary  remains 
(1861-'4),  and  edited  his  complete  works  (6 
vols.,  Leipsic,  1874). 

FRAUNHOFEK,  Jmitph  von,  a  German  optician, 
bom  in  Straubing,  Bavaria,  March  6, 1787,  died 
June  7,  1826.  The  son  of  a  glazier,  he  exer- 
cised in  boyhood  the  trade  of  his  father.  In 
the  intervals  of  labor  he  studied  the  laws  of 
optics,  made  himself  fiEuniliar  with  mathematics 
and  astronomy,  and  in  1806  became  technical 
director  of  the  mathematical  institute  at  Mu- 
nich. He  afterward  united  with  Reichenbach 
and  Utzschneider  in  founding  at  Benedict-Beu- 
ren  an  establishment  for  the  fabrication  of  di- 
optric instruments,  which  was  transferred  to 
Munich  in  1819.  He  manufactured  the  finest 
crown  glass,  much  superior  to  the  English,  for 
achromatic  telescopes  and  prisms,  and  invented 
a  machine  for  polishing  surfaces  in  parabolic 
segments,  a  heliometer,  a  microscope,  and  the 
celebrated  parallactic  telescope  of  the  observa- 
tory of  Dorpat.  By  using  fine  prisms  that  were 
free  from  veins  he  discovered  about  590  black 
lines  crossing  the  solar  spectrum,  and  projected 
the  most  important  of  these  in  a  drawing  of  the 
spectrum.  Similar  lines  he  found  in  the  spec- 
tra of  the  moon  and  of  some  of  the  planets  and 
fixed  stars,  but  none  in  artificial  white  lights. 
(See  SpECTEtTM  Analysis.) 

FRiliSTADT,  a  town  of  Prussia,  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Posen,  7  m.  from  the  frontier  of  Silesia, 
and  14  N.  E.  of  Glogau ;  pop.  in  1871,  6,516. 
It  has  a  convent,  an  ori)han  house,  a  Bealschule 
of  the  first  class,  and  manufactures  chiefiy  of 
woollen  and  linen  cloth.  In  1706  the  Swedes, 
under  Charles  XII. ^s  general  Rehnskjold,  ob- 
tained here  a  victory  over  the  united  Saxons 
and  Russians. 

FRAYSSINOrS,  Denis  L«f ,  a  French  prelate  and 
statesman,  bom  at  Curidres,  in  the  district  of 
Rouergue,  May  9,  1765,  died  at  St.  G6niez, 
Dec.  12,  1841.  He  studied  theology  at  Paris, 
was  admitted  to  orders  in  1789,  retired  to 
Rouergue  during  the  revolutionary  persecu- 
tion, and  began  at  Paris  in  1808  the  public 
lectures  upon  the  proofs  of  Christianity  which 
were  the  basis  of  his  reputation.  His  elo- 
quence and  genius  attracted  the  cultivated 
youth  of  the  capital,  and  operated  eflfectively 
against  the  reigning  philosophy.  When  in  1809 
the  French  empire  came  into  collision  with 
the  holy  see,  his  lectures  were  interrupted, 
and  in  1811  he  again  retired  to  Rouergue,  and 
returned  only  with  the  Bourbons.  In  October, 
1814,  he  resumed  his  conferences,  and  was 
made  successively  royal  preacher,  bishop  of 


Hermopolis  in  partibus^  grand  master  of  the 
university  (1822),  member  of  the  French  acade- 
my, peer  of  France,  and  minister  of  ecclesias- 
tical affairs  and  public  instruction  (1824).  He 
recalled  the  Jesuits  into  the  schools  and  church- 
es. In  1830  he  was  intrusted  by  Charles  X.  with 
the  education  of  the  duke  of  Bordeaux,  whom 
he  soon  after  accompanied  into  exile.  He  re- 
turned to  France  in  1838,  after  which  he  lived 
in  retirement.  His  principal  works  are  funeral 
orations  on«the  prince  of  Cond6,  Cardinal  Tal- 
leyrand, and  Louis  XVIII. ;  Les  vrais  prifieipes 
de  £*£glise  gallicane^  &c.  (1818);  and  a  collec- 
tion of  his  conferences  under  the  title  of  Defenee 
du  Christianisme  (3  vols.),  of  which  15  editions 
appeared  between  1625  and  1848,  and  which 
was  translated  into  many  languages. 

FREDEGOBTDA,  a  Frankish  queen,  the  rival  of 
the  famous  Brunehaut,  bom  about  545,  died 
in  597.  She  was  maid  of  honor  to  Audovera, 
queen  of  Chilperic  I.  of  Neustria,  and  the  king 
being  captivated  by  her  beauty  made  her  his 
concubine.  She  contrived  by  a  trick  the  re- 
pudiation of  the  queen,  but  wa9  disappointed 
by  the  marriage  of  Chilperic  with  Galsuinda, 
a  Visigoth  princess  and  sister  of  Brunehaut, 
or  Brunehilde,  who  had  been  married  to  his 
brother  Sigebert,  king  of  Austrasia.  Attribu- 
ting tbis  marriage  to  the  influence  of  the  Aus- 
trasian  queen,  Fredegonda  vowed  deadly  hatred 
to  both  sisters.  She  removed  Galsuinda  by  as- 
sassination, became  her  successor,  and  brought 
about  a  war  of  the  two  brothers,  in  which 
Sigebert  was  victorious,  but  soon  fell  by  the 
hands  of  her  assassins  (575).  Brunehaut,  who 
became  her  captive,  escaped  death  and  return- 
ed to  her  own  country ;  but  Meroveus,  the  son 
of  Chilperic  by  his  first  wife,  who  had  been  se- 
cretly married  to  her,  fell  a  victim  to  the  re- 
venge of  his  stepmother.  A  series  of  atrocious 
crimes  followed.  Pretextatus  was  treacher- 
ously murdered ;  Clovis,  the  brother  of  Mero- 
veus, was  executed  on  the  false  accusation  of 
having  caused  the  death  of  Fredegonda^s  three 
children  ;  the  mother  of  the  princes  waa  stran- 
gled, their  sister  outraged  and  confined  in  a 
convent.  Finally,  she  contrived  the  assassina- 
tion of  her  husband,  and  assumed  the  govern- 
ment in  the  name  of  her  son  Clotaire.  She  now 
successfully  resumed  the  war  against  Austra- 
sia, and  remained  in  power  till  her  death. 

FREDERICIA.    See  Fridebicia. 

FREDERICK.  I.  A  N.  county  of  Maryland, 
bordering  on  Pennsylvania,  and  separated 
from  Virginia  on  the  S.  W.  by  the  Potomac 
river ;  area  about  770  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
47,572,  of  whom  7,572  were  colored.  A  branch 
of  the  Blue  Ridge  of  Virginia,  called  South 
mountain,  runs  along  its  W.  border,  but  most 
of  the  land  in  the  central  and  £.  parts  is  un- 
dulating. The  soil  is  fertile  and  well  watered 
by  the  Monocacy  river,  Cotoctin,  Pipe,  Lin- 
ganore,  and  Bennett^s  creeks.  Copper,  iron, 
manganese,  excellent  limestone,  and  nne  white 
marble  are  among  the  mineral  products.  The 
county  is  traversed  by  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio 


FREDERICK 


FREDERIOE  (Denmark)         449 


and  the  Western  Maryland  railroads,  and  has 
on  its  S.  W.  border  the  Potomac  river  and  the 
Ohio  and  Chesapeake  canal.  The  chief  pro- 
ductions in  1870  were  1,183,628  bushels  of 
wheats  54,995  of  rye,  1,860,420  of  corn,  250,- 
069  of  oats,  138.484  of  potatoes,  82,898  tons 
of  hay,  877,784  lbs.  of  butter,  84,533  of  wool, 
and  274,869  of  tobacco.  There  were  11,860 
horses,  11,907  milch  cows,  10,188  other  cattle, 
9,817  sheep,  and  29,989  swine ;  16  manufactories 
of  carriages  and  wagons,  1  of  charcoal,  15  of 
clothing,  25  of  barrels  and  casks,  2  of  fertili- 
zers, 15  of  furniture,  6  of  lime,  16  of  saddlery 
and  harness,  8  of  sashes,  doors,  and  blinds, 
11  of  tin,  copper,  and  sheet-iron  ware,  10  of 
cigars,  8  of  woollen  goods,  4  of  bricks,  47 
flour  mills,  4  iron  works,  21  tanneries,  10  cur- 
rying establishments,  and  2  distilleries.  Capi- 
tal, Frederick.  IL  A  N.  county  of  Virginia, 
bounded  N.  E.  and  W.  by  West  Virginia; 
area,  878  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  16,596,  of 
whom  2,738  were  colored.  It  occupies  part 
of  the  great  valley  of  Virginia,  is  highly  pro- 
ductive, and  abounds  in  fine  mountain  scene- 
ry. Two  or  three  small  affluents  of  the  Po- 
tomac supply  it  with  good  water  power.  The 
Winchester,  Potomac,  and  Strasburg  railroad 
passes  through  the  county.  The  chief  produc- 
tions in  1870  were  289,698  bushels  of  wheat, 
182,672  of  Indian  corn,  76,743  of  oats,  22,661 
of  potatoes,  8,725  tons  of  hay,  230,178  lbs.  of 
butter,  and  26,928  of  wool.  There  were  8,990 
horses,  8,405  milch  cows,  4,122  other  cattle, 
6,641  sheep,  and  6,702  swine;  7  manufactories 
of  carriages  and  wagons,  3  of  gloves,  2  of  stoves, 
&c.,  1  of  ground  sumach,  7  of  woollen  goods, 
and  19  flour  mills.    Capital,  Winchester. 

FREDERICK,  a  city  and  the  capital  of  Fred- 
erick CO.,  Maryland,  situated  on  CarrolPs  creek, 
2  m.  from  its  mouth  in  Monocacy  river,  about 
40  m.  W.  by  N.  of  Baltimore;  pop.  in  1850, 
6,028;  in  1860,  8,148;  in  1870,  8,526,  of 
whom  1,822  were  colored.  It  is  a  well  built 
city,  with  wide  regular  streets,  lined  with 
houses  of  brick  or  stone.  A  branch  railroad 
8  m.  long  connects  it  with  the  Baltimore  and 
Ohio  railroad.  It  has  an  extensive  trade,  and 
important  manufactures  of  iron,  wool,  paper, 
flour,  leather,  &c.  There  are  four  national 
banks,  with  an  aggregate  capital  of  $575,000 ; 
a  savings  bank,  with  $217,281  capital ;  three 
weekly  newspapers,  and  10  or  12  churches. 
The  city  is  the  seat  of  several  important  edu- 
cational and  religious  institutions.  Frederick 
college,  established  by  the  state  in  1797,  in 
1872  had  8  professors,  109  students,  and  a 
library  of  2,300  volumes.  Frederick  female 
seminary,  established  in  1842,  had  8  instructors, 
81  students,  and  a  library  of  1,000  volumes. 
The  convent  of  the  Visitation  nuns  has  an 
academy  and  a  library  of  1,000  volumes,  and 
the  house  for  novices  of  the  society  of  Jesus 
1,100  volumes.  A  state  institution  for  the 
education  of  the  deaf  and  dumb  was  organized 
here  in  1867,  which  in  1872  had  9  instructors, 
97  pupils,  and  a  library  of  2,000  volumes. 


FREDERICK,  the  name  of  several  monarchs 
and  princes,  arranged  below  under  their  re- 
spective countries  in  alphabetical  order : 

I.   BADEX. 

FREDERICK  L,  grand  duke,  born  Sept.  9, 
1826.  The  second  son  of  the  grand  duke  Leo- 
pold, he  became  regent  for  his  brother,  who 
was  bodily  and  intellectually  intirm,  April  24, 
1852,  succeeded  as  grand  duke  Sept.  5,  1856, 
and  married  in  the  same  year  a  daughter  of  the 
present  emperor  of  Germany.  He  is  distin- 
guished by  his  enlightened  views  of  civil  and 
religious  government.  At  the  gathering  of 
princes  at  Frankfort  in  1863  he  opposed  the 
plans  of  Austria,  and  urged  the  supremacy  of 
Prussia.  He  was  nevertheless  constrained, 
together  with  the  other  states  of  south  Ger- 
many, to  side  with  Austria  in  the  war  of  1866, 
but  subsequently  he  readily  and  closely  allied 
himself  with  the  North  German  confedera- 
tion. During  the  Franco-German  war  he  went 
to  Versailles,  and  strenuously  exerted  himself 
in  favor  of  the  formation  of  the  German  empire 
and  the  imperial  constitution. 

n.   BOHEMIA.. 

FREDERICK,  elector  palatine  (V.)  and  king 
of  Bohemia,  born  in  Amberg  in  1596,  died  in 
Mentz,  Nov.  19,  1632.  He  was  the  son  of  the 
elector  Frederick  IV.,  and  by  his  mother  grand- 
son of  William  I.  of  Orange.  He  received  a 
careful  education,  succeeded  his  father  in  the 
palatinate  in  1610  as  a  minor,  married  Eliza- 
beth, daughter  of  James  I.  of  England,  became 
the  leader  of  the  Protestant  union,  and  in  the 
second  year  of  the  thirty  years'  war  (1619)  was 
elected  king  of  Bohemia  by  the  revolted  people. 
Induced  by  his  ambitious  wife,  he  accepted  the 
regal  crown,  which  he  soon  after  lost  through 
the  battle  of  Prague  (Nov.  8, 1620),  rapidly  won 
by  his  cousin  Maximilian  of  Bavaria,  the  head 
of  the  Catholic  league.  Frederick  hastily  es- 
caped to  Holland,  and  lived  in  exile,  under  the 
ban  of  the  empire  and  persecuted  by  ridicule. 

ni.   DENMARK. 

FREDERICK  TL,  king  of  Denmark,  son  of 
Christian  VII.  and  the  princess  Caroline  Ma- 
tilda, bom  Jan.  28, 1768,  died  Dec.  3, 1839.  He 
was  declared  regent  at  the  age  of  1 6.  His  edu- 
cation had  been  much  neglected,  but  he  had 
great  natural  intelligence,  firmness,  and  a  capa- 
city for  observation.  With  the  help  of  his  minis- 
ter Count  Be^storff  he  applied  himself  to  the 
abolition  of  feudal  serfdom  in  Denmai-k  (which 
in  1804  he  also  effected  in  Schleswig-IIoIstein), 
the  reformation  of  the  criminal  code,  the  break- 
ing up  of  monopolies,  the  establishment  of  a 
better  financial  system,  the  removal  of  the  dis- 
abilities of  the  Jews,  and  the  earliest  prohibi- 
tion of  the  slave  trade.  March  16,  1792,  was 
the  date  of  the  edict  against  the  slave  trade, 
providing  for  its  enforcement  on  and  after 
Jan.  1, 1804.  Bemstorff,  who  died  in  1797,  had 
recommended  to  the  regent  to  observe  a  strict 


450         FREDEEICE  Penmark) 


FREDERICK  (Gebmant) 


Bentralitj  in  the  wars  of  the  epoch,  hat  this 
soon  hecame  impossible.  In  1800  the  regent 
concluded  a  convention  witli  England,  whose 
claim  of  right  to  search  Danish  merchantmen 
for  goods  contraband  of  war  had  led  to  much 
recrimination,  and  even  some  acts  of  open  hos- 
tility. But  in  December,  1800,  Denmark  hav- 
ing signed  the  maritime  confederacy  with  Rus- 
sia, Sweden,  and  Prussia,  on  terms  similar  to  the 
armed  neutrality  of  1780,  war  broke  out  afresh. 
Every  Danish  vessel  in  English  ports  was  seized 
on  Jan.  14, 1801.  On  March  20  Sir  Hyde  Par- 
ker, with  Nelson  second  in  command,  entered 
the  Cattegat  with  a  fleet  of  47  vessels,  18  of 
which  were  line-of-battle  ships.  The  regent 
was  summoned  to  withdraw  from  the  neutral 
convention,  and  to  open  his  ports  to  the  Eng- 
lish. The  demand  was  rejected,  and  a  furious 
sengagement  followed,  in  which  the  Danish  fleet 
was  almost  annihilated  (April  2).  An  armis- 
tice was  now  concluded  for  14  weeks,  and  this 
was  soon  followed  by  a  peace,  the  confederacy 
having  been  broken  up  in  consequence  of  the 
assassination  of  the  czar  Paul.  Frederick, 
however,  persisted  in  the  policy  of  neutrality, 
and  on  Aug.  8,  1807,  a  British  fleet  appeared 
off  Copenhagen.  The  prince  was  summoned 
to  an  alliance  with  England,  and  to  surrender 
his  fleet,  his  capital,  and  his  castle  at  Elsinore. 
On  his  refusal,  the  capital  was  bombarded  for 
three  days  (Sept.  2-5).  A  capitulation  was 
then  made,  the  fleet  was  transferred  to  a  British 
admiral,  the  arsenal  and  docks  were  destroyed, 
and  every  ship  and  boat,  as  well  as  every  avail- 
able piece  of  timber,  rope,  or  shipwright's  tool, 
was  carried  to  England.  Denmark  threw  her- 
self at  once  into  the  arms  df  France,  and  sent 
forth  a  fleet  of  privateers  which  preyed  inces- 
santly upon  British  commerce.  The  father  of 
the  Danish  regent,  the  unhappy  Christian  VII., 
died  March  13,  1808,  and  Frederick  ascended 
the  throne.  He  had  married  in  1 790  the  daugh- 
ter of  the  landgrave  of  Hesse-Cassel.  On  Dec. 
10,  1809,  Sweden  signed  away  Finland  to  Rus- 
sia ;  and  in  the  course  of  the  following  month 
a  treaty  was  concluded  by  Denmark  with 
Sweden  which  was  designed  to  reestablish  the 
good  relations  of  the  two  countries.  Both  were 
exhausted  by  the  wars  of  their  great  neigh- 
bors, and  both  soon  became  subject  to  the  will 
of  Napoleon.  Denmark  remained  his  faithful 
ally,  and  suffered  accordingly.  In  1814  she  was 
robbed  of  Norway,  in  exchange  for  which  she 
received  Pomerania,  which  she  afterward  ceded 
to  Prussia.  Frederick  was  at  last  compelled  to 
send  10,000  men  to  the  allied  army  against  the 
French  emperor.  The  kingdom  had  become 
bankrupt  in  1818.  The  peace  brought  with  it 
an  immense  fall  in  the  price  of  provisions ;  and 
real  estate  remained  at  a  great  depreciation  of 
valae  as  late  as  1826.  The  wisdom  and  devo- 
tion of  the  king  gradually  brought  about  im- 
provement in  genera]  affairs.  A  national  bank 
was  reestablished.  The  farmers  were  allowed 
to  pay  their  taxes  in  kind.  Order  was  restored 
to  the  finances,  and  confidence  returned.    The 


last  part  of  Frederick's  reign  is  remarkable  for 
the  establishment  of  a  representative  council  as 
a  popular  branch  of  the  government  (May  28, 
1831),  which  was  received  by  his  subjects  with 
every  demonstration  of  joy. 

FBEDESICK  ¥11.,  king  of  Denmark,  son  and 
successor  of  Christian  YIIL,  born  in  Copenha- 
gen, Oct.  6,  1808,  ascended  the  throne  Jan.  20, 
1848,  died  at  Gltlcksburg,  Nov.  16,  1863.  His 
mother  was  the  princess  Charlotte  Frederike 
of  Mecklenbui^g-Schwerin.  From  1826  to  1828 
he  travelled  in  various  parts  of  Europe,  and 
studied  in  Geneva.  He  married  on  Not.  1, 
1828,  the  princess  Wilhelmina  Maria  of  Den- 
mark, whom  he  divorced  in  1837 ;  and  in  the 
same  year  he  was  removed  by  royal  order  to 
Fredericia  in  Jutland.  His  exile  ended  with  his 
father's  accession  to  the  throne  in  1889,  when 
he  was  appointed  governor  of  FOnen  and  mem- 
ber of  the  council  of  state.  In  June,  1841,  he 
married  the  princess  Caroline  Charlotte  Mari- 
anne of  Mecklenburg-Strelitz,  whom  he  also 
put  away  in  September,  1846 ;  and  in  August, 
1850,  he  contracted  a  morganatic  marriage  with 
a  milliner  of  Copenhagen  whom  he  had  crea- 
ted Countess  Danner  in  1848.  The  principal 
events  of  his  reign  are  the  revolt  of  Schleswig- 
Holstein  in  1848,  and  the  subsequent  war,  and 
the  abolition  of  the  Sound  dues  in  1857,  for  an 
account  of  which  see  Denmark.  AfWr  the 
restoration  of  peace  he  left  the  control  of  the 
government  in  the  hands  of  the  ministry,  and 
devoted  himself  to  his  favorite  study  of  arcliss- 
ology.  While  yet  crown  prince  he  was  presi- 
dent of  the  royal  archaeological  society,  which 
place  he  held  till  his  death.  He  published  a 
number  of  works  on  that  subject,  among  them 
Ueber  den  Bau  der  Biessnbetten  der  Vorteit 
(1857.)  With  his  death  the  elder  line  of  the 
royal  house  of  Oldenburg  became  extinct.  His 
equestrian  statue  was  unveiled  at  Copenhagen 
on  Oct.  7,  1873. 

IT.    OKRMANT. 

FREDERICK  L,  emperor  of  Germany,  sur- 
named  Barbarossa  (Redbeard),  son  of  Duke 
Frederick  II.  of  Swabia,  and  Judith,  daughter 
of  Henry  the  Black,  duke  of  Bavaria,  born  in 
1121,  drowned  in  Asia  Minor,  June  10,  1190. 
His  uncle,  Conrad  III.,  the  first  German  em> 
peror  of  the  house  of  Swabia  (Hohenstaufen), 
had  so  entirely  won  the  confidence  of  the 
princes  and  nobles  of  both  Italy  and  Germany, 
that  upon  his  recommendation  Frederick,  then 
duke  of  Swabia,  was  unanimously  elected  his 
successor  (1152).  After  reducing  several  re- 
volted Italian  cities  and  receiving  the  crown  of 
Italy  at  Pavia,  he  went  to  Rome,  reestablished 
the  pope's  supremacy  there,  which  had  been 
shaken  by  Arnold  of  Brescia,  and  was  crowned 
emperor,  but  not  until  the  pope  (Adrian  IV.) 
had  obliged  him  to  perform  several  humiliating 
ceremonies.  His  next  care  was  to  pacify  the 
empire  by  settling  the  disputes  between  the 
archbishop  of  Mentz  and  the  count  palatine  of 
the  Rhine,  and  the  difBcuIties  concerning  the 


FREDERICK  (GEBMAmr) 


451 


dnohy  of  Bavaria.  He  reduced  Boleslas  of  Po- 
land to  vassalage,  and  in  six  years  had  restored 
the  empire  to  the  prosperity  which  it  enjoyed 
under  Uenry  III.  He  now  turned  his  attention 
again  to  Italy,  where  the  smaller  towns  were 
oppressed  by  Milan,  and  in  1168  he  appeared 
before  that  city  with  115,000  troops  and  forced 
it  to  submission.  Crema  was  destroyed  after 
a  terrible  siege  (1160).  Milan  soon  rebelled 
again,  and  its  fortifications  were  destroyed  and 
its  inhabitants  exiled.  Meanwhile  Pope  Adrian 
had  died  (1159),  and  Alexander  III.  been  chosen 
to  succeed  him.  Frederick  supported  an  anti- 
pope,  Victor  V.  (or  IV.),  and  Alexander  fled  to 
France.  Victor  died  in  1164,  and  the  emperor 
thereupon  set  up  another  antipope,  who  took 
the  name  of  Pascal  III.,  and  crowned  the  empe- 
ror and  his  consort  a  second  time  in  the  church 
of  St  Peter  at  Rome  in  1167.  The  Lombard 
cities  had  formed  a  powerful  league  against 
Frederick,  and  a  terrible  pestilence  which  broke 
out  in  his  army  forced  him  to  return  to  Ger- 
many in  disguise,  with  only  a  few  followers. 
The  defences  of  Milan  were  then  restored,  and 
a  new  city  sprang  up  in  a  beautiful  and  natu- 
rally fortified  spot,  which  in  honor  of  the  pope 
and  in  defiance  of  the  emperor  was  called 
Alexandria  or  Alessandria.  During  this  time 
Frederick  was  busily  engaged  in  regulating  the 
affairs  of  Germany  and  strengthening  his  own 
power.  In  tlie  autumn  of  1174  he  invested 
Alessandria,  and  besieged  it  for  ^ve  months, 
during  which  his  army  suffered  greatly.  The 
Lombards  came  to  the  relief  of  the  city,  and  on 
May  29, 1176,  a  decisive  battle  was  fought  near 
Legnano,  in  the  vicinity  of  the  lake  of  Como,  in 
which  Frederick  was  defeated  with  great  loss, 
and  was  supposed  for  some  days  to  have  been 
killed.  He  reappeared  at  Pavia,  where  the 
empress  had  already  put  on  mourning,  ac- 
knowledged Alexander  as  pope,  and  in  July, 
1177,  held  an  interview  with  him  at  Venice,  in 
which  a  complete  reconciliation  was  effected, 
Frederick  humbling  himself  again  at  the  pope^s 
feet,  and  receiving  from  him  the  kiss  of  peace. 
The  cities  of  Lombardy  obtained  a  truce  for 
six  years.  New  troubles  were  now  raised  in 
Germany  by  the  ambitious  duke  Henry  the 
Lion.  He  was  finally  subdued,  and  banished 
for  three  years.  The  Lombard  truce  was  fol- 
lowed in  1183  by  a  definitive  treaty  of  peace  on 
terms  honorable  to  all  parties,  and  when  Fred- 
erick made  a  journey  to  Italy  soon  afterward  he 
was  received  with  acclamations  of  joy.  Tran- 
quillity reigned  in  all  his  dominions  when  the 
news  of  the  fall  of  Jerusalem  in  1187  caused 
Pope  Clement  III.  to  proclaim  the  third  cru- 
sade. The  old  emperor  took  the  cross,  and  in 
the  spring  of  1189  put  himself  at  the  head  of 
150,000  warriors,  crossed  Hungary,  severely 
punished  the  Greeks,  whom  he  suspected  of 
treachery,  penetrated  into  Asia  Minor,  defeat- 
ed the  Moslems  in  several  engagements,  and 
took  Iconium  (Konieh).  The  army  reached 
the  banks  of  the  Sel^h  or  Oalycadnus  in  Oili- 
cia,  Jane  10, 1190.    The  vanguard  had  crossed 


by  a  bridge,  when  the  emperor,  impatient  to 
join  his  son,  Duke  Frederick  of  Swabia,  who 
led  the  advance,  plunged  with  his  war  horse 
and  heavy  armor  into  the  stream,  was  over- 
powered by  the  current,  and  was  borne  away. 
Some  historians  have  preferred  a  less  well  au- 
thenticated account  that  he  lost  his  life  in  con- 
sequence of  bathing,  like  Alexander,  in  the 
Cydnus.  Frederick  was  a  man  of  noble  quali- 
ties, of  great  mental  endowments,  and  of  spirit 
equal  alike  in  reverses  and  prosperity,  though 
somewhat  arrogant  and  not  seldom  cruel  in 
the  heat  of  war.  He  was  a  patron  of  letters 
and  a  man  of  learned  accomplishments,  and  re- 
markable for  elegance  and  mejesty  of  aspect. 
He  wrote  memoirs  of  some  parts  of  his  life, 
which  he  left  to  Otho,  bishop  of  Freising. 
After  divorcing  his  first  wife  (1156),  he  mar- 
ried Beatrice  of  Burgundy.  His  son  Frederick, 
founder  of  the  Teutonic  knights,  lost  his  life 
in  the  third  crusade,  and  another  son,  Henry 
VI.,  succeeded  to  the  empire. 

FBEDERICK  II.,  a  German  emperor  and  king 
of  Naples  and  Sicily,  grandson  of  the  preceding 
and  son  of  Henry  VI.  and  Oonstantia  of  Sicily, 
bom  at  Jesi,  near  Ancona,  Dec.  26,  1194,  died 
at  Fiorentino  or  at  Fiorenzuola,  Dec.  13,  1250. 
He  was  carefully  educated  by  his  mother  under 
the  guardianship  of  Pope  Innocent  III.,  ac- 
quired an  extensive  knowledge  of  ancient  and 
modern  languages,  and  of  different  sciences,  in- 
cluding philosophy,  which  he  learned  from  a 
Saracen  teacher,  and  poetry,  which  he  culti- 
vated himself,  and  soon  developed  those  chival- 
rio  and  royal  talents,  that  active,  energetic, 
and  buoyant  spirit,  which  made  him  one  of  the 
most  distinguished  monarchs  of  the  middle 
ages.  He  was  hereditary  duke  of  Swabia  and 
other  dominions  in  Germany,  but  for  his  in- 
vestiture and  coronation  as  king  of  Naples  and 
Sicily  his  mother  sacrificed  to  Innocent  III. 
(1209)  some  of  the  most  essential  rights  of  the 
state.  His  uncle,  Philip  of  Swabia,  who  dis- 
puted the  throne  of  Germany  after  the  death 
of  Henry  VI.  with  Otho  IV.,  having  fallen  in 
battle,  .Frederick  was  assisted  by  the  pope  to 
reestablish  the  imperial  dignity  of  his  house. 
He  went  to  Germany  in  1212,  was  joyfully  re- 
ceived by  the  Ghibellines,  compelled  Otho  to 
retire,  was  crowned  at  Aix-la-Ghapelle  in  1216, 
and  generally  acknowledged  in  1218.  Leaving 
his  son  Henry,  whom  he  caused  to  be  declared 
king  of  the  Romans,  in  Germany,  he  started 
in  1220  for  Italy,  hastened  to  Rome,  where  he 
was  crowned  as  emperor,  and  thence  to  his 
hereditary  kingdom,  whose  affairs  he  arranged 
while  preparing  for  a  crusade,  according  to  a 
solemn  promise  given  to  the  see  of  Rome. 
Men  of  science,  poets,  and  artists  fiocked  to 
hb  court,  the  university  of  Naples  was  founded, 
the  medical  school  of  Salerno  became  fiourish- 
ing,  collections  of  art  were  procured,  and  Pe- 
ter de  Vinea  prepared  an  extensive  code  of 
laws  to  suit  all  the  classes  and  nations  of  Ger- 
many and  Italy,  which  Frederick  was  schem- 
ing to  unite  into  one  hereditary  empire.    These 


452 


FREDERICK  (Germany) 


schemes  were  checked  by  the  independent  spirit 
of  the  Lombard  cities,  and  by  the  opposition 
of  the  popes  Honorius  III.  and  Gregory  IX., 
who  finally  compelled  the  emperor,  by  threats 
of  excommunication,  to  start  upon  his  long  de- 
layed crusade  (1227).  But  a  pestilential  dis- 
ease which  broke  out  on  board  the  tleet  obliged 
him  to  land  at  Otranto,  where  the  greater  part 
of  the  pilgrims  dispersed.  The  expedition  only 
reached  the  Morea,  and  Gregory  punished  the 
emperor  with  excommunication  and  interdict. 
It  was  in  vain  that  Frederick  started  again  the 
next  year,  reached  the  Holy  Land,  and  fought 
successfully  against  the  Mussulmans ;  the  poli- 
cy of  the  pope,  who  declared  him  unworthy 
before  absolution  to  battle  for  the  cross,  roused 
against  him  the  patriarch  of  Jerusalem  and  the 
three  orders  of  knights  in  the  £ast^  and  also 
induced  his  father-in-law,  John  of  Brienne, 
titular  king  of  Jerusalem  and  emperor  of  Con- 
stantinople, to  invade  the  Italian  kingdom. 
Having  concluded  a  truce  of  ten  years  with 
the  sultan  of  Egypt,  which  brought  into  his 
possession  the  holy  cities  and  the  whole  coast 
of  Judea,  he  returned  os  crowned  king  of  Je- 
rusalem, reconquered  bis  kingdom,  defeated 
the  intrigues  of  his  enemies,  and  finally  gained 
his  absolution  (1280).  The  Lombard  cities 
still  maintained  their  league,  being  now  sup- 
ported by  the  rebellion  of  Henry,  the  son  of 
the  emperor.  Frederick  returned  to  Germany 
after  an  absence  of  15  years,  restored  his  im- 
perial dignity,  and  pardoned  his  son.  But  a 
new  rebellion  drew  upon  the  prince  the  pun- 
ishment of  imprisonment  for  life,  in  the  seventh 
year  of  which  he  died.  Ilis  younger  brother 
Conrad  was  made  king  of  the  Romans  in  his 
stead,  and  Frederick  marched  against  the  Lom- 
bards, and  defeated  them  at  Cortenuova  (Nov. 
26-27,  1237)  ;  all  the  cities  surrendered  except 
Milan,  Brescia,  Piacenza,  and  Bologna,  whose 
resistance  was  again  encouraged  by  Gregory 
IX.  Irritated  by  Frederick's  having  made  his 
natural  son  Enzio  king  of  Sardinia,  the  pope 
again  excommunicated  the  emperor  on  Palm 
Sunday,  1239.  Frederick  marched  Against 
Rome,  took  Ravenna,  and  had  the  Genoese 
fleet,  which  was  conveying  100  prelates  to 
Rome,  intercepted  by  Enzio  (1241).  Gregory 
IX.  did  not  long  survive  these  reverses.  The 
short  papacy  of  Celestine  IV.  and  a  long  in- 
terregnum followed,  which  was  terminated  by 
the  election  of  Innocent  IV.  The  new  pope, 
once  the  friend  of  the  emperor,  became  his 
bitterest  enemy,  confirmed  his  excommunica- 
tion, fled  to  Lyons  in  France,  where  he  con- 
voked a  council,  cited  Frederick  before  this 
tribunal,  r^ected  his  defender  Thaddeus  of  Su- 
essa,  declared  the  throne  of  Germany  vacant, 
and  subsequently  recognized  two  new  empe- 
rors, Henry  Raspe  of  Thnringia,  who  was  de- 
feated by  Conrad,  and  William  of  Holland. 
The  emperor,  deserted  by  many  of  his  allies, 
lost  a  battle  before  Parma,  and  another  near 
Bologna,  in  which  Enzio  was  made  prisoner. 
Bat  he  continaed  the  struggle  until  he  died. 


FREDERICK  HI.,  king  of   Gennany.      See 
Louis  IV.,  THE  Bavabian. 

FREDERICK  III.,  surnamed  the  Pacific,  fourth 
emperor  of  Germany  of  the  house  of  Hapsbur^ 
(Frederick  IV.  as  king  of  Germany,  and  V.  as 
archduke  of  Austria),  son  of  Duke  Ernest  of 
Styria  and  a  Polish  princess,  bom  in  Innspruck, 
Sept.  21,  1415,  died  in  Linz,  Aug.  19,  1498. 
He  began  his  reign  over  Styria,  Carinthia,  and 
Camiola,  together  with  his  brother  Albert  the 
Prodigal,  in  1436,  became  after  the  death  of 
the  emperor  Albert  II.  (1489)  guardian  of  his 
son  Ladislas  the  Posthumous,  and  was  unan- 
imously elected  to  the  throne  of  Germany  in 
1440,  and  crowned  at  Aix-la-Chapelle  in  1442. 
Possessed  of  many  private  virtues,  he  was 
nevertheless  inadequate  to  the  task  of  ruling 
the  German  empire  in  that  period  of  anarchical 
turbulence,  or  even  of  defending  the  interests 
of  his  house  against  the  attacks  of  tlie  war- 
like and  ambitious  Matthias  Corvinus,  king  of 
Hungary,  George  Podiebrad  of  Bohemia,  and 
Charles  the  Bold  of  Burgundy.     The  only 
weapon  he  seems  to  have  wielded  with  dex- 
terity was  diplomacy,  but  this,  too,  served  only 
the  private  purposes  of  the  house  of  Austria, 
of  which  he  may  be  regarded  as  the  second 
founder.      Wars,  however,  in  which  his  part 
was  generally  passive,  filled  nearly  the  whole 
reign  of  this  peace-loving  monarch,  which  was 
the  longest  of  any  German  emperor^s,  lasting 
for  68  years.     His  brother  Albert,  duke  of 
Upper  Austria,  repeatedly  attacked  him ;  the 
Hungarians  under  John  Hunyady  invaded  Aus- 
tria (1446-^52);    the  Armagnacs,  whom  the 
emperor  had  called  to  aid  him  against  the 
Swiss,  committed  depredations  (1445);   Mat- 
thias Corvinus  and  George  Podiebrad  defeated 
the  imperial  forces ;  the  Turks  ravaged  Carniola 
(1469) ;  hostilities  broke  out  with  Charles  the 
Bold  of  Burgundy,  and  a  war  was  carried  on 
in  the  Netherlands,  which  Maximilian,  the  son 
of  Frederick,  had  received  after  the  death  of 
Charies  the  Bold  (1477)  with  the  hand  of  his 
daughter  Mary,  and  where  he  was  made  cap- 
tive in  1488.    Frederick  was  also  humiliated 
by  the  usurpation  of  Sforza  at  Milan  (1447), 
after  the  death  of  the  last  Visconti ;  by  the 
Swiss,  who  routed  the  Armagnacs,  and  com- 
pelled him  to  an  unfavorable  treaty  (1449);  in 
the  quarrel  of  the  succession  of  the  Palatinate 
(I449),which  threatened  to  cost  him  his  throne ; 
by  continual  lawlessness  in  Germany,  where 
he  was  once  cited  before  the  secret  tribunal  of 
the  Vehme;  and  by  the  successive  encroach- 
ments of  the  popes,  particularly  of  Pius  II. 
(once  his  secretary  as  ^neas  Sylvius).    His 
chief  efforts  to  avert  the  invasion  of  the  Turks 
were  a  journey  to  Rome  for  a  conference  with 
the  pope  (1468),  and  the  convening  of  a  diet  at 
Ratisbon  (1471),  both  without  result.    In  1485 
Frederick  had  a  new  quarrel  ^Mth  Matthias, 
who  wrested  from  him  Vienna  and  all  Lower 
Austria.   On  the  death  of  Matthias  (1490),  Fred- 
erick regained  these  possessions,  and  his  last 
years  were  cheered  by  the  successos  of  his  son 


FREDEBIGK  (Hesse-C^ssel) 


FREDERICK  (Pbussia) 


453 


Maximilian,  whom  he  had  made  king  of  Rome 
(1486),  and  finally  intrusted  with  all  the  cares 
of  his  dominion  (1490),  himself  retiring  to  Linz, 
where  he  was  engaged  in  his  fa  von  to  studies 
of  astrology,  alchemy,  and  hotany  till  the  end 
of  his  life.  He  was  the  last  king  of  Germany 
who  was  crowned  emperor  of  Rome  and  king 
of  the  Lombards.  Having  inherited  Lower 
Austria  on  the  death  of  Ladislas,  and  Upper 
Austria  on  that  of  his  brother  Albert,  he  raised 
these  united  provinces  to  the  dignity  of  an 
archduchy.  The  crown  of  Germany  became 
nearly  hereditary  in  his  house,  the  next  suc- 
cessor being  his  son  Maximilian  I.  His  device 
is  siud  to  have  been  A,  B,  L  0.  U, :  Austria 
est  imperare  orhi  univerao,  A  collection  of 
his  sayings  was  published  under  the  title  of 
Margarita  Faeetiarum  (Strasburg,  1509). 

T.   HESSE-OASSBL. 

FKEDGftlClL  WILLIAM,  elector  of  Eesse-Oas- 
sel,  born  Aug.  20,  1802,  died  Jan.  6,  1875. 
He  succeeded  to  the  electorate  Nov.  20,  1847. 
Although  his  mother  was  a  daughter  of  King 
Frederick  Wihiam  IL  of  Prussia,  he  joined 
Austria  in  1866 ;  and  as  he  declined  to  remain 
neutral  in  the  war  between  that  state  and 
Prussia,  or  to  accept  the  proposals  of  the  lat- 
ter for  a  reform  of  the  German  diet,  a  Prus- 
sian army  invaded  his  territory  (June  16),  and 
he  was  arrested  (June  23)  and  detained  in  the 
oastle  of  Stettin.  Despite  the  annexation  of 
his  electorate  to  Prussia  with  the  consent  of 
Austria,  he  would  not  relinquish  his  rights  as 
a  sovereign  prince  until  Sept.  17,  1867,  when 
he  agreed  to  abdicate,  on  condition  of  receiv- 
ing a  life  interest  in  the  electoral  crown  do- 
main, besides  a  sum  of  600,000  thalers  and  the 
privilege  of  inhabiting  the  palaces  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Hanau.  After  his  release  he  resided 
on  his  estates  in  Bohemia  and  in  the  palace  of 
Prince  Windischgrfitz,  which  he  purchased,  in 
Prague.  In  September,  1873,  he  renounced  all 
his  rights  and  personal  property,  on  condition 
of  Prussia's  paying  him  an  annuity  of  200,000 
thalers  during  his  life. 

YI.  MEOKLElTBUBG-SCHWERIir. 

FREDERICK  FRANCIS  IL,  grand  duke  of 
Meoklenburg-Schwerin,  a  German  soldier,  born 
Feb.  28, 1823.  He  became  grand  duke  in  1842, 
was  in  the  same  year  made  a  general  in  the 
Prussian  army,  and  participated  in  1864  in 
the  war  against  Denmark,  and  in  1866  against 
Austria.  He  joined  in  1867  the  North  Ger- 
man confederation,  and  on  the  outbreak  of  tbe 
Franco-German  war  (July,  1870)  he  was  made 
commander-in-chief  of  the  13th  army  corps. 
He  captured  Laon  (Sept.  9),  Toul  (Sept.  23), 
and  Soissons  (Oct  16j),  and  was  placed  at  the 
head  of  a  new  corps  m  the  operations  against 
Paris.  He  defeated  K6ratry  at  Dreux  (Nov. 
17),  and  after  joining  in  various  engagements 
near  Orleans  under  Prince  Frederick  Charles, 
he  took  possession  of  Blois  (Dec.  18)  and  con- 
tributed to  the  defeat  of  Gen.  Chanzj  near 


Venddme  (Dec.  15)  and  Le  Mans  (Jan.  12, 
1 871),  and  captured  Alen^on.  His  grand  duchy 
had  in  the  mean  while  become  a  member  of 
the  German  empire.  On  the  entrance  of  the 
German  army  into  Berlin  (June  10,  1871)  the 
emperor  William  appointea  him  chief  of  the 
second  inspection  of  the  army. 

VII.  PRUSSIA  (including  brandenbttbg). 

FREDERICK  WILLUM,  elector  of  Branden- 
burg, usually  styled  the  Great  Elector,  and  the 
founder  of  the  Prussian  monarchy,  born  in 
1620,  died  in  Potsdam,  April  21),  1088.  He 
came  to  the  electoral  power  at  the  age  of  20 
(1640),  on  the  death  of  his  father,  George  Wil- 
liam, the  10th  elector.  The  father  had  been  a 
feeble  prince,  with  a  traitorous  minister.  His 
estates  had  for  many  years  been  ravaged  by 
the  contending  parties  in  the  thirty  years' 
war.  The  cities  lay  almost  in  ruins,  the  vil- 
lages had  been  for  the  most  pai't  burned  and 
depopulated,  and  a  part  of  his  paternal  in- 
heritance had  been  confiscated  by  the  Swedes. 
The  young  prince  began  his  reign  by  dismiss- 
ing his  father^s  unworthy  council,  regulating 
his  finances,  and  negotiating  with  so  much  ad- 
dress as  to  regain  his  lost  provinces,  which  were 
guaranteed  to  him  by  the  peace  of  Westphalia 
eight  years  later.  A  year  after  his  accession  he 
concluded  a  treaty  of  neutrality  with  the  Swe- 
dish queen  Christina,  and  three  years  alitor,  by 
an  armistice  with  Hesse-Cassel,  the  strong  out- 
post city  of  Cleves  and  the  county  of  Mark  in 
Westphalia  were  added  to  his  dominions.  Under 
the  treaty  of  Westphalia  (1648)  the  elector,  who 
had  just  claims  to  the  whole  of  Pomerania,  re- 
ceived only  the  eastern  portion  of  that  coun- 
try ;  but  as  an  indemnification  for  the  loss  of 
the  western  division  and  the  island  of  Kugen, 
he  obtained  the  county  of  Hohenstein,  the 
bishoprics  of  Minden,  Halberstadt,  and  Eamin, 
as  lay  principalities,  and  the  reversion  of  the 
archbishopric  of  Magdeburg.  After  the  conclu- 
sion of  the  peace,  Frederick  William  directed  his 
attention  to  the  organization  of  a  standing  army, 
and  after  a  few  years  he  had  an  army  of  25,000, 
disciplined  according  to  the  Swedish  system. 
He  formed  an  alliance  with  Charles  X.  of 
Sweden  in  1655  against  Poland.  Tlie  sequel 
was  the  fall  of  Warsaw,  and  Frederick's 
achievement  of  the  independence  of  his  Prus- 
sian duchy,  formerly  under  enfeoffinent  to  Po- 
land. Louis  XIY.  at  this  time  was  pursuing 
his  project  of  a  Rhine  frontier  and  the  con- 
quest of  the  Spanish  ^Netherlands.  He  seized 
a  line  of  frontier  towns,  and  invaded  Holland 
(1672).  Of  the  German  princes,  the  elector 
of  Brandenburg  alone  seemed  conscious  of  the 
danger,  and  after  arming  his  exposed  West- 
phalian  dominions  he  appealed  successfully  to 
the  emperor  Leopold  L,  to  Denmark,  to  Hesse- 
Cassel,  and  other  German  states.  A  joint 
army  was  placed  under  the  command  of  an 
imperial  general;  but  the  imperial  coopera- 
tion was  crippled  through  the  machinations 
of  Leopold's  privy  councillor,  Lobkowitz,  who 


454 


FREDERICK  (Peussia) 


became  a  secret  tool  of  the  French  minis- 
ters. Frederick  William  was  compelled  thus 
to  come  to  terms  with  France,  with  the  loss  of 
Wesel  and  Rees  (1673).  Immediately  after  this 
event,  Leopold  resuming  operations  against  the 
French,  tlje  elector  again  took  np  arms,  and 
Louis,  in  order  to  keep  the  electoral  forces  oc- 
cupied in  their  own  country,  engaged  the  king 
of  Sweden  to  advance  upon  Berlin.  The  Swedes 
accordingly  entered  Brandenburg  by  a  rapid 
forced  march.  Frederick  William  arrived  sud- 
denly from  the  Rhine  at  Magdeburg,  and  hurry- 
ing across  the  Elbe  at  the  head  of  his  cavalry 
(only  6,000  in  number),  surprised  the  Swedes  at 
Fehrbellin.  His  infantry  (11,000)  were  many 
miles  in  the  rear,  but  he  attacked  the  enemy 
without  delay,  June  18,  1675.  The  rout  was 
complete.  Frederick  pursued  the  flying  enemy 
into  Pomcrania,  and  reduced  the  greater  por- 
tion of  the  province.  By  the  treaty  of  St.  Ger- 
main, June  29,  1679,  the  elector  restored  near- 
ly all  his  conquests,  and  received  from  France 
800,000  crowns.  He  now  devoted  himself  to 
the  prosperity  of  his  dominions  and  the  ex- 
tension of  their  area.  He  founded  universities, 
welcomed  20,000  Protestant  exiles  whom  Louis 
XIV.  banished  from  France,  and  made  it  the 
aim  of  his  life  to  oppose  French  aggression  and 
to  protect  the  liberties  of  Germany. 

FREDERICK  I.,  first  king  of  Prussia,  son  of  the 
preceding,  born  in  Konigsberg,  July  22,  1657, 
died  Feb.  25, 1713.  lie  became  heir  apparent  on 
the  death  of  his  elder  brother.  Deformed  by 
having  been  dropped  from  the  arms  of  his  nurse, 
and  of  weak  constitution,  his  education  was 
neglected,  and  thus  his  stepmother  could  the 
more  easily  persuade  the  old  elector  to  bequeath 
a  part  of  his  possessions  to  her  children.  But 
Frederick,  who  was  no  less  ambitious  than  his 
father,  and  was  assured  of  the  favor  of  the 
emperor  Leopold  I.,  on  his  accession  as  elec- 
tor in  1688  under  the  name  of  Frederick  III., 
took  immediate  possession  of  the  whole  inherit- 
ance, declaring  the  will  null,  and  satisfying  his 
step-brothers  with  offices  and  pensions.  While 
vying  in  brilliancy  with  the  court  of  Louis 
XIV.,  he  also  strenuously  continued  his  father's 
policy  of  aggrandizement.  Seeking  the  alliance 
of  influential  princes,  he  lent  several  of  them 
his  troops,  on  condition  of  mutual  support  or 
payment  in  money.  Thus  6,000  of  his  soldiers 
aided  William  of  Orange  to  secure  the  throne  of 
England,  and  fought  in  the  great  battle  of  the 
Boyne ;  20,000  fought  successfully  against  the 
French,  who  had  ravaged  the  Palatinate  (1689) ; 
15,000  joined  the  qiiadruple  alliance  of  tlie 
Empire,  Spain,  Holland,  and  England,  and 
fought  on  the  Rhine  (1690);  6,000  were  sent 
(1691)  to  assist  the  emperor  in  his  Hungarian 
war  against  the  Turks,  and  contributed  to  the 
victories  of  Zalankem^n,  Belgrade,  and  Zenta. 
But  all  these  services  procured  Frederick  in 
the  peace  of  Ryswick  (1697)  politically  only 
the  confirmation  of  the  stipulations  granted  to 
his  father  by  the  treaties  of  Westphalia  and  St. 
Germain.    Private  negotiations,  however,  with 


several  reigning  houses  gave  him  in  part  the 
immediate  possession  of,  and  in  part  hereditary 
claims  to,  various  territories,  which  greatly  en- 
larged the  limits  of  his  dominions.  He  gained 
the  royal  crown  only  after  long  negotiations  by 
a  treaty  with  the  emperor,  concluded  Nov.  16, 
1700,  and  based  on  the  humiliating  obligation 
to  aid  the  emperor  with  10,000  troops  in  the 
threatening  war  of  the  Spanish  succession,  to 
support  the  house  of  Austria  in  every  debate  in 
the  diet,  and  to  vote  for  its  princes  at  every 
imperial  election.  Hastening  to  Kdnigsberg  in 
the  midst  of  winter,  Frederick  placed  the  crown 
on  his  own  head  and  on  that  of  his  wife,  the 
sister  of  George  I.  of  England,  Jan.  18,  1701. 
On  this  occasion  he  founded  the  order  of  the 
black  eagle.  In  the  wars  of  Charles  XII.  of 
Sweden  Frederick  took  no  part,  being  actively 
engaged  in  the  support  of  his  ally  the  emperor 
in  the  long  struggle  against  Louis  XIV.  He 
sent  to  the  army  on  the  Danube  20,000  men, 
who  took  part  in  the  battle  of  Blenheim  (1704), 
and  to  Italy  6,000,  who  greatly  contributed  to 
Eugene's  victory  at  Turin  (1706).  Frederick 
is  praised  for  his  natural  kindness,  love  of  his 
subjects,  and  loyalty  to  his  allies ;  but  his  van- 
ity, love  of  pomp,  and  extravagance  led  to  ru- 
inous extortions.  He  founded  the  university 
of  Halle,  the  Berlin  academies  of  science  and 
of  sculpture  and  painting,  and  the  supreme 
court  of  appeal.  Like  his  father  he  defended 
Protestantism  in  Germany. 

FREDERICK  WlLLIiM  I.,  second  king  of  Prus- 
sia, son  of  the  preceding  and  Sophia  Charlotto 
of  Hanover,  born  in  1688,  died  May  81,  1740. 
He  served  in  the  allied  army  against  France, 
and  distinguished  himself  at  the  siege  of 
Menin  and  the  battle  of  Malplaqnet.  The 
new  monarchy  (dating  from  1701)  had  been 
ungraciously  recognized  by  the  crowned  heads 
of  Europe,  and  the  crown  prince  early  con- 
ceived the  design  of  making  for  Prussia  a  con- 
spicuous place  among  the  powers  by  means 
of  an  army.  He  ascended  the  throne  Feb. 
25,  1713,  and  by  strict  economy  was  enabled 
to  maintain  a  peace  establishment  of  60,000, 
and  at  length  of  72,000  men,  being  ^  of 
his  subjects.  His  ruling  mania  was  to  form 
a  corps  of  giant  soldiers ;  and  for  this  pnrposo 
his  envoys  ransacked  the  world.  An  Irish- 
man measuring  seven  feet  was  induced  to  en- 
list by  a  cash  bounty  equivalent  to  $6,200,  a 
sum  much  greater  than  a  yearns  salary  of  the 
Prussian  ambassador  who  found  him  in  the 
streets  of  London.  During  a  reign  of  27  years 
Frederick  William  preserved  unintermpt'ed 
peace  for  Prussia,  with  the  exception  of  a  snort 
misunderstanding  with  Charles  All.,  and  a  lit- 
tle idle  soldiering  under  Prince  Eugene.  In 
1718  he  had  concluded  with  Sweden,  during 
Charleses  absence  in  Turkey,  a  treaty,  the  ob- 
ject of  which  was  to  preserve  Swedish  Pome- 
rania  from  Russia  and  Saxony.  In  considera- 
tion of  400,000  thalers,  Frederick  received  the 
cities  of  Stettin  and  Wismar,  and  was  to  medi- 
ate between  the  belligerents.    Charles,  return- 


FREDERICK  (Prussia) 


455 


ing  from  Turkey,  insisted  on  the  restoration 
of  Stettin^  but  refused  to  refund  the  money. 
Frederick  promptly  declared  war,  and  took  the 
field  in  person ;  and  tlie  result  was  the  acquisi- 
tion of  Pomerania  as  far  as  the  river  Peene, 
with  Stettin,  and  the  islands  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Oder,  on  payment  of  2,000,000  thaiers. 
The  following  characteristic  speech  was  ad- 
dressed by  the  king  to  his  privy  council  when 
about  to  take  the  field  for  this  war :  ^*  As  I 
am  a  man,  and  may  therefore  die  of  a  shot, 
I  command  yon  to  take  g(»od  care  of  Fritz 
[the  crown  prince  Frederick,  then  three  years 
old] ;  and  I  give  nil  of  you,  my  wife  to  begin 
with,  my  curse,  if  you  do  not  bury  me  at 
Potsdam  in  the  church  vault  tliere,  without 
feasting  and  without  ceremony."  The  wife 
of  this  amiable  husband,  Sophia  Dorothea  of 
Hanover,  bore  ten  children ;  among  whom  the 
eldest  son  (afterward  Frederick  the  Great) 
and  a  daughter,  Wilhelmina,  incurred  the  fe- 
rocious hatred  of  the  father.  His  son  wrote 
of  him :  **  He  had  an  industrious  spirit  in  a 
robust  body,  with  perliaps  more  capacity  for 
minute  details  than  any  man  that  ever  lived ; 
and  if  he  occupied  himself  with  little  things, 
it  was  that  great  results  might  be  the  conse- 
quence." His  character  was  singularly  full 
of  contradictions.  He  was  at  once  Just  and 
cruel ;  parsimonious  and  liberal ;  a  careful  and 
a  brutal  father;  a  defender  of  Lutheranism 
and  protector  of  Protestant  refugees,  yet  pun- 
ishing metaphysicians  with  exile.  But  he  lib- 
erally rewarded  all  who  introduced  any  new 
art,  and  many  of  the  greatest  manufactories 
in  Prussia  owe  their  foundation  to  him.  He 
also  founded  the  medioo-chirurgical  college  and 
two  charitable  institutions  at  Berlin,  and  an 
orphanage  at  Potsdam.  He  left  to  his  son 
$6,000,000  surplus  money,  72,000  soldiers, 
2,240,000  subjects,  and  a  territory  of  46,000 
square  miles. — See  Droysen's  Friedrich  WiU 
helm  I,  (2  vols.,  Leipsic,  1869). 

FREDEBICK  II.,  third  king  of  Prussia,  known 
as  Frederick  the  Great,  eldest  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding and  the  princess  Sophia  Dorothea, 
daughter  of  George  I.  of  England,  born  in 
Berlin,  Jan.  24,  1712,  died  at  tlie  ch&teau  of 
Sans  Souci,  near  Potsdam,  Aug.  17,  1786.  Up 
to  the  age  of  20  he  was  subjected  to  a  cruel 
paternal  tyranny.  Educated  chiefly  by  French 
refugees,  he  conceived  a  strong  passion  for 
French  literature,  and  knew  nothing  of  any 
other  foreign  language.  Latin  his  father  posi- 
tively forbade.  He  was  passionately  fond  of 
music,  attained  a  high  perfection  as  a  player 
on  the  flute,  and  gave  concerts  at  which  his 
own  compositions  were  performed,  and  to 
which  he  invited  eminent  musicians,  who  ad- 
mired his  masterly  performance  in  adagio.  He 
gave  employment  to  Graun  in  his  chapel  at 
Kheinsberg,  and  after  his  accession  to  the 
throne  appointed  him  chapel  master  and  sent 
him  to  Italy  to  engage  vocalists  for  the  pro- 
jected new  opera  at  Berlin,  the  establishment 
of  which  was  thus  due  to  Frederick.    He  was 


also  very  fond  of  poetry,  but,  ignorant  of  Dante 
or  Shakespeare,  Virgil  or  Homer,  surrendered 
himself  to  Voltaire  and  the  Henriade,  "  My 
royal  titles,"  he  wrote  to  his  French  idol, 
"  shall  run  thus :  *  By  the  grace  of  God,  king 
of  Prussia,  elector  of  Brandenburg,  possessor 
of  Voltaire,'  &c."  Within  a  week  he  wrote 
to  Algarotti  that  he  knew  Voltaire  was  a 
scoundrel,  but  that  he  could  make  use  of  him. 
Je  teux  sa/coir  ion  franf^is;  que  mHmparte 
$a  morale  f  After  narrowly  escaping  death 
from  his  father's  hand,  he  determined  to  seek 
safety  in  England  with  his  uncle  George  H. 
He  was  overtaken,  brought  a  prisoner  to  Klis- 
trin,  compelled  to  witness  the  execution  of 
Katt,  a  young  officer  who  had  been  privy  to 
his  flight  (1730),  was  himself  condemned  as 
a  deserter,  and  was  only  saved  by  the  interpo- 
sition of  the  emperor  of  Germany,  the  kings  of 
Swaden  and  Poland,  and  the  states  of  Holland. 
11  is  father  caused  him  to  be  informed  that  if 
he  would  renounce  the  throne  he  might  study, 
travel,  or  do  whatever  he  pleased.  "  I  accept," 
said  Frederick,  "if  my  father  will  declare  that 
I  am  not  his  son."  After  a  long  imprisonment, 
he  was  appointed  a  councillor  of  war,  and 
charged  with  duties  which  virtually  banished 
him  from  court.  In  1783  his  father  required 
him  to  marry  Elizabeth  Christina,  daughter 
of  the  duke  of  Brunswick-Bevern,  and  in 
1734  pennitted  him  to  take  up  his  residence 
at  the  castle  of  Rheinsberg,  where  he  could 

Sirsue  his  favorite  amusements  unmolested, 
ere  he  wrote  many  of  his  works,  including 
the  Anti-Maehiavel  (the  Hague,  1740).  Mean- 
time the  heart  of  the  old  king  grew  softer ;  a 
reconciliation  followed ;  and  the  father,  press- 
ing his  son  to  his  heart,  sobbed  forth  with  al- 
most his  latest  breath  (1740):  "My  God,  my 
God,  I  die  content,  since  I  have  such  a  noble 
son  and  successor."  Frederick's  character  had 
been  wholly  misconceived  by  his  subjects  and 
by  the  world.  One  class  thought  him  a  mere 
sensualist,  a  rhapsodical  voluptuary;  others 
looked  forward  to  a  reign  of  moderation, 
peace,  and  universal  benevolence.  Both  of 
these  classes  of  judges,  with  Anti-Maehiavel 
before  them,  and  a  knowledge  of  the  epicurean 
abode  at  Rheinsberg,  might  find  ground  for 
their  predictions ;  and  both  were  equally  con- 
founded at  the  almost  instantaneous  transfor- 
mation effected  by  the  crown.  A  military 
despot,  listening  to  no  council,  confidmg  in  no 
friend,  bent  upon  the  single  purpose  of  en- 
larging his  monarchy,  he  regarded  himself  as 
an  instrument  appointed  to  elevate  Prussia, 
and  embody  in  the  parvenu  title  of  Prussian 
king  that  substantial  possession  of  royal  power 
which  could  only  come  from  enlarged  domin- 
ion. The  pragmatic  sanction  of  Charles  VI., 
guaranteed  solemnly  by  Europe,  and  by  no 
member  of  the  family  of  nations  more  solemn- 
ly than  by  Prussia,  had,  it  was  supposed,  se- 
cured the  peaceful  inheritance  of  the  Austrian 
dominions  to  the  young  Maria  Theresa  as 
archduchess  of  Austria  and  queen  of  Hungary 


456 


FREDERICK  (Pbussia) 


and  Bohemia.  Frederick,  immediatelj  on  her 
father^s  death,  sent  her  an  offer  of  pecuniary 
aid  and  his  vote  for  her  hushand  Francis  as 
emperor  of  Germany,  on  condition  of  the  ces- 
sion of  the  duchies  of  Glogau  and  Sagan,  to 
which,  as  well  as  the  greater  part  of  Silesia, 
the  house  of  Hohenzollem  laid  claim.  This 
being  rejected,  in  December  he  entered  Lower 
Silesia  at  the  head  of  his  army,  routed  the 
handful  of  Austrians  who  were  quartered  on 
the  frontiei',  and  overran  the  province.  In 
six  weeks  he  returned  to  Berlin  in  triumph. 
Frederick  officially  pretended  to  justify  him- 
self, but  privately  acknowledged  that  "■  ambi- 
tion, interest,  the  desire  to  make  people  talk 
about  me,  carried  the  day;  and  I  decided  to 
make  war.^'  lie  had  inherited  from  his  fa- 
ther a  splendid  army  of  70,000  men,  formed  by 
his  general  Leopold  of  Dessau,  at  that  period 
the  finest  troops  in  the  world.  There  was  in 
the  treasury  a  surplus  of  $6,000,000.  lie  felt 
that  a  bold  stroke  might  be  made,  and  that 
by  means  of  a  strong  military  organization  he 
could  obtain  for  his  two  and  a  quarter  million 
subjects  a  foremost  place  among  the  great  na- 
tions around  him.  Hastening  in  tbe  spring 
(1741)  to  rejoin  his  troops,  he  fought  his  first 
battle  at  Mollwitz.  His  army  was  victorious, 
but  its  leader  had  fied.  He  had  beheld  real 
war  for  the  first  time,  and  so  completely  lost 
his  self-command  as  to  gallop  miles  from  the 
field.  His  personal  courage  had  been  pre- 
viously well  established,  when  a  volunteer  un- 
der Prince  Eugene  against  the  French;  but 
he  saw  during  that  campaign  nothing  of  the 
fury  and  carnage  of  war.  The  battle  of  Moll- 
witz (AprU  10,  1741)  decided  the  fate  of  Si- 
lesia. It  was,  however,  the  signal  for  a  gen- 
eral war  in  Europe,  known  as  that  of  the 
Austrian  succession.  Bavaria,  with  France, 
now  took  up  arms.  A  French,  Saxon,  and 
Bavarian  army  invaded  Bohemia,  while  Fred- 
erick marched  into  Moravia.  The  fortunes 
of  the  youthful  queen  grew  darker  still  when 
England,  her  last  ally,  determined  upon  neu- 
trality. Frederick  gained  a  second  victory  at 
Ghotusitz,  near  Czaslaa,  May  17,  1742,  and  at 
once  effaced  by  personal  prowess  the  blot 
upon  his  victory  at  Mollwitz.  Accepting  Eng- 
lish mediation,  Maria  Theresa  made  peace 
with  Prussia  by  a  treaty  concluded  at  Breslau, 
June  11,  and  ceded  Silesia  and  the  county  of 
Glatz.  Frederick  withdrew  from  Moravia,  while 
the  Austrians  everywhere  triumphed  against 
France  and  Bavaria.  He  profited  by  this  in- 
terval of  peace  to  strengthen  his  army  and 
organize  new  conquests.  England  meanwhile 
declared  for  Austria,  and  British  troops  fought 
at  Dettingen.  On  the  death  of  the  last  count 
of  East  Fries! and,  in  1744,  Frederick  took  pos- 
session of  that  country,  which  by  the  grant 
of  the  emperor  Leopold  in  1694  was  to  revert 
to  the  house  of  Brandenburg.  He  grew  anx- 
ious in  the  midst  of  ceaseless  Austrian  victo- 
ries, and  fearing  to  be  dispossessed  of  Silesia, 
in  August,  1744,  he  marched  into  Bohemia  at 


the  head  of  100,000  men,  took  Prague,  and 
threatened  Vienna.  He  confesses  that  this 
campaign  was  filled  with  blunders;  that  no 
general  ever  committed  graver  faults ;  and  it 
appears  that  during  this  year  he  first  learned  to 
be  a  general.  He  retreated  rapidly,  but  only  to 
retrieve  the  past.  In  the  next  campaign,  at  Ho- 
henfriedberg,  he  defeated  a  jomt  army  of  Aus- 
trians and  Saxons  (June  4,  1745),  in  a  manner 
which  placed  him  at  the  head  of  contemporary 
commanders.  This  victory  was  followed  by 
those  of  Sorr  (Sept.  30)  and  Kesselsdorf  (Dec. 
15),  and  the  fedl  of  Dresden;  and  having  no 
longer  reason  to  fear  that  Maria  Theresa  could 
avenge  herself,  he  deserted  his  French  ally, 
and  made  peace  with  Austria  and  Saxony  by 
the  treaty  of  Dresden  (Dec.  25),  by  which  he 
acknowledged  Francis  as  emperor,  and  was 
confirmed  in  the  possession  of  Silesia.  Fred- 
erick by  this  time  had  doubled  the  number  of 
his  subjects,  and  had  succeeded  so  well  in  hum- 
bling Austria  and  her  allies,  that  he  appeared 
to  hold  in  his  hand  the  balance  of  power  in 
Germany.  His  people  now  enjoyed  11  years 
of  peace,  during  w^hich  he  devoted  himself  to 
the  organization  of  his  states  and  his  army,  the 
advancement  of  the  arts,  agriculture,  manufac- 
tures, commerce,  and  education,  the  ameliora- 
tion of  the  laws,  and  the  increase  of  the  public 
revenues.  He  also  wrote  his  Memoir es  pour 
sermr  d  Vhistoire  de  Brandebourg  (2  vols., 
Berlin,  1761),  his  poem  VArt  de  guerre^  and 
many  other  productions  in  prose  and  verse. 
This  was  a  period,  nevertheless,  of  constant 
anxiety  and  insecurity;  and  learning  in  1766 
that  a  new  coalition,  including  Russia  and  his 
former  ally  France,  was  forming  against  him, 
Frederick  at  once  prepared  for  the  encounter, 
suddenly  allied  himself  with  England,  and  the 
whole  face  of  affairs  was  changed.  Sweden, 
the  tool  of  France,  followed  the  French  leading; 
and  Frederick,  with  scarcely  6,000,000  sub- 
jects, including  the  conquered  Silesians,  found 
himself  alone  on  the  continent  against  nearly 
100,000,000.  It  was  resolved  to  crush  him ; 
but  he  had  foreseen  this  design,  detected  all 
the  secret  intrigues,  and  resolved  to  strike  the 
first  blow.  In  August,  1766,  with  70,000  men, 
he  entered  Saxony,  and  commenced  the  fa^ 
mous  seven  years'  war.  His  army  had  grown 
to  160,000  men,  but  his  enemies  could  bring 
600,000  troops  into  the  field,  and  there  was 
not  a  politician  in  Europe  who  did  not  look 
upon  his  destruction  as  certain.  He  himself 
thought  it  probable ;  but  he  had  an  overflowing 
treasury  at  home,  and  plenty  of  money  from 
England,  and  he  hoped  that  genius,  judgment, 
and  resolution,  with  ordinary  good  fortune, 
might  at  least  sustain  him  until  Ids  enemies 
should  quarrel  among  themselves.  At  Dres- 
den he  seized  some  state  papers  which  exposed 
the  designs  of  the  coalition.  They  were  pub- 
lished, and  the  world  saw  that  this  time  lie 
had  right  on  his  side.  He  defeated  the  Aus- 
trian general  Braun  at  Lowositz  (Oct.  1);  tbe 
Saxon  army  under  Bntowski  surrendered  a 


FREDERICK  (Pbusbu) 


457 


fortnight  later,  and  the  whole  of  Saxon  j  was 
reduced,  and  became  virtually  a  part  of  Fred- 
erick's dominions.  He  levied  troops  and  sup- 
plies; and  thus,  within  a  few  weeks,  one  of  the 
confederates  was  made  to  turn  his  weapons 
against  the  others.  The  next  campaign  opened 
with  the  great  battle  of  Prague,  May  6,  1757. 
Frederick  was  victorious,  but  lost  12,000  men, 
and  among  them  his  general  Schwerin.  A 
second  battle  was  fought  and  lost  against 
Daun  at  Kolin,  June  18.  Frederick  abandoned 
Bohemia.  French  troops  invaded  Prussia,  and 
his  army  lost  confidence.  French,  Swedes, 
and  Russians  were  marching  upon  Berlin; 
and  Frederick,  mourning  the  death  of  his 
mother,  whom  he  tenderly  loved,  provided 
himself  with  poison,  and  meditated  suicide. 
He  marched  from  Bohemia  against  the  French, 
and  with  half  their  numbers  defeated  them  at 
Rosabach,  and  took  7,000  prisoners  (Nov.  5). 
He  now  turned  against  the  Austrians,  who  had 
entered  Berlin,  and  captured  Schweidnitz  and 
Breslan.  On  Doc.  6,  at  Leuthen,  with  80,000 
men,  he  attacked  80,000,  killed  or  captured 
27,000,  and  took  130  guns,  50  standards,  and 
4,000  wagons.  Early  in  1768,  having  pre- 
viously recovered  Breslau,  he  was  again  ready 
for  action,  recaptured  Schweidnitz,  and  with 
37,000  troops  fought  almost  hand  to  band  with 
60,000  Russians  at  Zorndorf  (Aug.  25).  It 
was  the  fiercest  and  bloodiest  battle  of  the 
war.  Frederick  ordered  that  no  quarter  should 
be  given,  so  enraged  was  he  with  the  devasta- 
tions committed  by  the  invaders ;  and  19,000 
Russians  and  11,000  Prussians  lay  upon  the 
field,  dead  or  wounded,  at  the  close  of  this  fear- 
ful day.  The  Russians  abandoned  Prussia,  and 
Frederick  marched  into  Saxony.  He  had  beaten 
French,  Austrian,  and  Russian  armies  in  turn, 
each  with  more  than  double  his  force;  but 
close  upon  these  triumphs  followed  a  chain  of 
disasters  which  would  have  overthrown  any 
other  commander.  At  dead  of  night  he  was 
surprised  and  terribly  defeated  by  Daun  at 
Hochkirch  (Oct.  14),  but  rallying  in  an  in- 
credibly short  time  he  rescued  Dresden  from 
an  overwhelming  army  of  Austrians,  and  went 
•  into  winter  quarters  at  Breslau.  The  year  1759 
saw  the  Austrians  overrunning  Saxony,  Rus- 
sians victorious  upon  the  Oder,  Frederick  ut- 
terly routed  by  Soltikoffand  Landon  atXuners- 
dorf,  Aug.  12  (where  he  lost  two  thirds  of  his 
troops),  and  Berlin  saved  only  by  the  king's  mi- 
racnlons  energy.  Dresden  was  taken  by  the 
troops  of  the  empire,  and  near  it  Gen.  Fink 
surrendered  12,000  Prussians.  The  fifth  year 
saw  the  capital  in  the  hands  of  the  Russians, 
while  Frederick  won  great  buttles  at  Liegnitz, 
Aug.  16,  1760,  and  Torgau,  Nov.  8,  the  one 
over  Laudon,  and  the  other  over  Daun.  The 
sixth  year  was  also  unfavorable,  but  he  still 
fought  on.  The  circle  seemed  to  be  closing 
around  him,  and  he  grew  savage  with  despair. 
England,  after  the  death  of  George  II.,  desert- 
ed him,  but  Russia,  on  the  death  of  Elizabeth 
(1762),  withdrew  from  the  coalition.     Fred- 


erick broke  into  Silesia  and  defeated  the  Aus- 
trians at  Burkersdorf,  and  his  brother  Henry 
was  successful  at  Freiberg.  France  withdrew 
her  armies,  declaring  future  neutrality;  and 
Prussians  and  Austrians  stood  alone  against 
each  other.  Tlie  empress  now  gave  way,  and 
in  February,  1763,  peace  was  signed  at  Huberts- 
burg,  leaving  Frederick  in  possession  of  Silesia, 
the  sole  object,  short  of  saving  Prussia  itselt^ 
for  which  he  had  fought.  After  an  absence  of 
eight  years  he  reentered  Berlin  in  triumph.  He 
had  proved  himself  the  greatest  commander  of 
his  age,  although  he  owed  many  a  defeat  to  his 
own  rashness,  and  many  a  victory  to  such  gen- 
erals as  Ferdinand  of  Brunswick,  Schwerin, 
Seydlitz,  Ziethen,  and  Prince  Henry.  But  his 
capital  had  been  more  than  once  plundered ;  the 
population  had.  sufi^ered  frightfully.  He  found 
the  number  of  his  subjects  diminished  by  one 
tenth ;  a  sixth  of  the  male  able-bodied  adults 
had  died  on  the  field  of  battle.  Cossac^ks  and 
Groats  had  slaughtered  young  and  old,  wo- 
men and  children.  Fields  were  unsown ;  vil- 
lages and  hamlets  were  deserts.  But,  say  his- 
torians, Frederick  did  not  owe  a  dollar.  His 
first  object  was  the  thorough  restoration  and 
reorganization  of  the  army.  During  every 
moment  of  the  23  remaining  years  of  his 
life,  he  was  armed  at  all  points.  His  energies 
meanwhile  were  employed  with  equal  devo- 
tion in  the  restoration  of  his  country.  The 
corn  which  had  been  provided  for  the  next 
campaign  was  bestowed  upon  the  destitute.  In 
Silesia  taxes  were  remitted  for  six  months; 
in  Pomerania  and  New  Brandenburg  for  two 
years.  Immense  sums  of  money  were  ex- 
pended in  agricultural  and  industrial  improve- 
ments; in  all,  during  the  remainder  of  his 
reign,  24,000,000  thalers.  To  meet  these  and 
other  similar  ends,  the  most  rigid  economy 
was  practised.  The  royal  household  was  so 
frugal  that  the  king  saved  annually  from  the 
sum  appropriated  to  his  court  nearly  1,000,000 
thalers.  His  envoys  in  England  and  France 
had  salaries  less  than  $5,000  a  year.  The  king 
himself  had  but  one  fine  dress  during  the  re- 
mainder of  his  life.  Shabby  old  garments  and 
snuffy  yellow  waistcoats  were  his  daily  wear ; 
and  when  it  was  found  at  his  death  that  he  did 
not  possess  a  single  decent  shirt,  he  was  buried 
in  one  belonging  to  his  valet  de  ehambre.  The 
only  exception  to  his  economy  was  caused  by 
his  love  of  building.  He  was  himself  singularly 
industrious.  He  spent  20  hours  out  of  the  24 
in  some  active  bodily  or  mental  employment. 
He  rose  at  four,  and  retired  at  midnight.  Din- 
ner was  the  scene  of  inteUectual  activity,  a 
school  of  wit  and  discussion.  Religious  per- 
secution was  unknown  in  his  dominions;  per- 
fect order  reigned  throughout ;  property  was 
secure ;  speech  and  the  press  were  free.  Lam- 
poons ana  libels  on  himself  he  wholly  disre- 
garded. "  My  people  and  I,"  he  said,  "  under- 
stand each  other.  They  are  to  say  what  they 
like,  and  I  am  to  do  what  I  like.'*  Cheap  and 
speedy  justice  was  administered.    In  commer- 


458 


FREDERICK  (Pbub8ia) 


cial  policy  and  international  law  he  was  in  ad- 
vance of  his  time.  Devoted  as  he  was  to  let- 
ters, he  never  allowed  the  passion  for  litera- 
tnrie  to  divert  him  from  duty.  He  had  no 
knowledge  of  the  force  of  the  German  lan- 
guage, and  spoke  of  it  with  contempt;  yet 
he  never  wrote  French  correctly.  Though 
respectahle  as  a  historian,  and  voluminous  as 
a  versifier,  he  never  learned  to  spell  the  lan- 
guage which  he  idolized.  In  the  year  1772 
was  concerted  the  dismemherment  of  Po- 
land. It  originated  hetween  Frederick  and 
Catharine  of  Russia;  a  most  unwilling  con- 
sent was  wrung  from  Maria  Theresa.  Fred- 
erick took  possession  of  his  share  without  de- 
lay. Later  important  public  acts  of  his  life 
were  his  successful  opposition  in  1778  to  the 
claim  of  the  emperor  Joseph  II.  to  the  Bavarian 
succession;  the  establishment  in  1785  of  the 
so-called  confederation  of  princes  (Fur$ten- 
hund);  and  a  treaty  with  the  United  States 
of  America,  embodying  the  most  elevated 
principles  of  international  rights.  Without 
much  community  of  political  sentiment,  he 
was  friendly  to  the  American  patriots,  and 
gave  evidence  of  his  dislike  of  British  policy 
in  employing  Hessian  troops  beyond  the  At- 
lantic, by  levying  the  same  toll  per  head  upon 
the  recruits  which  passed  through  his  domin- 
ions as  was  charged  upon  ^^  bought  and  sold 
cattle."  Washington  commanded  his  admira- 
tion, and  Mount  Vernon  received  among  its 
treasures  a  Prusaian  sword  of  honor,  forward- 
ed from  Potsdam  with  the  words:  "From  the 
oldest  general  in  the  world  to  the  greatest.'^ 
Frederick  died  after  a  severe  attack  of  drop- 
sy, at  the  age  of  74 ;  he  left  no  children  by  his 
wife,  with  whom  he  never  cohabited,  and  was 
therefore  succeeded  by  a  nephew,  Frederick 
William  II.,  to  whom  he  left  a  sui'plus  of 
$60,000,000,  an  army  of  220,000  men,  a  ter- 
ritory increased  by  nearly  80,000  sq.  m.,  and  an 
industrious,  intelligent,  and  happy  population 
of  6,000,000.  His  collected  works  have  been 
published  by  order  of  the  king  of  Prussia, 
under  the  auspices  of  the  royal  academy  of  sci- 
ences (30  vols.,  Berlin,  1846-^57).  Extensive 
works  on  Frederick  have  been  written  by  Kolb 
and  Preuss.  See  also  Carlyle's  "History  of 
Friedrich  the  Second"  (6  vols.,  London  and 
New  York,  1858-'64)  ;  Friedrich  der  Grosse 
tmd  KatkaHna  IL^  by  Kurd  von  Schl5zer 
(Berlin,  1859) ;  Oeschichte  Friedrich^ s  dea  6rM- 
sen^  by  F.  Kugler  (7th  ed.,  Leipsic,  1870) ;  and 
Friedrich  der  Groue,  by  Droysen  (1st  vol., 
1878). 

FREDEBICK  WILLIAM  IL,  king  of  Prussia, 
bom  Sept.  25,  1744,  died  Nov.  16,  1797.  He 
was  the  grandson  of  Frederick  William  I., 
nephew  of  Frederick  the  Great,  and  son  of  the 
prince  Augustus  William,  who,  having  incurred 
the  resentment  of  his  brother  the  king  by  an 
unsuccessful  retreat  after  the  disastrous  battle 
of  Kolin  (1757),  shortly  after  died.  Frederick 
William,  having  become  heir  presumptive  to 
hia  uncle,  received  from  him  but  rare  marks 


of  cordiality  or  affection,  was  rather  austerely 
educated,  and  often  exposed  to  all  the  dangers 
of  the  war  during  the  last  period  of  the  seven 
years'  struggle.  He  enjoyed  little  freedom  in 
the  second  and  peaceful  half  of  Frederick's 
reign,  was  obliged  to  repudiate  his  first  wife, 
Flizabeth  of  Brunswick,  because  of  ill  conduct, 
and  lived  in  a  circle  of  his  own,  in  which  some 
visionaries  of  the  then  powerfully  organized 
sect  of  illuminati  were  particularly  conspicu- 
ous, who  maintained  their  influence  over  him 
even  after  his  accession  to  the  throne.  This 
took  place  on  Aug.  17, 1786.  Freed  from  long 
restraint,  the  new  king  gave  himself  up  with- 
out moderation  to  his  voluptuous  inclinations. 
Mistresses  and  favorites  reigned  in  the  court 
and  squandered  the  treasures  of  the  state.  He 
sought  to  gain  the  favor  of  the  people  by  osten- 
tatious mildness;  even  the  discipline  of  the 
army  was  relaxed.  The  first  important  act  of 
his  policy  abroad,  which  was  but  slightly  in- 
fluenced by  the  energetic  minister  Herzberg, 
was  to  reinstate  in  power  his  brother-in-law 
the  stadtholder  of  the  Netherlands,  who  had 
been  deposed  by  the  anti-Orange  party.  A 
Prussian  army  under  the  duke  of  Brunswick 
entered  Holland,  occupied  Amsterdam,  and  re- 
stored the  ancient  order  of  things,  which  was 
confirmed  by  a  treaty  concluded  in  1788,  at 
the  Hague,  hy  Prussia,  England,  and  Holland. 
Alarmed  by  the  alliance  of  the  emperor  Joseph 
II.  with  Catharine  II.  of  Bussia,  and  by  the 
successes  of  the  Russians  in  the  war  against 
Turkey,  he  concluded  a  treaty  with  the  latter 
power  guaranteeing  all  its  possessions.  An 
army  was  assembled  in  Silesia,  near  the  Bohe- 
mian frontier.  Before  the  outbreak  of  the 
war,  however,  Frederick  William  wavered,  and 
finally  restored  his  good  understanding  with 
Austria  by  the  treaty  of  Reichenbach  (1790), 
concluded  with  the  successor  of  Joseph,  Leopold 
II.,  who  soon  also  made  peace  with  the  Porte. 
Russia,  however,  was  allowed  to  continue  her 
operations  undisturbed.  Herzberg  resigned. 
The  interview  at  Pilnitz  with  the  emperor 
(1791)  prepared  the  first  coalition  against  the 
French  revolution.  The  hostile  operations  be- 
gan in  the  spring  of  1792.  The  duke  of  Bruns- 
wick entered  France  in  the  summer ;  the  king 
and  the  crown  prince,  the  son  of  his  second 
wife,  Louisa  of  Hesse-Darmstadt,  joined  him 
there.  Want  of  harmony  and  repeated  blun- 
ders on  the  part  of  the  allies,  revolution- 
ary fanaticism  and  the  skill  of  the  command- 
ers, on  the  side  of  the  French,  soon  turned 
the  scale  in  favor  of  the  latter,  compelling 
Frederick  William  to  keep  the  defensive,  and 
finally  to  conclude  the  treaty  of  Basel  (1795) 
with  the  republic,  in  which  he  ceded  his  terri- 
tories beyond  the  Rhine,  contracting  for  future 
indemnities  and  a  kind  of  protectorate  over 
northern  Germany.  His  participation  in  the 
affairs  of  Poland  was  productive  of  more  ad- 
vantageous results.  Having  encouraged  the 
80- called  long  Polish  diet  in  its  efforts  to  regen^ 
erate  the  state  and  to  make  it  independent  of 


FREDERICK  (Pbvssia) 


459 


Riiffiia,  by  a  treaty  in  which  he  gnaranteed  its 
integrity  (1790),  he  afterward,  when  engaged 
in  the  war  with  France,  found  it  more  con- 
venient and  profitable  to  share  the  prey  with 
RosBia  and  Austria.  He  marched  his  army 
into  Poland,  and  actively  promoted  the  second 
and  third  dismemberments  of  the  unhappy  re- 
pablio  (1793-*95).  His  share  was  large,  ex- 
tending to  the  Niemen,  and  including  the  capi- 
tal, Warsaw.  These  wars  and  the  extravagance 
of  the  court  exhausted  the  finances  of  Prussia. 
Intolerant  edicts  and  severe  restrictions  of  the 
press  contributed  to  make  his  reign  unpopular ; 
but  it  was  not  without  merit  in  developing  the 
resources  of  the  state  and  the  welfare  of  the 
people  by  useful  internal  improvements.  The 
judicial  organization  of  Prussia  was  also  great- 
ly promoted  under  Frederick  William.  He 
completed  and  introduced  the  code  of  laws 
prepared  by  Frederick  the  Great. 

FREDERICK  WILUAM  III.,  eldest  son  and 
successor  of  the  preceding,  born  Aug.  3,  1770, 
died  June  7,  1840.  Educated  with  core  by  his 
virtuous  mother,  Louisa  of  Hesse-Darmstadt, 
he  had  ample  opportunity  of  comparing,  at  the 
courts  of  Frederick  the  Great  and  of  his  fa- 
ther, the  opposite  infinence  of  royal  virtues  and 
vices  upon  the  affairs  of  his  state ;  and  he  early 
contracted  the  love  of  order,  discipline,  econo- 
my, and  labor,  which  in  after  time  contributed 
no  little  to  the  prosperity  of  his  people.  He 
accompanied  his  father  to  the  conference  of 
Piinitz,  and  to  the  army  of  the  first  coalition 
against  France,  and  in  1798  married  the  beauti- 
ful and  accomplished  princess  Ix>uisa  of  Meok- 
lenburg-Strelitz,  the  most  popular  queen  of 
Prussia.  After  his  accession  (Nov.  16,  1797) 
the  court  and  the  administration  were  purged 
of  the  creatures  and  abuses  of  the  preceding 
reign.  The  unpopular  edicts  restricting  the 
press  and  the  freedom  of  religious  instruction 
were  abrogated,  and  economy  and  order  re- 
stored. In  bis  jfbreign  policy  the  young  king 
maintained  the  neutrality  imposed  by  the 
treaty  of  Basel,  the  temporary  stipulations  of 
which  were  made  definitive  by  the  treaty  of 
Lun6vil]e  (1801).  For  its  cessions  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Rhine,  Prussia  soon  after  received 
ample  compensations  in  small  territories  de- 
prived of  their  independence  as  members  of  the 
empire  by  decree  of  the  Germanic  diet.  Satis- 
fied with  his  acquisitions  and  political  infinence 
in  the  north  of  Germany,  Frederick  William 
refused  to  join  the  third  coalition  against  France 
which  was  formed  by  England,  Russia,  and  Aus- 
tria. But  when  the  French  armies  had  in- 
fringed the  neutrality  of  the  Prussian  territories, 
he  secretly  allied  himself  with  Alexander  of 
Russia,  during  a  sudden  visit  of  the  latter  at 
Berlin.  Hesitation,  however,  spoiled  the  effect 
of  this  alliance,  and  the  battle  of  Austerlitz  was 
followed  by  a  new  treaty  with  Napoleon  (De- 
cember, 1805).  Ceding  Anspach,  Cleves,  and 
NeufchAtel,  Prussia  received  Hanover  from  the 
conqueror.  The  consequence  of  this  exchange 
was  what  Napoleon  wanted,  a  declaration  of 


war  by  England  against  Prussia.  The  latter 
t^as  also  embroiled  with  Sweden.  Having 
made  peace  with  these  enemies,  Frederick  Wil- 
liam made  peremptory  demands  on  Napoleon 
in  behalf  of  the  neutrality  of  his  state  and  Its 
allies  in  northern  Germany.  Napoleon  an- 
swered with  prompt  hostilities,  and  the  battles 
of  Jena  and  AuerstAdt  were  both  fought  on  Oct. 
14,  1806.  The  powerful  Prussian  army  was 
broken,  Berlin  was  occupied  by  the  enemy,  and 
the  fortresses  surrendered  at  the  first  summons. 
The  aid  of  Alexander  was  of  little  avail.  After 
a  winter  campaign  in  Prussian  Poland  and  the 
indecisive  battles  of  Pultusk  (Dec.  26)  and 
Eylau  (Feb.  7-8,  1807),  Napoleon  conquered 
peace  by  the  battle  of  Friedland,  won  on  the 
anniversary  of  Marengo  (June  14).  The  treaty 
of  Tilsit  (July)  sacrificed  one  half  of  Prussia, 
parts  of  which  were  transformed  into  the  duchy 
of  Warsaw,  and  others  attached  to  tlie  kingdom  « 
of  Westphalia.  The  other  half  remained  for 
years  in  the  hands  of  the  conqueror,  and  was 
treated  as  a  subdued  province.  The  treaty 
further  provided  for  the  reduction  of  the  Prus- 
sian army  to  40,000  men,  and  the  payment  of 
an  indemnity  of  146,000,000  francs  to  France. 
French  troops  were  to  occupy  Berlin  and  other 
important  Prussian  fortresses  till  the  payment 
of  the  debt.  The  king,  who  paid  a  visit  with 
the  queen  to  Alexander,  could  not  return  to  his 
capital  before  1809.  But  this  gloomy  period 
became  one  of  the  most  successful  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  state,  by  a  series  of  salutary  and 
energetic  reforms,  undertaken  and  executed 
particularly  under  the  celebrated  ministers 
Stein  and  Hardenberg.  Serfdom  was  abolished, 
the  towns  obtained  some  independence  in  the 
management  of  their  affairs,  the  royal  domains 
were  sold,  convents  and  ecclesiastical  founda- 
tions were  converted  into  state  property,  pub- 
lic instruction  was  organized,  and  the  new 
university  of  Berlin  founded.  The  new  system 
of  military  organization  of  Prussia  had  also  its 
origin  in  that  period.  In  July,  1810,  the  king 
lost  his  wife.  In  1812  he  was  compelled  to 
aid  Napoleon  with  an  army  against  Russia< 
Forming  the  left  of  the  great  French  army  of 
invasion,  it  was  saved  on  the  retreat  by  a  spc" 
cial  arrangement  between  its  commander,  York, 
and  Diebitsch.  Frederick  in  January,  1813, 
transferred  his  residence  to  Breslau,  where  he 
was  visited  in  March  by  the  emperor  Alexan- 
der, and  the  treaty  of  Kalisz,  which  had  been 
concluded  the  preceding  month  between  Rus- 
sia and  Prussia,  was  made  public.  He  now 
issued  a  proclamation,  which  was  answered  by 
a  general  rising  of  the  nation  against  France. 
The  capital  alone  is  said  to  have  contributed 
10,000  men.  Prudent  measures  had  been 
adopted  in  secret  to  prepare  for  the  struggle. 
The  young  men,  meeting  privately,  had  been 
drilled  in  &e  use  of  arms  in  small  detachments. 
Thus  the  power  of  the  people  answered  to  their 
will.  The  militia  having  been  summoned,  war 
against  France  was  declared  on  March  1 7.  The 
situation  had  its  dangers.     The  French  still 


460 


FREDEBIGE  (Pbussia) 


held  the  fortresses  of  Prussia  and  Poland ;  their 
annj  in  the  dominions  of  the  king  still  amount- 
ed to  60,000.  But  Napoleon^s  hour  of  success 
had  passed.  The  continual  desertion  of  his 
allies  served  to  strengthen  the  phalanx  of  the 
coalition  after  every  defeat  of  his  armies.  His 
enormous  new  levies  were  not  sufficient  to  cov- 
er the  extraordinary  losses,  and  to  face  so  many 
enemies.  The  Prussians  fought  hravely  in  vari- 
ons  engagements  in  1813  and  1814  (see  Bht- 
oheb),  and  the  king  often  gave  proofs  of  per- 
sonal activity  and  courage.  He  entered  Paris 
with  his  allies,  accompanied  Alexander  on  his 
visit  to  England,  made  a  triumphal  entry  into 
his  capital  in  August,  1814,  and  repaired  to  the 
congress  of  Vienna.  The  stipulations  of  this 
congress  conferred  on  Prussia  greater  power 
than  it  possessed  hefore  the  wars,  enlarging  it 
particularly  with  parts  of  Saxony,  one  of  the 

•  last  allies  of  Napoleon.  The  sudden  return  of 
the  captive  of  Elba  called  the  Prussians  again 
to  arms,  and  BlUcher,  after  his  previous  de- 
feat, appeared  at  Waterloo  in  time  to  finish 
the  great  struggle.    The  last  26  years  of  the 

,  reign  of  Frederick  William  fonn  a  period  of 
undisturbed  peace  and  prosperity  for  Prussia. 
Closely  allied  with  the  czar  Alexander,  and 
afterward  with  Nicholas,  the  king  pursued  a 
policy  of  strict  conservatism.  Much  was  done 
for  internal  improvements,  little  for  political 
reform.  He,  however,  formed  the  great  Ger- 
man commercial  league,  the  ZoUverein.  Revo- 
lutionary agitations,  wherever  they  manifested 
themselves,  were  suppressed  with  severity. 
The  last  years  of  his  reign  were  agitated  by 
a  strife  with  the  Roman  Catholic  clergy.  The 
eldest  of  his  four  sons  succeeded  him.  One 
of  his  daughters  was  married  to  the  emperor 
Nicholas.  In  1824  he  had  formed  a  morgan- 
atic marriage  with  the  countess  Augusta  of 
Harrach,  whom  he  made  princess  of  Liegnitz. 
8he  died  in  Hamburg,  June  6,  1873,  aged  72. 

FREDEBICIL  WILLIAM  IV.^  son  and  successor 
of  the  preceding,  bom  Oct.  15,  1795,  died  at 
the  ch&teau  of  Sans  Souci,  near  Potsdam,  Jan. 
2, 1861.  He  received  a  careful  scientific  educa- 
tion, though  his  boyhood  was  passed  in  the 
most  disastrous  period  of  Prussian  history,  and 
his  youth  in  that  of  the  great  struggle  against 
Napoleon.  He  was  often  present  on  the  scene 
of  action  during  the  last  campaign  against  that 
emperor,  became  familiarly  acquainted  with 
many  distinguished  men  of  his  age,  and  de- 
veloped his  taste  for  the  fine  arts  while  re- 
siding in  Paris  after  its  occupation  by  the 
allies,  and  on  a  journey  to  Italy  in  1828.  Ad- 
mitted to  the  councils  of  his  father,  he  evinced 
a  marked  independence  of  opinion  with  much 
administrative  ability.  As  military  governor 
of  Pomerania,  his  affability  gained  him  gene- 
ral popularity.  He  succeeded  to  the  throne 
June  7,  1840.  His  first  solemn  declaration  at 
Kdnigsberg,  a  limited  political  amnesty,  the 
reinstating  of  Arndt,  the  old  liberal  poet, 
the  reappomtment  to  office  of  the  popular 
lieutenant  general  Yon  Boyen,  and  the  con- 


ciliatory termination  of  a  difficulty  between 
the  state  and  the  Roman  Catholic  clergy, 
were  hailed  with  applause;  but  the  appoint- 
ment to  office  of  Hassenpfiug  and  Eichhom, 
and  various  other  conservative  measures,  soon 
destroyed  the  hopes  of  the  liberal  part  of  the 
nation.  The  development  given  to  the  repre- 
sentation by  provincial  estates,  which  had  been 
introduced  under  the  preceding  reign,  by  the 
convocation  of  their  standing  committees  in 
1842,  and  by  the  convocation  of  the  united 
provincial  estates  of  the  kingdom  in  February, 
1847,  was  made  less  significant  by  the  distinct 
declaration  of  the  king  tbat  the  representative?, 
far  from  becoming  legislators,  would  be  allowed 
only  to  give  advice  to  the  unlimited  sovereign, 
and  that  he  would  never  consent  to  bind  ^hii 
inherited  authority  by  a  written  compact. 
Periodical  meetings  of  the  united  assembly 
were  asked  for  in  vain.  The  government, 
though  granting  general  toleration,  declared 
against  the  separation  of  the  cburch  from  the 
state  and  the  emancipation  of  tiie  Jews,  and 
avowedly  sought  to  rule  the  kingdom  in  con- 
formity with  the  views  of  the  school  generally 
known  as  pietists.  Much  more  was  done  for 
the  material  interests  of  the  state  through  in- 
ternal improvements,  commercial  union  with 
foreign  states,  and  the  extension  of  the  ZoU- 
verein, which  also  augmented  the  political  in- 
fluence of  Prussia.  A  bank  with  a  capital 
of  10,000,000  thalers  was  established  at  Ber- 
lin. The  Polish  conspiracy  of  1846,  which 
threatened  the  eastern  possessions  of  the  king, 
was  detected  in  time  in  the  duchy  of  Posen ; 
the  outbreak  in  the  same  province  was  easily 
suppressed ;  the  insurgents  of  Cracow,  w^ho 
laid  down  their  amas  on  Prussian  territory, 
were  treated  with  rigor.  The  people  were 
already  politically  agitated  by  the  lively  dis- 
cussions of  the  diet  (from  April  11  to  June 
26,  1847),  and  of  its  standing  committees,  as- 
sembled Jan.  18,  1848,  and  also  by  the  trial 
of  the  insurrectionists  of  Posen,  and  of  Miero- 
slawski,  the  destined  leader  of  the  Polish  move^ 
ment,  as  well  as  by  the  victory  of  the  liberals  in 
Switzerland  over  the  Sender  bund,  the  constitu- 
tional movements  in  Italy,  and  the  revolution 
in  Sicily,  when  the  news  of  the  French  revolu- 
tion of  Feb.  24  involved  the  whole  of  Germany 
in  a  flame.  The  popular  movement  was  victo- 
rious all  over  the  southwest  and  south  of  the 
confederation,  before  Frederick  William  waa 
forced  to  yield  to  it.  Even  after  the  fall  of 
Metternich  in  Vienna  (March  13),  he  was  deter- 
mined to  maintain  his  royal  authority,  and  to 
grant  liberties  only  as  free  gifts.  Threatening 
popular  gatherings  in  Berlin  were  dispersed  by 
his  soldiery  before  he  proclaimed  the  freedom 
of  the  press  and  the  promise  of  a  change  in 
the  form  of  government.  These  concessions 
were  received  with  enthusiasm,  but  the  people 
still  demanded  the  removal  of  the  troops  from 
the  capital,  and  for  this  purpose  a  deputation 
of  citizens  visited  the  palace  (March  18),  whUe 
a  crowd  assembled  before  it.    The  deputation 


FREDERICK  (Prussia) 


461 


was  refused  admittance,  and  soldiers  advanced 
from  the  court  of  the  palace  to  clear  the  place. 
Some  shots  were  fired,  and  the  people  dispersed 
in  every  direction  with  cries  of  "Treason I 
they  are  murdering  us !  revenge !  ^'  Hundreds 
of  barricades  were  erected  in  a  few  hours,  the 
arsenal  was  stormed,  and  a  furious  tight  ensued, 
which  raged  till  the  morning  of  the  next  day, 
when  the  king  commanded  the  retreat  of  the 
troops  and  their  removal  from  the  city.  The 
corpses  of  the  fallen  combatants  were  carried 
ii^to  the  courtyard  of  the  palace,  and  the  king 
was  compelled  to  appear  before  them  with  un- 
covered head ;  the  palace  of  his  then  very  un- 
popular brother  William,  prince  of  Prussia,  was 
declared  national  property.  The  ministry  was 
dismissed,  a  civic  guard  organized,  and  a  general 
amnesty  granted.  M ieroslawski,  who  had  been 
sentenced  to  death,  was  carried  in  triumph 
through  the  streets  of  Berlin,  and  250  of  his  as- 
sociates left  the  prison  with  him,  and  hastened  to 
Posen  to  commence  the  restoration  of  Poland, 
the  new  ministry  promising  its  assistance.  The 
king  now  openly  and  ostentatiously  declared 
his  purpose  to  take  the  lead  in  Germany ;  the 
diet  was  again  assembled  (April  2),  to  elaborate 
a  new  election  law.  It  was  dissolved  after 
the  passage  of  that  law  on  April  5,  and  a  con- 
stituent assembly  was  convened  in  Berlin  (May 
22),  while  the  delegates  of  Prussia  also  appear- 
ed in  the  national  German  parliament  which 
in  Frankfort  had  superseded  the  diet  of  the 
princes  (Bundestag).  Prussian  troops  were 
sent  to  Schleswig-Uolstein  to  assist  the  Ger- 
man inhabitants  in  their  revolt  against  the 
king  of  Denmark.  In  Posen,  however,  where 
the  Poles  had  risen  in  a  bloody  insurrection, 
the  troops  restored  order  after  furious  contests 
with  the  half-armed  bands  under  Mieroslawski 
(April  and  May).  This  was  the  first  reaction- 
ary victory.  Others  followed.  While  the  rev- 
olution was  losing  its  time  in  endless  speech- 
making,  framing  of  constitutions,  and  scheming 
on  the  reorganization  of  Germany  as  a  united 
empire,  in  the  assemblies  of  Frankfort,  Berlin, 
Vienna,  and  elsewhere,  the  governments,  which 
had  maintained  their  armies,  paved  the  way 
for  a  complete  restoration  of  their  power  by 
mutual  understanding,  skilful  counter-revolu- 
tionary manoeuvres,  continually  changing  min- 
istries, and  varying  programmes.  Emboldened 
by  the  fidelity  of  the  army  and  the  growing 
desire  for  order  among  the  wealthier  classes, 
by  the  reaction  in  France,  and  the  successes 
of  the  Austrian  government  in  Prague,  Lom- 
bardy,  and  Vienna,  Frederick  William  pro- 
rogued the  Prussian  constituent  assembly, 
transferring  it  to  the  town  of  Brandenburg, 
closed  its  sessions  by  an  armed  force  under 
Wrangel  (November),  and  finally  dissolved  it 
shortly  after  its  reassembling  in  Brandenburg 
(Dec.  6),  promulgating  a  liberal  constitution 
of  his  own.  The  new  elections  took  place  ac- 
cording to  the  king^s  constitution,  and  the  two 
chambers  were  convened  in  Berlin  (Feb.  26, 
1849),  which  remained  in  a  state  of  siege.    Of 


these  the  lower  house  was  still  too  revolution- 
ary, and  both  were  dissolved  (Apnl  27).  In 
the  mean  time  the  king  had  not  only  abandoned 
the  cause  of  Schleswig-Holstein  by  the  armis- 
tice of  Malmd,  but  had  also  declined  the  heredi- 
tary imperial  crown  of  Germany  offered  him 
(March  28)  by  the  Frankfort  parliament.  The 
Prussian  army  suppressed  the  revolution  in 
Dresden,  after  a  bloody  struggle  of  three  days 
(May),  and  in  the  Palatinate  and  Baden  (June), 
while  it  was  hardly  more  than  a  spectator  in 
the  renewed  struggle  in  Schleswig-Holstein. 
A  confederation  of  Prussia  with  Saxony  and 
Hanover  (Breikonigibund),  and  some  minor 
northern  states,  formed  March  26,  was  hailed 
by  the  so-called  party  of  Gotha  (Gagern,  Dahl- 
mann,  &c.)  as  the  last  hope  for  a  union  of  Ger- 
many. It  ended  in  failure.  Opposed  by  Aus- 
tria and  its  southern  allies,  it  was  given  up  by 
Saxony,  Hanover,  and  others;  its  parliament 
of  Erfurt  assembled  in  vain  (March  20,  1850). 
Frederick  William,  who  had  convoked  a  new 
Prussian  assembly  and  confirmed  a  new  con- 
stitution with  his  royal  oath  (Feb.  6),  followed 
for  some  time  a  more  popular  course  in  the 
affairs  of  Hesse-Cassel  (October),  but  soon 
yielded  to  the  threats  of  Austria  and  her  allies 
(November).  Order  was  restored  in  Hesse  and 
in  Schleswig-Holstein,  and  the  ancient  Ger- 
manic diet  was  once  more  established  in  Frank- 
fort. The  revolution  was  over.  Chevalier 
Bunsen,  who  had  lost  his  former  liberal  influ- 
ence over  the  king,  was  obliged  to  sign  the 
protocol  of  London  in  the  Danish  question 
(1852),  which  sealed  Prussia's  final  surrender 
to  the  general  reaction.  Only  Neufch&tel 
remained  with  Switzerland  as  a  conquest  of 
the  revolutionary  movement,  and  after  some 
threats  of  war  in  1857  it  was  ceded  to  that  re- 
public. The  policy  of  the  government  was 
peaceful,  and  Prussia  took  no  part  in  the  Cri- 
mean war,  though  it  participated  in  the  peace 
of  Paris  (1856).  The  constitution  was  modified 
and  remodified ;  the  revolutionary  members  of 
the  assembly  of  1848,  Jacoby  and  others,  were 
persecuted ;  the  nobility  (die  Junker)  and  the 
pietists  received  new  influence;  the  freedom 
of  the  press  and  of  religion  was  circumscribed. 
In  1857  the  king  was  seized  by  a  malady  con- 
nected with  temporary  insanity,  which  com- 
pelled him  (Oct.  23,  1858)  to  give  up  the  per- 
sonal management  of  affairs,  and  travel  in  Italy 
and  the  Tyrol  for  his  health.  His  marriage 
with  Elizabeth,  princess  of  Bavaria,  being 
without  issue,  his  brother  William  (present 
emperor  of  Germany)  became  regent,  and  suc- 
ceeded to  the  throne  in  January,  1861. 

FREDERICK  CHARLES  NICHOLAS,  prince  of 
Prussia,  a  German  general,  bom  in  Berlin^ 
March  20,  1828.  He  is  the  only  son  of  Prince 
Charles,  younger  brother  of  the  emperor  Wil- 
liam. He  studied  at  Bonn,  where  Yon  Boon, 
the  future  minister  of  war,  was  his  intimate 
companion.  He  took  part  in  the  Schleswig- 
Holstein  war  of  1848,  and  acquired  a  high  re[»- 
utation  by  his  thorough  knowledge  of  military 


462 


FREDERICK  (Pbubsia) 


FREDERICK  (Saxony) 


science.  During  the  Franco-Italian  war  against 
Austria  (1859)  he  applied  himself  particularly 
to  the  study  of  the  organization  of  the  French 
army.  His  MilitdrUche  Denkschrift  was  puh- 
lished  in  1860  without  his  knowledge,  showing 
how  the  Prussians  could  beat  the  French ;  and 
his  comments  elicited  replies  from  French  wri- 
ters and  attracted  general  attention  in  military 
circles.  He  greatly  distinguished  himself  in 
the  Schleswig-Holstein  war  of  1864;  in  the 
war  against  Austria  in  1866 ;  and  most  con- 
spicuously as  commander  of  the  second  army 
in  the  Franco-German  war  of  1870-71,  com- 
pelling the  surrender  of  Metz,  Oct.  27,  for 
which  he  was  made  general  field  marshal. 
His  next  yictories  were  achieved  over  the 
army  of  the  Loire,  and  he  entered  the  city 
of  Orleans  Dec.  5,  repeatedly  defeated  Gen. 
Chanzy,  and  captured  Le  Mans,  Jan.  12.  He 
is  represented  in  the  war  songs  of  the  period 
as  an  iron  prince,  a  valiant  soldier,  a  bold  ar- 
tillery officer,  a  gay  sportsman,  and  a  man 
whose  word  can  be  depended  upon. 

FREDERICK  WlLLIiJf  NICHOLAS  CHARLES, 
a  German  general,  crown  prince  of  Prussia 
and  of  the  German  empire,  bom  in  the  new 
royal  palace  near  Potsdam,  Oct.  18, 1881.  He 
received  a  thorough  scientific  education  and 
the  doctor^s  diploma  from  the  university  of  Kd- 
nigsberg,  of  which  he  is  rector.  On  Jan.  25, 
1858,  he  married  Victoria  Adelaide,  princess 
royal  of  Great  Britain,  who  has  borne  him  six 
children,  the  eldest  of  whom.  Prince  Frederick 
William  Victor  Albert,  was  bom  in  Berlin, 
Jan.  27,  1859.  In  1866  he  was  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  second  Prussian  army,  and  essen- 
tially contributed  to  the  decisive  victory  of 
Sadowa  by  his  timely  appearance  at  Chlum. 
In  the  Franco-German  war  of  1870-'71  he  was 
at  the  head  of  the  South  German  forces  as 
commander-in-chief  of  the  third  army.  The 
first  victory  of  the  war,  that  of  Weissenburg 
(Aug.  4),  and  the  greater  one  over  MacMahon 
at  Worth  (Aug.  6),  were  achieved  under  his 
generalship ;  he  took  an  equally  brilliant  part, 
together  with  the  crown  prince  (now  king)  Al- 
bert of  Saxony,  in  the  great  triumphs  culmina- 
ting in  Napoleon's  surrender  with  his  army  at 
Sedan,  Sept.  2 ;  won  additional  laurels  during 
the  siege  of  Paris,  and  was  made  general  field 
marshal  Oct.  28,  although  it  had  not  been  cus- 
tomary for  royal  princes  to  receive  that  title. 

VIII.  BAXONT. 

FREDERICK  TIL,  surnamed  the  Wise,  elector 
of  Saxony,  bora  in  Torgau,  Jan.  17,  1463,  died 
May  5, 1525.  He  succeeded  his  father  Ernest 
in  1486,  in  a  part  of  his  possessions,  govern- 
ing the  rest  in  common  with  his  brother  John 
the  Constant,  who  became  his  successor.  He 
founded  the  university  of  Wittenberg,  and, 
though  not  an  avowed  adherent  of  the  refor- 
mation, greatly  promoted  it  by  his  protection, 
procuring  safety  for  Luther  during  the  diet  of 
Worms  (1521),  and  subsequently  sheltering  him 
in  the  castle  of  Wartburg.    After  the  death  of 


Maximilian  I.  (1519)  he  declined  the  crown  of 
Germany,  which  was  conferred,  according  to 
his  advice,  upon  Charles  V.  The  peasants^ 
war  embittered  the  last  days  of  his  life. 

FREDERICK  ACGCSTIJS  L,  firat  king  of  Sax- 
ony, eldest  son  of  the  elector  Frederick  Chris- 
tian, born  Dec.  23,  1760,  died  May  6,  1827. 
He  succeeded  his  fatlier  in  December,  1763, 
under  tlie  tutelage  of  Prince  Xavier,  wa«  de- 
clared of  age  Sept.  15, 1768,  and  in  the  follow- 
ing year  married  Maria  Amalia,  princess  of 
Zweibrtcken.  The  only  fruit  of  this  marriage 
was  a  daughter,  the  princess  Augusta.  He 
abolished  the  heavy  taxes  on  foreign  merchan- 
dise, consolidated  the  several  departments  for 
the  management  of  the  finances,  encouraged 
industry,  and  improved  navigation  with  canals 
and  sluices.  Paper  money  soon  rose  above 
par.  He  abolished  torture  and  the  farming  of 
judicial  offices,  and  reorganized  the  court  of 
appeals.  The  claims  of  his  mother  to  the  pos- 
sessions of  her  deceased  brother,  the  elector 
Maximilian  Joseph  of  Bavaria,  induced  him  to 
ally  himself  with  Frederick  the  Great  against 
Austria  in  the  short  war  of  the  Bavarian  suc- 
cession. Subsequently  he  joined  the  league  of 
princes  (Fur§tenhund)  formed  under  tlie  pro- 
tectorate of  the  Prussian  monarch.  In  1791 
he  declined  the  succession  to  the  tlirone  of 
Poland,  oifered  him  in  the  name  of  that  coun- 
try by  Prince  Adam  Casimir  Czartoryski,  He 
also  rejected  the  overtures  of  a  conference  of 
the  emperors  Leopold  II.  and  Frederick  "Wil- 
liam II.  of  Prussia,  held  at  Pilnitz  (1791),  to 
join  as  an  independent  sovereign  the  first  coa- 
lition against  the  French  revolution,  though 
he  did  not  withhold  his  contingent  as  a  mem- 
ber of  the  German  empire  when  the  war  had 
been  declared.  In  1796  he  took  ])art  in  tlio 
treaty  of  peace  and  neutrality  concluded  witli 
the  French  republic  by  the  district  of  Upper 
Saxony.  He  maintained  his  neutrality  during 
the  war  of  1805,  but  in  the  following  year 
joined  Prussia  in  the  unhappy  contest  decided 
by  the  battle  of  Jena.  Saxony,  which  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  French  conqueror,  was  severe- 
ly punished,  and  Frederick  Augustus  was  com- 
pelled to  ally  himself  with  Napoleon.  He 
assumed  the  title  of  king,  and  joined  the  Rhe- 
nish confederation.  For  the  cession  of  several 
districts  of  western  Saxony  annexed  to  tlie 
new  kingdom  of  Westphalia  he  was  scantily 
compensated  by  a  part  of  Lusatia,  and  after 
the  peace  of  Tilsit  (1807)  more  liberally  by  the 
duchy  of  Warsaw.  He  was  a  faithful  vassal  of 
the  French  emperor  during  the  wars  of  1809 
against  Austria  and  1812  against  Russia,  and 
in  1813,  when  Saxony  became  the  chief  scene 
of  the  confiict.  Having  personally  joined  Na- 
poleon shortly  before  the  battle  of  LeipsiC',  he 
was  declared  after  its  bloody  issue  a  prisoner 
of  war  by  the  emperor  Alexander,  was  sent  to 
Berlin,  and  afterward  to  the  castle  of  Fried- 
richsfeld,  but  was  allowed  to  reside  at  Presburg 
during  the  deliberations  of  the  congress  of 
Vienna.    That  congress  restored  to  him  half 


FREDERICK  (WfhsTBMBEBG) 


FREDERICKSBURG 


463 


of  his  Grerman  posaessions,  the  other  half  heing 
annexed  to  Prussia ;  the  duchy  of  Warsaw  was 
made  a  dependence  of  Russia  as  the  kingdom 
of  Poland.  Returning  to  his  capital  in  June, 
1815,  Frederick  Augustus  spent  the  last  12 
years  of  bis  life  in  healing  the  wounds  of  his 
diminished  country  by  promoting  its  agricultu- 
ral, commercial,  and  mining  interests,  by  es- 
tablishing or  developing  institutions  of  art  and 
science,  and  particularly  by  a  strict  adminis- 
tration of  justice.  His  subjects  bestowed  upon 
him  the  surname  of  the  Just.  His  brother 
Antliony  succeeded  him. 

FREDERICK  AUGUSTUS  II.,  king  of  Saxony, 
bom  May  18,  179T,  died  Aug.  9,  1864.  He 
was  the  eldest  son  of  Maximilian,  brother  of 
the  kings  Frederick  Augustus  I.  and  Anthony. 
Having  lost  his  mother,  Cai*olina  Maria  The- 
resa, princess  of  Parma,  at  the  age  of  seven, 
he  was  educated  principally  under  the  care 
of  Forell,  a  distinguished  Swiss,  and  of  Gen. 
Watzdorf.  Though  often  compelled  to  leave 
the  capital  of  his  uncle  during  the  later  cam- 
paigns of  Napoleon  in  Germany,  and  frequently 
to  change  his  abode,  he  eagerly  pursued  his 
studies,  which  included  political  economy,  law, 
and  military  science ;  but  botany  became  hia 
favorite  pursuit  When,  in  September,  1830, 
Dresden  became  a  scene  of  political  commo- 
tions, Frederick  Augustus  was  placed  by  the 
old  king  Anthony  at  the  head  of  the  commit- 
tee for  public  tranquillity.  As  the  prince  was 
very  popular,  this  measure  greatly  contributed 
to  quiet  the  agitation.  On  June  6,  1836,  Fred- 
erick Augustus  succeeded  to  the  throne.  As 
he  was  but  partially  occupied  with  political  ^- 
fairs^  he  made  botanical  tours  and  journeys  to 
Istria,  Dalmatia,  and  Montenegro  (1838),  to 
England  and  Belgium  (1844),  to  Vienna  and 
Hungary  (1845),  and  to  the  Tyrol  (1846).  The 
movements  of  1848,  beginning  in  Saxony,  as 
everywhere  else  in  Germany,  with  great  en- 
thusiasm for  Kberty  and  German  union,  were 
foUowed  in  May,  1849,  by  a  revolutionary  out- 
break in  Dresden.  This  having  been  sup- 
pressed through  the  intervention  of  Prussia, 
things  soon  returned  to  their  ancient  order, 
and  the  reactionary  movement  continued  to 
the  death  of  the  king,  which  was  occasioned 
by  a  fall  from  his  carriage  on  a  new  tour  in 
the  Tyrol.  He  was  twice  married,  first  to 
Carolina,  daughter  of  the  emperor  Francis, 
and,  after  her  death  in  1832,  to  Maria,  daugh- 
ter of  Maximilian  I.  of  Bavaria.  Both  mar- 
riages being  without  issue,  he  was  succeeded 
by  his  brother  John. 

IX.  WitBTEMBEBO. 

FREDiSIClL  I.  (Wllhcte  Kari),  first  king  of 
Wtkrtemberg,  son  of  the  duke  Frederick  Eugene, 
bom  at  Treptow,  Pomerania,  Nov.  6,  1754, 
died  Oct  80,  1816.  He  received  his  first  in- 
struction from  his  accomplished  mother,  a 
princess  of  Brandenburg-Schwedt,  and  com- 
pleted his  education  at  Lausanne,  after  the 
French  £Eishion  of  that  period,  served  in  the 
837  VOL.  vn.— 80 


bloodless  war  of  the  Bavarian  succession,  ac- 
companied his  brother-in-law,  the  future  Rus- 
sian emperor  Paul,  on  a  journey  to  Italy  in 
1782,  was  made  governor  general  of  Russian 
Finland,  and  after  having  left  it  in  1787  lived 
for  some  time  in  retirement.  In  1790  he  was 
a  spectator  of  the  sessions  of  the  French  na- 
tional assembly;  in  1796  he  fought  against  the 
French  on  the  Rhine,  and  in  the  following 
year  he  succeeded  his  father  on  the  ducal 
throne.  He  shared  in  tlie  war  of  1799,  re- 
ceived by  the  treaty  of  Lun^ville  ample  in- 
demnity for  territories  lost  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Rhine,  and  was  allowed  to  assume  the 
electoral  dignity.  In  1806  he  made  an  alliance 
with  Napoleon,  joined  the  Rhenish  confedera- 
tion, and  received  from  its  protector  the  title 
of  king.  He  deserted  Napoleon  after  his  dis- 
asters. The  treaty  of  Vienna  left  him  in  pos- 
session of  his  kingdom.  To  conciliate  his  peo- 
ple after  ten  years  of  despotic  sway,  he  gave 
them  a  charter,  which  was  rejected  by  the  es- 
tates. A  new  constitution  was  drawn  up,  but 
he  died  before  it  could  be  discussed.  His  first 
wife  was  a  princess  of  Brunswick- Wolfenbtlt- 
tel,  who  bore  him  two  sons,  William,  his  suc- 
cessor, and  Paul,  and  a  daughter,  Catharine, 
afterward  princess  of  Montfort.  His  second 
wife  was  the  princess  Charlotte  Augusta  MatU- 
da  of  England,  who  died  in  1828. 

FREDERICKSBURG,  a  city  of  Spottsylvania  co., 
Virginia,  pleasantly  situated  in  a  fertile  valley 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Rappahannock  river, 
at  the  head  of  tide  water,  about  60  m.  N.  of 
Richmond,  and  110  m.  above  Chesapeake  bay ; 
pop.  in  1870,  4,046,  of  whom  1,331  were  col- 
ored. The  Rappahannock,  besides  supplying 
it  with  good  water,  which  is  distributed'  in 
pipes,  is  vahiable  for  its  motive  power,  avail- 
able at  the  falls  just  above.  A  canal  extending 
to  a  point  40  m.  further  up  the  stream  affords 
means  of  transportation  for  the  products  of  a 
rich  farming  country,  and  the  Richmond,  Fred- 
ericksburg, and  Potomac  railroad  connects  the 
city  with  the  state  and  federal  capitals.  Mar- 
ble and  freestone  abound  in  the  vicinity.  The 
city  has  considerable  trade  in  grain,  flour,  to- 
bacco, &c.,  and  contains  a  national  bank,  an 
orphan  asylum,  four  semi- weekly  newspapers, 
six  public  schools,  and  Baptist,  Episcopal,  Meth- 
odist, and  Presbyterian  churches.  Just  be- 
yond the  limits  of  the  city  an  unfinished  monu- 
ment, begun  in  1838,  marks  the  tomb  of  the 
mother  of  Washington,  who  died  here  in  1789. 

FREDERICRSBrRG,  Battle  of,  fought  Dec.  13, 
1862,  between  the  Union  forces  under  Gen. 
Burnside  and  the  confederates  under  Gen. 
Lee.  After  the  battle  of  Antietam  (Sept.  16 
and  17,  1862),  the  Union  army,  under  Gen. 
McClellan,  made  no  forward  movement  until 
late  in  October,  when  it  began  to  cross  the 
Potomac.  The  confederates  meanwhile  moved 
up  the  valley  of  the  Shenandoah  and  into 
that  of  the  Rappahannock.  By  Nov.  7  the 
two  armies  were  within  striking  distance,  the 


464 


FREDERICKSBURG 


federals  being  concentrated  near  Warrenton, 
and  the  balk  of  the  confederates  near  Gul- 
peper,  20  m.  S.,  the  remainder  being  three 
days  distant.  The  Union  force  was  about  120,- 
000,  that  of  the  confederates  about  70,000. 
McClellan  appears  to  have  been  disposed  to 
attack  the  enemy ;  but  the  resolution  came  too 
late.  On  Nov.  7  he  was  removed  from  the 
command,  which  was  given  to  Burnside,  much 
against  his  wish.  The  capture  of  Richmond 
being  considered  the  main  object  of  the  cam- 
paign, McClellan  had  proposed  to  make  Alex- 
andria his  base  of  supply,  and  to  move  by  the 
circuitous  lines  of  railway.  He  indeed  stilf 
preferred  his  former  line  of  movement,  making 
^¥e8t  Point  his  base ;  but  as  this  plan  would 
have  again  uncovered  Washington,  he  forbore 


MMMCNTON.       y 
©  FA 


•CALC  or 

0  M 

I         I 


Bfatfram  iUnstntlng  the  advantaffes  In  point  of  distance  of 
uie  three  proposed  routes  to  Richmond :  that  of  McClel- 
lan in  the  spring  of  1862,  from  West  Point;  that  of 
McClellan,  abandoned  by  Burnside,  from  Alexandria,  by 
way  of  Culpeper  and  G«»rdonsTiIle ;  and  that  proposed  by 
Burnside,  alrect  from  Fredericksbuif^. 

to  urge  it.  Burnside  proposed  a  plan  between 
the  two,  making  Acquia  Creek,  near  Fredericks- 
burg, his  base,  and  moving  upon  Richmond  by 
the  line  of  the  Fredericksburg  railroad.  If  it 
was  to  be  assumed  that  the  capture  of  Rich- 
mond, and  not  the  destruction  of  the  confeder- 
ate army,  was  the  immediate  object,  and  also 
that  the  Union  army  must  always  be  interposed 
between  the  confederates  and  Washington, 
then  Bumside's  plan  was  undoubtedly  the  best 
of  the  three.  The  president,  who  clearly  per- 
ceived that  the  defeat  of  Lee's  army  was  the 
main  thing  to  be  aimed  at,  gave  a  somewhat 
reluctant  assent  t^  Burnside's  plan.  He  said : 
"  I  think  it  will  succeed  if  you  move  rapidly ; 
otherwise  not."  But  the  movement  was  not 
rapidly  made.    It  was  not  fairly  commenced 


until  Nov.  16,  by  which  time  Lee  had  con- 
centrated his  whole  army.  The  army  of  the 
Potomac  had  been  organized  into  three  grand 
divisions ;  the  right  under  Sumner,  the  centre 
under  Hooker,  the  left  under  Franklin.  Sum- 
ner reached  Falmouth,  opposite  Fredericks- 
burg, on  the  17th.  The  intention  was  to  cro8s 
the  Rappahannock  and  seize  the  heights  of 
Fredericksburg;  but  the  pontoons  had  not 
been  provided,  and  the  army  could  not  cross 
in  force.  So  a  fortnight  passed,  and  Lee  bad 
come  up  and  occupied  the  heights.  On  pure- 
ly military  considerations  no  further  attempt 
would  now  have  been  made  by  Burnside ;  but 
public  opinion  demanded  an  onward  move- 
ment. The  Rappahannock,  with  a  general 
course  from  N.  W.  to  8.  E.,  makes  a  sharp 
bend  southward  a  mile  above  Fredericksburg, 
and  for  some  distance  runs  between  heights  on 
either  side.  Those  on  the  east  fall  steeply 
down  to  the  river  bank ;  on  the  west  the  hills 
in  the  rear  of  the  town  rise  about  a  mile  from 
the  river,  and  then  trend  away  until  they  sink 
into  the  vdley  of  the  Massaponax,  6  m.  below, 
leaving  an  irregular  plain  about  two  miles 
wide  in  its  broadest  part.  Westward  the  hills 
rise  by  a  succession  of  low  wooded  ridges  until 
they  are  lost  in  the  region  known  as  tiie  Wil- 
derness. On  the  crests  of  these  ridges  lay  half 
of  Lee's  army,  under  Longstreet ;  D.  H.  Hill 
was  posted  at  Port  Royal,  20  m.  down  the 
river  ;  between  them  lay  Jackson,  ready  to 
support  either  wing.  Burnside  resolved  to 
cross  at  and  near  Fredericksburg,  and  Dec.  11 
was  fixed  upon  for  the  attempt.  The  plan  was 
to  throw  three  bridges  across  at  Fredericks- 
burg, and  three  more  at  a  point  about  8  m. 
below.  Sumner's  division  was  to  cross  by  the 
upper  bridges,  Franklin's  and  a  part  of  Hooker's 
at  the  lower,  the  remainder  of  Hooker's  being 
held  in  reserve.  The  attempt  to  lay  the  upper 
bridges  was  oppdsed  by  a  body  of  confederate 
sharpshooters,  but  toward  everfing  Burnside 
sent  over  a  detachment  in  boats,  who  drove  out 
the  riflemen,  and  the  bridges  were  completed 
during  the  night.  No  serious  attempt  was 
made  to  prevent  the  construction  of  Franklin's 
bridges ;  they  were  completed  by  noon,  and  he 
was  ready  to  cross,  but  was  held  back  until 
the  other  bridges  were  built.  The  whole  of 
the  12th  was  spent  in  crossing,  and  in  prepara- 
tions for  the  battle  of  the  following  day;  a 
delay  which  gave  Lee  time  to  bring  up  Jack- 
son's corps.  It  was  no  part  of  Lee's  plan  to 
dispute  the  passage  of  the  river,  as  he  pre- 
ferred to  receive  the  attack  in  his  strong  po- 
sition. The  extreme  confederate  left  above 
Fredericksburg  was  protected  by  a  mill  pond, 
sluiceway,  and  canal,  the  bridges  over  which 
had  been  destroyed ;  and  here  the  attack  oonld 
be  made  only  upon  Marye's  hill,  which  risei* 
steeply  a  little  behind  Fredericksburg.— -The 
morning  of  Saturday,  Dec.  13,  broke  with  a 
heavy  fog  resting  in  the  valley,  and  shutting 
each  army  from  the  sight  of  the  other.  All 
told,  Lee  had  now  about  80,000  men,  and  Burn- 


FREDERICKSBURG 


465 


side  had  about  100,000  across  the  river,  besides 
his  reserve  on  the  other  side.  Burnside^s  final 
order  was  differently  understood  by  the  differ- 
ent commanders.  Franklin  supposed  that  he 
was  to  make  a  demonstration  with  only  one  of 
his  eight  divisions.  Hooker  supposed  that  there 
was  to  be  a  twofold  attack,  the  main  one  by 
Sumner.  Bumside^s  intent  was  that  the  main 
assault  should  be  made  by  Franklin,  sup- 
ported by  one  from  Sumner,  while  Hooker 
should  be  ready  to  spring  upon  the  enemy  in 
his  retreat.  The  fog  lifted  about  10  o'clock, 
and  disclosed  Franklin  in  motion.  He  had  put 
a  liberal  construction  upon  his  understanding 
of  Burnside's  order,  and  threw  forward  three 
divisions.  Meade,  who  led  the  advance,  pushed 
straight  for  what  proved  to  be  the  centre  of 
Jackson's  position,  held  by  the  division  of  A. 
P.  Hill.  A  considerable  gap  had  been  left  at 
this  point,  and  Meade  struck  this  gap,  hurl- 
ing the  enemy  to  the  right  and  le^  piercing 
through  the  first  line,  and  reaching  the  second. 
Gibbon,  who  was  to  support  him,  was  a  little 
slow,  and  before  he  came  up  the  confederates 
had  hurried  to  the  point  assailed,  and  Meade 
found  himself  opposed  by  threefold  numbers. 
Assailed  in  front  and  on  both  flanks,  he  was 
swept  back  in  some  confusion  over  the  ground 
which  he  had  won.  Gibbon  now  came  up,  and 
for  a  short  time  checked  the  pursuit ;  but  Jack- 
son was  further  reinforced  from  Longstreet's 
corps,  and  Gibbon  and  Mende  were  forced  back 
almost  to  the  river.  Here  the  confederates 
encountered  so  severe  a  fire  that  they  recoil- 
ed, and  fell  back  to  their  old  position  on  the 
heights.  This  put  an  end  to  the  action  on  the 
Union  left.  The  federals  here  lost  about  8,700 
in  killed  and  wounded ;  the  confederates  about 
8,200.  In  the  advance  the  federals  had  made 
about  500  prisoners,  and  lost  as  many  in  the 
retreat — In  the  mean  time  a  more  severe 
fight  had  been  going  on  8  m.  to  the  right, 
where  Sumner  had  assaulted  the  foot  of  Marye's 
hill.  The  strength  of  this  position  was  wholly 
unknown  to  the  assailants,  and  it  was  not  till 
long  after  that  they  learned  why  it  was  that* 
they  were  unsuccessful.  Kershaw,  one  of  the 
confederate  generals,  is  the  only  one  who  gives 
any  full  account  of  it.  He  says :  **  Marye's  hill, 
covered  with  batteries,  falls  off  abruptly  to- 
ward Fredericksburg  to  a  stone  wall  which 
forms  a  terrace  on  the  side  of  the  hill  and  the 
outer  margin  of  a  road  which  winds  along  the 
foot  of  the  hill.  This  road  is  about  25  ft.  wide, 
and  is  faced  by  a  stone  wall  about  4  ft.  high 
on  the  city  side.  The  road  having  been  cut 
in  the  side  of  the  hill  in  many  places,  this  last 
wall  is  not  visible  above  the  surface  of  the 
ground.''  This  sunken  road  was  like  the  ditch 
of  a  fortress,  affording  complete  protection  to 
the  troops  in  it.  About  2,000  men  occupied 
it,  standing  four  deep.  The  crest  of  the  hill 
was  crowned  by  a  battery  of  11  12-pounders, 
and  about  50  heavier  guns  were  placed  so  as 
to  enfilade  all  the  approaches,  which  must  be 
made  over  an  open  plain  about  850  yards  wide. 


The  bulk  of  Lee's  artillery  was  posted  on  the 
ridges  in  the  rear,  and  out  of  action.  Lee  him- 
self does  not  seen^  to  have  been  aware  of  the 
existence  of  this  sunken  road,  which  actually 
formed  the  strength  of  his  position  here.  He 
seems  to  have  assumed  that  the  enemy  would 
gain  the  crest  of  the  hill,  and  that  the  real 
battle  would  be  fought  on  the  plateau  beyond ; 
while  Burnside  assumed  that  when  the  crests 
were  gained  the  battle  would  be  won.  The 
attack  was  made  here  by  the  two  divisions  of 
French  and  Hancock,  French  in  the  advance. 
His  men  moved  across  the  narrow  plain,  galled 
by  a  fire  from  the  confederate  batteries.  Half 
way  across  they  came  within  range  of  the 
men  in  the  sunken  road,  who  poured  in  a  solid 
sheet  of  musketry  fire,  before  which  the  heads 
of  the  columns  melted  away,  and  the  whole 
fell  back,  leaving  half  of  their  numbers  behind. 
Hancock  now  advanced,  until  he  came  within 
range  of  the  musketry  from  the  sunken  road. 
The  front  was  so  narrow  that  only  a  single 
brigade  could  be  put  in  at  once.  Brigade  after 
brigade  took  the  places  of  those  which  had 
been  driven  back,  so  rapidly  that  this  action, 
which  lasted  three  hours,  as  seen  from  the 
heights  of  Falmouth,  looked  like  a  single  con- 
tinuous assault.  French  and  Hancock  brought 
10,000  men  into  action,  of  whom  4,000  were 
cut  down.  Burnside  had  watched  this  action 
from  the  heights  across  the  Rappahannock, 
and  had  seen  the  troops  which  were  to  carry 
the  hill  swept  back  from  its  base.  Still  he 
was  determined  that  the  heights  should  be 
carried,  and  he  ordered  Hooker  to  renew  the 
attempt.  Hooker  crossed  the  river,  examined 
the  position,  consulted  with  the  officers  who 
had  been  engaged,  and  returning  remonstrated 
against  the  order.  But  Burnside  was  inflexible. 
Of  his  six  divisions  Hooker  had  but  two  with 
him.  It  was  nearly  night  when  he  opened  fire 
with  all  his  artillery,  hoping  to  make  a  breach ; 
but  this  sunken  road  was  not  to  be  touched  by 
any  fire.  At  sunset  he  ordered  the  division  of 
Humphreys  to  charge  with  unloaded  muskets, 
for  there  was  no  time  to  load  and  fire.  As  it 
happened,  the  confederate  battery  on  the  hill 
had  exhausted  its  ammunition  and  gone  to  the 
rear  to  replenish,  so  that  Humphreys  was  not 
exposed  to  the  artillery  fire  by  which  French 
and  Hancock  had  been  so  sorely  galled,  and 
his  men  went  a  few  yards  further  than  the 
others  had  gone.  But  they  also  met  a  solid 
sheet  of  fire  from  the  sunken  road,  which  drove 
them  back.  The  assault  lasted  only  a  quarter  of 
an  hour,  but  in  those  few  minutes,  out  of  4,000 
men,  nearly  half  fell,  while  it  is  doubtful  whether 
the  enemy  lost  a  man.  Hooker  forbore  to  press 
the  unavailing  assault.  *^  Having,"  he  said,  ^^  lost 
as  many  men  as  my  orders  required  me  to  lose, 
I  suspended  the  attack,  and  directed  that  the 
men  should  hold  for  the  advance  line  a  ditch 
which  would  afford  shelter."  The  confeder- 
ates lay  upon  their  arms  all  that  night,  fully 
expecting  another  attack  in  the  morning ;  for, 
says  Lee,  *^  the  attack  had  been  so  easily  re- 


FREDEBICTON 


Golsed,  and  b^  to  small  a  part  of  our  army,  that 
I  was  not  snppoaed  the  enemj  would  limit;  bia 
efforts  to  one  attempt,  which^  in  view  of  the 
magnitade  of  bia  preparationa  and  the  exteot 
of  his  forces,  seemed  to  be  oouiparativelj  inaig- 
nifioant ;  bat  we  n-ere  necessai'il;  ignorant  of 
the  extent  of  bis  loaaes."  Bornaide  woa  indeed 
inclined  to  renew  tlie  action  on  the  following 
day,  bot  finally  forbore,  jleldmg  to  the  repre- 
sentations of  the  minority  of  bis  generals,  lie 
was  still  uncertain  whether  to  hold  Fredericks' 
burg  or  to  recross  the  river,  and  all  through 
Sonday  and  the  greater  part  of  Monday  the 
two  armiealay  in  sight  of  each  other,  each  ex- 
paotiog  and  wishing  to  be  attacked,  but  neither 
ohoosing  to  venture  upon  the  offensive.  To- 
ward night  of  the  15tb  Bumside  decided  to  re- 
croas,  and  under  cover  of  a  atorm  which  had 
set  in  the  troops  went  over,  the  pontoons  were 
avnng  back,  aod  the  river  again  aeparated  the 
two  armies. — According  to  official  reporta,  the 
confederate  loss  was  CU5  killed,  4,DB1  wound- 
ed, 653  missing;  in  all,  G,309.  The  Union  loss 
waa  reported  by  the  medical  inspector  general 
Jnet  after  the  battle  to  have  been  1,1S2  killed, 
9,101  wonaded,  3,384  missing;  in  all,  18,487. 
But,  he  adds,  "the  return  of  killed  may  he  too 
■mail."  About  1,200  of  those  ori^nally  re- 
ported as  missing  came  back  to  their  commanda, 
reducing  the  nnmber  of  missing  to  about  2,000. 
Lee  osserta  that  he  took  about  900  prisouera, 
leaving  about  1,100  of  the  federal  missing  to  be 
aocoanted  for.  Of  these  probably  about  360 
sbonld  be  added  to  the  number  reported  as 
killed ;  so  that  in  round  numbers  the  Union 
loss  was  1,S00  killed,  0,100  wounded,  900  pris- 
oners, and TGO stragglers;  12,2fiO  in  all,  almost 
two  and  a  half  times  that  of  the  confederates. 
The  great  disparity  of  loss  waa  in  the  action  on 
the  right,  at  the  foot  of  Marye'a  hill.  In  pro- 
portion to  the  Dumbers  engaged,  the  loases 
in  this  battle  were  imuanally  large.  Of  Burn- 
side's  100,000  men  who  crossed  the  river,  only 
about  32,000  were  fairly  brought  into  actiou  ; 
of  the  confederate  60,000,  only  about  25,000. 

HEDEUCrON,  a  city  and  port  of  entry  of 
New  Brunswick,  Canada,  capital  of  the  prov- 
ince and  of  the  county  of  York,  on  the  right 
bank  of  St.  John  river,  84  m.  fi'om  tlie  bay  of 
Fundy,  aud  54  m.  N.  N.  W.  of  St.  John  ;  lot. 
46°  60'  N.,  Ion.  06°  .?2'  W,;  pop.  in  1871. 
6,006.  The  city  stands  on  a  low  point  of  land 
formed  by  a  bend  in  the  river,  and  is  nearly 
encircled  in  the  rear  by  a  range  of  hills.  It 
has  broad  streets  croasing  each  other  at  right 
angles,  adorned  with  many  line  gardena  aud 
shade  trees,  and  with  several  elegant  public 
buildings.  Queen  street  is  the  chief  business 
thoroughfare,  and  contains  the  principal  gov- 
ernment buildings.  At  the  E.  end  is  the  prov- 
ince buildiup,  a  large  wooden  structure,  in 
which  tlie  legislature  and  supreme  court  meet, 
containing  a  fine  library.  Near  by  ore  the  va- 
rious public  officcfl.  At  the  W.  end  is  the  gov- 
ernment honse,  a  fine  stone  strncture,  the  resi- 
dence of  the  lieutenant  governor.     On  the  K. 


side  of  the  street  are  the  county  oonrt  houae 
and  city  hall,  large  brick  buildings,  and  the 
barracks,  of  stone,  capable  of  accommodating  a 
regiment  of  infantry.  In  York  street  are  the 
depot  of  the  Fredericton  railroad  and  the  ska- 
ting rink,  and  in  Westmoreland  street  the  ei- 
bibition  building,  of  wood,  covering  nearly  an 
acre.  Other  public  bnildinga  worthy  of  men- 
tion are  the  county  jail,  the  custom  house,  and 
Christ  church,  cathedral  (Epiacopal),  of  stone, 
a  fine  snecimen  of  church  architecture.  The 
river  is  here  three  fourths  of  a  mile  wide,  and 
is  naturally  navigable  to  this  point  by  vessels 
of  120  tons;  light  steamers  can  ascend  to 
Grand  Falla,  140  m.  above  Fredericton.  The 
city  became  a  port  of  entry  in  1848,  was  incor- 
porated in  1849,  and  ia  now  the  chief  entrepot 


ChilMChareh,  CUlMdnl. 

of  commerce  with  the  interior  aud  on  impor- 
tant station  of  passenger  travel.  Uerchandis» 
is  principally  brought  up  the  river  by  s[«aniers 
and  schooners  duriug  the  summer,  but  in  win- 
ter there  is  a  large  traffic  on  the  railways.  In 
the  vicinity  are  several  large  saw  mills,  and 
great  qnanUties  of  lumber  of  variona  kinds  are 
collected  at  Fredericton  and  thence  exported  to 
foreign  ports.  Tlie  lumber  business  is  one  of 
the  principal  sources  of  the  wealth  of  the  city. 
The  Fredericton  railroad  connects  with  the  Eu- 
ropean and  North  American  railrood  at  Fred- 
ericton junction,  23  m.  distant ;  aud  the  city  is 
also  the  terminus  of  the  River  du  I.oup  or  New 
Brunswick  railway  company's  line.  The  city 
ia  lighted  with  gas,  and  coutoina  two  banka,  ft 
reading  room,  a  telegraph  office,  eight  chnrchea, 
and  four  weekly  newspapers.    The  univeruty 


FREDERIKSBORG 


FREE  CHURCH  OF  SCOTLAND  467 


of  New  Brtmswick,  a  well  endowed  institntion, 
with  five  professors,  occupies  a  large  stone 
bailding  on  a  hill  in  the  rear  of  the  city.  The 
other  principal  edacational  institutions  are  the 
provincial  training  and  model  school,  and  a 
collegiate  school. — Fredericton  was  formerly 
called  St.  Ann^s,  and  was  made  the  seat  of 
government  by  Sir  Guy  Carleton  in  1786,  It 
has  suffered  at  times  from  terrible  conflagra- 
tions, one  of  which  in  1825  laid  one  third  of 
the  town  in  ashes,  while  another  in  November, 
1850,  was  still  more  disastrous. 

FREDERIK8B0RG,  a  royal  palace  built  by 
Christian  IV.  of  Denmark  in  1606-'20,  after  a 
plan  by  Inigo  Jones,  near  the  town  of  Hille- 
r5d,  on  the  island  of  Seeland,  22  m.  N.  N.  W. 
of  Copenhagen.  It  is  a  Gothic  castle  of  red 
brick,  covering  three  small  islands  in  a  little 
lake.  The  Rtddersal^  or  knight's  hall,  has  a 
ceiling  elaborately  decorated  with  carvings, 
gildings,  and  paintings,  on  which  26  artists  are 
said  to  have  worked  for  seven  years.  It  has 
also  a  collection  of  portraits,  and  a  richly  orna- 
mented chapel,  in  which  a]l  the  late  kings  of 
Denmark  have  been  crowned.  The  pulpit  and 
altar  in  the  last  are  of  ebony  and  silver,  exqui- 
sitely wrought,  and  containing  more  than  600 
lbs.  of  the  precious  metal. 

fEEDEItlKSHALD,  or  Frederikdiall  (formerly 
Halden)^  a  seaport  of  Norway,  in  the  province 
of  Ohristiania,  on  the  Iddefiord  near  its  junc- 
tion with  the  gulf  of  Swinesund,  Skager  Rack, 
57  m.  6.  E.  of  Christiania,  near  the  frontier 
of  Sweden;  pop.  in  1865,  9,219.  The  harbor 
is  excellent^  and  is  accessible  to  the  largest 
class  of  shipping.  The  great  fire  of  1759  near- 
ly destroyed  the  town,  but  it  has  been  hand- 
somely rebuilt.  It  stands  around  the  base  of 
a  gigantic  rock,  on  the  summit  of  which,  400 
ft.  perpendicularly  over  the  sea,  is  the  historic 
fortress  of  Frederiksteen,  formerly  of  great 
strength.  Charles  XII.  was  killed  here,  Dec. 
11,  1718.  On  the  only  accessible  side,  close 
nnder  the  outer  walls,  a  monument  marks  the 
spot  where  the  king  fell.  The  castle  was  in- 
vested in  1814  by  the  Swedish  crown  prince 
Bemadotte,  and  its  hopeless  defence  was  a 
prelude  to  the  almost  immediate  conquest  of 
the  kingdom  and  its  union  with  Sweden,  Nov. 
4,  1814.  About  8  m.  £.  of  the  town  is  a  lake, 
the  Fern  85,  the  stream  from  which  flows  into 
the  fiord  near  Frederikshald.  Its  waterfalls 
are  the  most  pictnresque  in  S.  Norway. 

REDERIKSHAMN  (Finnish,  ffamiria),  a  town 
and  fortress  of  Finland,  Russia,  in  the  govern- 
ment of  Viborg,  on  the  gulf  of  Finland,  115  m. 
N.  W.  of  St.  Petersburg;  pop.  in  1867,  8,278. 
Here,  on  Sept.  17,  1809,  the  treaty  between 
Sweden  and  Russia  was  signed  by  which  Fin- 
land became  Russian. 

FEEDERIK8TAD,  a  town  and  fortress  of  Nor- 
way, in  the  province  of  Christiania,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Glommen,  48  m.  S.  £.  of  Chris- 
tiania; pop.  in  1865, 6,883.  It  has  manufacto- 
ries of  nails,  buckles,  fish  hooks,  pottery,  tiles, 
and  brandy ;  and  the  harbor  is  large  and  good. 


FIlEDOiyii}  a  village  in  the  town  of  Pomfret, 
Chautauqua  co..  New  York,  on  the  Dunkirk, 
Alleghany  Valley,  and  Pittsburgh  railroad, 
about  3  m.  from  Dunkirk ;  pop.  in  1870,  2,646. 
There  is  a  spring  of  natural  gas  in  the  vicinity, 
which  is  used  to  light  the  village.  It  is  the 
seat  of  a  state  normal  school,  which  has  a 
model  school  attached,  and  in  1872  had  16 
instructoi*8,  179  students,  and  a  library  of 
2,025  volumes.  There  are  4  flour  mills,  a  saw 
and  turning  mill,  a  planing  mill,  a  foundery,  3 
manufactories  of  carriages,  1  of  patent  medi- 
cines, a  national  bank,  8  hotels,  2  weekly  news- 
papers, and  5  churches. 

FREiaWEBr,  a  S.  county  of  Minnesota,  bor- 
dering on  Iowa,  drained  by  Shell  Rock  river ; 
area,  720  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  10,578.  The 
surface  is  diversified  and  has  a  number  of 
small  lakes,  and  the  soil  is  fertile.  It  is  inter- 
sected by  the  Southern  Minnesota  railroad. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  588,898 
bushels  of  wheat,  134,688  of  Indian  corn, 
326,766  of  oats,  53,814  of  potatoes,  35,712  tons 
of  hay,  and  380,662  lbs.  of  butter.  There  were 
3,136  horses,  4,468  milch  cows,  7,173  other 
cattle,  5,057  sheep,  and  85,028  swine.  Capi- 
tal, Albert  Lea. 

FREE  CHIJECH  OF  SCOHAND,  an  ecclesias- 
tical body  originally  formed  by  a  separation 
from  the  national  establishment  in  the  year 
1848.  On  May  18  the  general  assembly  of  the 
established  church  of  Scotland  met  as  usual  in 
Edinburgh,  the  Rev.  David  Welsh,  D.  D.,  be- 
ing the  moderator,  and  the  marquis  of  Bute 
being  the  representative  of  the  queen.  After 
prayer  the  moderator  read  a  solemn  protest  on 
the  part  of  l^e  church  of  Scotland  against  the 
wrongs  inflicted  on  her  by  the  civil  power, 
which  protest  was  signed  by  203  members  of 
the  assembly.  He  then  laid  the  protest  on  the 
table,  and  bowing  respectfully  to  the  represen- 
tative of  royalty  left  the  house,  followed  im- 
mediately by  Dr.  Thomas  Chaimers,  Dr.  Rob- 
ert Gordon,  Dr.  Patrick  McFarlane,  Dr.  John 
McDonald,  Dr.  Thomas  Brown,  and  rank  after 
rank  of  the  country  ministers.  The  protesters 
withdrew  to  a  large  hall  at  Canon  mUls,  pre- 
ceded and  followed  by  sympathizing  crowds, 
and  there  organized  the  Free  Protesting  church 
of  Scotland,  under  the  raoderatorship  of  Dr. 
Thomas  Chalmers.  It  was  then  found  that 
475  ministers  had  separated  from  the  national 
church.  The  amount  of  capital  surrendered 
that  day  by  the  protesting  brethren,  in  relin- 
quishing their  stipends  from  the  establish- 
ment, was  said  to  be  at  least  £2,000,000.— The 
French  revolution  had  considerably  affected 
the  standing  both  in  the  church  and  in  society 
of  the  evangelical  party  in  the  church  of  Scot- 
land. Their  doctrines  had  been  looked  upon 
as  tainted  with  fanaticism,  but  the  general 
horror  of  infidelity  awakened  by  the  events 
in  France  caused  them  to  be  regarded  with 
greater  favor,  while  their  impressive  preaching, 
exemplary  lives,  and  solid  learning  began  to 
give  character  to  the  cause  with  which  they 


468 


FREE  CHURCH  OF  SCOTLAND 


were  identified;  and  though  as  yet  a  mere 
handful  in  the  church,  thej  were  everj  day 
increasing  in  numbers  and  power.  Under  the 
leadership  successively  of  Erskine,  Sir  Henry 
Moncrieif,  Andrew  Thomson,  and  Chalmers, 
the  evangelical  party  became  stronger  and 
stronger,  until  a  fair  opportunity  for  testing 
the  power  of  parties  in  the  church  occurred 
in  1884.  In  1707  the  treaty  of  union  between 
England  and  Scotland  was  consummated.  It 
contained  a  special  guarantee  for  the  integrity 
of  the  church  of  Scotland  as  established  in 
1689  under  the  reign  of  William  and  Mary, 
free  from  prelacy,  from  the  royal  supremacy 
in  things  spiritual,  and  from  the  law  of  patron- 
age. But  in  1711,  four  years  after  the  con- 
summation of  the  treaty  of  union,  the  British 
parliament  violated  its  pledge,  and  under  the 
leadership  of  Bolingbroke  lay  patronage  was 
reimposed  upon  the  Scottish  church.  Such 
was  the  sense  of  the  wrong  inflicted  by  this 
act,  that  the  Scottish  church  for  a  long  period 
annually  renewed  her  protest  against  it ;  and 
during  several  years  aher  it  was  passed  no 
patron  was  found  to  appropriate  the  powers 
which  it  conferred  upon  him.  Toward  the 
close  of  the  century,  however,  forced  settle- 
ments of  ministers  upon  parishes  became  fre- 
quent, and  multitudes  of  the  best  people  were 
driven  f^om  the  churclu  Against  such  pro- 
ceedings it  was  in  vain  that  the  evangeli- 
cal party  earnestly  and  frequently  protested; 
their  protests  were  those  of  a  small  minority, 
whose  principles  the  minority  despised  and 
hated.  But  that  minority  grew  in  numbers 
and  in  power,  especially  from  the  beginning 
of  the  present  century,  and  under  such  leaders 
as  Thomson  and  Chalmers  one  abuse  after 
another  was  rooted  out;  and  at  last  an  act 
was  passed  by  the  general  assembly  in  1834 
designed  to  be  a  corrective  of  the  evils  of  lay 
patronage,  which  gave  to  the  male  heads  of 
families  in  every  parish  the  right  of  objecting 
to  any  presentee  whom  the  patron  might  wish 
inducted  into  the  pastorate  over  them.  This 
act,  conunonly  called  the  **  veto  act,"  though 
proposed  by  Lord  Moncrieff,  one  of  the  sena- 
tors of  the  college  of  justice,  and  though  be- 
lieved by  the  church  to  be  entirely  within  her 
power  as  a  church  established  by  law  to  enact, 
very  soon  brought  her  into  conflict  with  the 
patrons,  and  through  the  patrons  with  the 
civil  courts.  On  a  vacancy  occurring  in  a  cer- 
tain parish  the  patron  presented  hb  protege^ 
who  was  vetoed  by  almost  the  entire  body  of 
inhabitants.  The  presentee  appealed  to  the 
civil  courts,  which  at  once  commanded  the 
presbytery  to  proceed  to  his  settlement  The 
presbytery  refused.  The  civil  courts  of  course 
stood  mainly  on  the  interpretation  of  the  law 
of  1711-'12.  The  evangelical  party,  now  the 
majority  in  the  general  assembly,  believing 
that  law  to  be  both  unconstitutional  and  con- 
trary to  the  word  of  God,  resolved  to  abide 
by  the  decision  to  which  they  had  come  in 
1884,  viz. :  that  the  Christian  people  had  a 


right  by  law  and  by  warrant  of  God's  word 
to  be  heard  in  regard  to  the  appointment  of  a 
minister  over  them ;  and  that  the  acts  of  or- 
daining to  the  ministry  and  of  inducting  into  a 
pastoral  charge  were  spiritual  acts,  in  regard 
to  which  the  church  alone  had  jurisdiction. 
The  supreme  civil  court  of  Scotland  also  in- 
terposed its  authority  against  the  ordination 
and  induction  of  a  minister.  The  assembly, 
when  appealed  to  for  advice,  by  a  large  major- 
ity authorized  the  presbytery  to  proceed  with 
the  settlement.  The  presbytery  were  threat- 
ened by  the  civil  court  with  imprisonment  and 
fine  should  they  dare  to  set  its  interdict  at  de- 
fiance. The  ordination  and  induction  of  the 
presentee  were  consummated,  and  immediate- 
ly a  complaint  was  laid  against  the  presbytery 
before  the  civil  court.  They  were  summoned 
to  appear  before  the  bar  of  the  court,  June 
14,  1889,  which  they  did.  The  Judges  heard 
their  reply,  and  took  four  days  to  consider  the 
case,  during  which  it  was  understood  that  ^v& 
of  the  judges  voted  for  a  sentence  of  impris- 
onment, and  six  for  a  rebuke.  The  rebuke 
was  accordingly  pronounced,  and  the  presby- 
tery were  dismissed  from  the  bar  with  the 
intimation  that  a  sentence  of  imprisonment 
would  certainly  be  pronounced  against  any 
presbytery  that  should  afterward  be  found 
chargeable  with  a  similar  oflence.  Other  cases 
involving  the  same  principles  rapidly  arose, 
and  elements  of  a  still  more  deplorable  char- 
acter were  brought  into  the  arena  of  strife. 
The  civil  court  required  a  presbytery  to  take 
a  clergyman  on  trial,  admit  him  to  the  office 
of  the  ministry  in  a  particular  charge,  and  in- 
trude him  on  the  congregation  contrary  to  the 
will  of  the  people.  It  also  interdicted  the  es- 
tablishment of  additional  ministers  to  meet 
the  wants  of  an  increasing  population.  It  in- 
terdicted the  preaching  of  the  gospel  and  all 
ministration  of  ordinances  throughout  a  whole 
district  by  any  minister  of  the  church  under 
authority  of  the  church  courts,  as  well  as  exe« 
cution  of  the  sentence  of  a  church  judicatory 
prohibiting  a  minister  from  preaching  or  admin- 
istering ordinances  within  a  particular  parish, 
pending  the  discussion  of  a  cause  in  the  church 
courts  as  to  the  validity  of  his  settlement  there- 
in. It  also  interdicted  the  general  assembly 
and  lower  Judicatories  of  the  church  from  in- 
flicting church  censures :  in  one  case  where  the 
minister  was  accused  of  theft  and  pleaded 
guilty ;  in  another  where  a  minister  was  found 
guilty  of  fraud  and  swindling ;  and  in  another* 
where  a  licentiate  was  accused  of  drunkenness, 
obscenity,  and  profane  swearing.  It  suspend- 
ed church  censures  when  pronounced  by  the 
church  courts  in  the  exercise  of  discipline, 
and  took  upon  itself  to  restore  the  suspended 
ministers  to  the  power  of  preaching  and  the 
administration  of  ordinances.  It  assumed  to 
judge  of  the  right  of  individuals  elected  mem- 
bers of  the  general  assembly  to  sit  therein.  As 
a  last  resource,  the  church  appealed  to  the 
parliament  of  Great  Britain.     Her  "  claim  of 


FREEDMEN 


469 


rights,'^  carefully  prepared,  was  presented  to 
the  hoase  of  commoDs,  March  7,  1848,  by  the 
Uon.  Fox  Maule  (now  earl  of  Dalhonsie,  and  a 
raliDg  elder  and  a  member  of  the  general  as- 
sembly of  the  Free  church) ;  but  it  was  refused 
by  a  migority  of  211  against  76.  Of  87  Scot- 
tish members  present  at  the  division,  25  voted 
for  Mr.  Maulers  motion.  The  question  now 
was:  Will  the  church  retire  from  her  declared 
principles,  or  will  she,  to  preserve  her  liber- 
ties, relinquish  her  connection  with  the  state? 
Without  hesitation  the  decision  was  made,  and 
475  ministers  left  the  establishment,  including 
most  of  those  who  had  acted  openly  with  the 
evangelical  party.  Many  of  the  congregations 
aiso  left  it  whose  ministers  remained  in  it ;  and 
hence,  as  well  as  from  the  continued  accession 
of  numbers  in  every  district  of  the  country,  the 
number  of  churches  now  exceeds  900.  The 
missionaries  belonging  to  the  establishment  in 
1843  to  a  man  threw  in  their  lot  with  the 
Free  Protesting  church.  Her  ministers  are 
supported  out  of  a  common  fund,  to  which 
every  member  of  the  church  is  expected  to 
contribute  according  to  his  ability,  and  the 
dividend  accruing  from  this  fund  every  con- 
gregation is  at  liberty  to  supplement  at  its 
pleasure.  In  1872  the  church  had  16  synods, 
71  presbyteries,  948  congregations,  and  957 
ministers.  The  sum  of  £432,628  was  in  the 
same  year  raised  for  the  various  purposes  of 
the  church,  including  missions.  Although  be- 
ginning with  nothing  in  1843,  and  undertaking 
the  untried  work  of  supporting  the  ministry, 
the  Free  church  has  built  or  purchased  all  its 
churches  throughout  Scotland,  with  the  manses 
and  the  parish  school  houses,  the  missionary 
buildings  in  India,  Africa,  and  elsewhere,  the 
buildings  of  the  two  normal  schools  in  Edin- 
burgh and  Glasgow,  the  three  colleges  at  Edin- 
burgh, Aberdeen,  and  Glasgow,  and  the  new 
assembly  hall  in  Edinburgh,  erected  in  1858- 
'59  at  a  cost  of  £6,000.  For  the  education 
fund  she  raised  in  1848-'4  £2,542,  and  in 
1869-70  £8,394.  The  average  salary  of  the 
ministers  is  £205,  besides  manse  and  glebe. 

FEEEDMEN  {liderti^  Ubertini),  the  designa- 
tion of  manumitted  slaves  in  Roman  antiquity. 
They  were  called  liberti  with  reference  to  their 
masters,  and  lihertini  with  reference  to  their 
new  rank  or  condition.  According  to  various 
circumstances,  defined  by  law,  the  freedraen 
became  Roman  citizens,  Junian  Latins  (from 
the  Junian  law  which  gave  them  freedom,  and 
the  similarity  of  their  status  to  that  of  Latin 
colonists),  or  dediticii.  The  last  were  neither 
citizens  (Roman  or  Latin)  nor  slaves.  The 
Junian  Latins  suffered  great  disabilities  as  to 
property,  but  could  in  various  ways  rise  to  citi- 
zenship. But  even  the  freedmen  of  the  first 
class  were  not  genuine  (ingenui)  citizens,  and 
remained  under  certain  obligations  to  their 
masters.  The  freedmen  wore  a  cap  as  a  sign 
of  freedom,  and  took  the  names  of  their  pre- 
vious owners.  The  sons  of  freedmen  became 
genuine  citizens.    In  later  times  the  number 


of  manumitted  slaves  increased  to  an  alarming 
extent,  and  some  of  the  emperors  passed  laws 
restricting  manumission.  (See  Slaveby.) — In 
the  United  States  the  term  denotes  the  colored 
people  emancipated  by  the  civil  war.  Soon 
after  its  commencement,  and  especially  after 
the  issuing  of  the  proclamation  of  emancipation 
by  President  Lincoln,  Jan.  1,  1863,  large  num- 
bers of  slaves  abandoned  by  or  escaping  from 
their  masters  came  within  the  federal  lines. 
The  duty  of  caring  for  these  helpless  people 
was  devolved  first  upon  the  war  department, 
and  afterward  upon  the  treasury  department. 
They  were  supplied  with  food  and  clothing,  and 
were  largely  employed  in  the  work  of  fortifi- 
cation, and  in  other  labor  in  aid  of  the  army. 
Plantations  abandoned  by  their  owners  were 
also  set  apart  for  the  use  of  freedmen,  which 
they  occupied  in  some  cases  on  their  own  ac- 
count, but  generally  as  employees  of  the  gov- 
ernment or  of  individuals  to  whom  the  aban- 
doned lands  were  leased.  Enlisted  in  the 
federal  army  to  the  number  of  186,097  during 
the  war,  the  colored  soldiers  proved  themselves 
unsurpassed  in  bravery  and  aptitude  for  military 
life.  Various  charitable  and  religious  organi- 
zations at  the  north  did  much  for  the  education 
of  the  freedmen,  for  which  they  manifested  an 
intense  desire,  by  organizing  schools  and  em- 
ploying teachers.  At  the  close  of  the  war  the 
late  slaves  flocked  to  the  cities  and  principal 
towns,  and  large  numbers  were  dependent  upon 
the  government  for  transportation  to  points 
where  work  could  be  obtained,  while  an  active 
supervision  was  necessary  to  protect  their 
rights  from  the  encroachments  of  their  former 
masters,  and  to  prepare  them  for  a  life  of  free- 
dom. To  enable  the  government  to  fulfil  these 
duties,  the  act  of  congress  of  March  8,  1865, 
was  passed,  organizing  in  the  war  department 
the  ^^  bureau  of  refugees,  freedmen,  and  aban- 
doned lands,'^  popularly  known  as  the  ^^freed- 
men's  bureau,'^  which,  with  powers  enlarged 
by  subsequent  acts,  remained  in  operation  until 
Jan.  1,  1869,  when  its  functions  ceased,  with 
the  exception  of  the  educational  department, 
which  continued  till  July  1,  1870,  and  that 
for  the  collection  of  claims,  which  is  still  in 
operation.  It  was  placed  in  charge  of  M^*. 
Gen.  O.  O.  Howard  as  commissioner,  with  10 
assistant  commissioners,  aided  by  various  sub- 
ordinates, in  the  late  insurrectionary  states.  It 
exercised  a  general  supervision  over  the  freed- 
men as  well  as  over  loyal  refugees,  protecting 
them  in  their  rights,  deciding  their  disputes,  aid- 
ing them  in  obtaining  work,  extending  to  them 
facilities  of  education,  and  furnishing  them 
with  medical  treatment.  The  collection  of  the 
claims  of  colored  soldiers  and  sailors  for  pay, 
bounty,  prize  money,  &c.,  by  which  they  were 
protected  from  fk*aud,  was  an  important  func- 
tion of  the  bureau.  The  number  of  day  and 
night  schools  making  regular  reports  in  opera- 
tion at  the  close  of  each  school  year  (June  80), 
with  the  number  of  teachers  and  pupils,  is 
shown  in  the  following  table,  besides  which 


470 


FREEDMEN 


FREEMASONRY 


there  were  Snndaj  schools,  indastrial  schools, 
and  many  day  and  night  schools  making  only 
occasional  reports  to  the  harean : 


YEABS. 


1866. 
1867. 
1868. 
1869. 
1870, 


DAT  AKD  KIOHT  SCHOOLS. 

JfUBlUbWm 

Taacbtn. 

FapUi. 

976 
1,889 
1,881 
2,118 
2,089 

1,405 
2,087 
2,295 
2,455 
2,568 

90,778 
111,442 
104,827 
114,522 
114,616 

NubImt  of 

papili  In 

■eboolt  of  all 

klndi. 

160.000 
288,842 
241,819 
260.000 
247,888 


Of  the  number  reported  in  1867,  423  were 
night  schools,  655  were  wholly  and  501  partly 
sustained  by  freedmen,  who  owned  391  school 
buildings,  and  471,  including  21  high  and  nor- 
mal schools,  were  graded.  Of  the  teachers 
1,388  were  white  and  699  colored.  The  whole 
number  of  schools  of  all  kinds  was  8,675, 
including  1,468  Sunday  schools  with  105,786 
pupils,  and  85  industrial  schools  with  2,124 
pupils.  The  total  expenses  for  the  six  months 
ending  June  30  were  $527,666,  of  which  $87,- 
332  were  paid  by  freedmen  and  $220,833  by 
the  bureau.  Of  the  number  reported  in  1870, 
1,324  were  sustained  wholly  or  partly  by  freed- 
men, who  owned  592  school  buildings,  and  74, 
with  8,147  pupils,  were  high  or  normal  schools. 
Of  the  teachers  1,251  were  white  and  1,312 
colored.  The  whole  number  of  schools  of  all 
kinds  was  4,239,  with  9,307  teachers,  including 
1,562  Sunday  schools  with  6,007  teachers  and 
97,752  pupils,  and  61  industrial  schools  with 
1,750  pupils.  The  whole  amount  expended  for 
schools  for  the  six  months  ending  June  30  was 
$1,002,896,  of  which  $200,000  were  paid  by 
freedmen  and  $442,896  by  the  bureau.  The 
total  expenditure  of  the  bureau  for  educational 
purposes  to  Aug.  31, 1871,  was  $3,711,264,  the 
greater  portion  of  which  was  for  the  erection 
and  renting  of  school  buildings.  The  bureau 
aided  in  establishing  a  large  number  of  institu- 
tions for  the  higher  education  of  the  freed- 
men, many  of  which  have  continued  in  opera- 
tion to  the  present  time.  Among  these  may 
be  mentioned  Howard  university,  at  Wash- 
ington; Atlanta  university,  at  Atlanta,  Ga. ; 
Claflin  university,  at  Orangeburg,  S.  C; 
Straight  university,  at  New  Orleans,  La. ;  Fisk 
university  and  the  Central  Tennessee  college, 
at  Nashville,  Tenn. ;  Wayland  seminary  (theo- 
logical), at  Washington;  and  the  Hampton 
normal  and  agricultural  institute,  at  Hampton, 
Ya.  Nearly  800,000  acres  of  farming  land  and 
5,000  pieces  of  town  property,  afterward  re- 
stored to  the  owners,  were  at  various  times  un- 
der the  charge  of  the  bureau,  and  the  rents  col- 
lected amounted  to  $400,000.  The  number  of 
rations  issued  to  freedmen  was  over  15,000,000 ; 
number  of  freedmen  furnished  with  transporta- 
tion, about  30,000;  number  of  sick,  including 
reftigees,  treated,  590,000.  The  amount  of 
claims  collected  and  paid  over  to  Aug.  31, 1871, 
was  $8,418,051.  The  bureau  was  supported 
miunly  by  congressional  appropriations,  though 


the  receipts  from  certain  miscellaneous  sources, 
including  the  sale  and  rental  of  confederate 
property,  fines,  marriage  certificates,  donations, 
&c.,  known  as  the  freedmen^s  and  school  funds, 
were  set  apart  for  its  benefit  The  total  ex- 
penditure to  Aug.  31,  1871,  including  accouDts 
in  favor  of  the  freedmen  from  Jan.  1,  1865, 
was  $14,996,480,  of  which  $1,910,355  were 
derived  from  the  freedn^en^s  and  scliool  funds. 

FREEMAN,  Edward  AngMtns,  an  English  au- 
thor, born  at  Harbome,  Staffordshire,  in  1823. 
He  was  educated  at  Trinity  college,  Oxford, 
where  he  filled  the  ofiSce  of  examiner  io  law 
and  modern  history  in  1857-8  and  in  1863-*4. 
He  has  published  "History  of  Architecture" 
(1849);  "  Essay  on  Window  Tracery"  (1850); 
"Architecture  of  Llandaff  Cathedral"  (1851); 
"  History  and  Conquest  of  the  Saracens " 
(1856) ;  "Ancient  Greece  and  MedisBval  Italy" 
(in  "Oxford  Essays"  for  1858);  "History  of 
Federal  Government"  (vol.  i.,  1863);  "His- 
tory of  the  Norman  Conquest,"  his  chief  work 
(4  vols.,  1867-72,  to  be  completed  by  a  fifth 
volume);  "Old  English  History"  (1869); 
"History  of  the  Cathedral  Church  of  Wells" 
(1870);  "Historical  Essays"  (1871;  2d  series, 
1873) ;  "  Growth  of  the  English  Constitution  " 
(1872);  and  "Comparative  Politics"  (1873). 

FREEMAN,  Jaaes,  an  American  clergyman, 
born  in  Charlestown,  Mass.,  April  22,  1769, 
died  in  Newton,  Nov.  14,  1835.  After  grad- 
uating at  Harvard  college  in  1777,  he  went  to 
Quebec,  returned  to  Boston  in  1782,-  and  be- 
came reader  at  the  Eing^s  chapel  in  Boston,  an 
Episcopal  church.  Becoming  Unitarian  in  his 
views,  he  induced  the  society  to  alter  their 
prayer  book  in  1785,  and  in  1787  he  was  or- 
dained by  his  own  wardens  and  people  by  a 
peculiar  service.  He  continued  rector  of  Eing^s 
chapel  for  48  years,  till  his  death.  He  was 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  Massachusetts  his- 
torical society,  and  was  the  first  minister  in 
the  United  States  who  openly  assumed  the 
name  of  Unitarian,  while  through  his  means 
the  first  Episcopal  church  in  New  England 
became  the  first  Unitarian  church  in  America. 
A  volume  of  his  "  Sermons  and  Charges  "  was 
published  in  1832. 

FREEMASONRY,  the  system  of  secrets,  cere- 
monies, and  principles  peculiar  to  the  order  or 
society  of  freemasons.  This  order,  as  it  now 
exists,  is  a  secret  association  organized  for  the 
purpose  Qf  social  intercourse  and  mutual  as- 
sistance. A  very  ancient  origin  is  often  claimed 
for  it,  some  of  its  writers  maintaining  that  it 
derived  its  origin  from  the  "  Dionysiac  frater- 
nity," an  association  which  was  formed  in  Asia 
Minor  by  the  architects  and  builders  engaged 
in  the  construction  of  temples  and  theatres  at 
the  time  when  the  Greeks  migrated  from  At- 
tica thither.  The  association  is  supposed  to 
have  been  in  existence  in  Tyre  when  Solomon 
undertook  the  building  of  the  temple,  and  the 
story  runs  that  the  fraternity  sent  a  band  of 
workmen  from  Tyre  to  assist  Solomon  in  that 
work.    Freemasonry,  according  to  this  account, 


FREEMASONRY 


471 


18  said  to  have  been  originally  organized  bj 
tbe  leader  of  tbe  band,  who  was  a  widow^s 
son ;  and  in  this  way  is  explained  the  great 
prominence  which  is  given  to  Solomon's  temple 
in  tbe  ritnal  and  symbols  of  the  order.  Bat 
as  there  is  no  trace  of  these  legends  in  authen- 
tic history,  well  informed  masons  content  them- 
selves with  supposing  that  the  order  originated 
in  the  associations  which  were  formed  daring 
the  middle  ages  by  masons  and  bnilders,  as 
well  as  by  workmen  belonging  to  other  crafts. 
In  those  times,  when  a  chnrch  or  other  great 
edifice  was  in  process  of  constraction,  workmen 
were  collected  from  all  quarters  and  encamped 
in  hnts  around  it.  They  established  a  regular 
government  with  a  master  at  their  head,  and 
appointed  every  tenth  man  a  warden  to  oversee 
the  others.  They  ranged  from  country  to  coun- 
try, and  established  themselves  wherever  they 
found  churches  to  build.  It  thus  became  im- 
portant for  them  to  be  able  to  make  themselves 
imown  to  each  other  in  strange  countries,  and 
hence  they  devised  a  system  of  secret  signs 
and  symbols.  Whether  these  associations  were 
also  in  possession  of  secret  knowledge  which 
was  essential  in  architecture,  and  was  trans- 
mitted from  one  generation  to  another,  is  a  dis- 
puted point.  It  is  certain  that  the  finest  monu- 
ments of  Gothic  architecture  both-  in  France 
and  England  were  reared  by  architects  who 
were  not  members  of  the  order.  The  building 
of  churches,  however,  was  the  great  work  of 
the  times,  and  the  masonic  associations  were 
held  in  high  esteem  because  of  the  importance 
of  their  services  in  this  work.  They  eiyoyed 
the  especial  favor  and  protection  of  the  pope, 
and  bulls  were  issued  by  which  peculiar  privi- 
leges were  granted  to  them.  They  were  ex- 
empted from  burdens  imposed  upon  other 
workmen,  and  hence  were  styled  "free"  ma- 
sons. Men  of  eminence,  both  ecclesiastics  and 
laymen,  who  were  not  actually  employed  in 
building,  either  as  architects  or  as  masons, 
became  members  of  the  order.  Henry  VI., 
king  of  England,  joined  it,  and  Henry  VII.  was 
grand  master. — Freemasonry,  as  organized  at 
the  present  day,  has  no  connection  whatever 
with  the  art  of  practical  building.  It  is  called 
by  masonic  writers  speculative  masonry,  to 
distingaish  it  from  practical  building,  which  is 
called  operative  masonry.  According  to  these 
writers,  as  the  number  of  persons  not  practical 
builders  who  were  admitted  to  the  order  in- 
creased, operative  masonry  was  gradudly  trans- 
formed into  speculative.  They  refer  to  tbe  ini- 
tiation in  1646  of  tbe  English  antiquary  Elias 
Ashmole,  of  which  a  description  is  found  in  his 
diary,  as  evidence  that  at  that  time  the  opera- 
tive character  of  freemasonry  was  fast  giving 
way  to  the  speculative.  On  the  other  hand, 
writers  who  ao  not  belong  to  the  order  main- 
tain that  modern  freemasonry  never  bad  any 
connection  whatever  with  the  freemasonry  of 
the  middle  ages,  but  was  originally  founded  by 
Ashmole  and  some  of  his  friends,  as  a  piece  of 
mystification,  its  symbols  and  signs  having  been 


borrowed  partly  from  the  knights  templars  and 
partly  from  the  Rosicrucians.  However  this 
may  be,  it  is  certain  that  an  order  of  freema- 
sons was  in  existence  in  London  after  the  great 
fire  of  1666,  and  that  Sir  Christopher  Wren 
was  appointed  grand  master  of  it.  The  inter- 
est in  it  afterward  declined,  perhaps  because  it 
was  neglected  by  Wren  as  he  became  old  and 
infirm ;  so  much  so  that  at  the  beginning  of  the 
18th  century  St.  PauFs  lodge  was  the  only  one, 
or  almost  the  only  one,  in  existence  in  Eng- 
land. In  1702  this  lodge  adopted  a  reflation 
by  which  it  was  provided  tljut  the  privileges 
of  ^lasonry  should  be  extended  to  men  of  vari- 
ous professions,  provided  they  were  regularly 
approved  and  initiated  into  the  order.  The 
four  lodges  in  existence  in  1717  assembled  at 
tlie  Apple  Tree  tavern,  in  Covent  Garden,  and 
constituted  themselves  the  grand  lodge  of  Eng- 
land. The  union  was  formed  on  the  basis  of 
the  regulation  of  1702.  Since  that  time  free- 
masonry has  been,  as  it  is  called,  a  purely  spec- 
ulative system  of  symbolism.  In  1723  the 
grand  lodge  adopted  a  constitution  framed  by 
Anderson,  which  became  the  organic  law  of 
the  order.  As  thus  organized,  it  was  trans- 
planted from  England  into  France  in  1725, 
mto  Ireland  in  1729,  and  within  tbe  next  ten 
years  into  Holland,  Russia,  Spain,  Italy,  Scot- 
land, and  Germany.  An  attempt  was  made  in 
1780  to  introduce  the  organization  into  Amer- 
ica by  the  appointment  of  a  provincial  grand 
master  of  New  Jersey,  but  we  have  no  record 
of  the  incumbent  having  established  any  lodge 
under  the  authority  of  his  deputation .  In  1 788, 
however,  a  lodge  was  opened  at  Boston,  which 
was  speedily  followed  by  the  organization  of 
other  lodges  in  the  different  colonies.  After 
the  assumption  of  independence  by  the  United 
States,  the  lodges  of  America,  all  of  which  de- 
rived their  warrants  of  authority  originally  from 
the  grand  lodge  of  England  or  that  of  Scotland, 
availed  themselves  of  the  privileges  possessed 
by  such  bodies  in  all  independent  countries, 
and  organized  grand  lodges  in  their  respective 
states.  In  no  country  in  the  world  has  free- 
masonry flourished  with  more  vigor  than  in 
the  United  States ;  and  notwithstanding  a  se- 
vere but  ineffectual  opposition  to  it,  which 
commenced  in  1829  by  the  organization  of 
an  anti-masonic  party  (see  Anti-Masonbt),  it 
has  increased  in  numerical  extent  with  such 
steady  progress  that  at  the  present  day  it  nam* 
hers,  in  all  parts  of  the  republic,  several  thou- 
sand lodges,  and  more  than  half  a  million  mem- 
bers. In  the  whole  world  there  were  in  Janu- 
ary, 1873,  upward  of  10,000  lodges,  and  prob- 
ably a  million  freemasons,  including  in  that 
term  not  merely  active  members  of  lodges,  but 
all  who  have  attained  the  degree  of  master 
mason.  In  spite  of  many  attempts  to  suppress 
it  by  both  church  and  state  in  various  countries 
of  Europe,  it  is  firmly  planted  in  every  part  of 
that  continent,  and  many  lodges  have  been 
established  in  Africa  and  Asia.  In  May,  1878, 
a  lodge  was  established  by  Americans  in  the 


472 


FREEPORT 


FREESOILERS 


city  of  Jerusalem ;  and  in  the  preceding  year 
the  grand  lodge  of  Italy  was  opened  in  Rome 
itself.  Its  organization  in  Europe  has  been 
frequently  used  for  political  purposes,  and  es- 
pecially as  a  cloak  to  conspirators  against  the 
governments.  Such  employment  of  it,  how- 
ever, is  a  violation  of  its  constitution,  which 
prohibits  political,  partisan,  or  sectarian  dis- 
cussions in  the  lodges. — The  primary  organiza- 
tion of  the  masonic  fraternity  is  into  lodges, 
which  must  each  be  composed  of  at  least  seven 
master  masons  in  good  standing.  The  first  and 
lowest  degree  of  masonry  is  that  of  entered 
apprentice,  the  second  of  fellow  craft,  the  third 
of  master  mason.  The  officers  of  a  lodge  in  the 
United  States  are:  worshipful  master,  senior 
warden,  junior  warden,  treasurer,  secretary, 
senior  deacon,  junior  deacon,  tiler,  and  chap- 
lain. There  are  also  two  stewards.  The  mas- 
ter, the  wardens,  and  the  tiler  are  essential  to 
any  lodge  organization.  The  tiler  keeps  the 
door  and  guards  against  intrusion.  The  officers 
are  elected  annually  by  ballot.  In  each  state 
of  the  Union  there  is  a  grand  lodge  composed 
of  the  representatives  of  the  suborainate  lodges, 
over  which  it  exercises  a  certain  jurisdiction. 
Its  officers  are  styled  grand  and  deputy  grand 
masters,  grand  wardens,  grand  treasurer,  grand 
secretary,  grand  chaplain,  grand  deacons,  grand 
marshal,  grand  pursuivant,  grand  sword-bearer, 
grand  stewards,  and  grand  tiler.  There  is  also 
a  still  higher  degree  of  masonry,  the  members 
of  which  are  termed  royal  arch  masons,  and 
form  royal  arch  lodges ;  and  beyond  this  there 
is  still  a  long  series  of  degrees  bearing  various 
titles. — The  literature  of  freemasonry  is  exten- 
sive, especially  in  the  German  and  French  lan- 
guages, the  latest  hiblufffraphia  masaniea  con- 
taining titles  of  quite  4,000  books  upon  the  his- 
tory, rituals,  and  belles-lettres  of  the  order. 
Among  the  American  works  best  known  are 
Maokey's  "  Lexicon"  (Philadelphia,  1850) ;  Mor- 
ris's "Lights  and  Shadows"  (1862),  "Poems" 
(1864),  and  "  Dictionary  "  (1867) ;  and  Ma- 
coy's  Cyclopedia"  (1868).  Webb's  "Freema- 
son's Monitor"  (1796),  in  numerous  editions, 
is  still  the  favorite  text  book  of  the  craft. 
" Freemasonry  in  the  Holy  Land"  (1872)  de- 
scribes the  masonic  mission  which  led  to  the 
organization  of  the  lodge  in  Jerusalem. 

FREEPORT,  a  city  and  the  capital  of  Stephen- 
son CO.,  Illinois,  on  the  Pekatonica  river  and 
at  the  intersection  of  the  Western  Union  rail- 
road with  the  Galena  division  of  the  Chicago 
and  Northwestern,  and  the  Northern  division 
of  the  Illinois  Central  line,  108  m.  W.  N.  W. 
of  Chicago;  pop.  in  1860,  1,486;  in  1860, 
6,376;  in  1870,  7,889.  It  is  situated  on  a  fer- 
tile and  undulating  tract  of  land,  and  contains 
one  of  the  finest  court  houses  in  the  state. 
The  principal  manufactories  are  one  of  reapers 
and  wagons,  one  of  chums,  one  of  carpets  and 
coverlets,  a  machine  shop  and  foundery,  a 
planing  mill  and  pump  factory,  a  woollen  mill, 
a  turning  shop,  and  a  tannery.  There  are  two 
national  banks,  with  a  capital  of  $200,000, 


three  weekly  newspapers  (one  German),  two 
monthly  periodicals,  18  churches,  and  20  pub- 
lic schools  (in  1872),  including  a  high  school, 
with  26  teachers  and  1,400  pupils.  Freeport 
college  (Presbyterian)  was  organized  in  1872, 
with  10  professors  and  instructors  and  60  stu- 
dents.   Freeport  was  first  settled  in  1836. 

FREESOILERS,  the  name  of  a  political  party 
in  the  United  States,  founded  upon  the  princi- 
ple of  non-extension  of  slavery  to  the  territo- 
ries. It  was  an  outgrowth  of  the  liberty  party 
in  1846,  and  was  merged  in  the  republican 
party  in  1866.  The  immediate  cause  of  its  es- 
tablishment was  the  acquisition  of  new  terri- 
tory at  the  conclusion  of  the  Mexican  war.  In 
1846,  to  a  bill  in  congress  making  an  appro- 
priation to  negotiate  a  peace  with  Mexico,  Da- 
vid Wilmot,  a  democratic  representative  from 
Pennsylvania,  offered  an  amendment^  known 
as  the  Wilmot  proviso,  "  that  there  shall  be 
neither  slavery  nor  involuntary  servitude  in 
any  territory  on  the  continent  of  America, 
which  shall  hereafter  be  acquired  by  or  annexed 
to  the  United  States  by  virtue  of  this  appropri- 
ation, or  in  any  other  manner  whatsoever,  ex- 
cept for  crime,"  &c.  It  was  carried  in  the 
house,  but  failed  in  the  senate,  and  in  the  next 
session  was  defeated  in  both  branches.  Peace 
with  Mexico,  however,  and  the  consequent  ac- 
quisition of  territory,  made  the  Wilmot  proviso 
of  political  and  practical  importance.  In  both 
the  whig  and  democratic  national  conventions 
in  1846  there  were  delegtites  irom  the  north- 
em  states  who  attempted  to  introduce  into  the 
Earty  platforms  of  that  year  resolutions  pro- 
ibiting  the  extension  of  slavery  to  the  terri- 
tories. The  rejection  of  these  resolutions  led 
to  the  secession  of  a  considerable  number  of 
prominent  men  from  both  parties,  especially  in 
Massachusetts,  NeW  York,  and  Ohio.  In  New 
York  seceding  democrats  were  termed  *'  barn- 
burners," and  their  secession  was  partly  on 
])ersonal  as  well  as  on  anti-slavery  grounds. 
The  seceders  from  both  parties  united,  and 
sent  delegates  from  all  the  free  states,  and 
from  Delaware,  Maryland,  Virginia,  and  the 
District  of  Columbia,  who  met  in  convention 
at  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  Aug.  9,  1848,  and  formed  a 
freesoil  party.  They  nominated  for  president 
and  vice  president  of  the  United  States  Martin 
Van  Buren  and  Charles  Francis  Adams.  In 
November  following  this  ticket  received  a  popu- 
lar vote  of  291,000,  but  did  not  secure  a  single 
electoral  vote.  The  second  national  conven- 
tion of  the  freesoil  party,  at  Pittsburgh,  Pa., 
Aug.  11, 1862,  comprised  delegates  irom  all  the 
free  states,  and  from  Delaware,  Maryland,  Vir- 
ginia, and  Kentucky,  and  nominated  for  presi- 
dent and  vice  president  of  the  United  States 
John  P.  Hale  and  George  W.  Julian,  who  in 
the  election  following  received  a  popular  vote 
of  1 67,000.  The  so-called  compromise  measures 
of  1860  and  the  repe^  of  the  Missouri  compro- 
mise in  1864,  by  the  Kansas-Nebraska  act,  with 
the  political  agitation  following,  for  a  time  gave 
great  prominence  to  the  platform  and  princi- 


FREESTONE 


FREEWILL  BAPTISTS 


473 


pies  of  the  freesoil  party.  It  formed  the  nu- 
cleus of  the  republican  party,  which  was 
founded  in  1856  chiefly  from  the  dissolving 
whig  party.  The  adoption  by  the  republicans 
of  the  freesoil  platform  in  respect  to  slavery 
ended  the  freesoilers  as  a  distinctive  party. 

FREiSTONE,  an  E.  central  county  of  Texas, 
bounded  E.  by  Trinity  river  and  intersected  by 
Pecan  creek ;  area,  900  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
8,189,  of  whom  3,368  were  colored.  It  is 
heavily  timbered.  The  soil  is  fertile  and  well 
watered.  Mineral  springs  exist.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  197,431  bushels  of 
Indian  com,  26,015  of  sweet  potatoes,  and 
6,465  bales  of  cotton.  There  were  8, 640  horses, 
4,981  milch  cows,  14,539  other  cattle,  and  18,- 
489  swine.     Capital,  Fairfield. 

FREE  THUrUSS,  a  name  applied  to  the  op- 
ponents of  Christianity  in  England  in  the  17th 
and  18th  centuries.  Lord  Herbert  of  Cher- 
bury,  Hobbes,  Toland,  Tindal,  Woolston,  Chubb, 
and  Anthony  Collins  were  among  their  most 
noted  writers.  Bolingbroke,  Shaftesbury,  and 
Dayid  Hume  were  counted  among  their  ablest 
representatives.  They  were  never  an  organ- 
ized sect.  The  French  writers,  including  Vol- 
taire, D^Alembert,  Diderot,  and  Helv^tius,  who 
labored  for  the  overthrow  of  Christianity,  and 
who  called  themselves  esprits  forU^  were  in 
England  called  free  thinkers. 

FSEfrrOWN,  a  town  of  W.  Africa,  capital  of 
the  British  colony  of  Sierra  Leone,  on  the  left 
bank  of  Sierra  Leone  river,  about  5  m.  from 
the  sea;  lat.  8''  29'  N.,  Ion.  13**  9'  W.;  pop. 
estimated  at  18,000.  It  is  on  an  inclined  plane, 
50  ft.  above  sea  level  at  high-water  mark.  The 
streets  are  wide,  well  laid  out,  and  ornamented 
with  rows  of  orange,  lime,  banana,  or  cocoa- 
nut  trees.  Several  of  the  houses  are  commo- 
dious and  substantial  stone  buildings.  The 
principal  public  edifices  are  St.  George^s  church, 
the  church  missionary  and  Wesleyan  mission- 
ary institutions,  the  grammar  school,  market 
house,  custom  house,  jail,  and  lunatic  asylum. 
The  govemor^s  residence,  barracks,  and  gov- 
ernment ofiiees  are  on  hills  above  the  town. 
The  navigable  entrance  of  the  Sierra  Leone 
river  is  narrow,  there  being  a  large  shoal  called 
the  BuUom  shoal  in  its  centre. 

IKEEWILL  BAPTISTS,  or  Free  Baptists,  a  de- 
nomination of  evangelical  Christians  in  the 
United  States  and  Canada.  Its  founder  was 
Benjamin  Randall  (1749-1808),  who  was  one 
of  Whitefield^s  hearers  at  Portsmouth,  N.  H., 
Sept.  28,  1770.  The  impression  made  by  the 
sermon,  and  more  especially  by  the  tidings  of 
the  preach  er^s  death  two  days  later,  resulted 
in  his  con  version.  At  first  a  Congregationalist, 
he  connected  himself  in  1776  with  the  Baptist 
church  in  South  Berwick,  Me.,  and  soon  after 
entered  the  ministry,  but  was  called  to  account 
for  preaching  a  doctrine  different  from  that  of 
his  brethren.  In  1780  he  organized  in  New 
Durham,  N.  H.,  a  church  holding  views  simi- 
lar to  his  own,  which  was  the  nucleus  of  the 
new  denomination.    The  distinctive  tenets  of 


Randall  and  his  coadjutors  were  the  doctrines 
of  free  salvation  and  open  communion,  as  op- 
posed to  those  of  election  and  close  communion 
held  by  the  Calvinistio  Baptists.  They  also 
insisted  upon  the  freedom  of  the  will,  as  essen- 
tial to  man  as  a  subject  of  moral  government, 
and  therefore  as  inviolable  by  the  divine  sov- 
ereignty, and  not  to  be  contravened  by  any 
explanation  of  it.  Their  opponents  styled 
them  "  General  Provisioners,"  "Freewill  Bap- 
tists," and  "  Free  Baptists,"  by  the  second  of 
which  names  they  have  usually  been  desig- 
nated, though  the  last  is  now  preferred  in 
some  of  their  own  publications.  In  govern- 
ment they  are  congregational.  The  first  church 
held  a  conference  once  a  month,  which  was  call- 
ed a  monthly  meeting.  When  other  churches 
were  formed  in  neighboring  localities,  a  gen- 
eral quarterly  meeting  by  delegation  was  held. 
As  Randall  and  his  associates  travelled  and  ex- 
tended the  denomination  through  New  Hamp- 
shire and  the  adjacent  states,  numerous  quar- 
terly meetings  were  organized,  and  yearly 
meetings  were  instituted,  consisting  of  dele- 
gates from  associated  quarterly  meetings.  The 
organization  was  completed  by  the  institution 
in  1827  of  the  general  conference,  composed 
of  delegates  from  all  the  yearly  meetings,  which 
convenes  once  in  three  years.  To  all  these 
bodies  the  laity  and  clergy  are  alike  eligible, 
and  they  all  combine  the  services  of  public 
worship  with  the  discussion  and  decision  of 
questions  of  business  and  benevolence.  In 
1827  a  correspondence  was  opened  between 
the  Freewill  Baptists  of  New  England  and  a 
few  churches  in  North  Carolina  of  similar  sen- 
timents, the  result  of  which  was  that  the  lat- 
ter in  1828  pubhshed  their  records  as  the 
"Minutes  of  the  Freewill  Baptist  Annual  Con- 
ference of  North  Carolina."  They  soon  num- 
bered 45  churches  and  about  8,000  members, 
and,  though  never  formally  united  with  the 
denomination  in  the  north,  maintained  a  con- 
stant correspondence  with  it.  In  1839  Dr. 
William  M.  Housley  of  Kentucky,  once  a  close 
communion  Baptist  clergyman,  who  for  doctri- 
nal reasons  had  taken  a  letter  of  dismission 
and  commendation  from  his  former  connection, 
attended  the  general  conference  of  the  Free- 
will Baptists  at  Conneaut,  Ohio,  and  there  ap- 
plied for  ordination  to  the  ministry.  He  had 
already  been  admitted  to  the  church  in  that 
place.  There  was  a  prospect  of  a  large  ac- 
cession to  the  sect  from  Kentucky,  and  a  coun- 
cil reported  that  Dr.  Housley  had  approved 
himself  qualified  for  the  sacred  ofiSce,  except- 
ing only  that  he  was  a  slaveholder.  But  for 
this  reason  alone  the  council  declined  to  "  or- 
dain him  as  a  minister  or  fellowship  him  as  a 
Christian,"  and  the  general  conference  after  a 
spirited  discussion  voted  without  opposition 
"  that  the  decision  of  the  council  is  highly  satis- 
factory." The  connection  of  the  denomination 
with  slaveholding  churches  in  North  and  South 
Carolina  was  brought  before  the  same  confer- 
ence, and  was  entirely  dissolved.    From  that 


474 


FREEWILL  BAPTISTS 


FBEEZIKG 


time  the  Freewill  Baptists  maintained  the  po- 
sition then  taken  on  the  question  of  slavery, 
and  the  work  of  the  denomination  was  con- 
fined mostly  to  the  northern  states  until  after 
the  aholition  of  slavery.  Since  then  much  ef- 
fort has  been  expended  in  educating  the  freed 
Eeople  and  gathering  them  into  churches.  In 
touisiana  and  in  the  Shenandoah  and  Mis- 
sissippi valleys  schools  have  been  estkblished 
and  churches  organized,  and  with  the  latter 
about  4,000  colored  people  have  united.  Some 
of  the  white  churches  in  the  south,  holding 
similar  views  of  doctrine  and  polity,  have  en- 
tered into  correspondence  that  looks  toward  a 
formal  union.  There  are  several  benevolent 
societies  of  denominational  interest,  supported 
and  encouraged  by  all  the  churches.  The  princi- 
pal of  these  are  the  foreign  and  home  mission 
societies,  and  the>edncational  society,  and  by  all 
of  them  an  aggregate  sum  averaging  about 
$80,000  is  raised  annually.  They  celebrate 
anniversary  meetings  together  in  the  autumn, 
which  are  numerously  attended.  The  foreign 
mission  society  has  several  stations  in  Orissa, 
India.  The  Freewill  Baptists  have  recently 
given  special  attention  to  the  interests  of 
education,  and  since  1847  have  raised  nearly 
$1,000,000  for  educational  purposes.  They 
have  a  flourishing  college  at  Lewiston,  Me., 
and  another  at  Hillsdale,  Mich.,  to  which  pu- 
pils of  both  sexes  and  all  colors  are  admitted, 
a  theological  department  in  each  of  these  in- 
stitutions, and  seminaries  of  high  grade  and 
repute  in  eight  or  ten  different  states.  The  de- 
nominational printing  establishment  is  at  Do- 
ver, N.  H.,  where  are  published  the  "  Morning 
Star,"  which  for  nearly  50  years  has  been  the 
weekly  organ,  and  a  variety  of  denominational, 
Sunday  school,  and  miscellaneous  books.  Bi- 
ographies have  been  <  published  of  Randall, 
Colby,  Marks,  Phinney,  Martin  Cheney,  and 
other  clergymen,  which  throw  light  upon  the 
history  and  spirit  of  the  denomination.  A 
history  of  the  Freewill  Baptists  is  in  prepara- 
tion under  the  direction  of  the  general  con- 
ference, one  volume  of  which  has  been  issued. 
In  1800  the  whole  number  of  communicants 
was  less  than  8,000.  In  1829,  when  complete 
returns  were  for  the  first  time  obtained,  there 
were  8  yearly  meetings,  22  quarterly  meet- 
ings, 811  churches,  268  ministers,  and  12,860 
communicants.  There  are  now  (1874)  86 
yearly  meetings,  161  quarterly  meetings,  1,504 
churches,  1,269  ministers,  and  70,576  commu- 
nicants. They  are  found  in  nearly  all  the 
states,  but  are  most  numerous  in  New  England. 
There  is  also  in  New  Brunswick  and  Nova 
Scotia  a  separate  and  rapidly  increasing  con- 
ference of  Free  Baptists,  having  about  9,000 
members,  who  are  not  included  in  the  above 
computation.  They  have  a  weekly  newspa- 
'  per,  the  "Religious  Intelligencer,"  published 
at  St.  John,  N.  B.  The  Freewill  Baptists  hold 
correspondence  by  letters  and  delegations  with 
the  General  Baptists  of  England,  with  whom 
they  agree  in  doctrine. 


FSEEZniG,  Arflidal,  the  reduction  of  the 
temperature  of  fluids  to  such  an  extent  as  to 
render  them  solid.  It  is  usually  applied  to 
the  freezing  of  water  and  of  articles  of  food. 
There  are  two  general  methods  of  efi^ecting 
artificial  freezing,  viz.,  by  liquefaction  and  by 
vaporization  and  expansion.  The  method  by 
liauefaction  is  performed  by  freezing  mixtures, 
which  are  formed  by  mixing  together  two 
or  more  bodies,  one  or  all  of  which  may  be 
solid.  They  are  generally  used  in  vessels 
having  three  or  four  concentric  apartments: 
an  inner  one,  containing  the  article  to  be  fro- 
zen; one  eccentric  to  this,  containing  the 
freezing  mixture,  provided  with  some  con- 
trivance for  agitation;  one  again  outside  of 
this,  filled  with  a  non-conductor  of  heat,  as 
powdered  charcoal,  gypsum,  or  cotton  wool ; 
and  sometimes  one  between  them  for  holding 
water.  The  following  table  contains  a  list  of 
the  more  important  freezing  mixtures,  with 
the  reduction  of  temperature  each  is  capable 
of  effecting : 


SUBSTANCES. 


Snow  or  powdered  loe 

Common  salt 

Bnlphate  of  soda 

Hydrochloric  add 

Sulphate  of  soda 

Nitrate  of  ammonia. 

DUnte  nitric  add 

Phoaphate  of  aoda 

Dilute  nitric  add 

Snow  or  powdered  ice 

CrystaUoed  chloride  of  oaldum. 


Put!  by 
weight. 


Reduction  of 
pomtara. 


fiO'tO    0*P. 

60*  to   l-0» 

50'  to  — U-W 

fiO'to— 2tr 
82'  to  — 64-4«» 


The  method  of  freezing  by  vaporization  and 
expansion  depends  upon  principles  explained 
in  the  articles  Boiling  Foist,  Evapobatioit, 
and  Heat.  Among  the  most  efficient  appa- 
ratus for  conducting  the  process  is  that  of 
M.  GarrS  of  France.  A  strong  galvanized 
wrought-iron  boiler,  capable  of  sustaining  a 
pressure  of  eight  or  ten  atmospheres,  is  con- 
nected by  a  tube  with  a  freezer,  also  made  of 
galvanized  iron  and  of  corresponding  strength, 
consisting  of  two  compartments,  an  outer  an- 
nular one,  connected  with  the  boiler,  and  an 
inner  one,  for  receiving  the  vessel  which  con- 
tains the  water  or  liquid  to  be  frozen.  The 
connection  between  the  boiler  and  freezer  may 
be  controlled  either  by  stopcocks  or  by  self- 
acting  valves.  A  saturated  solution  of  ammo- 
nia is  introduced  into  the  boiler,  and  the  freezer 
is  placed  in  a  cold  bath.  Heat  sufficient  to 
produce  a  pressure  of  five  or  six  atmospheres 
is  applied  to  the  boiler,  which  expels  the  gas 
from  the  water  in  which  it  is  dissolved,  and 
forces  it  into  the  annular  compartment  of  tbe 
freezer,  where  it  is  condensed  by  its  own  pres- 
sure, aided  by  the  cool  bath,  along  with  abont 
one  tenth  its  weight  of  water.  When  sufficient 
ammonia  has  been  condensed,  which  is  shown 
by  the  pressure  indicated  by  a  gauge,  or  ap- 
proximately by  a  thermometer,  the  boiler  it- 
self is  placed  in  a  cold  bath ;  the  cylinder  con- 


FREIBEBQ 

taining  the  vater  to  be  trozm  is  placed  in  the 
inner  compartmeDt  of  the  freezer,  end  to  in- 
eure  contact  the  interstice  is  filled  with  al- 
cohol As  the  boiler  cools,  the  preasure  which 
had  been  produced  b;  beat  is  ^''^uall;  re- 
moved, and  the  liqaid  ammonia  in  the  tro6i6t 
beoomes  vaporized,  produciDg  an  intense  de- 
gree of  cold.  In  a  little  more  than  an  hour  a 
block  of  ice  ma;  be  frozen.  An  apparatus  in 
use  is  Bsid  to  be  capable  of  prodaciog  800  lbs. 
of  ice  in  ao  hoar. 

nEIIEKG,  or  FrcjWrg,  a  walled  town  of 
Saxony,  on  the  N.  declivity  of  the  Erzgebirge, 
and  on  the  river  MQnzbach,  IQ  m.  S.  W.  of 
Dresden;  pop.  m  18T1,  21,073.  It  is  a  well 
built  town,  containing  handsome  monuments 
to  Maurice  of  Saiooy,  and  to  Werner,  the 
miseralogist,  and  a  fine  Gothic  cathedral.  The 
mining  academy,  foanded  in  ITSS,  has  a  mu- 
seum of  model  mining  machines,  and  a  library 
of  abont  20,000  volumes.  It  is  one  of  the  best 
mining  echools  in  the  world,  and  in  ISTS  had 
86  students  from  nearly  all  countries,  inclnding 
16  from  the  United  States.  The  town  has  also 
a  gymDaslum  and  a  commercial  school.  The 
staple  manufactures  consist  of  gold  snd  silver 
lace,  brasaware,  white  lead,  gunpowder,  shot, 
iron  and  copper  ware,  linens,  woollens,  ribbons, 
tape,  leather,  and  beer.  Freiberg  is  an  ancient 
city,  aod  was  long  the  residence  of  the  Saion 
princes.  It  has  mines  of  silver-bearing  lead, 
which  have  been  worked  since  the  12th  cen- 
tury. The  richest  veins  have  been  driven  so 
deep  that  their  productiveness  has  diminished 
on  account  of  the  accumulation  of  water.  For 
the  pur]iose  of  draining  them,  a  tunnel  through 
the  mountains  to  the  Elbe  at  Meissen,  dis- 
tant 24  m.,  has  been  commenced.  The  dis- 
trict contains  160  mines,  yielding  silver,  lead, 
copper,  cobalt,  and  other  minerals,  employ- 
ing in  16T3  about  1,300  persons;  the  aggre- 
gate value  of  the  products  amounted  in  the 
same  year  to  4,000,000  thalers. 

FSEIBCBfi  (Ger.  Freihurg  im  Brtugau),  a 
city  of  Germany,  in  the  grand  duchy  of  Baden, 
capital  of  the  circle  of  the  Upper  Rhine,  in  the 
ola  district  of  Breisgau,  on  the  Dreisam,  72 
m.  8.  S.  W.  of  Cnrlsruhe,  and  83  m.  N.  E.  of 
Basel;  pop.  in  1S71,24,SS9.  It  is  940  ft  above 
the  level  of  the  sea,  on  the  outskirts  of  the 
Black  Forest,  at  the  month  of  the  IlOUenthal. 
The  town  was  several  times  captured  by  the 
French,  who  in  1744  destroyed  its  fortifica- 
tions, and  in  their  place  public  walks  and  vine- 
yards have  been  laid  out.  The  streets  are  in 
genera]  open  and  well  built,  partioularly  the 
Kaiserstrasse,  which  is  remarkable  for  its  width 
and  the  excellence  of  its  houses.  Since  1827 
the  town  has  been  the  seat  of  the  archbishop 
of  the  ecclesiastical  province  of  the  Upper 
Rhine.  In  1454aQniversity  was  founded  here, 
which  has  a  library  of  more  than  100,000  vol- 
nmes,  and  in  1873  had  GO  professors  and  2T5 
students.  It  has  a  faculty  of  Catholic  theoloffy. 
The  principal  public  edifices  are  the  archi- 
episcopal  and  ducal  palaces;   the  cathedral, 


FBEIUGRATH  475 

one  of  the  most  beautiful  and  perfect  speci- 
mens of  Gothic  architecture  in  Germany ;  the 
government  offices,  courts  of  justice,  town  ball, 
museum,  theatre,  gymnasium,  orphan  asylum, 


Tha  dlhsdnl  of  FnUwtg. 

hospitals,  and  seminaries.  The  comer  stone 
of  a  new  Protestant  church  was  laid  April  7, 
16T4.    The  manufactures  include  leather,  pa- 


Mannheim  railway  passes  through  Freiburg. 

FKElBCBfi,  a  town  and  a  canton  of  SwiUer- 
land.    See  Fribocbo. 

FEEIBUKG  UNTiaui  FCsSTENSTEUr,  a  town 
of  Prussia,  in  the  province  of  Silesia,  on  the 
Polsnitz,  35  m.  W.  8.  W.  of  Brealau;  pop.  in 
1871,  6,792.  The  principal  establishment  is  a 
flax  spinuery,  but  there  are  also  manufactories 
of  woollen  and  cotton  gooA  and  tobacco,  dis- 
tilleries, lime  kilns,  and  tile  works.  The  town 
is  surrounded  by  walls,  with  three  gates,  and 
baa  three  suburbs.  In  the  vicinity  is  the  ex- 
tensive dom^n  of  FQrstenstein,  with  the  old 
and  modern  castles  of  that  name,  the  latter 
bnilt  in  medieval  style  and  celebrated  for  its 
picturesque  si' 


,  a    German    poet, 

17, 1810,  died  March  18, 
1878.  After  leaving  the  gymnasium,  he  became 
a  mercantile  clerk  at  Soeat,  Amsterdam,  and 
Barmen.  His  first  productions  were  published 
in  the  Mutejialmanaeh  in  1S83.  He  brought 
oat  a  volume  of  poems  in  18811,  which  was  so 


476 


FREISING 


FRELINGHUYSEN' 


favorably  received  that  he  gave  up  his  sitaa- 
tion,  and  removed  to  Darmstadt.  In  1842  he 
received  from  the  king  of  Prussia  a  pension  of 
$300,  and  removed  to  St.  Goar  on  the  Rhine. 
The  liberal  partj,  with  whom  he  was  strongly 
allied  in  sentiment,  being  offended  at  his  ac- 
ceptance of  a  royal  pension,  he  gave  it  up  in 
1844,  and  in  that  year  his  OlauhenghehenntniM 
(''  Confession  of  Faith  ^^)  subjected  him  to  po- 
litical persecution  which  drove  him  abroad. 
'He  went  to  Belgium,  to  Switzerland,  and  finally 
to  England,  where  German  merchants  gave 
him  employment.  In  1848,  on  the  invitation 
of  Longfellow,  he  had  engaged  a  passage  to 
the  United  States,  when  the  revolutionary 
movement  in  Germany  determined  him  to  re- 
turn to  his  own  country.  He  settled  in  DUs- 
seldorf,  and  by  his  popular  lyrics  greatly  in- 
creased the  enthusiasm  of  the  democratic  par- 
ty. His  poem  Die  Todten  an  die  Lebenden 
(*'The  Dead  to  the  Living^')  subjected  him 
to  indictment  and  prosecution  by  the  govern- 
ment He  was  defended  by  celebrated  law- 
yers, and  his  trial  produced  an  intense  excite- 
ment On  his  acquittal  (Oct  8, 1848)  the  poem 
was  in  immediate  demand,  numerous  editions 
were  issued,  and  it  was  circulated  all  over 
German V.  This  is  said  to  have  been  the  first 
instance  in  Prussia  of  a  jury  trial  for  a  political 
crime.  Being  still  exposed  to  persecution  by 
the  government,  Freiligrath  returned  to  Lon- 
don in  1851,  and  was  subjected  to  many  trials 
until  he  became  connected  with  the  London 
branch  of  the  bank  of  Switzerland ;  but  the 
suspension  of  this  institution  in  1866  placed  him 
again  in  difficulties,  from  which  he  was  relieved 
by  a  national  subscription  taken  up  by  his 
friends  and  admirers  in  Germany,  which  placed 
him  in  possession  of  a  handsome  income.  From 
1868  he  resided  in  Oanstatt  During  the  Fran- 
co-German wur  he  wrote  numerous  patriotic 
songs  which  became  popular.  His  principal 
works  are:  Gediehte  (Stuttgart,  1838;  81st 
ed.,  1874),  Die  Bevolution  (L^ipsic,  1848),  and 
Nenere  politiiche  und  soeiale  Gediehte  (Co- 
logne, 1849).  A  complete  edition  of  his  works 
in  6  volumes  appeared  in  New  York  in  1868-'9, 
and  in  Stuttgart  in  1870.  Freiligrath  was  also 
an  extensive  compiler  and  tran8lat-'>r.  Among 
his  most  importai\(  translations  are  portions 
of  Shakespeare,  Mrs.  Hemans,  and  Tennyson, 
the  whole  of  Burns,  and  Longfellow^s  ^^  Hia- 
watha." A  selection,  by  his  daughter,  from 
the  English  translations  of  his  poems  was  pub- 
lished in  the  Tauchnitz  **  Collection  of  German 
Authors"  (Leipsic,  1869). 

REI81NG,  Freyriing,  or  FrcMigfa,  a  town  of 
Bavaria,  in  the  district  of  Upper  Bavaria,  on 
the  Isar,  20  m.  N.  E.  of  Munich ;  pop.  in  1871, 
7,778.  It  has  a  theological  faculty,  a  gymna- 
sium, a  normal  school,  and  five  churches.  Kear 
it  is  the  former  abbey  of  Weihenstephan,  now 
a  royal  castle,  and  (since  1852)  a  normal  agri- 
cultural establishment  with  a  celebrated  agri- 
cultural school.  In  724  a  bishopric  was  estab- 
lished at  Freising,  which  on  the  reorganization 


of  the  Catholic  church  in  Bavaria  in  1802  was 
united  with  the  new  archbishopric  of  Munich, 
whose  occupant  bears  the  title  of  archbishop 
of  Munich  and  Freising. 

FRfeJDS  (anc.  Forum  Julii),  a  maritime  town 
of  S.  France,  in  the  department  of  Var,  on  an 
eminence  overlooking  the  sea  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Argens,  45  m.  N.  £.  of  Toulon ;  pop.  in  1866, 
2,887;  with  the  suburb  of  St  Raphael,  3,050. 
It  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop  and  a  commercial 
court,  and  has  an  episcopal  seminary,  a  library, 
and  a  hospital.  Its  manufactures  are  corks, 
soap,  oil,  and  wine.  The  town  was  founded 
by  a  colony  from  Massilia,  and  is  supposed  to 
have  derived  its  name  from  Julius  C»sar.  Au- 
gustus made  it  a  naval  station,  and  kept  there 
the  ships  taken  at  the  battle  of  Actium.  The 
ancient  harbor  is  now  entirely  filled  up  by  the 
deposits  of  the  river,  and  the  moles  at  its  en- 
trance are  8,000  ft.  from  the  sea.  Among  the 
Roman  remains  are  an  aqueduct  that  can  be 
traced  more  than  24  m.  up  the  valley  of  the 
Siagnolle,  an  amphitheatre  650  ft.  in  circum- 
ference, a  triumphal  arch,  and  the  pharos. 
Fr^jus  was  the  birthplace  of  Julius  Agricola 
and  of  the  abb6  Sieyds. 

FRELUVGHIJYSEN.  I.  FMerIck,  an  American 
statesman,  bom  in  New  Jersey,  April  13, 1753, 
died  April  13,  1804.  He  graduated  at  Prince- 
ton college  in  1770,  and  in  1775  was  sent  as  a 
delegate  from  New  Jersey  to  the  continental 
congress.  He  served  with  distinction  aa  cap- 
tdn  of  a  volunteer  corps  of  artillery  at  the  bat- 
tles of  Trenton  and  Monmouth,  and  in  the  for- 
mer, it  is  said,  shot  Col.  Rahl,  the  commander 
of  the  Hessians.  He  was  promoted  to  be  colo- 
nel, and  served  during  the  remainder  of  the 
war.  After  the  peace  he  filled  various  state 
and  county  ofiSces,  and  in  1790,  when  the  New 
Jersey  and  Pennsylvania  troops  were  called  to 
take  part  in  the  expedition  against  the  western 
Indians,  he  was  appointed  migor  general  hj 
President  Washington.  In  1798  he  was  elected 
a  senator  of  the  United  States,  which  post  he 
occupied  for  three  years,  when,  in  consequence 
of  domestic  bereavement  he  resigned,  and  de- 
voted  the  remainder  of  nis  life  to  his  family 
and  private  afiairs.  IL  The«l«re,  an  American 
statesman,  son  of  the  preceding,  bom  at  Mill- 
stone, Somerset  co.,  N.  J.,  ^rch  28,  1787, 
died  in  New  Brunswick,  N.  J.,  April  12,  1862. 
He  graduated  at  Princeton  college  in  1804,  and 
in  1808  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  where  he 
soon  became  distinguished  as  an  eloquent  ad- 
vocate. During  the  war  with  Great  Britain  in 
1812-U6,  he  raised  and  commanded  a  company 
of  volunteers.  In  1817  he  was  elected  attor- 
ney general  of  New  Jersey  by  a  legislature  op- 
posed to  him  in  politics,  and  held  the  post  till 
1829,  when  he  was  chosen  United  Stales  sena- 
tor. In  the  senate  Mr.  Frelinghuysen  acted 
with  the  whig  party.  He  exerted  himself  in 
behalf  of  the  Indians,  advocated  the  bill  to 
suppress  the  carrying  of  mails  on  the  sabbath, 
supported  Mr.  Clay^s  resolution  for  a  national 
fast  in  the  season  of  the  cholera,  spoke  in  favor 


FRfiMIET 


FREMONT 


477 


of  the  extension  of  the  pension  system,  and 
acted  in  unison  with  Mr.  Clay  on  the  questions 
of  the  tariff  and  the  compromise  act  of  1838. 
In  1888  he  was  chosen  chancellor  of  the  uni- 
versity of  New  York,  and  took  up  his  residence 
in  that  city.  In  May,  1844,  the  whig  national 
convention  at  Baltimore  nominated  him  for 
vice  president  and  Henry  Clay  for  president. 
They  received  105  electoral  votes,  while  James 
E.  Folk  and  George  M.  Dallas  received  170 
votes.  In.  1850  Mr.  Frelinghuysen  resigned 
the  chancellorship  of  the  university  of  New 
York  to  hecome  president  of  Rutgers  college, 
New  Brunswick,  N.  J.,  and  removed  to  that 
city,  where  he  resided  until  his  death. — See 
"Memoir  of  the  Life  of  T.  Frelinghuysen,"  by 
T.  W.  Chambers.  III.  Frederick  Theodere,  an 
American  statesman,  nephew  and  adopted  son 
of  the  preceding,  bom  at  Milltowa,  Somerset 
CO.,  N.  J.,  Aug.  4, 1817.  He  graduated  at  Rut- 
gers college  in  1836,  was  admitted  to  the  bar 
in  1889,  was  appointed  attorney  general  of  the 
state  in  1861,  and  reappointed  in  1866.  He 
was  appointed  United  States  senator  in  1866 
to  fill  a  vacancy,  and  was  elected  in  1867  for 
the  rest  of  the  term,  which  expired  in  1869. 
In  the  following  year  he  was  chosen  senator 
for  the  term  beginning  in  1871. 

FRfeMIET,  Emmnel,  a  French  sculptor,  born 
in  Paris  about  1824.  He  acquired  the  rudi- 
ments of  his  art  in  the  studio  of  his  uncle,  the 
late  Francois  Rude,  and  was  employed  in  an- 
atomical labors  at  the  clinic  of  the  medical 
school.  In  1848  he  exhibited  the  picture  of  a 
gazelle,  and  in  1850  one  of  a  wounded  dog, 
which  made  him  famous  as  a  rival  of  Barye. 
The  ministry  of  state  purchased  in  1858  his 
"  Horse  at  Montfaucon,"  and  subsequently  his 
"Gallic  Cavalier."  He  has  executed  many 
other  works,  including  equestrian  statues  of 
Napoleon  I.  and  III.,  and  numerous  statuettes. 
Among  his  later  productions  is  the  "Trans- 
formation of  Neptune  into  a  Horse  "  (1868). 

FREMOHrr.  I*  A  S.  W.  county  of  Iowa,  bor- 
dering on  Missouri,  and  bounded  W.  by  the 
Missouri  river,  which  separates  it  from  Ne- 
braska; area  about  500  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
11,174.  It  has  a  rich  soil  and  a  diversified 
surface,  with  extensive  prairies  and  timber 
land,  watered  by  Nishnabatona  river.  The 
St  Joseph  and  Council  Bluffs  railroad  passes 
through  the  county.  The  chief  productions  in 
1870  were  81,521  bushels  of  wheat,  1,650,863 
of  Indian  com,  58,122  of  oats,  66,206  of  pota- 
toes, and  147,811  lbs.  of  butter.  There  were 
4,411  horses,  12,209  cattle,  5,174  sheep,  and 
26,799  swine ;  4  manufactories  of  carriages  and 
wagons,  4  of  brooms  and  wisp  brushes,  9  of 
bricks,  6  of  saddlery  and  harness,  4  of  tin,  cop- 
per, and  sheet-iron  ware,  1  pork-packing  estab- 
lishment, 6  flour  mills,  and  1 0  saw  mills.  Capital, 
Sidney.  II.  A  8.  central  county  of  Colorado, 
intersected  by  the  Arkansas  river,  and  bounded 
8.  W.  by  the  Rocky  mountains,  which  also  oc- 
cupy the  N.  portion ;  area  about  2,200  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  1,064.    The  surface  is  generally 


broken ;  the  valleys  are  fertile  and  well  watered. 
Bituminous  coal,  gypsum,  marble,  alum,  and 
petroleum  are  found.  The  chief  productions  in 
1870  were  5,511  bushels  of  wheat,  16,585  of 
Indian  com,  and  8,096  of  oats.  The  value  of 
live  stock  was  $71,104.    Capital,  Cafton  City. 

FREKOUrr,  a  city  and  the  capital  of  Sandus- 
ky CO.,  Ohio,  on  the  W.  bank  of  Sandusky  riv- 
er, which  is  crossed  by  a  bridge,  at  the  head 
of  navigation,  and  at  the  intersection  of  the 
Lake  Shore  and  the  Lake  Erie  and  Louisville 
railroads,  100  m.  N.  of  Columbus;  pop.  in  1870, 
5,455.  The  city  has  considerable  trade,  lines 
of  steamers  mnning  to  the  principal  ports  of 
Lake  Erie,  and  contains  a  national  bank,  three 
weekly  newspapers,  17  public  schools,  including 
a  high  school,  and  manufactories  of  woollens, 
sashes  and  blinds,  flour,  and  iron.  It  was  for- 
merly called  Lower  Sandusky. 

FSENONT,  Jehu  Charles,  an  American  explorer 
and  soldier,  bom  in  Savannah,  Ga.,  Jan.  21, 
1818.  His  father  was  a  Frenchman  who  had 
settled  in  Norfolk,  Va.,  where  he  supported 
himself  by  teaching  his  native  language.  He 
died  in  1818.  His  widow,  a  Virginian,  whose 
maiden  name  was  Whiting,  with  three  infant 
children  settled  in  Charleston,  S.  C.  At  the 
age  of  15  John  Charles  entered  the  junior  class 
of  Charleston  college.  For  some  time  he  stood 
high,  and  made  remarkable  attainments  in 
mathematics ;  but  his  inattention  and  frequent 
absences  at  length  caused  his  expulsion.  After 
this  he  obtained  employment  as  a  private 
teacher  of  mathematics,  and  took  charge  at 
the  same  time  of  an  evening  school.  In  1888 
he  became  teacher  of  mathematics  on  board  of 
the  sloop  of  war  Natchez,  then  in  the  port  of 
Charleston,  from  which  she  sailed  on  a  cruise 
to  the  coast  of  South  America.  Fremont  was 
absent  in  her  for  more  than  two  years,  and  on 
his  return  passed  a  rigorous  examination  at 
Baltimore  for  the  post  of  professor  of  mathe- 
matics in  the  navy,  and  was  appointed  to  the 
frigate  Independence ;  but  he  soon  resolved  to 
quit  the  sea,  and  engaged  as  a  surveyor  and 
engineer  on  a  railroad  line  between  Charleston 
and  Augusta,  Ga.  Subsequently  he  assisted 
in  the  survey  of  the  railroad  line  from  Charles- 
ton to  Cincinnati,  and  particularly  in  the  ex- 
ploration of  the  mountain  passes  between  North 
Carolina  and  Tennessee.  This  work  being  sus- 
pended in  the  autumn  of  1887,  he  accompanied 
Capt  Williams  of  the  army  in  a  military  recon- 
noissance  of  the  mountainous  Cherokee  conn' 
try  in  Georgia,  North  Carolina,  and  Tennessee. 
In  anticipation  of  hostilities  with  the  Indians, 
this  survey  was  rapidly  made  in  the  depth  of 
winter,  and  was  Fremont's  first  experience  of 
a  campaign  amid  mountain  snows.  In  1838-^9 
he  accompanied  M.  Nicollet  in  explorations 
of  the  country  between  the  Missouri  and  the 
British  line.  While  thus  engaged  in  1838,  he 
received  from  President  Van  Buren,  under  date 
of  July  7,  a  commission  as  second  lieutenant  in 
the  corps  of  topogi*aphical  engineers.  While 
at  Washington  in  1840,  employed  in  the  prep- 


478 


FREMONT 


aration  of  the  report  of  these  expeditions,  he 
became  acqaainted  with  Miss  Jessie  Benton,  a 
daughter  of  Col.  Thomas  H.  Benton,  at  that 
time  a  senator  from  Missoari.  An  engagement 
was  formed,  bat  as  the  lady  was  only  15  years 
of  age,  her  parents  objected  to  the  match,  and 
suddenly,  probably  through  the  potent  influ- 
ence of  Col.  Benton,  the  young  officer  received 
from  the  war  department  a  peremptory  order  to 
make  an  examination  of  the  river  Des  Moines 
on  the  western  frontier.  The  survey  was 
rapidly  executed,  and  shortly  ai'ter  his  return 
from  this  duty  the  lovers  were  secretly  mar- 
ried, Oct.  19,  1841.  In  the  following  year 
Fremont  projected  a  geographical  survey  of  the 
entire  territory  of  the  United  States  from  the 
Missouri  river  to  the  Pacific  ocean.  He  applied 
to  the  war  department  for  employment  on  this 
service,  and  received  instructions  to  explore  the 
Eocky  mountains,  and  particularly  to  examine 
the  South  pass.  He  left  Washington  May  2, 
1842,  and  accomplished  his  task  successfully  in 
the  course  of  four  months,  having  carefully  ex- 
amined the  South  pass,  and  explored  the  Wind 
River  mountains,  ascending  their  highest  point, 
since  known  as  Fremont^s  peak  (13,570  ft). 
His  report  of  the  expedition  was  laid  before 
congress  in  the  winter  of  1842-^3,  and  attract- 
ed great  attention  both  at  home  and  abroad. 
Immediately  after  its  publication  Fremont 
planned  a  second  expedition,  much  more  com- 
prehensive than  the  first.  He  determined  to 
extend  his  explorations  across  the  continent, 
and  to  survey  the  then  unknown  region  lying 
between  the  Rocky  mountains  and  the  Pacific 
ocean.  In  May,  1843,  he  commenced  his  jour- 
ney with  39  men,  and  on  Sept.  6,  after  travel- 
ling more  than  1,700  miles,  came  in  sight  of 
the  Great  Salt  lake,  of  which  no  accurate  ac- 
count had  ever  been  given,  and  of  which  very 
vague  and  erroneous  notions  were  entertained. 
His  investigations  effected  important  rectifica- 
tions in  our  geographical  knowledge  of  this 
portion  of  the  continent,  and  had  subsequently 
a  powerful  influence  in  promoting  the  settle- 
ment of  Utah  and  of  the  Pacific  states.  From 
the  Great  Salt  lake  he  proceeded  to  the  upper 
tributaries  of  the  Columbia,  whose  valley  he 
descended  till  he  reached  Fort  Vancouver,  near 
the  mouth  of  that  river.  On  Nov.  10  he  sei 
out  on  his  return  to  the  states.  He  selected  a 
S.  £.  route,  leading  from  the  lower  part  of  the 
Columbia  to  the  upper  Colorado,  through  an 
almost  unknown  region,  crossed  by  high  and 
rugged  mountain  chains.  He  soon  encountered 
deep  snows,  which  forced  him  to  descend  into 
the  great  basin,  and  presently  found  himself  in 
the  depth  of  winter  in  a  desert,  with  the  pros- 
pect of  death  to  his  whole  party  from  cold  and 
hunger.  By  astronomical  observation  he  found 
that  he  was  in  the  latitude  of  the  bay  of  San 
Francisco,  but  between  him  and  the  valleys  of 
California  was  a  range  of  mountains  covered 
with  snows  which  the  Indians  declared  no  man 
could  cross,  and  over  which  no  reward  could 
induce  them  to  attempt  to  guide  him.    Fremont 


undertook  the  passage  without  a  guide,  and  ac- 
complished it  in  40  days,  reaching  Sutter^s  Fort 
on  the  Sacramento  early  in  March,  with  bis 
men  reduced  almost  to  skeletons,  and  with  only 
33  out  of  67  horses  and  mules  remaining.  He 
resumed  his  journey  March  24,  and  proceed- 
ing southward,  skirted  the  western  base  of  the 
Sierra  Nevada,  crossed  that  range  through  a 
gap,  entered  the  great  basin,  and  again  visited 
the  Salt  lake,  from  which  through  the  South 
pass  he  returned  to  Kansas  in  July,  1844,  after 
an  absence  of  14  months.  The  reports  of  this 
expedition  occupied  in  their  preparation  the 
remainder  of  1844.  Fremont  was  brevetted 
captain  in  January,  1845,  and  in  the  spring  of 
that  year  he  set  out  on  a  third  expedition  to  ex- 
plore the  great  basin  and  the  maritime  region 
of  Oregon  and  California.  The  summer  was 
spent  in  examining  the  head  waters  of  the 
rivers  whose  source  is  in  the  dividing  ridge 
between  the  Pacific  and  the  Mississippi  vallej, 
and  in  October  he  encamped  on  the  shores  of 
the  Great  Salt  lake.  Thence  he  proceeded  to 
explore  the  Sierra  Nevada,  which  he  crossed 
again  in  the  dead  of  winter  with  a  few  men  to 
obtain  supplies  from  California  for  his  party, 
with  whom  he  made  his  way  into  the  valley 
of  the  San  Joaquin,  where  he  left  his  men  to 
recruit,  and  went  himself  to  Monterey,  which 
was  at  that  time  the  capital  of  California, 
to  obtain  from  tlie  Mexican  authorities  per- 
mission to  proceed  with  his  exploration.  Tliis 
was  granted,  but  was  almost  immediately  re- 
voked, and  Fremont  was  peremptorily  ordered 
to  leave  the  counl;^  without  delay.  He  aa 
peremptorily  refused  to  comply.  The  Mex- 
ican governor.  Gen.  Castro,  mustered  the  forces 
of  the  province  and  prepared  to  attack  the 
Americans,  who  were  only  62  in  number.  Fre- 
mont took  up  a  strong  position  on  the  Hawk^s 
peak,  a  mountain  30  m.  from  Monterey,  built  a 
rude  fort  of  felled  trees,  hoisted  the  American 
fiag,  and,  having  plenty  of  ammunition,  re- 
solved to  defend  himself.  The  Mexican  gene- 
ral formed  a  camp  with  a  large  force  in  the 
plain  immediately  below  the  position  held  by 
the  Americans,  whom  he  hourly  threatened  to 
attack.  On  the  evening  of  the  fourth  day  of 
the  siege  Fremont  withdrew  with  his  party  and 
proceeded  toward  the  San  Joaquin.  The  fires 
were  still  burning  in  his  deserted  camp  when 
a  messenger  arrived  from  Gen.  Castro  to  pro- 
pose a  cessation  of  hostilities.  Without  further 
molestation  Fremont  pursued  his  way  north- 
ward through  the  valley  of  the  Sacramento 
into  Oregon.  Near  Tlamath  lake,  on  May  9, 
1846,  he. met  a  party  in  search  of  him  with 
despatches  from  Washington,  directing  him  to 
watch  over  the  interests  of  the  United  States 
in  California,  there  being  reason  to  apprehend 
that  the  province  would  be  transferred  to  Great 
Britain,  and  also  that  Gen.  Castro  intended  to 
destroy  the  American  settlements  on  the  Sacra- 
mento. Fremont  promptly  retraced  his  steps 
to  California.  Gen.  Castro  was  already  march- 
I  ing  against  the  settlements.    The  settlers  rose 


FREMONT 


479 


in  arms,  flocked  to  Fremont^s  camp,  and  nn- 
der  his  leadership  the  result  was  that  in  less 
than  a  month  all  northern  California  was 
freed  from  Mexican  authority.  On  July  4  Fre- 
mont was  elected  governor  of  California  hj 
the  American  settlers.  On  the  10th  of  that 
month  he  learned  that  Commodore  Sloat,  who 
commanded  the  United  States  squadron  on  tlie 
coast)  had  taken  possession  of  Monterey.  Fre- 
mont proceeded  to  join  the  naval  forces,  and 
reached  Monterey  with  160  mounted  riflemen 
on  the  19th.  Commodore  Stockton  ahout  the 
same  time  arrived  at  Monterey  with  the  frigate 
Congress,  and  took  command  of  the  squadron, 
with  authority  from  Washington  to  conauer 
California.  At  his  request  Fremont,  who  had 
heen  promoted  (May  27)  to  the  rank  of  lieu- 
tenant colonel,  organized  a  force  of  mounted 
men<,  known  as  the  ^^  California  battalion,*' 
of  which  he  was  appointed  megor.  He  was 
also  appointed  by  Com.  Stockton  military 
commandant  and  civil  governor  of  the  terri- 
tory, the  project  of  making  California  inde- 
pendent having  been  relinquished  on  receipt 
of  intelligence  tliat  war  had  broken  out  be- 
tween the  United  States  and  Mexico.  On  Jan. 
13,  1847,  he  concluded  with  the  Mexicans  arti- 
cles of  capitulation  which  terminated  the  war 
in  California,  and  left  that  country  permanently 
in  the  possession  of  the  United  States.  Mean- 
time Gen.  Kearny,  with  a  small  force  of  dra- 
goons, had  arrived  in  California.  A  quarrel 
soon  broke  out  between  him  and  Com.  Stock- 
ton as  to  who  should  command.  They  each 
had  instmctions  from  Washington  to  conquer 
and  organize  a  government  in  the  country.  Fre- 
mont had  accepted  a  commission  from  Com. 
Stockton  as  commander  of  the  battalion  of 
volunteers,  and  had  been  appointed  governor 
of  the  territory.  Gen.  Kearny,  as  Fremont's 
superior  officer  in  the  regular  army,  required 
him  to  obey  his  orders,  which  conflicted  with 
those  of  Com.  Stockton,  whose  authority  Fre- 
mont had  already  fully  recognized  as  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  territory ;  an  authority 
which  had  also  been  admitted  by  Gen.  Kear- 
ny for  a  considerable  period  after  his  arri- 
val. In  this  dilemma  Fremont  concluded  to 
obey  the  orders  of  Com.  Stockton.  Despatches 
from  Washington  received  in  the  spring  of 
1847  terminated  this  conflict  of  authorities  by 
directing  Com.  Stockton  to  relinquish  to  Gen. 
Kearny  the  supreme  command  in  California. 
Fremont  hesitated  no  longer  to  place  himself 
under  Gen.  Kearny's  orders,  who  in  June  set 
oat  overland  for  the  United  States,  ordering 
Fremont  to  accompany  him,  and^  treating 
him  with  deliberate  disrespect  throughout 
the  journey,  until  at  Fort  Leavenworth,  Aug. 
22,  he  put  him  under  arrest,  and  directed 
him  to  go  to  Washington  and  report  himself 
to  the  a^utant  general.  He  arrived  at  Wash- 
ington Sept.  16,  and  immediately  asked  for  a 
speedy  trial  on  Gen.  Kearny's  charges.  Ac- 
cordingly a  court  martial  was  held,  beginning 
l^ov.  2,  1847,  and  ending  Jan.  81,  1848,  which 
838  VOL.  VII.— 81 


found  him  guilty  of  ^* mutiny,"  "disobedience 
of  the  lawful  command  of  a  superior  officer,'' 
and  "  conduct  to  the  prejudice  of  good  order 
and  military  discipline,"  and  sentenced  him  to 
be  dismissed  from  the  service.  A  majority  of 
the  members  of  the  court  recommended  him  to 
the  clemency  of  President  Polk.  The  presi- 
dent refused  to  confirm  the  verdict  of  mutiny, 
but  approved  the  rest  of  the  verdict  and  the 
sentence,  of  which,  however,  he  immediately 
remitted  the  penalty.  Fremont  declined  to 
avail  himself  of  the  president's  pardon,  and 
forthwith  resigned  his  commission  as  lieu- 
tenant colonel.  On  Oct.  14,  1848,  Fremont 
started  on  a  fourth  expedition  across  the  con- 
tinent, at  his  own  expense.  With  83  men  and 
120  mules  he  made  his  way  along  the  upper 
waters  of  the  Rio  Grande  through  the  country 
of  the  Utes,  Apaches,  Comanches,  and  other 
Indian  tribes,  then  at  war  with  the  United 
States.  His  object  was  to  find  a  practicable 
passage  by  this  route  to  California.  In  at- 
tempting to  cross  the  great  Sierra,  covered 
with  snow,  his  guide  lost  his  way,  and  Fre- 
mont's party  encountered  horrible  suffering 
from  cold  and  hunger,  a  portion  of  them  being 
driven  to  cannibalism.  All  of  his  animals  and 
one  third  of  his  men  perished,  and  he  was 
forced  to  retrace  his  steps  to  Santa  F6.  Un- 
daunted by  this  disaster,  he  gathered  another 
band  of  80  men,  and  after  a  long  search  dis- 
covered a  secure  route,  which  conducted  him 
eventually  to  the  Sacramento  in  the  spring  of 
1849.  He  now  determined  to  settle  in  Cali- 
fornia, where  in  1847  he  had  bought  the  Mari- 
posa estate,  a  very  large  tract  of  land,  contain- 
ing rich  gold  mines.  His  title  to  this  estate 
was  contested,  but  after  a  long  litigation  it  was 
decided  in  his  favor  in  1855  by  the  supreme 
court  of  the  United  States.  In  1849  he  re- 
ceived from  President  Taylor  the  appointment 
of  commissioner  to  run  Uie  boundary  line  be- 
tween the  United  States  and  Mexico.  The 
legislature  of  California,  which  met  in  Decem- 
ber, 1849,  elected  him  on  the  first  ballot  one 
of  the  two  senators  to  represent  the  new  state 
in  the  senate  of  the  United  States.  He  conse- 
quently resigned  his  commissionership,  and  de- 
parted for  Washington  by  way  of  the  isthmus. 
He  took  his  seat  in  the  senate  Sept.  10,  1850, 
the  day  after  the  admission  of  CaJifomia  as  a 
state.  In  drawing  lots  for  the  terms  of  the 
respective  senators,  Fremont  drew  the  short 
term,  ending  March  4,  1851.  The  senate  re- 
mained in  session  but  three  weeks  after  the 
admission  of  California,  snd  during  that  period 
Fremont  devoted  himself  almost  exclusively  to 
measures  relating  to  the  interests  of  the  state 
he  represented.  For  this  purpose  he  intro- 
duced and  advocated  a  comprehensive  series 
of  bills,  18  or  20  in  number,  embracing  almost 
every  object  of  legislation  demanded  by  the 
peculiar  circumstances  of  California.  In  the 
state  election  of  1851  in  California,  the  party 
wliich  had  opposed  the  introduction  of  slavery, 
and  had  placed  the  proviso  against  it  in  the 


480 


FREMONT 


FRENCH  BROAD  RIVER 


state  canstitation,  was  defeated.  As  Fremont 
was  one  of  the  leaders  of  this  party,  he  failed 
of  reflection  to  the  senate,  after  142  ballotings. 
The  next  two  years  he  devoted  to  his  private 
affairs,  and  visited  Europe  in  1852,  where  he 
spent  a  year,  and  was  received  with  distinc- 
tion by  many  eminent  men  of  letters  and  of 
science.  While  in  Earope  he  learned  that 
congress  had  made  an  appropriation  for  the 
survey  of  three  routes  from  the  Mississippi 
valley  to  the  Pacific.  He  immediately  returned 
to  the  United  States  for  the  purpose  of  fitting 
out  a  fifth  expedition  on  his  own  account  to 
complete  the  survey  of  the  route  he  had  taken 
on  his  fourth  expedition.  He  left  Paris  in  June, 
1858,  and  in  September  was  on  his  march 
across  the  continent.  He  found  passes  through 
the  mountains  on  the  line  of  lat.  88°  and  89'', 
and  reached  California  in  safety,  after  endu- 
ring great  hardships.  For  50  days  his  party 
lived  on  horse  flesh,  and  for  48  hours  at  a  time 
were  without  food  of  any  kind.  In  the  spring 
of  1855  Fremont  with  his  family  took  up  his 
residence  in  New  York,  for  the  purpose  of 

I)reparing  for  publication  the  narrative  of  his 
ast  expedition.  His  name  now  began  to  be 
mentioned  in  connection  with  the  presidency 
by  those  who  were  combining  to  act  against 
the  democratic  party  on  the  basis  of  opposition 
to  the  extension  of  slavery.  The  republican 
national  convention,  which  met  at  rhiladel- 
phia,  June  17,  1856,  nominated  him  for  the 
presidency  by  a  vote  of  859  to  196  for  John 
McLean,  on  an  informal  ballot.  On  the  first 
formal  ballot  Fremont  was  unanimously  nom- 
inated. He  accepted  the  nomination  in  a 
letter  dated  July  8,  185(V,  in  which  he  ex- 
pressed himself  strongly  against  the  exten- 
sion of  slavery  and  in  favor  of  free  labor. 
A  few  days  after  the  Philadelphia  conven- 
tion acMoumed,  a  national  American  conven- 
tion at  New  York  also  nominated  him  for  the 
presidency.  He  accepted  their  support  in  a 
letter  dated  June  80,  in  which  he  referred 
them  for  an  exposition  of  his  views  to  his 
forthcoming  letter  accepting  the  republican 
nomination.  After  a  most  spirited  and  exci- 
ting contest,  the  presidential  election  resulted 
in  the  choice  of  Mr.  Buchanan  by  174  elec- 
toral votes  from  19  states,  while  Fremont  re- 
ceived 114  votes  from  11  states,  including  the  six 
New  England  states.  New  York,  Ohio,  Michi- 
gan, Iowa,  and  Wisconsin.  Maryland  gave  her 
eight  electoral  votes  for  Mr.  Fillmore.  The 
popnlar  vote  for  Fremont  was  1,841,000;  for 
buchanan,  1,888,000;  for  Fillmore,  874,000. 
In  1858  Fremont  went  to  California,  where  he 
resided  for  some  time.  In  1800  he  visited 
Europe.  Soon  after  the  breaking  out  of  the 
civil  war  he  was  made  a  migor  general  and 
assigned  to  the  command  of  the  western  dis- 
trict. On  Aug.  81,  1861,  he  issued  an  order 
emancipating  the  slaves  of  those  in  his  dis- 
trict who  were  in  arms  against  the  United 
States,  which  was  annulled  by  the  president 
as  unauthorized  and  premature,  and  he  was 


relieved  from  his  command,  Nov.  2.  Three 
months  later  he  was  appointed  commander  of 
the  mountain  district  of  Virginia,  Kentucky, 
and  Tennessee.  He  foi]^ht  on  June  8, 1862,  an 
indecisive  battle  against  Gen.  Jackson  at  Cross 
Keys;  and  shortly  afterward,  on  Pope  being 
appointed  to  the  command  of  the  army  of  Vir- 
ginia, Fremont  declined  to  serve  under  an  offi- 
cer whom  he  ranked,  and  sent  in  his  resigna- 
tion, which  was  accepted  by  the  president.  He 
took  no  ftirther  part  in  the  war.  On  May  31, 
1864,  a  convention  of  republicans  dissatisfied 
with  Mr.  Lincoln  met  at  Cleveland  and  nomi- 
nated Gen.  Fremont  for  president.  He  accept- 
ed the  nomination,  but  in  September,  finding 
that  he  had  few  followers,  withdrew  from  the 
field.  He  has  since  taken  no  part  in  public  af- 
fairs, but  has  been  active  in  promoting  a  pro- 
jected southern  transcontinental  railway.  In 
connection  with  this  he  was  accused  of  fraud  in 
France,  and  in  1878  was  found  guilty  in  a  trial 
in  Paris,  and  in  his  absence  was  sentenced  to 
fine  and  imprisonment.  He  resides  in  New 
York  in  winter  and  at  Mount  Desert,  Me.,  in 
summer. 

FBfin,  Edvoftd,  a  French  chemist,  bom  at 
VersaiUes  in  1814.  His  father,  a  professor  of 
chemistry,  instructed  him  in  that  science,  and 
he  perfected  his  knowledge  as  assistant  of  T. 
J.  relouze  and  of  Gay-Lussac  in  various  institu- 
tions ;  and  he  succeeded  the  former  in  1843  in 
the  chair  of  the  museum  of  natural  history,  and 
the  latter  in  1850  at  the  polytechnic  school, 
and  became  a  member  of  the  academy  of  sci- 
ences in  1867.  He  has  made  chemical  discov- 
eries and  published  many  works.  His  joint 
productions  with  Pelouze  include  Ahrege  de 
ehimie  (1848 ;  6th  ed.,  1869),  and  Cour$  de 
chimie  ginSrale  (1849),  which  subsequently  ap- 
peared under  the  title  of  Traite  de  chimie  gi- 
niraUy  analytiquey  induetrielle  et  agrieoU  (8d 
revised  and  iUustrated  edition,  7  vols.,  1862- 
'5). — His  brother  Abnouu)  (born  in  1609)  is  a 
well  known  journalist  and  prolific  novelist. 

FRENCH,  a  N.  £.  county  of  Dakota  territory, 
recently  formed  and  not  included  in  the  census 
of  1870 ;  area  about  1,450  sq.  m.  It  is  drained 
by  the  Sheyenne  river,  and  contains  a  portion 
of  Minnewakan  or  Devil's  lake. 

FRENCH  BROAD  RIVER,  a  river  of  North 
Carolina  and  Tennessee,  rising  in  Transylvania 
CO.  of  the  former  state,  near  the  foot  of  the 
Blue  Ridge,  flowing  N.  W.  into  Tennessee, 
bending  toward  the  S.  W.,  and  discharging  into 
Holston  river  4  m.  above  Enoxville.  It  is 
about  200  m.  long,  and  is  navigable  by  steam- 
boats as,  far  as  Dandridge,  Jefferson  co.,  Tenn. 
For  about  40  m.  from  Asheville  to  the  Tennes- 
see line,  it  is  remarkable  for  its  beautiful  scene- 
ry, flowing  through  deep  mountain  gorges,  or 
overhung  by  cliffs.  Nearly  opposite  the  Warm 
Springs,  in  Madison  co.,  N.  C.,  are  precipices 
known  as  the  Chimneys  and  the  Painted 
Rocks.  The  latter,  which  are  between  200  and 
800  ft.  high,  derive  their  name  from  some  In- 
dian pictures  still  to  be  seen  on  them. 


FRENCH  HORN 


FRfiRON 


481 


FRENCH  HORir.    See  Hobn. 

FEENEAU,  PhlUii,  an  American  poet,  born  in 
New  York,  Jan.  13,  1752,  died  near  Freehold, 
N.  J.,  Dec.  18,  1832.  He  was  educated  at 
Nassau  Hall,  Princeton,  N.  J.,  where  James 
Madison  was  his  room  mate,  and  where  he 
wrote  his  "Poetical  History  of  the  Prophet 
Jonah."  He  intended  to  study  law,  but  finally 
followed  a  seafaring  life.  During  the  revolu- 
tion his  political  burlesques  in  verse  and  prose 
were  very  popular  with  the  patriots.  While 
on  a  voyage  to  the  West  Indies  in  1780  he  was 
captured  by  the  British  and  confined  for  a  long 
time  in  the  Scorpion  prison  ship  at  New  York, 
which  he  commemorated  in  his  poem  "The 
British  Prison  Ship."  When  Jefierson  was 
secretary  of  state  Freneau  became  French 
translator  under  him,  and  at  the  same  time 
editor  of  the  "National  Gazette,"  a  paper 
hostile  to  Washington's  administration.  It 
was  discontinued  in  October,  1793,  and  in  1795 
he  began  a  newspaper  near  Middletown  Point, 
N.  J.,  which  he  continued  for  a  year,  and  pub- 
lished there  an  edition  of  his  poems.  He  next 
edited  for  a  year  in  New  York  "The  Time 
Piece,"  a  tri-weekly,  after  which  he  again  be- 
came master  of  a  merchant  vessel.  During  the 
second  war  with  Great  Britain  he  recorded  in 
stirring  verse  the  triumphs  of  the  American 
arms.  The  close  of  his  life  was  spent  in  retire- 
ment Many  of  his  smaller  poems  possess  great 
elegance  of  diction,  and  Scott  and  Campbell 
borrowed  whole  lines  from  him.  Several  edi- 
tions of  his  poems  were  published  during  his 
life,  and  £.  A.  Duyckinck  has  edited  his  "  Po- 
ems of  the  Revolution"  (New  York,  1865). 

FRSrE.  I.  Charles  Thlodore,  a  French  painter, 
bom  in  Paris  in  1815.  He  studied  with  Ro- 
queplan,  and  exhibited  but  little  talent  until  he 
visited  the  East.  He  has  since  won  some  rep- 
utation as  a  delineator  of  eastern  subjects. 
Among  his  recent  works  are  "  The  Island  of 
Philoe,"  "  The  Caf6  of  Galata,"  "  The  Evening 
Prayer,"  " Arabic  Wedding  at  Cairo,"  "The 
Caravan  of  Mecca,"  "  Ruins  of  Palmyra,"  and 
"  The  Sunoom."  IL  Pierre  fidoiard,  a  French 
painter,  brother  of  the  preceding,  born  in 
Paris,  Jan.  10,  1819.  He  studied  with  Paul 
Delaroche,  devoted  himself  to  genre  painting 
and  to  small  pictures,  and  exhibited  his  first 
work  in  1843.  He  has  since  acquired  dis- 
tinction, and  many  of  his  works  have  been 
photographed  and  lithographed.  Some  of  his 
later  pictures  are :  "  The  Workshop  at  ficouen," 
"  Palm  Sunday,"  and  "  The  Bifnedicite,"  ex- 
hibited in  1866;  "The  First  Steps,"  "The 
Prayer,"  "  The  Library,"  "  The  Little  Wood- 
cutters," "The  Stove,"  and  an  "Interior  at 
Royat,"  in  1867;  and  "Boys  leaving  School" 
and  "Girls  leaving  School,"  in  1869. 

FSEKE,  JohB  HMkluui,  an  English  poet  and 
diplomatist,  bom  in  London,  May  21, 1769,  died 
in  Malta,  Jan.  7)  1846.  He  was  educated  at 
Eton  and  Cambridge,  and  while  a  school  boy 
translated  the  remarkable  war  song  upon  the 
victory  of  Athelstan  at  Brnnnenburg  from  the 


Anglo-Saxon  of  the  10th  century  into  tlie  An- 
glo-Norman of  the  1 4th.  It  is  found  in  the  first 
volume  of  Ellis's  "  Specimens  of  the  Early  Eng- 
lish Poets."  When  at  Eton,  in  connection  with 
Canning  and  Robert  Smith,  he  started  and  car- 
ried on  to  40  numbers  a  weekly  paper  called  the 
"  Microcosm."  On  leaving  Cambridge,  in  1795, 
he  entered  the  foreign  ofi&ce  under  Lord  Gren- 
ville,  and  in  the  following  year  he  was  returned 
to  parliament.  He  succeeded  Canning  as  under- 
secretary for  foreign  afiairs  in  1799,  and  subse- 
quently served  in  various  diplomatic  missions. 
During  his  leisure  he  made  exquisite  translations 
from  the  Greek  and  Spanish.  In  1817  he  pub- 
lished an  extravaganza  of  the  Pulci  and  Casti 
school,  under  the  title  of  "  Whistlecraft's  Pro- 
spectus and  Specimen  of  an  Intended  National 
Poem"  (also  called  "The  Monks  and  the 
Giants"),  which  treated  in  a  light  and  satirical 
way  the  adventures  of  King  Arthur.  Its  pecu- 
liar stanza  and  sarcastic  pleasantry  formed 
the  immediate  exemplar  of  Byron^s  "  Beppo  " 
and  "  Don  Juan."  Frere  was  a  contributor  to 
the  "  Anti- Jacobin,"  and  was  one  of  the  found- 
ers of  the  London  "Quarterly  Review."  For 
many  years  before  his  death  he  resided  in  Malta, 
receiving  from  the  government  a  liberal  diplo- 
matic pension.  See  his  "  Works  in  Verse  and 
Prose,"  with  memoir  by  his  nephews  (2  vols., 
London,  1872). — His  nephew,  Sir  Henbt  Bar- 
TLB  Edwabd,  bom  in  1815,  was  governor  of 
Bombay  from  1862  to  1867,  and  subsequently 
became  vice  president  of  the  royal  geographical 
society.  In  1878  he  negotiated  a  treaty  with 
the  sultan  of  Zanzibar  for  the  suppression  of 
the  slave  trade. 

FR£rET,  Nicolas,  a  French  scholar,  bom  in 
Paris,  Feb.  15, 1688,  died  there,  March  8,  1749. 
Admitted  in  1714  to  the  academy  of  inscrip- 
tions and  belles-lettres,  of  which  he  was  after- 
ward perpetual  secretary,  he  was  imprisoned 
for  his  first  memoir,  which  discussed  the  origin 
of  the  French.  On  recovering  his  liberty  in 
1715,  he  began  to  produce  the  long  series  of 
memoirs  which  \^^  him  distinction  as  an  anti- 
quary, philosopher,  and  philologist.  The  an- 
nals of  the  Assyrians,  Chaldeans,  Egyptians, 
and  Hindoos,  the  principal  ancient  and  orien- 
tal cosmogonies  and  theogonies,  and  numerous 
questions  of  history  and  geography  are  among 
uie  objects  of  his  research.  He  wrote  on 
chronology  against  Newton.  An  incomplete 
collection  of  his  works  was  made  by  Leclerc 
de  Septchftnes  (20  vols.,  Paris,  l796-'9).  A 
more  complete  one  was  undertaken  by  Cham- 
pollion-Figeac,  but  only  the  first  volume  was 
issued  (Paris,  1^5). 

FS£rON.  It  EUe  Catherine,  a  French  joumal- 
ist,  born  in  Quimper  in  1719,  died  in  Paris, 
March  10, 1776.  He  studied  under  the  Jesuits 
in  the  college  of  Louis-le-Grand  at  Paris,  in 
which  he  was  for  a  short  time  professor.  At 
the  age  of  20  he  joined  Desfontaines  in  con- 
ducting his  journal  of  criticism,  and  in  1746, 
after  the  death  of  the  latter,  commenced  a 
similar  periodical,  entitled  Lettres  d  Madame  la 


482 


FRESCO  PAINTING 


Oomtesse  de  *  *  *.  This  was  sappressed  in 
1749,  but  resamed  under  the  title  Lettres  $ur 
quelqves  Serits  de  ct  teinps,  in  which  he  was 
associated  with  the  abb6  de  I>a  Porte.  This 
was  succeeded  in  1754  b^  VAnnee  litteraire^ 
which  Fr^ron  conducted  alone,  and  which  was 
the  chief  foundation  of  his  reputation.  In  this 
he  showed  himself  an  admirer  of  the  age  of 
Louis  XIV.,  and  a  decided  adversary  of  the 
new  philosophical  and  literary  doctrines.  The 
severity  of  his  criticisms  produced  against  him 
the  most  violent  hatred,  and  the  rest  of  his 
life  was  a  warfare  with  the  encyclopedists. 
Throughout  the  literary  history  of  the  time  his 
name  is  inseparable  from  that  of  Voltaire,  who 
was  stung  by  the  satires  which  appeared  week- 
ly in  VAnnee  litUraire.  Fr6ron  never  missed 
an  opportunity  to  attack  him,  and  Voltaire  re- 
paid him  with  equal  malice.  He  stops  in  the 
midst  of  a  grave  historical  discussion  to  insult 
Fr6ron ;  he  assails  him  in  his  most  dignified 
tragedies,  as  well  as  in  Za  pucelle  and  Can- 
dies ;  he  hurls  against  him  the  philippic  of  Le 
pauvre  diahle,  and  in  the  comedy  of  VJSeos- 
eaise  calls  his  jouilial  VAne  litteraire,  Fr6ron 
sustained  the  conflict  alone  with  considerable 
success,  but  was  defeated  at  last  and  died  in 
grief  for  the  suppression  of  his  journal.  He  is 
now  remembered  as  a  calm  observer  of  the 
society  of  his  tune,  and  the  founder  of  news- 
paper criticism  in  France,  lit  L^ils  Stanislas, 
a  French  revolutionist,  son  of  the  preceding, 
bom  in  Paris  in  1765,  died  in  Hayti  in  1802. 
A  schoolfellow  of  Robespierre  and  Gamille  Des- 
moulins,  he  became  one  of  the  most  fervent  of 
the  revolutionary  party,  and  published  a  fero- 
cious newspaper,  VOrateur  du  Peuple,  He 
was  at  the  same  time  a  member  of  the  club  of 
Cordeliers.  He  participated  in  the  insurrection 
of  Aug.  10,  and  in  the  slaughters  of  September, 
1792,  and  was  elected  to  the  convention,  where 
he  took  his  seat  among  the  Montagnards;  he 
voted  for  the  king's  death,  and  contributed  to 
the  fall  of  the  Girondists.  Being  appointed  one 
of  the  commissaries  sent  with  the  army  against 
Marseilles  and  Toulon,  he  signalized  himself 
by  such  brutalities  that  he  was  censured  even 
by  the  committee  of  public  safety.  After  the 
death  of  Danton  he  sided  with  the  Thermido- 
rians  against  Robespierre,  and  in  conjunction 
with  Barras  commanded  the  troops  who  arrest- 
ed the  dictator  and  his  adherents  at  the  h6tel 
de  ville.  He  pursued  unrelentingly  the  mem- 
bers of  the  committee  of  public  safety,  procured 
the  condemnation  of  Fouquier-Tinville,  became 
the  chief  of  a  reactionary  band  of  young  men 
known  as  la  jeunesie  doree^  was  instrumental 
in  suppressing  the  Jacobins,  and  energetically 
opposed  all  attempts  at  insurrection.  Under  the 
directory  he  was  sent  to  the  south  on  a  mission 
of  peace ;  but  his  former  cruelties  were  still 
remembered  by  the  people.  He  accepted  an 
appointment  as  subprefect  in  Hayti,  and  soon 
after  his  arrival  there  died  of  yellow  fever. 

FRESOO   PAOrnNG    (Ital.  freeco,  fresh),   a 
method  of  ornamenting  the  walls  and  ceilings 


of  buildings  by  painting  designs  in  colors 
ground  in  water  and  mixed  with  lime  upon  the 
freshly  laid  plaster.  It  was  much  practised 
by  Italian  masters  during  the  three  or  four 
centuries  immediately  succeeding  the  revival 
of  painting  in  modem  times,  and  the  waJls  of 
many  Italian  palaces,  churches,  and  convents 
are  still  adorned  with  works  executed  by  their 
hands.  The  outlines  of  the  designs  are  first 
drawn  upon  thick  paper  attached  to  cloth, 
which  is  stretched  upon  a  frame.  These  are 
called  cartoons,  from  the  Italian  carUme^  paste- 
board. An  additional  colored  cartoon  is  also 
prepared  to  serve  as  a  study  of  color,  and  a 
guide  during  the  execution  of  the  fresco.  The 
famous  cartoons  of  Raphael,  now  deposited  in 
the  South  Kensington  museum,  London,  are 
of  this  character,  although  made  to  be  copied 
in  tapestry.  The  cartoons  serve  to  give  copies 
upon  tracing  paper,  and  these  being  attacned 
to  the  wall  in  portions  of  convenient  size,  the 
outline  is  transferred  to  the  wet  plaster  by 
going  over  the  lines  with  a  sharp  point.  An- 
other method  is  to  prick  the  figures  through 
the  cartoon,  or  upon  a  separate  sheet  laid  be- 
hind it,  and  then,  placing  either  the  cartoon 
itself  or  the  duplicate  sheet  upon  the  plaster, 
to  dust  through  the  holes  a  black  coloring 
matter,  which  attaches  itself  in  the  lines  of  the 
figures  to  the  walls.  Several  great  painters 
have  worked  immediately  on  the  plaster,  with- 
out the  intervention  of  any  guide  whatever. 
The  preparation  of  the  walls  is  an  object  of 
especial  care.  All  the  mortar  should  be  fresh 
work,  and  of  clean  sand  and  good  lime.  When 
the  rough  coat  is  perfectly  dry  and  hard,  the 
smoother  layers  are  added  of  the  most  carefully 
prepared  mortar.  In  Munich,  where  fresco 
painting  has  been  revived  with  some  success 
during  the  present  century,  the  lime  is  some- 
times slaked  several  years  before  it  is  used,  and 
is  kept,  after  thorough  stirring  and  reduction 
to  an  impalpable  consistency,  in  a  pit  covered 
with  clean  sand  a  foot  or  more  in  thickness, 
over  which  earth  is  laid.  Pure  rain  or  dis- 
tilled water  should  be  used  in  mixing  it,  and 
also  perfectly  clean  sand.  The  rough  coat  be- 
ing dampened  till  it  will  absorb  no  more  water, 
the  finer  plaster  is  laid  on,  and  when  this  be- 
gins to  set  a  still  finer  coat,  called  by  the  Ital- 
ians the  intonacoy  and  containing  a  smaller 
proportion  of  sand,  is  applied.  Before  ^\h 
dries,  the  design  must  be  transferred  to  it  and 
the  painting  completed ;  consequently  only 
small  portions  of  a  fresco  can  be  executed  at 
one  time.  The  drying  may  be  checked  by  oc- 
casional sprinkling  with  water,  or  by  keeping 
wet  sheets  pressed  to  the  design,  as  it  is  at- 
tached  to  the  wall.  The  joinings  or  lines  be- 
tween the  work  of  one  day  and  that  of  the 
next  are  made  to  coincide  with  lines  in  tlie 
composition,  or  take  place  in  shadows.  As 
any  retouching  is  impracticable,  the  painter 
must  work  rapidly  before  the  ground  becomes 
too  dry  to  take  the  colors.  If  others  are  after- 
ward applied  mixed  with  size,  white  of  egg,  or 


FRESCO  PAINTING 


483 


gam,  which  is  in  effect  only  tempera  painting, 
thej  do  not  long  continue  to  harmonize  with 
the  rest  of  the  work.  The  colors  mast  he  of 
snbstances  not  liable  to  be  affected  by  contact 
with  the  hme,  and  those  of  a  mineral  nature  are 
almost  exclusively  used.  Lime,  or  the  dust  of 
white  marble,  makes  a  good  white.  Chrome, 
the  ochres,  verditer,  lapis  lazuli,  &c.,  furnish 
many  of  the  colors.  The  brushes  must  be  so 
soft  as  not  to  roughen  the  plaster  surface. — In 
addition  to  the  process  above  described,  which 
was  called  by  the  Italians  huon  fre^coy  or  the 
true  fresco,  the  early  masters  had  other  meth- 
ods of  paintmg  on  lime  or  plaster,  to  which  the 
general  name  of  fresco  is  usually  applied.  The 
most  important  of  these  was  that  known  as 
fresco  seceo^  or  dry  fresco,  so  called  because 
the  plastering,  having  been  allowed  to  dry 
thoroughly,  was  reinoistened  before  the  color 
was  applied,  whereby  the  artist  was  enabled 
to  quit  or  resume  his  work  at  pleasure,  and  to 
avoid  the  joinings  observable  in  the  true  fresco 
painting.  This  process  was  universal  in  Italy 
until  the  close  of  the  14th  century,  when  huon 
fresco  in  a  measure  took  its  place.  In  this 
manner  were  probably  executed  the  paintings 
in  Pompeii  ana  Herculaneum,  and,  indeed,  a>l 
the  so-oaUed  ancient  frescoes.  Work  done  in 
this  way  will  bear  to  be  washed  as  well  as  real 
fresco,  and  is  as  durable ;  but  it  is  considered, 
in  every  important  respect,  an  inferior  art. — A 
new  method  of  preparing  the  wall  and  paint- 
ing in  fresco  has  been  introduced  in  Germany 
by  Prof.  Von  Fuchs,  called  the  stereochrome. 
The  wall  is  coated  with  a  preparation  of  clean 
quartz  sand  mixed  with  the  least  possible  quan- 
tity of  lime ;  and  after  the  application  of  this 
the  surface  is  scraped  to  remove  the  outer 
coating  in  contact  with  the  atmosphere.  It  is 
then  washed  with  a  solution  of  silica,  prepared 
with  silica  23*21  parts  in  100,  soda  8*90,  pot- 
ash 2*52,  water  65*87.  The  wall  is  thus  said 
to  be  fixed ;  and  if  too  strongly  fixed,  it  must  be 
rubbed  with  pumice.  As  the  painter  applies 
his  colors  he  moistens  the  work  by  squirting 
distilled  water  upon  it.  When  finished  it  is 
washed  over  with  the  sUica  solution.  The 
picture  also,  as  it  is  in  progress,  is  washed  with 
the  same  solution,  and  the  colors  thus  becoming 
incorporated  in  the  flinty  coating,  the  picture 
is  rendered  hard  and  durable  as  stone  itself. 
In  this  process  the  artist  may  leave  the  work 
and  return  to  it  at  any  time,  and  he  is  also  able 
to  retouch  and  alter  any  portion  of  it.  The 
new  museum  at  Berlin  has  been  adorned  by 
this  process  by  Eaulbach.  The  decorations 
are  historical  pictures,  21  ft.  in  height  by  24} 
in  width,  and  single  colossal  figures,  friezes, 
arabesques,  &c.  They  have  the  brilliancy  and 
vigor  of  oil  paintings,  with  no  dazzling  effect 
of  light  from  whatever  direction  they  may  be 
viewed. — Old  paintings  in  fresco  have  been 
transferred  to  canvas  from  walls  crumbling  by 
decay,  and  thus  preserved.  A  linen  cloth  is 
applied  to  the  face  of  the  painting,  covered 
with  a  kind  of  glue.    The  intonMo^  or  last  coat 


of  plaster,  is  then  carefully  detached  from  the 
wall  with  a  knife.  The  rough  surface  at  the 
back  having  been  rubbed  down  with  pumice 
stone,  until  the  plaster  is  reduced  to  the  thin- 
nest state  consistent  with  the  preservation  of 
the  painting,  canvas  is  fastened  upon  the  back, 
and  the  cloth  in  front  moistened  and  .removed. 
The  detached  fresco  may  then  almost  be  treat- 
ed like  a  common  oil  picture.  It  is  quite  com- 
mon in  Italy  to  remove  by  this  method  fres- 
coes of  value,  for  sale,  or  for  preservation  in 
public  museums.  Such  was  the  process  suc- 
cessfully employed  in  removing  and  preserving 
the  paintings  on  the  old  walls  of  the  convent 
of  Sta.  Eufemia  at  Brescia  in  1829. — The  his- 
tory of  fresco  painting  during  the  first  two 
centuries  after  the  revival  of  art  is  a  history  of 
painting,  as  nearly  every  considerable  work  was 
executed  by  that  process.  As  a  means  of  con- 
veying thoughts,  ideas,  and  information,  not 
then,  as  now,  acquired  through  literature,  it 
continued  to  subserve  a  useful  purpose  even 
after  the  invention  of  printing.  Hence  the 
early  masters,  laboring  for  the  edification  of 
men  in  general,  and  not  for  the  gratification  of 
individuals—or,  to  adopt  the  language  of  the 
ancient  fraternity  of  the  painters  of  Siena, 
*'*'  being  teachers  to  ignorant  men,  who  know 
not  how  to  read,  of  the  miracles  performed  by 
virtue  and  in  virtue  of  the  holy  faith  ^* — rarely 
painted  easel  pictures,  but  lavished  all  their 
genius  and  thought  upon  mural  decoration  or 
fresco  painting.  As  late  as  the  latter  half  of 
the  16th  century  Yasari  declares  it  to  be  "  more 
masterly,  noble,  manly,  secure,  resolute,  and 
durable  than  any  other  kind  of  painting;"  and 
he  records  the  opinion  of  Michel  Angelo  that 
fresco  was  fit  for  men,  oil  painting  only  for 
women,  and  the  luxurious  and  idle.  The  abbey 
church  of  St.  Francis  in  Assisi,  near  Perugia, 
witnessed  the  earliest  development  of  fresco 
painting  in  modem  times.  Aoout  the  middle 
of  the  18th  century  Giunta  of  Pisa  conmienced 
a  series  of  paintings  on  its  walls,  and  during 
the  next  century  and  a  half  Cimabue,  Giotto, 
Giottino,  the  Gaddi,  Simone  di  Martino,  and 
other  painters  of  note  were'  invited  to  add  to 
its  adornment  Neglect  and  exposure  have 
injured  these  works,  but  as  the  earliest  speci- 
mens of  modem  Christian  art  they  are  of 
surpassing  value  and  interest.  Next  in  date, 
and  of  even  greater  importance,  are  the  deco- 
rations of  the  Campo  Santo  in  Pisa,  a  burial 
ground  begun  toward  the  close  of  the  18th 
century,  the  walls  of  which  employed  some 
of  the  chief  masters  of  fresco  in  uie  14th  and 
15th.  The  early  paintings,  erroneously  attrib- 
uted to  Buffalmacco  and  Giotto,  have  nearly 
disappeared,  and  time,  neglect,  and  damp  have 
seriously  impaired  the  effect  of  the  others; 
and  such  is  the  character  of  the  walls  on  which 
the  plaster  is  laid  that  it  is  considered  hopeless 
to  attempt  to  restore  them,  or  to  arrest  the 
progress  of  decay.  A  series  painted  by  Orca- 
gna,  or  according  to  the  most  recent  authorities 
by  the  Sienese  brothers  the  Lorenzetti,  about 


484 


FRESCO  PAINTING 


1385,  representing  the  last  judgment,  hell,  and 
the  triamph  of  death,  are  considered  among 
the  grandest  specimens  of  early  art.  To  these 
succeeded  Simone  di  Martino,  Taddeo  Gaddi, 
Francesco  da  Volterra,  Antonio  Veneziano, 
Pietro  d'Orvieto,  and  others,  whose  labors  ex- 
tended to  the  close  of  the  century.  Pietro 
d'Orvieto's  designs,  representing  subjects  from 
Genesis,  were  probably  the  earliest  works  in 
huon  fresco^  the  joinings  of  the  plaster  being 
so  frequent,  as  compared  with  earlier  wall 
paintings,  that  the  amount  of  work  in  each 
portion  must  have  been  finished  at  once.  The 
wars  and  internal  dissensions  which  distracted 
Pisa  interrupted  the  decoration  of  the  Campo 
Santo  for  many  years ;  bat  tranquillity  having 
been  restored,  Benozzo  Gozzoli  was  invited  in 
1468  to  complete  the  work.  The  whole  of  the 
north  wall,  upward  of  400  ft.  long,  was  as- 
signed to  him,  and  in  the  next  16  years  he  cov- 
ered this  immense  space  with  a  series  of  fres- 
coes representing  the  principal  events  in  the 
Old  Testament,  described  by  Vasari  as  «n' 
opera  terribilimma.  Besides  the  works  enu- 
merated as  belonging  to  the  14th  century,  we 
may  mention  Giotto^s  celebrated  series  in  the 
Arena  chapel  at  Padua,  representing  scenes 
from  the  life  of  the  Virgin,  and  the  same 
master^s  recently  discovered  portraits  of  Dante 
and  other  Florentine  citizens  in  the  chapel  of 
the  Bargello  at  Florence;  the  series  by  Taddeo 
Gaddi  and  Simone  di  Martino  in  the  Spanish 
chapel  in  the  church  of  Sta.  Maria  Novella, 
Florence,  representing  the  "Triumph  of  the 
Church;"  Spinello's  "Overthrow  of  the  Rebel 
Angels  "  in  the  convent  of  S.  Agnolo,  at  Arez- 
zo;  and  the  series  representing  the  "Fruits  of 
Good  Government  and  the  Triumph  of  Peace," 
painted  by  Ambrosio  Lorenzetti  in  the  Palazzo 
Publico  of  Siena.  In  the  15th  century,  to  the 
latter  half  of  which  belongs  the  so-called  t&- 
naissance  or  new  birth,  when  the  study  of  the 
remains  of  ancient  sculpture  infused  a  new 
life  into  art,  increased  wealth  and  intelligence 
caused  an  increased  demand  for  easel  pictures, 
the  value  of  which  was  greatly  enhanced  by  the 
introduction  of  oil  as  a  medium  for  mixing  col- 
ors ;  but  fresco  painting  still  maintained  its  su- 
premacy, and  claimed  for  its  function  the  re- 
ligious and  moral  teaching  of  the  people,  by  the 
representation  of  sacred  history.  The  noblest 
achievements  in  art  are  therefore  still  those 
of  the  fresco  painters.  The  great  names  of 
the  century  are  Pietro  dell  a  Francesca,  whose 
frescoes  in  the  church  of  S.  Francesco  in  Arez- 
80,  Vasari  says,  "  might  be  called  too  beautiful 
and  excellent  for  the  time  in  which  they  were 
painted ;"  Masolino;  Filippo  Lippi,  who  paint- 
ed the  frescoes  in  the  duomo  at  Prato;  Fra 
Angelico  da  Fiesole ;  Masaccio,  whose  series 
of  the  life  of  St.  Peter  in  the  Brancacci  chapel 
in  the  church  of  Sta.  Maria  del  Carmine,  in 
Florence,  to  which  additions  were  afterward 
made  by  Filippino  Lippi,  formed  an  epoch  in 
art;  and  Ghirlandaio,  the  master  of  Michel 
Angelo,  whose  frescoes  representing  the  his- 


tories of  John  the  Baptist  and  the  Virgin  af- 
forded models  for  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  Raphael, 
and  Michel  Angelo.  Luca  Signorelli,  Andrea 
Mantegna,  the  great  founder  of  the  Mantuan 
school,  Francesco  Francia,  who  decorated  the 
church  of  St.  Cecilia  in  Bologna,  Perugino,  the 
master  of  Raphael,  Fra  Bartolommeo,  and  some 
others,  belong  partly  to  this  century  and  part- 
ly to  the  next,  which  witnessed  at  once  the  cul- 
mination of  the  art  of  fresco  painting,  and  its 
corruption  and  decline.  The  three  most  illus- 
trious painters  of  this  latter  era,  Leonardo  da 
Vinci,  Raphael,  and  Michel  Angelo,  embodied 
their  loftiest  conceptions  on  the  walls  and  ceil- 
ings of  churches  and  palaces,  and  their  numer- 
ous disciples  filled  Italy  with  imitations,  degen- 
erating toward  the  close  of  the  century  into 
lifeless  mannerisms.  Leonardo's  chief  work  is 
the  well  known  "Last  Supper,"  executed  for 
the  refectory  of  the  convent  of  Sta.  Maria  delle 
Grazie  at  Milan,  of  which  only  the  mouldering 
remains  are  now  visible.  It  has  been  called 
the  most  perfect  work  executed  since  the 
revival  of  painting.  Of  Michel  Angelo^s  fres- 
coes, the  most  famous  are  the  series  on  the 
ceiling  of  the  Sistine  chapel,  representing  the 
'^Creation"  and  the  "Fall  of  Man,"  with  the 
noble  figures  of  the  prophets  and  sibyls ;  and 
the  "Last  Judgment,"  on  the  end  wall  of 
the  chapel — ^tbe  whole  combining  to  a  degree 
never  since  equalled  grandeur  of  form  and 
sublimity  of  expression.  Raphael's  frescoes 
exhibit  perhaps,  in  the  aggregate,  the  highest 
development  of  Christian  art.  The  most  fa- 
mous are  those  covering  the  walls  and  ceilings 
of  the  chambers  in  the  Vatican,  known  as  the 
"Stanze  of  Raphael,"  although  many  of  these 
works,  as  well  as  the  decorations  of  the  log- 
gie  or  open  colonnades  of  the  Vatican,  were 
painted  by  Giulio  Romano  and  other  scholars 
of  Raphael  from  his  designs.  RaphaeFs  hand 
is  seen  chiefly  in  the  series  of  "Theology" 
or  the  "Dispute  of  the  Sacrament,"  "Phi- 
losophy "  or  the  "  School  of  Athens,"  "  Poetry  " 
or  "Parnassus,"  tmd  "  Jurisprudence,"  in  Uie 
Camera  della  Segnatura;  and  in  the  "Expul- 
sion of  Heliodorus  from  the  Temple,"  the 
"Mass  at  Bolsena,"  "Attila,"and  the  "De- 
livery of  St.  Peter,"  in  the  stanza  of  Heliodorus. 
He  also  painted  the  four  celebrated  sibyls  in  the 
Chigi  chapel  in  the  church  of  Sta.  Maria  della 
Pace,  and  the  "Galatea"  in  the  villa Famesina 
in  Rome.  The  frescoes  in  the  Vatican,  having 
suffered  by  neglect,  were  skilfully  restored  by 
Carlo  Maratti  at  the  beginning  of  the  18th  cen- 
tury. Giulio  Romano  also  designed  and  partly 
executed  the  well  known  "Fall  of  the  Giants" 
in  the  palazzo  del  Te  at  Mantua.  Shortly  after 
the  completion  of  the  works  in  the  Vatican,  Cor- 
reggio  painted  in  the  church  of  S.  Giovanni  in 
Parma  his  fresco  of  the  "Ascension,"  and  that 
of  the  "  Assumption  "  in  the  duomo  of  the  same 
city,  in  both  of  which  the  art  of  chiaroscuro  and 
relief  is  carried  to  perfection.  Parmigiano,  his 
pupil,  left  unfinished  some  frescoes  in  the  Stec- 
cata  at  Parma,  in  which  a  figure  of  Moses 


FRESCO  PAINTING 


FRESENIUS 


485 


breaking  the  tablerts  has  been  greatly  extolled. 
The  Znccheri,  Andrea  del  Sarto,  Sebastian  del 
Piombo,  Yasari,  and  nearly  every  other  distin- 
guished painter  of  the  age,  practised  fresco 
painting,  and  sometimes  on  the  most  extensive 
scale;  but  the  art  rapidly  deteriorated  until 
toward  the  close  of  the  century,  when'the  Oar- 
racci,  Domenichino,  Guido,  and  other  painters 
of  the  eclectic  school,  restored  somewhat  of 
its  former  vitality.  Their  efforts,  however, 
were  but  transient,  and  after  the  middle  of  the 
17th  century,  with  a  few  exceptions,  no  work 
in  fresco  of  more  than  moderate  merit  was 
executed  in  Italy.  No  mention  has  been  made 
of  Uie  great  Venetian  painters,  because  they 
seldom  attempted  fresco,  except  on  the  facades 
and  exteriors  of  buildings,  but  developed  their ' 
genius  in  oil  painting. — The  present  century 
has  witnessed  a  revival  of  fresco  painting  in 
various  countries  of  Europe,  more  particularly 
in  Germany,  where,  with  the  exception  of  a 
few  rude  mural  decc^ations  in  some  of  the 
older  cathedrals,  the  art  seems  never  previously 
to  have  been  practised.  The  movement  was 
due  to  the  enthusiasm  of  a  number  of  young 
German  artists  established  in  Rome  at  the 
commencement  of  the  century,  whose  first 
works  were  executed  in  the  house  of  the  con- 
sul general  of  Prussia,  M.  Bartholdy,  and  in 
the  villa  Massimi.  In  these  efforts  Cornelius, 
Overbeck,  Sohnorr,  Bchadow,  Yeit,  Eoch,  and 
others  participated,  and  Overbeck  subsequent- 
ly painted  the  "Vision  of  St.  Francis"  in 
the  church  of  the  Angeli  at  Assisi,  in  the 
neighborhood  of  the  place  where  more  than 
five  centuries  before  Cimabue  and  Giotto  had 
executed  their  first  frescoes.  Overbeck  and  a 
portion  of  the  new  school  attempted  to  re- 
establish the  sentimental  or  ascetic  art  of  the 
early  Italian  masters,  while  others  sought  to 
create  at  once  what  they  considered  a  na- 
tional Teutonic  school  of  painting.  They  were 
hailed  throughout  Germany  as  the  regenerators 
of  art,  and  Iting  Louis  of  Bavaria  invited  Cor- 
nelius to  Munich  to  decorate  the  Glyptothek 
and  Pinakothek,  as  the  galleries  of  sculpture 
and  paintings  in  that  city  are  called.  Under 
the  influence  of  this  master  a  school  of  fres- 
co painting  sprang  up  in  Muuich,  numbering 
among  its  pupils  Eaulbach,  Zimmermann,  Hess, 
and  many  otners,  whose  works  cover  the  walls 
of  the  basilica  of  St.  Boniface,  the  Ednigs- 
ban,  the  Festbau,  the  Allerheiligen-Eapelle, 
and  other  buildings.  In  the  Ludwigskirche  is 
executed  Corneliuses  largest  fresco,  the  '*  Last 
Judgment."  In  the  new  museum,  the  royal 
palace,  and  elsewhere  in  Berlin,  are  also  grand 
specimens  by  Cornelius,  Eaulbach,  Schnorr,  and 
others. — Mural  decorations  made  little  progress 
in  France  until  the  present  century ;  but  during 
the  second  empire  many  churches  in  Paris 
were  embellished  by  Amaury-Duval,  Motez, 
Bremond,  and  others.  The  most  celebrated 
mural  painting  in  Paris,  Delaroche^s  "  Hemicy- 
cle  "  in  the  palais  det  beaux  arts,  is  painted  in 
oil,  although  it  is  commonly  called  a  fresco,  and 


has  all  the  breadth  and  freedom  of  that  method. 
— ^The  erection  of  the  new  houses  of  parliament 
gave  the  first  decided  impulse  to  fresco  pant- 
ing in  England,  and  in  response  to  an  invita- 
tion from  a  select  committee  of  the  British 
parliamcpt  the  principal  artists  sent  to  exhibi- 
tions held  in  Westminster  hall  in  1848-5  car- 
toons and  specimens  of  fresco  for  the  decora- 
tion of  the  building.  Some  of  these  designs, 
comprising  abstract  representations  of  religion, 
justice,  &c.,  and  passages  from  British  history 
and  mythology,  were  subsequently  executed  by 
Cope,  Dyce,  Ward,  Maclise,  Herbert,  Watts, 
ana  others.  A  summer  pavilion  in  the  gardens 
of  Buckingham  palace,  the  hall  of  Lincoln^s 
Inn,  and  several  churches  in  London  have  also 
been  painted  with  frescoes. — With  respect  to 
all  frescoes,  painted  according  to  the  method 
of  the  best  Italian  masters,  it  may  generally  be 
observed  that  m  the  climate  of  northern  Europe 
they  are  soon  affected  by  cold  and  dampness. 
Those  in  Munich  executed  on  the  exteriors  of 
buildings  are  rapidly  falling  to  pieces,  and  a  simi- 
lar fate  has  overtaken  many  in  the  British 
houses  of  parliament.  The  latter  may  in  fact 
be  considered  a  failure,  both  on  account  of  the 
dampness  and  imperfect  light  of  the  building, 
and  of  the  apparent  inability  of  English  artists 
to  master  tne  technical  processes  of  fresco 
painting.  In  the  opinion  of  eminent  native  ar- 
tists the  process  is  unsuited  to  the  genius  of  the 
English  school,  and  no  completed  works  in 
fresco  exist  in  England  equal  to  those  by  the 
same  painters  executed  in  oiL  The  paintings 
executed  according  to  the  new  stereochrome 
process,  above  described,  are  apparently  more 
durable  than  the  Inion  frewo^  but  it  is  impos- 
sible  to  conjecture  how  long  they  may  remain 
in  good  condition. — ^Fresco  painting  has  made 
little  progress  in  America.  The  only  examples 
of  the  process  worthy  of  mention  are  to  be 
found  in  the  national  capital  at  Washington, 
and  they  are  of  little  artistic  value. 

FRESENIUS,  Karl  ReHlglBS,  a  German  chem- 
ist, bom  in  Frankfort,  Dec.  28,  1818.  He 
completed  his  studies  at  Bonn  and  at  Giessen 
under  Liebig,  whose  assistant  he  became.  In 
1845  he  was  appointed  professor  of  chem- 
istry, physical  science,  and  technology  at  the 
agricultural  institute  in  Wiesbaden,  where  he 
founded  a  chemical  laboratory,  which  has  ac- 
quired great  celebrity,  and  to  which  a  phar- 
maceutic school  was  added  in  1862.  In  the 
same  year  he  founded  at  Brunswick  Die  ZeiU 
iehrift  fur  analytisehe  Chemie,  He  is  a  high 
authority  on  analytical  chemistry,  and  has  pub- 
lished a  valuable  series  of  works  relating  to 
the  mineral  springs  of  Wiesbaden,  and  of  other 
German  watering  places.  His  principal  works 
are  AnUitun^  zur  qualitativen  chemuchen  Ana- 
lyse (Bonn,  1841 ;  Idth  ed.,  1870),  and  Anlsi- 
tung  2ur  quantitativen  ehemiseJien  Analyte 
(Brunswick,  1846 ;  2d  ed.,  1866 ;  English  trans- 
lation, **  System  of  Instruction  in  Quantitative 
Chemical  Analysis,"  edited  by  S.  W.  Johnson, 
New  York,  1869). 


486 


FRESNEL 


FRE8NEL,  Angnstfn  Jeaiiy  a  Frenob  physicist, 
born  at  Broglie,  in  Normandy,  May  10,  1788, 
died  at  Ville  d'Avray,  near  Paris,  Jnly  14, 
1827.  At  a  very  early  age  he  exhibited  a 
taste  for  mechanical  and  physical  science. 
In  his  17th  year  he  entered  the  po^technic 
school,  where  he  gained  the  applause  of  Legen- 
dre  by  a  peculiar  solution  of  a  question  in 
geometry.  He  passed  thence  to  the  school  of 
bridges  and  roads.  After  graduating,  he  su- 
perintended the  engineering  operations  of  the 
government  in  the  department  of  Vendue  for 
eight  years.  His  first  memoir  (1814)  was  a' 
demonstration  of  the  phenomenon  of  the  stellar 
aberration.  He  went  to  Paris  in  1816,  in  which 
year  his  first  experimental  researches  were 
made,  and  from  this  time  until  his  death  his 
(Uscoveries  and  scientific  memoirs  followed 
each  other  rapidly.  At  the  commencement  of 
1815  he  did  not  know  what  was  meant  by  the 
term  polarization  of  light,  and  in  less  than  a 
year  he  stood  at  the  head  of  investigators  of 
the  subject.  In  1819  he  gained  a  prize  offered 
by  the  French  academy  of  sciences  for  an 
article  on  diffraction.  In  1828  he  was  elected 
member  of  the  academy  by  a  unanimous  vote. 
In  1825  he  was  made  an  associate  of  the  royal 
society  of  London,  and  in  1827  that  society 
awarded  him  the  Rumford  medal,  which  was 
presented  to  him  upon  his  deathbed  by  his  friend 
and  collaborator  Arago.  In  May,  1824,  he  was 
appointed  secretary  of  the  commission  of  light- 
houses. He  was  at  the  same  time  engineer  of 
the  pavements  of  Paris  and  one  of  the  exami- 
ners of  the  polytechnic  school.  From  the  end  of 
1824  until  his  death  his  health  was  so  bad  from 
the  effects  of  unremitting  labor  that  he  was 
obliged  to  give  up  all  work.  The  true  laws  of 
the  complicated  phenomena  of  double  refrac- 
tion were  demonstrated  by  Fresnel.  It  is  now 
known  that  nearly  all  crystals  possess  the  prop- 
erty of  double  refraction.  Before  FresnePs  in- 
vestigations it  was  supposed  that  it  belonged 
only  to  Iceland  spar  and  quartz.  Fresnel  in  con- 
junction with  Arago  explained  the  interferences 
of  polarized  light,  giving  the  phenomena  and 
determining  their  laws.  He  proved  that  all 
the  colors  engendered  in  doubly  refracting  crys- 
tals are  particular  cases  of  the  interference  of 
polarized  light,  and  also  discovered  the  phe- 
nomena which  are  called  circular  polarization, 
and  explained  their  laws.  He  was  an  able  and 
enthusiastic  advocate  of  the  wave  theory  of 
light,  against  that  of  emission  or  material  em- 
anations. In  1811  a  lighthouse  board  or  com- 
mission of  lighthouses  was  formed  in  France. 
One  of  the  duties  of  this  commission  was  to  de- 
termine whether  the  lighting  apparatus  might 
not  be  improved.  In  1819  Arago  volunteered 
to  take  charge  of  the  experiments  on  the  sub- 
ject, provided  Fresnel  and  Mathieu  were  joined 
with  him.  The  proposition  was  accepted,  and 
Fresnel  devoted  the  whole  strength  of  his  mind 
to  the  subject.  The  result  was  the  system  of 
lens-lighting  apparatus  which  has  changed  the 
mode  of  lighthouse  illumination  throughout  the 


world,  and  is  universally  known  as  the  Fres- 
nel system.  The  most  perfect  system  known 
before  Fresnel's  was  that  of  parabolic  reflectors. 
In  this,  for  a  fixed  light,  the  reflectors  are  ar- 
ranged around  one  or  more  horizontal  circles 
with  their  axes  parallel  to  the  horizon,  and 
passing  (produced)  through  the  centres  of 
the  circles.  In  a  revolving  light  the  reflectors 
are  arranged  with  their  axes  parallel  to  each 
other  and  to  the  horizon,  aj  making  the 
system  revolve,  a  bright  flash  is  produced 
by  the  combined  action  of  all  the  reflectors, 
when  the  eye  is  in  or  near  the  axis  of  one 
of  them.  As  the  rays  proceeding  from  a 
lamp  at  the  focus  of  a  parabolic  reflector  are 
parallel  to  the  axis  after  deviation  by  the  re- 
flector, it  is  evident  that  systems  arranged  as 
above  indicated  will  show  a  bright  light  in  the 
horizon  to  an  observer  situated  in  or  near  the 
axis  of  any  one  of  the  reflectors,  since  the  re- 
flected beam  does  not  lose  its  intensity  except  by 
atmospheric  absorption.^  Therefore  the  greater 
the  number  of  reflectors,  the  better  will  be  the 
light ;  and  to  produce  as  nearly  as  possible  a 
uniform  light  at  the  horizon,  the  number  of 
reflectors  in  important  fixed  lights  is  sometimes 
very  great,  as  many  as  24  having  been  used.  In 
all  cases  the  reflectors  are  made  of  copper  care- 
fully shaped  to  the  form  of  a  paraboloid  of  rev- 
olution, and  covered  with  a  uniform  coating  of 
pure  silver.  The  objections  to  the  reflector  sys- 
tem are :  1,  the  want  of  uniformity  of  the  light ; 
2,  the  great  expense,  each  lamp  requiring  50 
gallons  of  sperm  oil  per  annum ;  8,  the  rapid 
deterioration  of  the  reflectors  from  the  necessity 
of  daily  cleaning  the  silvered  surface,  the  silver- 
ing requiring  entire  renewal  at  least  once  in  ten 
years;  4,  the  great  loss  of  light  caused  by  the 
reflection  and  by  the  necessary  imperfectiona  in 
form  in  a  parabolic  reflecting  surface.  As  soon 
as  he  began  to  study  the  subject,  Fresnel  con- 
ceived the  idea  of  substituting  lenses  for  the 
reflectors.  A  convex  lens  possesses  the  prop- 
erty of  making  all  rays  proceeding  from  its 
principal  focus  parallel  after  deviation.  It  pro- 
duces the  effect  by  refraction  that  parabolic 
reflectors  produce  by  reflection.  If  therefore  a 
plano-convex  lens  could  be  formed  which  would 
not  much  exceed  in  thickness  ordinary  plate 
glass,  the  loss  of  light  by  absorption  in  passing 
through  such  a  lens  would  be  much  less  than  in 
the  case  of  reflection.  For  the  two  refracting 
surfaces  the  loss  does  not  much  exceed  «^, 
while  by  reflection  it  is  about  i.  But  if  the 
exterior  surface  of  the  lens  is  spherical,  it  is 
evident  that,  supposing  the  lens  to  embrace  all 
rays  which  are  contained  in  a  belt  22^°  above 
and  22i°  below  the  horizon,  and  in  a  horizontal 
angle  of  46°,  the  thickness  would  become  so 
great  for  a  large  principal  focal  distance  that 
much  of  the  light  would  be  absorbed,  and  the 
lens  would  become  useless.  The  weight,  too, 
would  be  so  great,  that  it  would  be  nearly  im- 
possible to  make  the  apparatus  revolve  by  ma- 
chinery available  at  the  top  of  a  lighthouse. 
For  these  reasons  a  lens  light  which  existed  in 


FRE8NEL 


487 


England  when  Fresnel  made  his  experiments 
nras  considered  a  failore.  K  now  a  circular 
central  part  of  the  curved  surface  of  a  plano- 
convex lens  is  moved  parallel  to  itself  until  at 
its  edges  the  glass  is  very  thin,  the  diminution 
of  thickness  will  not  affect  the  parallelism 
of  the  rays  after  deviation,  and  the  absorption 
will  be  very  much  lessened.  If  another  part 
of  the  lens,  of  a  convenient  breadth  and  con* 
centric  with  the  first  part,  be  moved  as  was  the 
first  part  until  its  edges  become  very  thin,  the 
thickness  of  this  will  not  much  increase  the 
absorption,  and  so  of  the  whole  surface  of  the 
lens ;  that  is,  it  can  be  divided  into  thin  con- 
centric rings  of  convenient  breadth  and  of  near- 
ly the  same  curvature  as  the  lens,  which  will 
absorb  but  little  light,  and  at  the  same  time 
will  send  out  the  rays  parallel  to  each  other, 
and,  if  properly  adjusted,  parallel  to  the  horizon. 
Buffon  first  imagined  this  manner  of  construct- 
ing a  lens.  Oondorcet  in  1778  suggested  that 
the  rings  might  be  made  in  separate  pieces,  and 
Sir  David  Brewster  made  the  same  suggesAon 
in  1811.  Fresnel,  without  knowing  Oondor- 
cet^s  or  Brewster^s  suggestions,  conceived  the 
idea  of  makmg  the  lenses  in  steps  and  in  sepa- 
rate pieces,  and,  following  it  up,  had  the  lenses 
manufactured  and  applied  to  lighthouses.  The 
vertical  central  section  of  Fresnel's  lens,  in- 
stead of  being  that  of  a  plano-convex  lens,  is  a 
figure  bounded  on  the  side  toward  the  lamp  by 
a  vertical  straight  line,  and  on  the  outside  by  a 
serrated  line.  This  last  line  is  a  portion  of  the 
arc  of  a  circle  at  its  central  part,  and  receding 
from  the  centre  consists  of  portions  of  arcs  of 
circles  bounded  by  horizonUd  lines.  The  first 
lens  apparatus  made  by  Fresnel  consisted  of 
eight  lenses  like  that  abovo  described,  arranged 
in  the  form  of  an  octagonal  prism.  It  is  evi- 
dent that  an  eye  situated  in  the  horizon  would 
perceive  a  bright  fiash  whenever  one  of  these 
lenses  came  in  front  of  it;  and  supposing  the 
oct^onal  prism  to  be  revolved  about  its  verti- 
cal axis,  there  will  be  eight  flashes  in  one  revo- 
lution. In  FresnePs  first  apparatus,  and  in  all 
very  large  ones  manufactured  within  10  or  12 
years  after  his  invention,  the  rays  in  the  portion 
of  the  sphere  above  the  belt  deviated  by  the 
lens  were  brought  to  the  horizon  by  a  combi- 
nation of  lenses  and  plane  reflectors,  and  those 
below  by  the  combination  of  curved  glass  re- 
flectors similar  to  the  slats  of  Venetian  blinds, 
except  that  the  reflectors  are  not  precisely  par- 
allel, but  are  placed  at  such  angles  that  all  the 
light  they  receive  shall  be  thrown  to  the  hori- 
zon. The  interval  between  the  flashes  is  di- 
minished by  arranging  the  auxiliary  mirrors  so 
that  they  will  reflect  the  light  a  little  to  one 
side  of  the  beam  reli*acted  by  the  lenses.  This 
makes  the  flash  longer,  and  correspondently 
diminishes  the  dark  interval.  In  order  to  pro- 
duce a  fixed  lens  light  which  shall  show  uni- 
formly entirely  around  the  horizon,  if  the  cen- 
tral vertical  section  of  the  lens  (the  section 
bounded  by  the  serrated  line  above  described) 
be  revolved  about  the  vertical   line   drawn 


through  the  principal  focus  of  the  lens,  it  will 
generate  a  solid  of  revolution,  which  when 
made  of  glass  will  fulfil  the  required  condition 
for  all  rays  22^^''  above  and  22^°  below  the  ho- 
rizon. Those'  above  and  below  this  zone  are 
brought  to  the  horizon  by  a  combination  of 
lenses  and  reflectors  on  the  same  principle  as 
those  described  for  a  revolving  lens.  But  Fres- 
nel was  not  satisfied  with  tlie  use  of  reflectors 
for  bringing  to  the  horizon  the  rays  above  and 
below  the  central  belt  of  45^.  On  account  of 
the  acut«ness  of  the  angles  at  which  these  rays 
must  be  incident  upon  any  deviating  surface, 
it  was  not  practicable  to  bend  them  to  the 
horizon  merely  by  refraction  at  two  surfaces. 
He  therefore  calculated  the  dimensions  of  a 
series  of  annular  prisms,  so  arranged  that  the 
rays  from  the  lamp  incident  upon  the  first  sur- 
face of  the  prisms  were  refracted  by  it  toward 
the  horizon,  were  incident  upon  the  second 
surface  at  an  angle  greater  than  that  of  total 
reflection,  were  reflected  by  it,  and  were  so 
refracted  by  the  third  surface  that  they 
emerged  from  the  prism  horizontal.  Thus  all 
the  rays  proceeding  from  the  lamp,  except 
those  obstructed  by  the  glass  chimney  and  the 
lamp  itself,  were  utilized  by  the  lens,  forming 
the  very  perfection  of  a  lighthouse  apparatus. 
Fresnel  did  not  live  to  see  his  idea  of  using 
the  prisms  instead  of  reflectors  in  the  large 
lens  apparatus  carried  out ;  but  small  appara- 
tus were  made  on  this  principle  for  harbor 
lights  with  entire  success.  It  is  believed  that 
the  annular  prisms  were  flrst  used  in  an  appa- 
ratus of  the  largest  kind  in  one  made  at  Paris 
under  the  direction  of  Alan  Stevenson,  engi- 
neer of  the  commission  of  northern  lights  of 
Scotland.  The  prismatic  rings  placed  above 
and  below  the  annular  lens  will  with  the  lens 
throw  all  the  rays  to  the  horizon,  and  the  com- 
bination will  thus  answer  admirably  for  a  fixed 
light.  The  annular  prisms  to  fulfil  their  object 
must  be  arranged  in  conical  or  beehive  shape 
above  and  below  the  annular  lens.  For  a  re- 
volving light,  a  vertical  central  section  of  the 
annular  lens  with  a  meridian  section  of  the 
system  of  prisms  was  revolved  around  the  hor- 
izontal line  joining  the  centre  of  the  annular 
lens  and  the  principal  focus  of  the  combina- 
tion. The  revolution  was  continued  far  enough 
to  generate  a  larger  or  smaller  solid  as  the 
interval  between  the  flashes  was  greater  or 
smaller,  the  dimensions  at  the  top  and  bottom 
of  the  lens  regulating  the  amplitude  of  the  rev- 
olution. Thus  a  polygon  of  8  sides  answers 
for  an  interval  of  one  minute,  supposing  the 
time  of  revolution  to  be  8  minutes,  one  of  16 
sides  to  an  interval  of  80  seconds,  and  one  of 
24  sides  to  an  interval  of  15  seconds,  supposing 
the  time  of  revolution  to  be  6  minutes.  In  or- 
der to  lengthen  the  flashes,  the  upper  and  low- 
er systems  of  prisms  were  moved  a  little  to 
one  side  of  the  central  annular  lenses.  The 
flash  from  the  prisms  was  therefore  produced 
a  little  after  that  from  the  lens,  but  so  soon 
after  as  to  appear  a  part  of  it.    Another  dis- 


488 


FRESNEL 


tinction  was  formed  by  revolviBg  a  system  of 
cylindrical  vertical  lenses  around  a  fixed  ap- 
paratus and  outside  of  it.  These  lenses  col- 
lected the  rays  incident  upon  them,  and  emit- 
ted them  parallel  to  each  other  ana  to  the  ho- 
rizon. When  one  of  the  lenses  came  opposite 
the  observer,  the  eye  received  a  bright  flash 
preceded  and  followed  by  a  short  eclipse.  Be- 
fore and  after  the  eclipses  the  fixed  light  was 
visible.  This  arrangement  is  called  a  ^*  fixed 
light  varied  by  fiashes."  Nearly  the  same  ap- 
pearance is  given  by  using  the  upper  and  lower 
prismatic  rings  of  the  fixed  light  and  the  annu- 
lar lenses  of  the  revolving  light.  When  the 
latter  revolves,  the  eye  perceives  a  flash  from 
the  annular  lens,  and  in  the  interval  between 
the  fiashes  perceives  the  light  from  the  fixed 
part  of  the  apparatus.  It  will  be  seen  that 
the  variations  which  this  system  admits  for  the 
same  order  far  surpass  in  number  those  of  re- 
flector lights.  The  latter  can  only  be  either 
fixed  or  revolving,  and  it  has  been  found  im- 
possible in  practice  to  diversify  the  intervals 
between  the  fiashes  to  any  extent.  The  radii 
of  the  spherical  surfaces  forming  the  lenses, 
and  the  radii  and  other  dimensions  of  the  pris- 
matic rings,  are  calculated  by  known  formulas 
from  the  index  of  refraction,  the  position  of 
the  exterior  surfaces  of  the  lens  with  reference 
to  the  source  of  light,  and  the  distances  of  the 
various  concentric  rings  and  prismatic  sur- 
faces from  the  horizontal  plane  passed  through 
the  principal  focus.  The  surfaces  of  the  lenses 
are  limited  in  breadth  by  tlie  condition  that 
the  solid  of  revolution  shall  not  be  thick  enough 
to  absorb  a  material  portion  of  the  light.  This 
condition  makes  their  breadth  about  1*5  in. 
Spherical  aberration  is  nearly  eliminated  by  a 
proper  use  of  the  formulas  in  calculating  the 
radii  of  the  surfaces.  The  index  of  refraction 
of  the  glass  used  is  1*51.  In  the  large  lenses 
the  rings  are  groond  in  segments  of  circles, 
are  fastened  into  brass  armatures,  and  are  put 
together  at  the  lighthouse.  The  small  lenses 
are  placed  in  their  armatures,  and  are  put  to- 
gether, ready  for  erection,  at  the  workshops. 
The  material  used  is  the  flint  glass  of  St.  Go- 
bain,  which,  although  not  as  colorless  as  crown 
glass,  was  selected  because  it  could  be  obtained 
more  free  from  bubbles  and  strisd  than  crown 
glass.  It  is  cast  in  pieces,  exceeding  the  in- 
tended size  of  the  finished  parts  by  about  one 
eighth.  There  are  six  orders  of  lenses,  ar- 
ranged according  to  size.  The  three  first  and 
largest  are  used  in  seacoast  lights,  and  the  three 
last  in  harbor  and  river  lights,  and  generally 
in  those  of  lesser  importance.  FresnePs  inven- 
tion has  also  been  adapted  to  small  lanterns 
used  for  steamers'  signal  lights,  pier-head  and 
ferry  lights,  &c.,  and  many  of  this  kind  are  now 
manufactured  in  the  United  States  of  pressed 
glass.  The  first  order  fixed  lens  apparatus  is 
about  6  ft  in  diameter  .and  9  ft.  high.  The 
central  zone  consists  of  the  central  plano-con- 
vex belt  and  16  steps  (echelo7is),  arranged  in 
equal  numbers  above  and  below  it.    The  low- 


er set  of  prisms  is  6  in  number,  and  the  ap' 
per  set  13.  This  last  set  is  arranged  in  tlie 
form  of  a  cone.  In  the  revolving  first  order 
lens,  having  an  interval  of  10  seconds,  there 
are  17  upper  and  8  lower  prisms.  The  sixth 
and  smallest  order  of  lens  is  11*8  in.  in  diam- 
eter and  17*6  in.  high.  The  central  zone  is 
composed  of  the  plano-convex  belt  and  four 
steps,  two  on  each  side  of  it.  There  are  three 
prisms  below  and  five  above  the  central  zone. 
As  the  lamps  in  use  when  Fresnel  made  his  in- 
vention were  entirely  incompetent  to  supply 
enough  light  irom  one  burner  for  the  use  of  the 
higher  orders  of  lens  apparatus,  he  in  con- 
junction with  Arago  made  a  thorough  investi- 
gation of  the  subject  of  lamps.  The  result  was 
that  he  adopted  for  the  first  order  lens  a  burner 
about  8i  in.  in  diameter,  giving  a  fiame  about 
H  in.  high,  and  containing  four  concentric 
wicks.  The  intensity  of  the  light  of  this  lamp 
is  about  equal  to  that  of  25  ordinary  Carcel 
burners  which  have  a  diameter  of  about  three 
fourths  of  an  inch.  The  lamp  is  placed  in  the 
centre  of  the  apparatus.  As  the  heat  evolved 
by  such  a  lamp  is  very  great,  there  might  be 
danger  of  melting  the  burners,  and  of  burning 
up  the  wicks.  To  avQid  these  difiSculties,  Fres- 
nel adopted  the  Carcel  lamp,  which,  by  a  sys- 
tem of  clockwork,  pumps  up  to  the  burner 
four  times  as  much  oil  as  is  consumed.  By 
this  means  the  burners  are  always  kept  compar- 
atively cool,  and  the  wicks  sometimes  bum  a 
whole  night  without  requiring  snuffing.  For 
the  second  order  lens  apparatus  a  lamp  with 
three  concentric  wicks  was  adopted;  for  the 
third  and  fourth  orders,  lamps  with  two  con- 
centric wicks  are  used ;  and  for  the  fifth  and 
sixth  orders,  ordinary  Argand  burners  are 
used.  Very  slight  changes  in  any  of  the  de- 
tails of  the  lamps  have  been  made  since  they 
were  first  settled  by  Fresnel.  The  annual  con- 
sumption of  oil  by  the  lenses  of  the  different 
orders  is  as  follows:  first  order,  684  gaUons; 
second,  461 ;  third,  221 ;  fourth,  156  to  f90, 
accoi'ding  as  one  wick  or  two  are  used ;  fifth, 
70;  Bix&,  60.  In  the  first  order  octisigonal 
revolving  lens  the  quantity  of  light  sent  to  the 
horizon  by  one  of  the  octagonal  faces  and  its 
reflectors  is  between  8,000  and  4,000  times  the 
light  of  a  single  Carcel  burner,  being  eight 
times  as  much  as  that  sent  to  the  horizon  by 
the  best  reflectors  that  are  made.  To  get  the 
useful  effect  of  the  whole  lens,  the  above  num- 
bers must  be  multiplied  by  8,  that  being  the 
number  of  annular  lenses  doing  the  work  of 
that  number  of  burners  at  the  same  time.  The 
useful  effect  of  the  lens  light  is  to  that  of  the 
reflector  light  as  4  to  1 ;  that  is,  one  gallon  of 
oil  burned  in  a  lens  light  throws  as  mucb  light 
to  the  horizon  as  four  gallons  burned  in  a  re- 
flector light.  The  brilliancy  of  a  first  order 
lens  light  as  compared  with  the  best  refiector 
lights  is  as  88  to  16,  or  as  5  to  1. — The  first  lens 
apparatus  manufactured  under  the  direction  of 
Fresnel  was  erected  in  1823  in  the  Cordonan 
lighthouse  at  the  mouth  of  the  Gironde,  on  the 


FRESNILLO 


FREYTAG 


489 


coast  of  the  bay  of  Biscay.  The  auxiliary 
lenses  and  reflectors  for  utilizing  the  rays  above 
and  below  the  central  belt  are  now  replaced  by 
the  prismatic  rings.  In  1825  the  lens  system 
was  adopted  for  the  coasts  of  France,  and  as 
early  as  1838,  12  lighthouses  on  the  coast  were 
illuminated  by  the  Fresnel  system.  In  1845 
there  were  151  lens  lights  on  the  French  coast, 
and  probably  there  is  not  a  single  reflector  light 
in  France  at  present.  It  was  next  adopted  by 
the  Dutch,  and  in  1884  the  erection  of  a  first 
order  lens  in  Inchkeith  (Scotland)  lighthouse 
was  authorized.  The  Trinity  house  corporation 
next  adopted  the  Fresnel  system  in  1887,  and  it 
has  since  been  used  by  all  European  maritime 
nations  and  their  colonies,  and  by  the  United 
States.    (See  LionTHOUSE.) 

FRESSniXO,  a  city  of  Mexico,  in  the  state 
of  Zacatecas,  305  m.  K  W.  of  Mexico ;  pop. 
about  15,000.  It  is  7,284  ft.  above  the  sea,  and 
is  partially  surrounded  by  eminences  formed 
by  a  gradual  rise  of  the  country  on  three  sides. 
The  streets  are  Imd  out  at  right  angles,  and 
well  kept.  The  plaza,  once  the  site  of  an 
arena  for  bull  fights,  is  now  a  beautiful  prom- 
enade. The  houses  are  scrupulously  neat ;  and 
among  the  public  buildings  the  most  note- 
worthy are  tne  parish  and  three  other  church- 
es, all  handsomely  and  solidly  constructed,  and 
a  school  of  mines,  founded  in  1853. '  Maize, 
wheat,  and  other  cereals  are  largely  cultivated ; 
and  the  city  markets  are  provided  with  many 
of  the  European  garden  vegetables  and  fruits, 
and  some  of  the  tropical  fruits.  The  a^acent 
silver  mines  of  the  same  name  were  discovered 
in  1569,  in  which  year  the  city  was  founded. 
They  were  long  among  the  most  productive  in 
the  country;  in  1888  the  yield  was  $2,810,998 : 
in  1850  it  was  a  quarter  of  a  million  more,  and 
it  has  since  increased  still  more. 

FAESBfOy  a  8.  central  county  of  California, 
between  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  the  Coast 
range ;  area,  8,750  sq.  m. ;  poo.  in  1870,  6,886, 
of  whom  427  were  Chinese.  It  is  watered  by 
the  San  Joaquin  river  and  its  branches.  The 
San  Joaquin  valley  is  »very  fertile.  The  moun- 
tain forests,  containing  very  large  trees,  are 
very  extensive.  The  W.  part  of  the  county 
consists  of  rush-covered  marshes  called  tules. 
The  celebrated  New  Idria  quicksilver  mines  are 
in  this  county,  and  gold  is  mined  to  some  ex- 
tent. The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  19,- 
765  bushels  of  wheat,  8,980  of  Indian  corn,  18,- 
875  of  barley,  1,746  tons  of  hay,  and  191,594 
lbs.  of  wool.  There  were  8,074  horses,  1,009 
milch  cows,  14,752  other  cattle,  139,677  sheep, 
and  15,516  swine.    Capital,  MiUerton. 

FEEUIVD,  WilhelH,  a  German  lexicographer, 
bom  of  Hebrew  parents  at  Kempen,  Posen, 
Jan.  27,  1806.  He  studied  philology  in  Berlin 
and  Breslau,  and  in  1828  opened  in  the  latter 
city  a  Jewish  school,  but  abandoned  this  en- 
terprise because  of  opposition  from  his  ortho- 
dox coreligionists.  Subsequently  he  was  a 
teacher  in  Hirschberg,  Silesia,  and  since  1855 
he  has  been  director  of  a  Jewish  school  at 


Gleiwitz  established  according  t^  his  plan. 
His  most  important  work  is  the  Worterbuch  der 
lateinisehen  Spraehe  (4  vols.,  Leipsic,  1834-'45), 
which  is  the  basis  of  Andrews's  "  Latin  and 
English  Lexicon"  (New  York,  1850). 

FRETCIBTET,  Cbarles  L.  de.    See  supplement. 

FRETCDfET,  Loite  Claude  DesaalSM  de,  a  French 
navigator,  born  in  Mont^limart,  Aug.  7,  1779, 
died  near  Loriol,  Aug.  18,  1842.  In  1779  he 
served  under  Admiral  Brueys.  In  1800  he  ac- 
companied Baudin^s  expedition  to  Australia, 
and  being  appointed  to  edit  the  nautical  and 
geographical  portion  of  the  narrative,  devoted 
ten  years  to  this  task.  In  1817  he  was  in- 
trusted with  the  command  of  a  new  expedi- 
tion, the  object  of  which  was  to  study  the 
figure  of  the  globe,  the  elements  of  terrestrial 
magnetism,  and  certain  meteorological  phe- 
nomena in  the  southern  hemisphere.  He  re- 
turned to  Havre  in  1820,  having  sailed  round 
the  earth,  bringing  a  great  number  of  observa- 
tions, charts,  and  curious  specimens  for  muse- 
ums. His  narrative  of  this  voyage  (18  vols. 
4to,  with  four  atlases^  Paris,  1824-'44)  gained 
him  admission  into  the  academy  of  sciences. 

FRETTAQ,  Georg  WIIhelH  Fricdrlch,  a  Gennan 
orientalist,  bom  in  LUneburg,  Sept.  19,  1788, 
died  in  Bonn,  Nov.  16,  1861.  He  studied  the- 
ology and  philosophy  at  Gdttingen,  and  in 
1811  became  tutor  there,  which  office  he  re- 
nounced in  1818,  through  hatred  of  French 
domination,  and  was  chaplmn  in  the  army  of 
the  conquerors  which  entered  Paris  in  1816. 
He  resigned  his  office  to  study  Arabic,  Per- 
sian, and  Turkish  under  Sylvestre  de  Sacy, 
and  held  the  professorship  of  those  languages 
in  the  university  of  Bonn  from  1819  until  his 
death.  Besides  Arabic  text  books,  he  pub- 
lished a  translation  of  Oadbi  hen  Sohair  Car' 
men  in  Laudem  MuhammedU  dictum  (Bonn, 
1822),  Arabum  Proverbia  (8  vols.,  1888-'44), 
an  edition  of  the  Fahihat  aUKhohtfa  by  Ibn 
Arabshah  (vol.  i.,  Arabic  text,  Bonn,  1882; 
vol.  ii.,  translation,  1858),  and  the  great  LexU 
eon  Arahieo-Latinum  (4  Yo\9.y  Halle,  1830-*87), 
which  was  followed  by  an  abridgment  in  1887. 

iUETTAG,  GHtiT,  a  German  novelist,  bom 
at  Ereuzburg,  Silesia,  July  18, 1816.  He  stud- 
ied at  the  universities  of  Breslau  and  Berlin, 
and  wrote  poetry  and  plays,  some  of  which 
were  favorably  received.  A  complete  edition 
of  them  was  published  in  Leipsic,  in  8  vols. 
(1848-'50).  In  1848,  jointly  with  Julian 
Schmidt,  he  succeeded  Kuranda  as  editor  of 
the  Grenzboten^  and  in  1854  he  was  appointed 
councillor  of  the  court  and  lecturer  of  the 
duke  of  Gotha.  In  1855  appeared  his  novel 
Soil  und  jffaben  (16th  ed.,  1871),  which  gained 
for  him  a  wide  popularity.  It  was  translated 
into  many  languages  (English  by  Mrs.  Mal- 
colm, "Debit  and  Credit,"  1858).  At  the 
close  of  1870  he  retired  from  the  Orenzboten^ 
to  join  the  newly  established  weekly  joir- 
nal  Im  neuen  Reich,  His  Bilder  aue  der 
deuUchen  Vergangenheit  (2  vols.,  1859 ;  4th  ed., 
1863),  Neue  Bilder  au$  dem  Leben  des  detU" 


490  FRIB 

lehen  Vollt  Qm2),  AtudemMtlUlalUT  (i8%e), 
and  Vcm  MitteialUr  Sw  tur  Ne^ueit  (1887) 
have  been  publiBhed  colleotive!;  under  the  title 
of  Bilder  au»  der  deuUehen  Vergangenheit  (4 
toIb.,  6th  ed.,  Leipsic,  18T1  et  aeg.),  part  of 
which  has  been  tranelatod  into  £ngli8h. 

FRIBOIIKG, or FMjbUK.  L  Acantonof  Switz- 
erland, the  9th  in  extent  and  in  the  order  of 
admission  into  the  cod  federation,  bordering  on 
the  cantons  of  Bern  and  Vaad  and  the  lake 
of  Noafchfitel ;  area,  S43  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
110,832,  of  whom  93,961  were  Roman  Cntho- 
lica,  the  Proteatanta  living  almost  eiclosively 
in  the  district  of  Morat.  Three  detached  por- 
tions are  situated  geographicallj  in  the  canton  of 
Valid,  the  largest,  with  the  town  of  Estavayer, 
Ijingon  thel^oofNeufoh&tel;  the  two  smaller 
ones,  Surpierre  and  Vnissens,  are  a  little  sontli. 
The  aarfflce  of  the  canton  is  moontainoos,  es- 
pecially in  th«  south  and  east.  The  principal 
peaks  rise  to  on  altitude  of  7,000  ft.  and  up- 
ward. Goal,  limestone,  limestone  slate,  andgyp- 
aom  are  found.  The  prinuipal  rivers  are  the 
Sarine  (Saane),  Broje,  and  Sense.  Half  of 
the  lake  of  Morat  and  a  considerable  part  of 
the  labe  of  Nenfch&tel  belong  to  this  oajiton, 
which  baa  also  several  smaller  lakes;  and 
there  are  several  mineral  springs,  all  of  which 
are  sulphurous.  The  climate  is  milder  in  the 
north  thuk  in  the  south.  The  productions  in 
the  basins  of  the  rivers  are  hemp,  Haz,  muze, 
and  fruit ;  in  the  northwest,  com,  wine,  vege- 
tables, and  tobacco.  In  the  higher  regions  cat- 
tle rearing  and  cultivation  of  the  forests  are 
the  chief  pnrauita.  The  Grny^re  (Oreiere) 
cheese  ie  made  here,  and  the  great  milk  estab- 
liahmentA  of  this  canton  and  St.  Gall  condense 
20,000  quarts  a  day,  four  fifths  of  which  goes 
direct  to  London.  Horses,  sheep,  goata,  hogs, 
chamois,  roes,  hares,  lynxes,  a  few  wild  boars, 
and  in  the  north  numbers  of  wild  fowl,  are 
found.  The  chief  articles  of  export  are  cheese, 
condensed  milk,  and  timber.  There  are  lim- 
ited manufactures  of  straw  hats,  leather,  to- 
bacco, cotton  goods,  watobes,  and  silk.  The 
common  language  is  a  mixture  of  French  and 
German  in  several  dialects;  the  German  pre- 
vaila  around  the  capital  and  in  the  district  of 
Horat;  the  official  language  is  French.  In 
1670,  2S-6  per  cent,  of  the  population  spoke 
German,  and  T3'3  French.  All  official  acts 
are  published  in  both  French  and  German. 
The  new  constitution  of  March,  1848,  revised 
in  1967,  agrees  in  alt  essential  points  with  the 
constitutions  of  the  other  cantons.  The  legis- 
lative assembly  (the  grand  council)  is  chosen 
for  four  years  by  a  direct  vote  of  all  citizens 
who  are  over  20  years  old  ;  but  10  additional 
members  ore  elected  by  the  grand  council  itself. 
The  state  council  (eiecutive)  consista  of  seven 
members  chosen  by  the  grand  council  for  eight 
yean.  Fribourg  sends  six  members  to  the 
national  council.  There  is  a  Protdstant  col- 
lege at  Morat.  Chief  towns,  Fribourg,  Ro- 
mont,  Bulle,  and  Morat. — The  canton  of  Fri- 
bourg belonged  in  the  middle  ages,  as  a  part 


of  the  Ueohtland.  to  Franohe-ComtS.     In  1481 

the  town  of  Fribourg  with  its  territory  joined 
the  Swiss  confederacy  by  the  comjiact  of 
Stanz.  The  reformation  never  got  a  foothold 
in  Fribourg,  and  it  has  ever  remained  one  of 
the  strongholds  of  the  Roman  Catholic  church 
in  Switzerland.  Bnring  the  civil  war  of  1847, 
in  which  the  canton  joined  the  Sonderbund,  it 
was  occupied  by  Gen.  Dufour  without  much 
opposition.  11>  A  city,  capital  of  the  canton, 
on  the  Sarine,  18  m.  6.  W.  of  Bern ;  pop.  in 
1870,  10,904.  ]t  consists  of  the  lower  (Ger- 
man) town  in  the  narrow  valley  of  the  river, 
and  the  upper  (French)  town,  which  rises  like 
a  terrace  on  a  succession  of  s-nndstone  rocks. 


The  great  glory  of  the  town  is  the  suBpennoD 
bridge  over  the  Bonne,  built  in  1831-'4,  870  ft. 
long,  3S  ft  wide,  and  174  ft.  high.  Another 
BUspension  bridge  spans  an  a^ioining  gorge. 
The  principal  church,  that  of  8t,  Nicholas,  baa 
the  highest  spire  in  Switzerland,  and  an  organ 
with  94  stops  and  7,800  pipes,  reckoned  one 
of  the  finest  in  Europe.  Before  the  town 
hall  stands  the  linden  tree  planted  in  1460,  on 
the  fourth  anniversary  of  the  victory  at  Mo- 
rat over  Cbaries  the  Bold  in  1476.  Before 
the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits  from  Switzerland, 
in  184T,  Fribourg  had  a  celebrntcd  Joanita' 
college,  founded  in  1GS4,  restored  to  the  Jesu- 
its in  1818,  and  counting  from  800  to  400  pu- 
pils. It  was  reopened  as  a  Catholic  college^ 
Oct.  15,  1858.    There  are  four  public  eqnarea, 


FRICTION 


491 


k  mint,  arsenal,  state  prison,  town  library, 
Ijoemn  with  a  cantonal  moseum,  observatory, 
savings  bank,  theatre,  two  public  baths,  brew- 
eries, manufactories  of  tobacco,  chiccory,  straw 
hats,  earthenware,  iron  tools,  and  woollen  yarn, 
and  several  dye  houses  and  tanneries. 

mCTION  (Lat. /ricar^,  to  rub),  in  mechanics, 
the  resistance  caused  by  the  moving  of  the  sur- 
faces of  bodies  over  each  other.  It  is  usual  to 
distinguish  two  kinds  of  friction,  that  which  is 
produced  when  bodies  slide  one  upon  another, 
and  that  which  takes  place  when  they  roll  one 
upon  another.  The  term  rolling  friction  is  not, 
however,  regarded  as  strictly  correct,  and  that 
of  resistance  to  rolling  is  used  instead.  The 
first  experiments  upon  the  friction  of  sliding 
were  made  by  Amontons,  and  are  described 
in  the  memoirs  of  the  academy  of  sciences, 
1699;  but  his  estimates  were  much  higher 
than  those  which  have  since  been  made.  £u- 
ler,  D^saguliers,  and  Yince  also  paid  consid- 
erable attention  to  the  subject,  but  the  first 
complete  set  of  experiments  were  made  by 
Coulomb  at  Rochefort  about  1780.  His  re- 
sults, although  in  some  respects  since  modi- 
fied, have  been  of  inestimable  value  to  the 
science  of  engineering.  He  employed  a  bench 
made  of  two  horizontal  timbers  6  ft.  long,  upon 
which  a  loaded  sledge  was  drawn  by  a  weight 
acting  by  a  cord  running  over  a  pulley.  The 
resistance  bodies  offer  to  motion  after  they 
have  been  for  some  time  in  contact  he  called 
the  friction  of  departure.  The  general  conclu- 
sions at  which  he  arrived  are  as  follows:  I. 
Friction  is  greatest  between  rough  bodies.  2. 
It  is  greater  between  the  surfaces  of  like  than 
of  unlike  material.  3.  The  rubbing  surfaces 
remaining  the  same,  friction  is  proportional  to 
the  pressure,  and  is  not  increased  or  diminished 
by  increase  or  diminution  of  surface.  Some 
uncertainties  in  the  observations  of  Coulomb, 
and  the  introduction  of  many  new  materials  in 
machinery,  made  it  desirable  to  make  a  more 
extended  series  of  experiments.  Such  were 
made  at  Metz  in  the  years  1831,  '2,  ^3,  and  '4, 
by  M.  Morin.  The  values  obtained  by  him 
differed  in  some  particulars  from  those  of  Cou- 
lomb, but  the  general  conclusions  at  which  he 
arrived  were  tiae  same.  He  however  estab- 
lished one  important  fact  scarcely  to  be  anti- 
cipated, viz.,  that  friction  is  independent  of  the 
velocity  of  motion.  The  ratio  which  the  re- 
sistance offered  to  sliding  between  two  surfaces 
bears  to  the  force  with  which  they  are  pressed 
together  is  called  the  coefficient  of  friction,  and 
has  greatly  differing  values  between  different 
surfaces,  and  different  conditions  of  surfaces  as 
to  whether  they  are  highly  or  partially  polished, 
moistened^  or  lubricated.  It  has  various  values 
between  different  kinds  of  wood,  depending 
upon  whether  the  motion  is  made  across  or 
with  the  fibres,  and  the  condition  of  the  wood ; 
and  also  between  different  kinds  of  metals,  and 
with  these  depends  upon  whether  they  are 
rolled,  hammered,  cast,  or  tempered.  Thus 
the  coefficient  of  friction  of  motion  between 


oak  and  oak  in  a  direction  parallel  with  the 
fibres  was  found  by  M.  Morin  to  be,  without 
lubrication,  about  ^;  lubricated  with  tallow, 
about  -X;  with  lard,  about  -^.  When  the 
fibres  of  one  surface  were  perpendicular  to  the 
line  of  motion,  the  coefficient  was,  without  lu- 
brication, about  H;  lubricated  with  tallow, 
about  i>r;  with  lard,  about  -f^;  with  water, 
about  i.  The  coefficient  of  friction  between 
common  wrought  and  cast  iron  is  about  | ;  of 
iron  on  brass,  |;  that  of  an  iron  axle  in  a 
brass  box,  lubricated,  about  ^.  The  least  pos- 
sible friction  is  found  in  the  use  of  lubricated 
steel  moving  upon  hard  gems.  Coulomb  found : 
1,  that  resistance  to  rolling  varies  in  an  inverse 
ratio  with  the  diameter  of  the  rolling  body 
theoretically,  but  that  in  practice  small  rollers 
of  wood  caused  more  resistance,  because  of  the 
greater  indentation  produced,  the  coefficient 
ranging  from  j^  to  fihf;  2,  that  it  is  less 
between  heterogeneous  than  between  homo- 
geneous surfaces;  8,  that  it  is  directly  pro- 
portional to  pressure;  4,  that  it  has  no  rela- 
tion to  surface.  Upon  this  principle  depends 
the  advantage  of  using  friction  wheels  and 
friction  rollers  in  machinery.  The  application 
of  friction  wheels  is  said  to  have  been  first 
made  by  Henry  Sully  in  1716.  The  friction 
caused  by  water  in  moving  over  surfaces  in 
conduits  is  called  hydraulic  friction.  It  has 
been  found  to  be  independent  of  the  material 
of  the  surface  of  the  conduit,  provided  it  be 
smooth,  but  depends  considerably  on  the  vis- 
cosity of  the  liquid ;  thus,  ice-cold  water  offers 
greater  resistance  to  the  passage  of  a  body 
through  it  than  warm  water,  and  conversely, 
produces  a  correspondingly  greater  degree  of 
friction  in  moving  over  surfaces.  Friction 
always  develops  heat,  and  precisely  in  propor- 
tion to  its  amount,  as  has  been  established  by 
the  experiments  of  Count  Rumford,  Davy, 
Thomson,  Mayer,  and  Joule.  By  rubbing  two 
pieces  of  ice  together  in  a  vacuum,  Sir  Humphry 
Davy  partially  melted  them.  Count  Rumford 
found  the  heat  developed  in  boring  a  brass 
cannon  sufficient  in  the  course  of  2^^  hours  to 
raise  26^  lbs.  of  water  from  zero  to  212°  F. 
At  the  Paris  exhibition  in  1666  MM.  Beau- 
mont and  Mayer  exhibited  a  machine  in  which 
a  wooden  cone  covered  with  hemp  made  400 
revolutions  per  minute  inside  of  a  hollow  cop- 
per cone  immersed  in  a  tightly  closed  boiler. 
With  this  apparatus  88  gallons  of  water  were 
raised  from  60°  to  226^  F.  in  a  few  hours.  In 
all  cases  the  quantity  of  heat  evolved  by  friction 
is  exactly  sufficient  to  reproduce  the  power 
expended  in  overcoming  the  friction;  and  al- 
though in  mechanics  friction  is  said  to  cause  a 
loss  of  power,  there  is  really  no  loss  of  energy, . 
but  simply  its  transformation.  Another  kind 
of  energy  is  developed  by  friction,  viz.,  elec- 
tricity ;  and  in  this  case  also  it  has  been  found 
that  the  force  produced  is  preciselji  proportional 
to  that  which  was  expended  in  producing  it. 

FRIDAY,  the  sixth  day  of  the  week,  called  by 
the  Saxons  Frige  daeg,  or  day  of  Frigga  (the 


492 


FREDERICIA 


FRIENDLY  ISLANDS 


wife  of  Odin),  whence  our  name,  and  by  the 
Romans  dies  Veneris^  or  Venus's  day.  (See 
Good  Friday.) 

FRIDEKICIA,  or  Frederida,  a  town  and  fortress 
of  Denmark,  in  the  8.  E.  part  of  the  province 
of  Jutland,  on  the  Little  Belt ;  pop.  in  1870, 
7,186.  The  town  has  several  sugar  refineries, 
iron  founderies,  and  other  industrial  establish- 
ments, and  owns  about  25  vessels.  Until  1857 
the  navigation  dues  were  collected  here  from 
vessels  passing  the  Little  Belt.  In  1657  Fride- 
ricia  was  captured  by  the  Swfedes.  In  1848  it 
was  occupied  by  the  Prussians,  subsequently 
reoccupied  by  the  Danes,  and  besieged  by  the 
Schleswig-Holstein  troops.  The  latter  were 
surprised  on  July  6, 1849,  by  the  besieged,  and 
forced  to  a  speedy  retreat,  with  heavy  loss. 
In  the  war  of  1864  Fridericia  was  bombarded 
by  the  Germans  in  March,  and  hastily  evacu- 
ated by  the  Danes  in  April. 

FRIEDLAND.  I.  A  town  of  Prussia,  in  the 
province  of  East  Prussia,  on  the  AUe,  27  m.  S. 
E.  of  E6nigsberg;  pop.  in  1868,  2,478.  It  has 
manufactures  of  linen  and  woollen  cloth  and 
leather,  and  a  trade  in  cattle.  It  is  memorable 
for  a  victory  won  by  Napoleon  over  the  Rus- 
sians under  Benningsen,  June  14,  1807,  which 
led  to  the  treaty  of  Tilsit.  The  French  had 
between  70,000  and  80,000  men,  and  lost  8,000 
men  and  two  eagles ;  the  Russians,  who  num- 
bered about  55,000,  lost  17,000  men  and  about 
80  guns.  Benningsen  succeeded  in  crossing  the 
river  and  fell  back  to  Tilsit,  on  the  Niemen, 
where  the  treaty  between  the  French  and 
Russians  was  concluded  July  7.  II*  A  town 
of  Bohemia,  on  the  Wittich,  at  its  confluence 
with  the  Rasnitz,  68  m.  N.  N.  E.  of  Prague ; 
pop.  in  1870,  4,831.  It  is  a  walled  town,  has 
manufactures  of  woollen,  linen,  and  cotton 
cloth,  and  paper,  and  a  considerable  trade. 
The  castle  of  Friedland,  on  a  conical  hill  in 
the  S.  part  of  the  town,  is  a  picturesque  struc- 
ture surrounded  by  a  lofty  wall  and  surmount- 
ed by  a  high  tower.  It  belonged,  with  the  ac- 
companying lordship,  to  Wallenstein,  who  de- 
rived from  it  his  title  of  duke  of  Friedland. 
It  is  now  the  property  of  Count  Clam-Gallas. 
nil  A  town  of  Germany,  in  the  grand  duchy 
of  Mecklenburg-Strelitz,  48  m.  N.  W.  of  Stet- 
tin ;  pop.  in  1871,  5,031.  It  is  a  walled  town, 
and  has  two  churches,  one  a  fine  Gothic  struc- 
ture, and  a  gymnasium.  Its  manufactures  are 
woollen  and  linen  cloths,  copper  ware,  and  tiles. 
It  has  three  annual  fairs  and  an  active  trade 
in  cattle;  tobacco  is  also  cultivated.  The 
town  was  founded  in  1244  by  the  margraves 
John  and  Otho  III.  of  Brandenburg. 

FRIEDRICH,  JohanBy  a  German  theologian, 
bom  at  Poxdorf,  Bavaria,  in  1836.  He  was 
ordained  a  Roman  Catholic  priest  in  1859,  be- 
came private  teacher  in  1862,  in  1865  professor 
of  theology  at  the  university  of  Munich,  and  in 
1869  member  of  the  academy  of  sciences.  He 
has  published  a  number  of  works,  including 
KirchengeichiehU  DeuUehlanda  (2  vols.,  Bam- 
berg, 1867-9).    A  follower  of  Dollinger,  he 


protested  in  1870  against  the  doctrine  of  papal 
infallibility,  was  expelled  from  Rome  as  the 
reputed  author  of  correspondence  in  the  All- 
gemeine  Zeitung  adverse  to  the  Vatican,  re- 
ceived with  DOllinger  imgor  excommunication 
(April  17;  1871),  and  was  formally  suspended 
two  months  afterward,  for  having  administered 
the  holy  sacrament  to  Dr.  Zenger,  to  whom  it 
had  been  denied  on  account  of  his  opposition 
to  the  decree  of  the  council  of  the  Vatican. 
His  publications  on  the  subject  of  papal  in- 
fallibility and  the  council  comprise  Das  paptt- 
lieh  gev>dhrlei8tete  Recht  der  deuUchen  Nation^ 
nicht  an  die  p&pstliehe  VnfehlbarJceit  zu 
glauhen  (Munich,  1870) ;  Doeumenta  ad  illus- 
trandum  Concilium  Vaticanum  anni  1870  (2 
vols.,  1871) ;  and  Tagebuch  g^fuhrt  wdhrend  de* 
Vatieanisehen  Gancils  (Ndrdlmgen,  1871). 

FRIiADLT  (or  Tonga)  ISLANDS,  a  group  in 
the  southern  Pacific  ocean,  lying  between  lat. 
18°  and  28°  S.,  and  Ion.  174°  and  176^  80'  W. 
Tonga  is  the  native  name  of  the  group.  They 
were  discovered  by  the  Dutch  navigator  Abel 
Tasmanin  1648,  and  visited  and  described  in 
1773  and  1777  by  Cook,  who  gave  them  the 
name  of  Friendly  from  the  apparently  hospita- 
ble reception  he  met  with  from  the  inhabitants. 
It  has  since  been  ascertained  that  the  character 
of  the  natives  is  no  better  than  that  of  the 
other  Polynesians,  and  that  they  were  only 
deterred  by  fear  from  attacking  Cook.  They 
consist  of  about  32  greater  and  150  smaller  isl- 
ands, about  80  of  which  are  inhabited;  pop. 
estimated  from  25,000  to  50,000.  The  islands 
are  mostly  of  coral  formation,  and  are  sur- 
rounded by  dangerous  coral  reefs.  A  few  are 
of  volcanic  origin,  and  in  Tofooa  there  is  an 
active  volcano.  They  are  divided  into  three 
groups,  viz. :  the  Tonga  at  the  south,  the  Hapai 
in  the  centre,  and  the  Vavao  at  the  north. 
The  climate  is  healthy,  but  humid ;  much  rain 
falls,  and  none  of  the  islands  are  destitute  of 
fresh  water.  The  mean  temperature  during 
the  stay  of  the  United  States  exploring  expedi- 
tion at  Tongataboo  (April,  1840)  was  79-26°. 
The  trade  winds  are  by  no  means  constant. 
Earthquakes  are  frequent,  but  not  formidable ; 
hurricanes  both  frequent  and  destructive.  The 
natives  cultivate  yams,  sweet  potatoes,  bananas, 
cocoanuts,  breadfruit,  sugar  cane,  shaddock, 
lim^  and  the  ti  {spondias  dulcis) ;  the  panda- 
nus  is  one  of  their  most  useful  trees,  of  which 
they  make  their  mats ;  a  little  corn  is  grown, 
and  they  have  the  papaw  apple  (papaya)  and 
watermelon.  The  missionaries  have  success- 
fully introduced  the  sweet  orange  from  Tahiti, 
but  many  other  imported  fruits  and  vegetable 
seeds  have  failed.  The  flora  resembles  that  of 
the  Feejee  group.  The  hog,  dog,  and  rat  are 
the  only  native  quadrupeds.  Tongataboo,  or 
Sacred  isle,  is  the  principal  island.  It  is  about 
20  m.  long  and  12  broad;  it  is  low  and  level, 
of  coral  formation,  and  rises  nowhere  more 
than  60  ft;  above  the  sea.  In  pagan  times  it 
exercised  a  sort  of  religious  supremacy  over  the 
other  islands.    The  only  important  article  of 


FRIENDLY  ISLANDS 

export  from  the  Frtendly  islands  is  cocoannt 
oil.  Port  Refuge  in  Vaveo  is  the  best  harbor, 
and  is  much  frequented  bj  British  and  Ameri- 
can whalers.  The  port  of  Bea  on  Tongataboo 
is  celebratod  as  the  place  where  in  ISio  Capt. 
Oroker,  of  H,  B.  M.  sloop  Favorite,  was  de- 
feated ij  the  p^an  partj.  In  this  engagement, 
andertoken  in  behalf  of  the  Christian  raission- 
sries  and  their  native  partisans,  Croker  and 
many  of  bis  officers  and  men  were  slain.  Tbe 
Friendly  islanders  contrast  favorably  with  their 
neighbors,  tbe  Fe^eeans,  in  appearance  and 
disposition.  The  islands  were  formerly  gov- 
erned by  several  independent  chiefs.  The 
northern  and  middle  gronpe  afterward  con- 
atitnted  the  state  of  Vavao,  under  tbe  swaj  of 
a  native  Protestant  prince  called  King  George, 
who  ig  said  to  have  since  become  the  rnler 
of  all  the  islands.  When  pagans,  the  natives 
were  devoted  to  war ;  the  womea  went  nearly 
naked.  They  offered  haman  sacrifices,  and 
CDt  off  their  little  fingers  and  t^es  as  propitia- 
tory offerings  to  tbeir  gods.    Their  mythology. 


FEIENDS 


493 


lik«  that  of  tbe  other  Polynesians,  was  a  low 
type  of  polytheism.  The  spirits  of  all  chiefs  go 
to  Bnlotn ;  tboae  of  the  poor  people  remain  in 
tills  world  to  feed  npon  ants  and  lizards.  They 
represent  the  island  of  Bulota  as  not  far  dis- 
tant, bnt  do  not  attempt  to  settle  its  precise 
portion.  Nearly  ali  the  people  are  now  Ohris- 
tian.  They  were  first  visited  in  1797  by  agents 
of  the  London  missionary  society,  bnt  in  1827 
came  nndertbe  charge  of  the  Wesleyan  society 
of  Great  Britain.  The  gronp  is  divided  into 
three  missionary  stations,  viz. ;  Tongataboo  and 
Hapu,  commenced  in  1829,  and  Vavao,  in 
1B30,  The  smaller  islands  are  intrusted  to  the 
supervision  of  native  teachers,  and  are  visited 
occasionally  by  the  mis^onaries.  A  printing 
press  has  been  in  operation  at  Vavao  ance 
1B32.  Many  of  the  women  can  sew,  and  a 
great  nnmber  of  the  natives  have  learned  to 
read  and  write,  both  in  their  native  tongae  and 
in  English ;  a  few  have  been  langht  arithmetic 
"" "  "         -"       "  ■     ^  constant 

preacl 


i  geography.     King  George  is  a  c 
sacher,  and  is  thns  dagcrib«d  by  a  n 


ary :  "  In  the  pnlpit  he  was  dressed  in  a  black 
coat,  and  bis  manner  was  solemn  and  earnest. 
He  held  in  his  hand  a  small  hound  manuscript 
book,  but  seldom  looked  at  it."  Later,  Catho- 
lic missionaries  came  to  these  islands  from 
France,  and  firmly  established  themselves  in 
the  southern  group,  where  a  large  portion  of 
the  natives  have  joined  the  Catholic  church. 
Intercourse  with  the  eastern  islands  of  the  Fee- 
jee  group  is  frequent,  and  many  Tongese  have 
emigrBt*K3  thither. 

FBIENDS,  a  sect  of  Christians  commonly  called 
Quakers,  which  was  fonnded  in  England  about 
the  middle  of  tbe  ITtb  century.  At  first  they 
were  known  as  the  "  Professors  of  the  Light " 
or  "Children  of  the  Light,"  from  "their  fun- 
damental principle,"  says  William  Penn,"  which 
is  as  the  comer  stone  of  their  fabric,  and  in- 
deed, to  speak  eminently  and  properly,  their 
characteristic  or  mun  distinguishing  point  or 
principle,  viz.,  the  light  of  Christ  within,  as 
God's  gifl:  for  man's  salvation ;  tbe  root  of  the 
goodly  tree  of  doctrine  that  grew  and  branched 
ont  of  it."  They  soon  adopted  the  name  of 
"the  Beligions  Society  of  Friends,"  by  which 
they  are  always  known  among  themselves. 
The  origin  of  tha  name  Qnsker  is  not  ootirely 
certain.  By  some  it  is  affirmed  that  it  was 
given  "  in  derision,  becanse  they  often  trembled 
under  an  awt^l  sense  of  the  infinite  purity  and 
mqjesty  of  God."  By  others  it  is  said  that  it 
was  first  applied  to  them  in  1360,  when  George 
Fox  was  broaght  before  tbe  magistrates  of 
Derby,  and  he  having  told  them  to  "quake  at 
the  name  of  the  Lora,"  one  of  them,  Gervase 
Bennet,  an  Independent,  caught  up  the  word, 
and,  says  Fox,  "was  the  first  that  called  ns 
Qaakers."  However  the  name  originated,  it 
soon  became  the  one  by  which  they  were  gen- 
erally known  in  all  parts  of  the  world.  The 
sect  was  founded  by  George  Fox,  a  native  of 
Drayton,  Leicestershire.  lie  was  apprenticed 
to  a  shoemaker,  bnt  in  1Q4S,  at  the  age  of  IS,  he 
left  hia  master  and  wandered  about  England, 
leading  a  solitary  life  and  passing  most  of  his 
time  in  meditation  and  in  reading  the  Scriptures. 
In  the  latterpartof  1647,  nndertbe  conviction 
of  a  divine  call,  he  began  the  life  of  an  itinerant 
preacher,  and  went  from  place  to  place  exhort- 
ing all  who  would  hear  to  repentance  and  the 
commencement  of  a  new  life.  He  denounced 
the  ooldncM  and  insufSoiency  of  all  existing 
forms  and  ceremonies  of  religion,  and  asserted 
that  the  office  of  a  Christian  teacher  had  be- 
come a  mere  trade,  denied  the  necessity  of 
any  special  education  for  it,  and  maintained 
that  the  only  warrant  for  assuming  it  was  the 
□onscionsness  of  a  divine  summons  to  enter 
upon  its  duties.  He  denounced  a  paid  min- 
istry, and  declared  it  to  be  a  sin  to  pay  tithes. 
He  denounced  war  even  when  waged  in  self-de- 
fence, and  urged  upon  all  to  refuse  to  do  military 
duty.  He  asserted  the  equality  and  brother- 
hood of  all  men,  and  nsed  tbe  second  person 
singular  in  addressing  all  persons  of  whatever 
rank.    He  would  not  uncover  his  head  in  any 


494 


FRIENDS 


presence,  not  even  when  brought  before  the 
courts  of  law.  He  declared  everj  form  of  oath 
to  be  a  profane  violation  of  the  express  com- 
mand of  the  Lord.  He  put  a  literal  construc- 
tion upon  all  those  precepts  of  the  gospel  which 
seem  most  difficult  to  be  carried  out  in  real 
life,  and  gave  to  them  a  literal  obedience.  On 
one  occasion,  when  brought  before  a  court,  the 
clerk  struck  him  in  the  face  because  he  refosed 
to  remove  his  hat,  and  he  calmlj  turned  the 
other  cheek  in  readiness  for  another  blow. 
For  four  years  Fox  was  the  only  preacher  of 
his  doctrines.  The  second  who  entered  upon 
that  office  was  a  woman  named  Elizabeth  Hoo- 
toD.  Soon  25  preachers  were  engaged  in  pro- 
mulgating the  doctrines  of  Fox,  and  in  the 
seventh  year  of  his  preaching  there  were  more 
than  60.  The  age  was  one  in  which  religious 
toleration  was  neither  understood  nor  practised. 
There  were  several  poweriiil  sects,  each  ani- 
mated with  a  blind  zeal  for  its  own  opinions 
and  a  fierce  hatred  of  the  opinions  of  all 
others.  The  peculiarities  of  the  Quakers  im- 
mediately brought  persecution  upon  them, 
which  had  the  usual  effect  of  attracting  atten- 
tion to  its  victims.  From  1652  until  the  death 
of  Fox  in  1691  their  numbers  rapidly  increased, 
and  among  them  were  many  persons  of  high 
social  standing.  Of  these  the  most  prominent 
were  "William  Penn  and  Robert  Barclay,  the 
former  a  man  of  great  experience  in  practical 
affairs,  the  latter  one  of  the  most  learned  and 
able  writers  of  his  time.  They  as  well  as  Fox 
were  repeatedly  fined  and  imprisoned,  but  this 
treatment  only  confirmed  their  faith,  attracted 
public  notice  and  sympathy,  and  increased  the 
number  of  their  followers.  The  persecutions 
inflicted  upon  the  Quakers  during  the  first  40 
years  of  their  existence  have  hardly  a  parallel 
in  the  history  of  the  last  two  centuries.  Bad  as 
are  many  of  our  prisons  now,  they  are  places  of 
comfort  compared  to  the  loathsome  dungeons 
of  the  17th  century.  In  their  pestilential  cells 
there  were  confined  at  one  time  more  than 
4,000  Quakers.  In  1662,  20  died  in  the  jails 
of  London  alone;  in  1664,  25;  in  1665,  62; 
and  many  others  died  after  being  set  at  liberty, 
in  consequence  of  their  sufferings  while  in 
prison.  AH  the  old  statutes  of  Henry  YIII. 
and  Elizabeth  which  had  been  passed  against 
the  Papists  and  other  recusants  were  brought  to 
bear  against  them,  and  new  and  cruel  statutes 
were  passed  to  torment  them  in  cases  when 
the  old  ones  failed  to  reach  them,  llie  most 
grievous  fines,  a  large  portion  of  which  went  to 
the  informers,  were  inflicted  upon  them.  They 
were  insulted  with  impunity  by  the  lowest  of 
the  populace ;  their  women  and  children  were 
dragged  by  the  hair 'along  the  streets,  their 
meeting  houses  were  stripped  of  windows  and 
doors  or  nailed  up.  In  1670  an  order  of  the 
king,  signed  by  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury 
and  thirteen  others,  directed  Mr.  Christopher 
Wren  to  pull  down  the  Quaker  meeting  houses 
in  RatcHffe  and  Horsleydown.  It  was  done, 
and  the  materials  were  sold.     When  they  met 


in  the  open  air  by  their  ruined  meeting  houses, 
they  were  driven  away  by  soldiers,  who  beat 
them  over  the  head  with  the  butts  of  their 
muskets,  and  in  this  way  many  of  them  were 
killed.  Constables  and  informers  broke  into 
their  houses  and  carried  off  their  food  and  their 
tools.  On  the  Quakers  of  Bristol  there  were 
levied  at  one  time  fines  amounting  to  £16,400, 
and  the  value  of  their  property  destroyed  in 
England  during  this  period  of  their  tribulation 
amounted  to  more  than  £1,000,000.  In  1686, 
when,  partly  through  the  influence  of  Penn, 
a  proclamation  was  issued  by  the  king  and 
council  releasing  all  persons  imprisoned  on  ac- 
count of  religion,  among  those  set  at  liberty 
were  1,490  Quakers.  When  brought  before 
the  magistrates,  if  all  other  charges  failed, 
they  were  required  to  take  the  oath  of  alle- 
giance and  supremacy.  To  the  matter  of  the 
oath  they  made  no  objection,  but  swear  to  it 
they  would  not.  They  resolutely  refused  to 
violate  the  divine  command,  **  Swear  not  at 
all,"  which  they  construed  literally,  and  to 
which  they  believed  there  was  no  exception. 
Their  goods  were  continually  seized  in  conse- 
quence of  their  refusal  to  pay  tithes,  and  their 
refusal  to  bear  arms  or  enroll  themselves  in 
the  military  force  of  the  country  excited  alike 
the  hatred  and  the  contempt  of  their  fellow 
subjects.  On  the  other  hand,  the  purity  ot 
their  lives,  the  patience  with  which  they  en- 
dured insult  and  persecution,  never  returning 
evil  for  evil,  their  zeal,  their  devotedness,  and 
their  love  for  each  other,  often  compeUed  the 
admiration  even  of  their  opponenta.  To  es- 
cape persecution  many  of  them  emigrated  to 
the  continent,  to  the  West  Indies,  and  to 
America.  But  in  the  two  latter  countries 
they  immediately  became  the  victims  of  perse- 
cution. In  September,  1656,  two  Quaker 
women,  Mary  Fisher  and  Ann  Austin,  arrived 
in  Boston  from  Barbadoes.  Before  landing 
their  trunks  were  searched  and  their  books 
taken  and  burned  by  the  common  hansman. 
They  were  thrown  into  prison,  strippea,  and 
their  persons  searched  for  signs  of  witchcraft. 
None  were  found,  but  after  five  weeks*  impris- 
onment they  were  convicted  of  heresy,  and 
according  to  the  law  in  such  cases  they  were 
"thrust  out  of  the  jurisdiction;"  in  other 
words,  expelled  from  Massachusetts.  Nine 
others,  men  and  women,  who  arrived  soon 
after  from  London,  were  similarly  treated. 
The  severity  of  the  laws  against  them  was  in- 
creased from  year  to  year.  From  1668  to 
1661  three  men  and  one  woman  were  hanged. 
They  had  been  banished  from  the  colony  on 
pain  of  death  if  they  returned.  They  came 
back  openly  defying  the  courts,  and  were  ar- 
rested to  their  great  satisfaction.  Many  more 
were  sentenced  to  death,  but  were  not  exe- 
cuted. In  Rhode  Island  they  were  not  inter- 
fered with  in  any  manner,  and  very  few  of 
them  went  there  at  first;  but  from  1672  they 
increased  rapidly,  and  in  1674  William  Cod- 
dington,  who  had  become  a  Quaker  after  found- 


FRIENDS 


495 


ing  the  colony,  was  reelected  governor.  In 
Virginia  laws  modelled  after  those  of  Massa- 
chusetts, though  somewhat  less  severe,  were 
enacted  against  them ;  and  in  Maryland,  where 
religious  toleration  was  professed^  they  were 
punished,  not  as  heretics,  but  as  *^  vagabonds 
who  persuade  the  people  from  ooniplying  with 
military  discipline,  from  holding  offices,  giving 
testimony,  and  serving  as  jurors/'  After  the 
foundation  of  Pennsylvania  by  Penn  in  1682 
great  numbers  of  Quakers  under  his  patronage 
emigrated  thither,  and  at  the  present  time  they 
are  more  numerous  and  influential  in  that  than 
in  any  other  of  the  United  States.  In  England 
the  persecutions  of  the  Quakers  were  greatly 
mitigated  by  the  passing  of  the  toleration  act 
in  1689,  but  more  by  the  growing  spirit  of  tole- 
ration  among  the  people  at  large.  In  1722  a 
statute  was  enacted  allowing  their  affirmation 
to  be  taken  instead  of  an  oath  in  all  legal  pro- 
ceedings. But  they  have  never  been  exempted 
from  the  payment  of  tithes,  and,  as  they  re- 
fuse to  pay  voluntainly,  they  are  annually  col- 
lected by  distraint.  During  all  their  persecu- 
tions the  Quakers  never  showed  any  spirit  of 
retaliation.  When  urged  to  denounce  their 
enemies  they  invariably  answered,  ^^  We  leave 
them  to  the  Lord."  A  m^vjority  of  the  early 
preachers  of  their  sect  died  in  prison,  and  the 
hardships  endured  in  prison  shortened  the  lives 
of  many  others,  including  Fox ;  but  they  bore 
all  patiently  and  unflinchingly. — When  we  con- 
sider the  age  in  which  Quakerism  took  its 
rise  and  the  nature  of  its  principles,  we  can 
wonder  neither  at  the  treatment  they  received 
nor  that  they  often  acted  in  a  manner  which 
to  others  seemed  extravagant  and  revolting. 
The  civil  war  between  the  supporters  of  the 
crown  and  the  supporters  of  the  parliament 
was  just  drawing  to  a  close.  Men's  passions 
were  at  fever  heat,  and  their  opinions  in  a  per- 
petual ferment.  New  theories  of  government 
and  new  creeds  in  religion  were  constantly 
springing  up,  and  all  were  supported  with  fa- 
natical zeal.  In  the  midst  of  all  this  George 
Fox  appeared,  denouncing  all  war,  all  forms 
and  ceremonies,  disgusting  the  cavaliers  by  his 
invectives  against  worldly  pleasures,  and  en- 
raging the  puritans  by  his  denunciations  of  in- 
tolerance. Professing  themselves  to  be  guided 
by  the  'Might,  grace,  and  spirit  of  Christ,  in- 
wardly revealed,"  the  Quakers  yet  asked  for 
no  privilege  for  themselves  that  they  were  not 
willing  to  concede  to  others.  They  advocated 
entire  freedom  of  opinion  and  expression  for 
Protestant  and  Catholic,  for  Christian  and  infi- 
del. The  nature  of  their  doctrines  and  the 
persecutions  inflicted  upon  them  aroused  in 
many  a  zeal  and  enthusiasm  hardly  distinguish- 
able from  insanity.  Some  entered  churches 
daring  the  hours  of  service,  and  called  upon 
preacher  and  congregation  to  repent  of  their 
sins.  Some  went  about  clothed  in  sackcloth 
and  with  ashes  upon  their  heads;  others  even 
appeared  in  the  streets  naked.  They  had  vis- 
ions, and  addressed  warnings  to  magistrates 
889  VOL.  vn.— 82 


and  governments.  Many  believed  themselves 
gifted  with  the  spirit  of  prophecy.  Fox,  in  his 
journal,  records  that,  meeting  Cromwell  a  few 
days  before  his  death  in  Hampton  Court  park, 
he  *'  perceived  a  wafb  of  death  go  forth  from 
him."  The  society  still  preserve  the  names 
of  those  who  foretold  the  death  of  Crom- 
well, the  great  plague  in  London,  the  great 
fire,  and  other  remarkable  events.  These  were, 
however,  exceptional  cases,  and  generally  the 
Quakers  have  been  remarkable  more  than  all 
other  men  for  their  quiet,  staid,  and  sober  de- 
meanor. The  pecuUar  dress  of  the  Quakers 
is  too  well  known  to  need  description ;  but  it 
is  a  mistake  to  suppose  that  it  was  originally 
adopted  as  a  mark  of  distinction  from  other 
sects.  In  its  essential  characteristics  it  does 
not  differ  from  the  dress  worn  by  large  num- 
bers of  people  at  the  time  when  Quakerism 
took  its  rise.  But  change  in  obedience  to  the 
dictates  of  fashion  was  m  their  estimation  one 
of  the  vain  follies  of  the  world.  While  the 
fashions  changed  they  adhered  to  their  original 
garb,  and  thus  by  the  force  of  contrast  it  has 
come  to  be  regarded  as  an  essential  character- 
istic of  the  sect.  But  in  their  dress  as  in  every- 
thing else  they  endeavored  to  carry  out  one 
of  the  main  principles  which  they  professed  in 
regard  to  practical  life.  They  believed  in  and 
inculcated  the  utmost  plainness  and  simpli- 
city ;  nothing  for  show,  nothing  for  ornament, 
nothing  for  pleasure.  The  construction  and  inte- 
rior arrangements  of  their  meeting  houses  were 
the  simplest  possible.  Believing  that  no  one 
was  authorized  to  speak  in  a  religious  assem- 
bly except  as  on  each  particular  occasion  he 
was  moved  thereto  by  an  immediate  divine  in- 
ward impulse,  they  have  no  pulpits.  A  row 
of  benches  slightly  elevated  above  the  rest  is 
appropriated  to  the  more  venerable  members, 
and  especially  to  those  who  oftenest  feel  this 
divine  impulse  to  address  their  brethren.  The 
men  sit  upon  one  side  of  the  house,  the  women 
upon  the  other.  They  enter,  and  without  un- 
covering their  heads  take  their  seats  in  silence. 
Men  and  women  are  alike  entitled  to  speak 
if  they  feel  impelled  thereto.  If  no  one  feels 
this  impulse,  each,  when  he  or  she  sees  fit, 
arises  and  departs  in  silence.  They  have  no 
ceremonies,  no  liturgy,  no  stated  form  of  prayer, 
and  no  regular  preaching.  It  is  said  that  in 
some  placefiT  they  have  thus  met  for  several 
years  in  succession  without  any  one  speaking 
a  word. — The  founders  of  the  society  did  not 
profess  to  have  discovered  new  truth  or  to 
aim  at  the  estabUshment  of  a  new  creed.  They 
sought  to  elfect  a  reform  in  manners  rather 
than  in  belief.  They  desired  to  persuade  men 
to  live  in  the  way  in  which  they  conceived 
that  the  primitive  Christians  lived.  They  pro- 
fessed their  belief  in  the  fundamental  doctrines 
of  Christianity  rs  they  were  generally  under- 
stood among  Protestant  Christians.  Hence 
their  members  were  not  and  are  not  required 
to  subscribe  to  any  articles  or  specific  declara- 
tion of  faith.    The  forms  in  which  they  prefer 


496 


FRIENDS 


to  have  the  Christian  doctrines  stated  must  he 
sought  in  the  writings  of  their  most  approved 
authors,  and  in  the  minutes  and  epistles  of 
their  yearly  meetings.  In  the  words  of  one 
of  these  documents,  they  helieve  that  **  every 
man  coming  into  the  world  is  endued  with  a 
measure  of  the  light,  grace,  and  spirit  of  Christ, 
hy  which,  as  it  is  attended  to,  he  is  enahled  to 
distinguish  good  from  evil,  and  to  correct  the 
disorderly  passions  and  corrupt  propensities 
of  his  nature ;  and  that  without  the  spirit  in- 
wardly revealed,  man  can  do  nothing  to  the 
glory  of  God,  (x*  to  effect  his  own  salvation." 
The  following  statement  of  their  doctrines, 
discipline,  and  organization  was  prepared  under 
the  authority  of  the  Philadelphia  yearly  meet- 
ing, and  presents  them  as  they  are  maintained 
hy  that  portion  of  them  who  claim  to  he  the 
orthodox  representatives  of  the  original  found- 
ers :  "  They  believe  in  one  God,  the  creator 
and  upholder  of  all  things;  and  in  his  Son, 
the  Lord  Jesus  Christ.,  by  whom  are  all  things ; 
and  in  the  Holy  Spirit  which  proceedeth  from 
the  Father  and  the  Son:  one  God,  blessed 
for  ever.  In  treating  of  the  Three  that  bear 
record  in  heaven,  they  prefer  keeping  to  the 
language  of  Holy  Scripture,  which  some- 
times induced  their  opponents  to  accuse  them 
of  unsoundness.  This  was  the  case  in  the 
controversy  which  led  to  the  writing  of  Wil- 
liam Penn's  '  Sandy  Foundation  Shaken.'  He 
says  the  question  between  him  and  his  op- 
poser  was,  *  whether  we  owned  one  Godhead 
subsisting  in  three  distinct  and  separate  per- 
sons.' llie  latter  words  Penn  argued  against 
as  unscriptural,  but  to  prevent  a  misconstruc- 
tion of  his  views,  says :  *  Mistake  me  not,  we 
never  have  denied  a  Father,  Word,  and  Spirit, 
which  are  one;  but  men's  inventions;'  and  at 
different  periods  of  his  life  he  strenuously  re- 
pelled the  charge  of  Socinianism  as  regarded 
himself  and  the  society.  The  same  applies  to  his 
argument  respecting  the  doctrine  of  Christ's 
satisfaction;  for  while  he  rejects  the  school 
terms  in  which  his  antagonist  dressed  it,  he 
quotes  numerous  passages  of  Scripture  proving 
tiiat  our  Lord  tfesns  Christ,  in  his  suffering 
and  death,  was  a  most  acceptable  sacrifice  and 
propitiation  for  the  sins  of  mankind.  They 
own  and  believe  in  Jesus  ChHst,  who  was  con- 
ceived of  the  Holy  Ghost  and  bom  of  the  Vir- 
^n  Mary,  in  whom  we  have  redemption  and 
pardon  through  his  blood,  even  the  remission 
of  our  sins;  that  he  was  a  most  satisfactory 
sacrifice  for  the  sins  of  the  world,  being  cruci- 
fied without  the  gates  of  Jerusalem,  rose  from 
the  dead  the  third  day,  ascended  into  heaven, 
and  now  sitteth  at  the  right  hand  of  God,  our 
holy  mediator,  intercessor,  and  advocate  with 
the  Father.  They  have  uniformly  believed 
that  he  is  true  God  and  perfect  man  in  won- 
derful union,  and  that  the  forgiveness  of  sins 
which  any  partake  of  is  only  by  virtue  of  his 
sacrifice.  That  the  Holy  Spirit  whom  Christ 
said  he  would  send  leads  and  guides  his  fol- 
lowers into  all  truth ;  that  a  manifestation  of 


this  Spirit  is  given  to  every  man  to  profit 
withal,  which  convicts  of  sin,  and,  as  it  is 
obeyed,  gives  power  to  overcome  and  forsake 
it ;  that  it  enables  savmgly  to  understand  the 
Holy  Scriptures,  and  gives  the  living  experience 
of  those  things  which  belong  to  the  soul's  sal- 
vation. Man  was  created  in  the  image  of  God, 
capable  of  understanding  and  obeying  the  di- 
vine law,  and  of  holding  communion  with  hia 
Maker.  Through  transgression  he  fell  and 
lost  this  heavenly  state.  His  posterity  come 
into  the  world  in  the  image  pf  the  fallen  earthly 
man,  and  until  renew edt  by  the  regenerating 
power  of  Christ  Jesus,  they  are  dead  to  the 
spiritual  life  in  which  Adam  originally  stood, 
and  subject  to  the  power  of  Satan ;  and  their 
imaginations,  words,  and  deeds  are  evil.  Man 
therefore  in  this  state  can  know  nothing  aright 
respecting  God ;  his  thoughts  and  conceptions 
of  spiritual  things  being  unprofitable,  until  he 
is  renewed  and  quickened  by  the  Holy  Spirit. 
What  was  lost  in  Adam  is  made  up  in  ChnBt ; 
and  the  guilt  of  Adam's  sin  is  not  impu- 
ted to  any  until  they  make  it  their  own  by 
transgression.  There  will  be  a  resurrection 
of  the  righteous  and  the  wicked,  the  one  to 
eternal  life  and  blessedness,  the  other  to  ever- 
lasting misery ;  and  God  wiU  judge  the  world 
by  Christ  Jesus.  That  the  Holy  Scriptures 
were  written  by  divine  inspiration,  and  contain 
a  declaration  of  all  the  fundamental  doctrines 
and  principles  relating  to  eternal  life  and  sal- 
vation ;  and  that  whatsoever  doctrine  or  prac- 
tice is  contrary  to  them,  is  to  be  rejected  as 
false.  The  society  does  not  call  them  the  Word 
of  God,  this  term  being  peculiarly  applied  in 
them  to  the  Lord  Jesus ;  yet  it  believes  them 
to  be  the  words  of  God,  written  by  holy  men 
as  they  were  moved  by  the  Holy  Ghost,  and 
that  they  are  able  to  make  wise  unto  salva- 
tion through  faith  which  is  in  Christ  Jesus. 
It  looks  upon  them  as  the  only  fit  outward 
judge  and  test  in  controversies  among  Chris- 
tians, and  is  very  willing  that  all  its  doctrines 
and  practices  should  be  tried  by  them,  freely 
admitting  that  whatever  any  profess  or  do,  pre- 
tending to  be  guided  by  the  Spirit,  whicn  la 
contrary  to  the  Scriptures,  be  condemned  as  a 
delusion.  As  there  is  one  Lord  and  one  faith, 
BO  there  is  one  baptism,  of  which  the  water  bap- 
tism of  John  was  a  figure.  The  baptism  which 
saves  the  soul  is  not  dipping  in  or  sprinkling 
with  water,  but  the  answer  of  a  good  con- 
science toward  God,  by  the  resurrection  of 
Jesus  Christ.  This  answer  of  a  good  conscience 
can  only  be  produced  by  the  washing  of  regen- 
eration and  the  renewing  of  the  Holy  Spirit, 
transforming  the  heart  and  bringing  the  will 
into  conformity  with  the  will  of  God.  The 
communion  of  the  body  and  blood  of  the  Lord 
Jesus  Christ  is  inward  and  spiritual,  a  real  par- 
ticipation of  his  divine  nature,  through  living 
faith  in  him  and  the  power  of  the  Holy  Spirit, 
by  which  the  soul  is  enabled  daily  to  feed  upon 
him  and  experience  spiritual  nourishment ;  the 
jirue  Christian  supper  being  that  set  forth  in 


FRIENDS 


497 


the  book  of  Revelation :  '  Behold  I  stand  at  the 
door  and  knock ;  if  any  man  hear  mj  voice  and 
open  the  door,  I  will  come  in  to  him,  and  will 
sap  with  him,  and  he  with  me.*  Divine  worship 
must  be  performed  immediately  between  the 
soul  and  its  Maker.  Ko  man  can  do  it  for  an- 
other.  It  is  therefore  the  practice  of  Friends 
to  sit  down  in  solemn  silence  to  worship  God, 
that  each  one  may  strive  to  gather  inward  to 
the  gift  of  divine  gi*ace  in  order  to  receive 
ability  to  worship  the  Father  of  spirits  in  spirit 
and  in  truth,  and  offer  to  him,  through  Christ 
Jesns  our  holy  Mediator,  an  acceptable  sacri- 
fice, whether  in  silent  mental  adoration,  the 
public  ministry  of  the  gospel,  or  vocal  prayer 
and  thanlcsgiving.     The  call,  authority,  and 

Qualification  for  gospel  ministry  are  from 
Ihrist  Jesus  alone,  who  dispenses  them  to 
both  men  and  women,  as  he  sees  fit,  without 
regard  to  rank,  learning,  pr  human  selection 
and  appointment ;  and  they  must  be  received 
immediately  from  him  through  the  revelation 
of  his  Spirit  in  the  heart.  The  command, 
'Freely  ye  have  received,  freely  give,'  is  of 
lasting  obligation,  and  the  gospel  is  to  be 
preached  without  price;  hence  the  society 
has  borne  a  constant  testimony  against  a  paid 
ministry,  which  derives  its  authority  from  hu- 
man learning  and  ordination,  which  does  not 
acknowledge  a  dependence  for  the  perform- 
ance of  it  upon  the  renewed  motion  and  aid 
of  the  Holy  Spirit.  War  is  wholly  at  variance 
with  the  spirit  of  the  gospel,  which  continually 
breathes  peace  on  earth  and  good  will  to  all 
men.  When  the  reign  of  the  Prince  of  Peace 
is  set  up  in  the  hearts  of  men,  '  nation  will  not 
lift  up  sword  against  nation,  nor  will  men 
learn  war  any  more.'  The  words  of  Christ, 
'Swear  not  at  all,'  and  of  the  apostle  James, 
'  Swear  not,  neither  by  heaven,  nor  earth,  nor 
by  any  other  oath,'  forbid  all  swearing  of 
every  kind.  The  fast  to  which  Christians  are 
called  is  not  the  observance  of  any  particular 
day  set  apart  by  man,  but  a  continual  fasting 
from  sin  ;  and  therefore  Friends  cannot  con- 
scientiously join  in  public  fasts  or  holy  days, 
so  called.  They  hold  that  under  the  gospel 
there  is  no  inherent  holiness  in  one  day  more 
than  another,  but  that  aU  are  to  be  kept  holy ; 
and  they  do  not  pay  a  superstitious  reverence 
to  the  first  day  of  the  week,  but  as  it  is  neces- 
sary that  some  time  should  be  fixed  to  meet  to 
worship  God,  and  that  men  should  be  free 
from  outward  affairs,  and  that  laborers  and 
beasts  should  have  time  for  rest,  and  as  the 
primitive  Christians  used  the  first  day  for 
these  purposes,  therefore  Friends  observe  that 
day  as  a  time  of  rest,  and  for  religious  retire- 
ment and  waiting  on  God.  The  enslaving  of 
the  human  species  is  entirely  opposed  to  the 
commands  of  Christ  and  the  spirit  of  his  re- 
ligion, and  the  society  bears  a  testimony  against 
the  system ;  also  against  the  unnecessary  use 
of  intoxicating  drinks.  It  ei\joins  upon  its 
members  plainness  and  simplicity  in  dress, 
language,  and  behavior;  moderation  in  the 


pursuit  of  business ;  and  that  they  discounte- 
nance lotteYies  and  games  of  chance,  music, 
dancing,  stage  plays,  horse  races,  and  all  other 
vain  and  pernicious  amusements  and  prac- 
tices."— As  all  w^ho  regularly  attend  the  meet- 
ings of  Friends,  as  well  as  their  children, 
are  viewed  as  members,  Fox  saw  that  some 
system  of  church  government  was  necessary 
by  which  their  conduct  might  be  regulated 
and  controlled.  Hence  he  early  began  the  es- 
tablishment of  meetings  for  discipline.  The 
first  objects  of  attention  of  these  meetings  were 
the  care  of  the  poor,  the  maintenance  and 
education  of  orphans  and  poor  children,  the 
orderly  accomplishment  of  marriages,  the  reg- 
istry of  births  and  deaths,  the  granting  of 
certificates  of  approval  to  ministers  travel- 
ling abroad,  and  preserving  an  account  of  the 
sufferings  of  Friends  in  support  of  their  re- 
ligion. While  it  was  to  be  expected  that 
offences  would  arise,  it  did  not  necessarily 
follow  that  the  erring  one  must  be  cut  off; 
and  measures  were  adopted  for  extending 
brotherly  labor,  in  the  spirit  of  love  and  meek- 
ness, for  the  restoration  of  such.  When 
bronght  sincerely  to  condemn  his  error  and 
amend  his  way,  a  brother  is  gained;  and  if 
this  desirable  result  is  not  attained,  the  church 
testifies  against  his  misconduct  and  declares 
that  he  is  no  longer  a  member  of  it.  This  is 
the  extent  of  the  censure  pronounced  by  the 
society,  and  its  proceedings  are  founded  on  the 
directions  given  by  our  Lord  in  Matt,  xviii. 
15-20.  The  disciplinary  care  of  the  society 
was  also  exercised  to  preserve  its  members 
from  denying  or  impugning  its  Christian 
principles.  At  different  periods  persons  have 
been  disowned  for  such  errors  as  ''denying 
the  divinity  of  our  Lord  and  Saviour  Jesus 
Christ,  the  immediate  revelation  of  the  Holy 
Spirit,  or  the  authenticity  of  the  Holy  Scrip- 
tures." There  are  four  grades  of  meetings 
for  discipline:  first,  preparative,  which  prepare 
business  for  the  second  or  monthly  meetings, 
in  which  the  executive  power  is  chiefly  lodged ; 
then  the  quarterly  meetings,  consisting  of  sev- 
eral monthly  meetings,  and  exercising  a  super- 
visory care  over  them ;  and  lastly  the  yearly 
meetings,  which  include  the  whole  society 
within  a  prescribed  district,  possess  exclusively 
the  legislative  power,  and  annnally  investigate 
the  condition  of  their  subordinate  meetings. 
In  each  preparative  meeting  there  are  usually 
two  or  more  Friends  of  each  sex  chosen  as 
overseers  to  take  cognizance  of  any  improper 
conduct  of  the  members,  to  admonish  them  in 
love,  and  if  necessary  report  the  case  to  the 
preparative  meeting.  From  this  it  generally 
goes  to  the  monthly  meeting,  where  a  com- 
mittee is  appointed  to  endeavor  to  convince 
and  reclaim  the  offender.  The  women  have 
similar  meetings  and  the  like  order  and  care 
for  the  help  and  preservation  of  their  mem- 
bers, but  take  no  part  in  the  legislative  pro- 
ceedings of  the  society.  There  are  also  dis- 
tinct meetings  for  the  oversight  and  help  of 


498 


FRIENDS 


FRIES 


the  ministry,  composed  of  ministers  and  elders, 
the  latter  being  prudent  religious  Friends 
chosen  especially  to  have  the  care  of  the  min- 
istry. To  monthly  meetings  belong  the  requi- 
site care  for  the  reception  of  persons  into  the 
society,  the  application  for  that  purpose  being 
first  made  to  the  overseers ;  also  the  gi*anting 
of  certificates  of  membership  to  Friends  mov- 
ing from  their  limits,  the  allowance  and  over- 
sight of  marriages,  the  free  education  of  the 
children  of  the  poor,  and  the  maintenance  of 
such  members  as  are  unable  to  support  them- 
selves. When  a  member  believes  himself  or 
herself  divinely  called  to  speak  in  the  religious 
meetings  of  Friends  as  a  minister,  after  a  sufS- 
oient  time  has  been  allowed  to  make  proof  of 
the  call,  if  the  preparative  meeting  of  ministers 
and  elders  unite  in  the  judgment  that  a  gift 
of  gospel  ministry  has  been  committed  to  the 
individual,  it  so  reports  to  the  monthly  meet- 
ing; and  if  this  comes  to  a  like  decision,  it 
forwards  the  case  to  the  quarterly  meeting  of 
ministers  and  elders ;  and  when  it  also  unites 
in  the  conclusion  of  the  others,  the  person  is 
recorded  as  an  approved  minister. — In  1827  a 
rupture  occurred  in  the  society  of  Friends  in 
the  United  States,  caused  principally  by  the 

E reaching  and  influence  of  Elias  Hicks,  who 
ad  been  a  noted  preacher  in  the  society  since 
the  commencement  of  the  revolutionary  war. 
He  was  a  man  of  great  energy,  purity  of  char- 
acter, and  natural  eloquence.  He  travelled 
extensively  in  the  United  States  and  Canadas, 
and  everywhere  his  preaching,  at  first  mainly 
practical  and  devotional,  attracted  a  crowd. 
He  gradually  devoted  more  attention  to  the 
discussion  of  doctrinal  points,  and  his  views  in 
regard  to  the  divinity  of  Christ  and  the  nature 
of  the  atonement  were  regarded  by  a  large  por- 
tion of  the  society  as  inconsistent  with  the  doc- 
trines of  orthodox  Christianity.  His  opinions 
became  the  subject  of  animated  discussion. 
Parties  were  formed,  pamphlets  written,  and 
periodicals  established  by  his  adherents  and 
opponents,  the  former  maintaining  that  his 
doctrines  were  in  accordance  with  those  of  the 
early  founders  of  the  society,  the  latter  that 
they  were  not  only  contrary  to  the  original 
doctrines  of  the  Friends,  but  to  the  generally 
admitted  doctrines  of  orthodox  Christianity, 
and  tended  to  total  unbelief.  The  opponents 
of  Hicks  charged  him  with  "  denying,  or  at 
least  holding  lightly,  a  belief  in  the  true  divin- 
ity of  Christ  while  incarnate,  and  in  the  ato- 
ning, cleansing,  saving  efficacy  of  his  blood 
which  was  shed  for  us.^'  In  the  statements 
of  their  belief  in  regard  to  the  nature  of  Christ 
there  seems  to  be  on  the  part  of  the  supporters 
of  Hicks  a  manifest  leaning  to  Sccinianism ; 
but  they  contended  that  they  were  in  strict 
accordance  with  the  teachings  of  Fox,  Penn, 
and  Barclay.  In  regard  to  the  atonement  Mr. 
Janney,  one  of  their  most  prominent  men,  says : 
"  The  doctrine  that  God  cannot  or  will  not  for- 
give sins  without  a  compensation  or  satisfac- 
tion, and  that  man  not  being  able  to  make  this 


satisfaction,  it  was  made  by  Jesus  Christ,  who 
was  appointed  or  given  up  to  be  killed  for  this 
purpose,  is  so  inconsistent  with  the  divine  char- 
acter that  it  cannot  be  reconciled  with  the 
teachings  of  the  Son  of  God.''  After  the  dis- 
cussion had  lasted  many  years,  the  first  separa^ 
tion  took  place  in  1827,  when  Hicks  was  near- 
ly 80  years  old.  Six  of  the  ten  yearly  meet- 
ings then  existing  in  the  United  States  were 
rent  asunder,  the  followers  of  Hicks,  about 
one  third  of  the  whole  society,  forming  six 
new  *^  meetings. '^  Both  parties  claimed  to 
be  the  true  representatives  of  the  society 
and  continued  to  call  themselves  **  Friends," 
but  they  are  generally  known  by  the  names 
"  Orthodox  "  and  ''  Hicksites."  Th*  division 
never  extended  beyond  the  United  States, 
and  was  greatly  regretted  by  the  members 
of  the  society  in  other  countries. — In  England, 
of  late  years,  there  has  been  a  growing  ten- 
dency among  the  Quakers  to  relax  the  rigidity 
with  which  they  adhered  to  mere  outward 
peculiarities,  and  to  conform  more  and  more 
to  the  customs  of  the  rest  of  the  world  in 
dress,  language,  and  manners.  Large  numbers 
of  them  encourage  the  practice  of  vocal  music, 
and  even  allow  dancing  in  their  families.  Many 
favor  the  arts  of  painting  and  sculpture,  pur- 
chasing such  works  as  they  have  satisfied 
themselves  are  of  a  strictly  moral  tendency. — 
The  Quakers  have  probably  never  at  any  one 
time  exceeded  200,000  in  number.  But  the 
purity  of  their  lives  and  their  constant  out- 
spoken testimony  against  all  immorality,  war, 
intemperance,  and  especially  against  davery, 
have  exercised  an  influence  over  the  opmions 
and  practice  of  the  civilized  world  altogether 
greater  than  that  of  any  other  body  of  men  of 
no  greater  numbers  that  has  existed  in  modem 
times.  The  number  of  Quakers  in  the  Unit<*d 
States  is  probably  at  present  about  100,000, 
and  in  all  other  countries  about  half  as  many. 
They  are  increasing  in  numbers,  though  not 
rapidly.  They  have  many  excellent  schools, 
and  pay  especial  attention  to  their  first-day 
schools.  In  1868  a  foreign  missionary  society 
was  formed,  and  established  missions  in  India 
and  Madagascar.  Tliey  have  also  been  active 
in  the  establishment  of  schools  among  the 
freedmen  and  in  their  efforts  to  ameliorate  the 
condition  and  infuse  a  more  Christian  spirit 
into  the  treatment  of  the  American  Indians. 

FUES,  EUas  Hagns,  a  Swedish  botanist,  bom 
Aug.  15,  1794,  died  Feb.  8,  1878.  He  was  ap- 
pointed adjunct  professor  of  botany  at  Lund 
in  1819,  and  professor  in  1828.  In  1834  he 
was  called  to  the  chair  of  economy  at  Upsal, 
to  which  in  1851  that  of  botany  was  attaciied, 
and  in  1853  be  was  made  rector  of  the  univer- 
sity. As  director  of  the  museum  and  botani- 
cal garden  of  the  university,  he  introduced 
important  improvements.  He  was  also  distin- 
guished as  an  orator,  and  twice  represented  the 
university  of  Upsal  in  the  diet.  His  most  valu- 
able work  is  Summa  Vegetahilium  Seandinavim 
(2  vols.,  Upsal,  1846-'8).   He  has  also  published 


FRIES 


over  100  dissertations  snd  naraerons  treatiBes 
on  botany,  especially  on  mycology. 

FRIES,  Ernst,  a  Germoa  painter,  born  in 
Heidelberg,  June  22,  ISOl,  died  in  Carlaruhe, 
Oct,  11,  1833.  lie  studied  at  the  academy  of 
Munich,  travelled  through  Germany,  Tyrol, 
and  Switzerland,  and  resided  four  years  in 
Italy.  Most  of  his  lundscapes  depict  Italian 
Bceoery,  and  have  been  compared  to  tliosc  of 
Poassin.  Some  of  Lis  tinesC  pictures  are  in 
Hamburg  and  other  German  cities,  but  most  of 
Ihem  are  in  foreign  countries. — His  brother 
BBBynARD,  born  in  Heidelberg,  Maj  16,  1820, 
ia  also  diatinguiahed  as  a  painter,  especially  of 
Italian  and  Alpine  scenery. 

FBIES,  Jakrt  FfMrlch,  a  German  philoso- 
pher, horn  at  Barby,  near  Magdeburg,  Aug.  23, 
17T3,  died  in  Jena,  Aug.  10,  1843.  He  was 
educated  in  a  Moravian  school,  and  studied 
pbilosoj>hy  at  Leipsio  and  Jena.  He  passed 
several  years  in  Switzerland  as  a  private  teach- 
er, and  became  professor  of  philosophy  suc; 
cessively  at  Heidelberg  and  Jena,  lieing  de- 
prived of  his  professorship  for  having  talcen 
part  in  the  democratic  movement  of  1813,  be 
was  in  1824  appointed  to  the  chair  of  physics 
and  matbematicB  in  the  latter  university,  which 
he  held  till  his  death.  Hisworlcs  inelude  Neiie 
oitr  anthriypologiKhe  Eritik  der  Vemuuft  (2d 
ed.,3  vols.,  1828-'31),and  many  other  writings, 
chiefly  upon  problems  of  specutative  philoso- 
phy. Proceeding  from  Kant,  he  inclines  to  the 
doctrine  of  faith  as  developed  in  the  system 
of  Jacobi.  He  maintains  that  there  is  only 
subjective  certainty,  that  mental  phenomena 
are  the  only  objects  of  knowledge,  but  recog- 
nizes a  principle  which  he  names  faith,  by 
which  we  have  a  presentiment  of  the  exist- 
ence of  outward  things,  and  of  the  eternal  ex- 
istence of  the  ideas  of  the  pure  reason. — See 
Jakob  Friedrich  Fri««,  by  E.  L.  T.  lleoke 
(Leipaic,  1887). 

niESUND,  or  Triesbid  (anc.  FrUia).  I. 
A  IT.  province  of  Holland,  sometimes  called 
West  Friesland  to  distinguish  it  from  East 
Friealand  in  Hanover,  bonaiied  N.,  W.,  and 
S.  W.  by  the  North  sea  and  Zoyder  Zee,  E. 
by  the  provinces  of  Groningen  and  Drenthe, 
and  S.  by  Drenthe  and  Overyasel;  area,  1,264 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  18T1,  299,931,  of  whom  abont 
268,000  were  Protestants  and  24,000  Catho- 
lics. The  surface  Is  mostly  Sat,  many  pnrts 
of  it  being  lower  than  tbe  level  of  the  sea, 
from  the  encroaebmcnts  of  which  it  is  pro- 
tected by  dikes.  It  is  intersected  by  numer- 
ona  draining  canals,  the  principal  of  which  ia 
the  Great  canal,  extendiag  from  Harlingen  oo 
the  W.  coast,  through  Franeker,  Locnwarden, 
and  Dokkura.  to  Groningen.  The  whole  man- 
agement of  the  canals,  dikes,  &c.,  ia  vested  in 
a  board,  and  the  expense  of  keeping  them  in 
repair  is  met  by  a  tax  levied  on  the  land 
owners.  The  only  river  worth  mentioning  is 
the  Laawers.  There  are  many  small  lakes. 
I>airy  farming  is  very  exten»vely  carried  on. 
The   chief  manufactures  are  woollen   stuffs, 


FRIGATE  BIBD  499 

linen,  sail  cloth,  salt,  paper,  atarch,  apirits, 
hardwai'e,  and  tiles.  A  considerable  portion 
of  the  people  are  employed  in  digging  turf  for 
fuel,  and  fishing.  Capital,  Leeuwanlen.  II. 
Eul,  an  old  principality,  now  mainly  comprised 
in  the  district  of  Aurich  in  the  Prussian  prov- 
ince of  Hanover:  pop.  in  18T1,  25,694.  It  was 
part  of  the  territory  of  the  ancient  Frisians, 
and  in  the  I8th  century  passed  to  Prussia. 
Napoleon  I.  took  it  from  the  latter  in  1806, 
but  it  was  restored  after  the  peace  of  1814, 
and  a  little  later  was  ceded  by  Prussia  to  Han- 
over. In  1866  it  was  with  the  remainder  of 
Hanover  absorbed  by  Prussia.  (See  Fbisianb.) 
FBICITE  BIRD  (called  also  frigate  peUcan 
and  man-of-war  bird),  a  tropical  web-footed 
bird,  belonging  to  the  family  pf^MiiJiia  (Gray), 
and  to  the  genus  tachypetet  (Vioillot).  The 
bill  is  longer  than  the  head,  strong,  hooked  at 
the  end,  and  sharp;  wings  lung  and  pointed, 
tbe  first  two  qaills  the  lonj;est ;  the  tail  length- 
ened, deeply  forked,  of  12  feathers;  the  tarsi 
short  and  strong,  feathered  for  half  their  length ; 
toes  long,  united  by  a  deeply  indented  web; 
clawscurved,  small,  and  pectinated,  the  latter 
character  (according  to  Audubon)  enabling  the 
bird  to  remove  insects  from  parts  of  the  body 
and  head  beyond  tbe  reach  of  the  bill ;  at  tbe 
base  of  the  lower  mandible  ia  a  amall  orange- 
colored  sao,  capable  of  distention.  The  neck 
is  short  and  stout,  and  the  body  slender;  the 
plumage  is  compact,  the  eyelids,  sac,  and  front 
of  the  upper  neck  bare.  The  color  of  the  adult 
male,  in  tbe  fonrth  year,  is  brownisli  black, 
with  green  and  purple  reSections ;  the  winga 
are  tinged  with  gray  and  brown ;  the  tall 
dark  brown,  the  shafts  white  underneath;  bill 
pale  purplish  blue,  white  in  the  middle,  and 
daaky  at  the  tip  ;  iria  dark  brown ;  feet  reddish 
above,  orange  below.  In  the  female  the  udes 
of  the  neck  and  a  broad  space  on  the  breaat 
are  white,  the  wings  and  tail  more  brown,  and 


Frig»ta  Bird  (TMrbjpciei  iqiUliu). 

the  plumage  of  the  back  leas  shining.  The 
lengtn  to  end  of  tail  is  41  in.,  the  extent  of 
wings  T  ft.  or  more,  and  the  wciglit  about  8^ 
lbs.  Only  two  species  are  described  by  Gray, 
the  T.  aquilui  (Vieill.),  very  generfdly  dis- 
tributed in  the  tropical  refpona  of  the  globe, 


500 


FRIGATE  BIRD 


and  the  Aastralkn  speciee,  T.  arUl  (Gould). 
Id  proportion  to  their  size,  their  wings  are 
longer  than  in  aaj  other  bird ;  their  flight 
is  BO  powerful  that  they  are  seen  more  than 
1,000  m.  from  load,  and  so  rapid  that  they 
descend  upon  tbeir  prey  with  a  velocity  snr- 
paasing  that  of  the  swiftest  falcons;  they  can 
glide  smoothly  along  like  a  kite,  and  hreast 
the  hurricane  without  apparent  effort,  rising 
with  ease  above  the  tempest  clouds  whenever 
they  please ;  they  often  fly  in  flocks  so  high 
as  to  be  scarcely  visible.  They  move  with 
great  difficulty  on  land,  and  rarely  alight  on 
the  water;  by  raising  the  wings  perpendicu- 
larly and  spreading  the  half-erect  tall,  they 
readily  ascend  from  a  level  surface.  They  do 
not  dive  in  search  of  food,  but  obtain  it  on  the 
wingj  thesma11ne9s  of  the  webs  prevents  them 
from  being  good  swimmers.  The  food  consists 
principally  of  flsh,  which  their  acute  sight  en- 
ables them  to  detect  from  a  great  height;  when 
one  sees  a  shoal  of  fish,  he  swoops  rapidly 
down,  but  does  not  plunge,  quickly  changing 
his  course  and  swimming  along  the  surface 
with  the  neck  and  feet  atretclied  horizontally; 
then  raising  the  wings  above  the  back,  and 
flzing  them  one  against  the  other,  the  bird 
darts  at  its  prey,  which  it  rarely  fails  to 
seize.  It  follows  the  shoals  of  flying  flshes, 
and  catches  them  in  the  air;  it  also  picks 
up  dead  fish  and  floating  garbage  like  the 
gulls;  during  the  nesting  period  young  birds 
form  a  favorite  article  of  food,  its  own  nest- 
lings suffering  in  like  manner  from  the  turkey 
buzzards.  But  its  favorite  way  of  providing 
for  its  wants,  and  that  which  has  given  it  its 
warlike  name,  is  that  pursued  by  the  bald 
eagle  with  the  lish  hawk;  possessing  great 
strength,  and  with  superior  power  of  wing,  it 
pursues  the  terns  and  galls  which  have  secured 
a  fish,  and  by  beating  them  with  wings  and 
beak  forces  tljem  to  drop  or  disgorge  it ;  then 
descending  with  great  rapidity,  it  seizes  the 
prey  before  it  reaches  the  water.  It  is  believed 
by  some  that  frigate  birds  harass  the  pelicans 
and  boobies  in  this  manner,  but  Andubon  and 
others  say  that  this  is  not  the  case,  as  these 
large  birds,  with  a  single  stroke  of  their  pow- 
erful bills,  could  easily  destroy  their  aggressors. 
They  are  very  quarrelsome,  and  the  robbers 
despoil  the  original  thief  whenever  opportunity 
offers.  With  all  this  strength  of  wing,  Audu- 
bon says  the  keel  of  the  sternnm  is  no  more 
developed  than  that  of  the  short-flying  grouse 
and  partridge,  showing  the  insufficiency  of  this 
bonv  crest  es  a  means  of  indicating  the  power 
of  flight  They  are  not  shy;  when  shot  at 
and  woanded  they  disgorge  the  contents  of  the 
stomach,  generally  of  tlie  most  fetid  character ; 
their  only  note  is  rough  and  croaking,  and 
very  seldom  uttered ;  the  flesh  is  totally  unfit 
for  food.  They  are  rarely  found  farther  north 
than  Charleston,  S.  C,  but  are  abundant  in 
the  south  from  Florida  to  Texas,  and  in  Cali- 
fornia, Those  marine  vultures,  as  they  have 
been  called,  breed  in  great  nnmbers  on  the 


FRISIANS 

Florida  keys,  generally  making  their  nests 
of  coarse  sticks  in  mangrove  trees,  beginning 
about  the  middle  of  May ;  the  eggs  are  two  or 
three,  about  three  inches  long  and  two  broad, 
of  a  greenish  white  color;  the  young  grow 
slowly,  and  are  fed  by  regurgitation. 

FBIGM.    See  Odin. 

niNGEnEE  (ckionantkutVirginiea,  Linn.), 
abeantiful  tree  of  10  to  80  ft.  in  height,  with 
somewhat  oval,  smooth,  entire  leaves,  white, 
n arrow -petalled  flowers  in  drooping  racemes, 
and  oval,  purple  drupes,  growing  wild  froia 
Pennsylvania  southward  to  the  gulf  of  Mexico. 
It  belongs  to  the  oUaeea,  flnd  is  hence  a  rela- 
tive of  the  olive  and  the  ash.  Its  light  and 
pure  clusters  of  blossoms  are  not  only  snggea- 
tive  of  its  English  name,  but  of  the  generic  title 
of  eAwnan/Au«,  blossoms  of  the  snow.  It  is  of 
rather  slow  growth,  and  is  not  hardy  north  of 
central  New  Tork ;  but  where  it  will  endure 


Frloge  Twe  (Chlonsnthm  TlrglaSia). 

the  climate  it  is  well  worthy  of  cnltivation. 
Some  of  tlie  nursery  catalogues  ofi*er  the  va- 
rieties angvttxfolia^  lat^olia,  and  maritima, 
which  difler  somewhat  from  the  type  in  size 
and  shape  of  the  leaves  and  flowers. 

mo,  a  S.  W.  county  of  Teias,  intersected 
by  tlie  Rio  Frio  and  Rio  Ssn  Mignel;  ares, 
1,060  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  18T0,  309,  of  whom  IS 
were  colored.  The  surface  is  diversified ;  there 
is  good  farming  land  along  the  rivers,  and  con- 
siderable timber.  Stock  raising  is  the  leading 
pursuit.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
8,060  bushels  of  Indian  com  and  18,948  lbs.  of 
wool.  There  were  1,278  horses,  60,884  cat- 
tle, G,284  sheep,  and  2,096  swine. 

niBIANS,  a  Germanic  people,  inhabiting  the 
N.  W.  coasts  of  Germany,  portions  of  Holland, 
and  some  a^acent  islands.  The  Romans  called 
them  Friiii ;  Ptolemy,  *p((io(o[;  the  ancient 
Norsemen,  Fritir  ;  the  Anglo-Saxons, /V««ia 
cyn  ;  the  old  Uigh  Germans,  Frieion  ;  and  the 
ancient  codes  of  tiie  people,  Frita  or  Fraa. 
Their  name  is  believed  to  signify  free.     Cfesar 


FRISUNS 


601 


makes  no  mention  of  them,  bnt  Pliny  knew 
that  tfaej  dwelt  bejond  the  Batavians.  Thej 
were  conquered  by  Druans,  bat  soon  regained 
their  liberty  as  allies  of  the  Batavians.  The 
name  Frisian  was  subsequently  extended  to 
the  Ghauci,  a  kmdred  race  living  east  of  them, 
who  ceased  to  be  an  independent  and  distinct 
people  before  the  beginning  of  the  4th  cen- 
tury. The  advance  of  the  Franks  pushed  the 
Frisians  to  the  very  coast  of  the  North  sea. 
They  attempted  many  times  to  repel  their  ag- 
gressors ;  but  centuries  of  feuds  and  an  invasion 
of  Britain  in  the  6th  century  diminished  their 
number,  and  Pepin  of  H^ristal  gained  a  decisive 
victory  over  them  in  689.  A  century  later  the 
empire  of  the  Franks  extended  as  far  as  the  We- 
ser.  The  Frisians  were  converted  to  Ohristian- 
ity ;  their  rights  and  privileges  were  laid  down 
by  Oharlemagne  in  the  Ltx  Frisionum,  and  to 
protect  them  against  the  inroads  of  the  Norse- 
men a  dticatus  Frisia  was  formed.  The  S.  W. 
Frisians  were  the  first  to  lose  the  characteristic 
features  as  well  as  the  laws  and  the  language 
of  their  race,  and  in  the  13th  century  the  name 
of  Friesland  belonged  only  to  the  district  east 
of  the  Zuyder  Zee,  which  the  Lauwers  divided 
again  into  East  and  West  Friesland.  The 
Frisians  inhabiting  the  region  between  the 
Lauwers  and  the  Vly  outlet  of  the  Zuyder  Zee 
offered  a  firm  resistance  to  the  counts  of  Hol- 
land, and  were  finally  amalgamated  with  the 
empire  of  Charles  V.  The  Frisians  between 
the  Ems  and  the  Jade  became  subject  to  the 
counts  of  Oldenburg  in  1234,  after  the  battle 
of  Alteresch.  Those  between  the  Jade  and 
the  Weser  retained  their  independence  much 
longer,  but  were  subjugated  by  Oldenburg  in 
1514,  with  the  aid  of  Brunswick-LUneburg. — 
The  small  remnant  of  Frisians  who  still  adhere 
to  their  ancient  peculiarities  and  dialects  are 
divided  into  three  branches.  The  West  Frisians 
inhabit  the  eastern  coast  land  of  Holland ;  the 
East  Frisians  live  in  the  fens  and  morasses  of 
Saterland  and  on  the  island  of  Wangeroog; 
the  North  Frisians  occupy  the  western  shore 
of  Schleswig,  and  the  adjacent  islands  of  Sylt, 
Fdhr,  Amrum,  and  Helgoland.  There  is  a 
wide  difference  among  the  dialects  of  these 
three  branches;  each  village,  in  fact,  has  its 
own  way  of  speaking.  The  North  Frisian 
alone  has  ten  distinct  dialects,  and  an  inhabi- 
tant of  the  island  of  Fdhr  is  with  difficulty 
understood  by  the  Frisians  on  the  mainland. 
The  Frisian  dialects  are  most  closely  related  to 
Anglo-Saxon.  Several  Danish  linguists  main- 
tain that  the  North  Frisian  dialect  was  transi- 
tional to  the  Norse  language,  and,  mixing  with 
Anglo-Saxon,  became  the  parent  of  Danish. 
According  to  legends  current  among  them,  the 
North  Frisians  dwelt  in  Jutland  at  a  time  when 
the  continent  extended  as  far  as  Helgoland 
and  the  other  islands.  Their  dialect  is  con- 
sidered purest  a9  spoken  by  the  inhabitants  of 
the  Schleswig  coast  As  it  is  not  used  for 
literary  purposes,  it  does  not  possess  a  strict 
grammatical  structure.    The  definite  article  in 


the  singular  is  either  de,  jo^  or  ddt^  according 
to  the  gender  of  the  noun  (masculine,  feminine, 
or  neuter),  and  in  the  plural  always  (^4/  the  in- 
definite article  is  dn,  en,  or  *n.  Personal  pro- 
nouns are :  ich,  I ;  do,  thou ;  he,  he;  jo,  she ; 
ddt,  it;  we,  we;  wdt,  we  two;  jdt,  you  two; 
jam,  you ;  jd,  they ;  ni&mmen,  nobody ;  Mm, 
who,  some  one ;  sondn,  sonyn,  such  a  one.  Pos- 
sessive pronouns  are :  mdn,  ddn,  sdn,  hdrren, 
8dn,ilhs&n,  unken,junkenyjdrringe,jdre,  for  my, 
thy,  his,  her,  &c.,  in  the  masculine  singular; 
and  min,  din,  nn,  hdrr,  sin,  u?is,  unh,  junk, 
jdrringe,  jdre,  for  the  feminine  and  neuter  gen- 
ders in  the  singular,  and  for  the  three  genders 
in  the  plural.  Possessive  pronouns  agree  in 
number  and  gender  with  the  thing  possessed. 
Nouns  in  the  possessive  case  take  an  «.  The 
following  is  the  coigugation  of  a  regular  verb : 
Present,  ich  rdgt,  do  rogteat,  he,  jo,  hdt,  ddt 
rogtet,  I  judge,  &c ;  todt,  jdt,  we,  jdm,  jd 
rdgete,  we  judge,  &c. ;  past,  iei  rogtet,  dd 
Togtetet,  he  rSgtet,  I  judged,  &c. ;  wdt,  jdt, 
we,  jdm,  jd  rdgteten,  we  judged,  &c.  The 
past  participle  is  formed  by  changing  the  ter- 
mination n  of  the  infinitive  into  t,  as  rSgt&n, 
to  judge ;  rogtet,  judged.  The  compound  ten- 
ses are  formed  as  in  English.  Auxiliary  verbs 
are  warden,  to  be  or  to  become ;  weeen,  to 
be;  and  hSwen,  to  have.  They  are  joined 
to  the  past  participle  as  follows :  ieh  hdhw 
rogtet,  I  have  judged ;  ich  word  rdgtet  hdfd 
hewen,  I  shall  have  (had)  judged;  iek  hdi  rog- 
tet hdjd,  I  had  (had)  judged,  &c.  The  present 
participles  terminate  in  end.  The  syntax  of 
the  North  Frisian  language  (norc^rdehe  Sprdj- 
he)  and  its  points  of  similarity  with  English 
may  be  gathered  from  the  foUowing  example : 

Jdm  thin  di  tUl^  noeh  IJaaffe,  uwtig  fUth  hondU  d^ 
Ihns  md  ds  Aua&re. 

Toa  fthall  not  steal,  nor  lie,  nor  flUaefy  deal  the  one  with 
the  other. 

In  the  literature  of  the  old  Frisian  are  some  of 
the  most  ancient  sources  of  Germanic  juris- 
prudeuce,  as  the  Senarjueht  (^'Ecclesiastical 
Law  "),  edited  by  Winshem  (Franeker,  1622); 
Ost- Fries- Landreeht,  by  Wicht  (Aurich,  1746) ; 
Hunsinger  Landrecht  of  1252  (Groningen, 
1778) ;  Fitelinguer  und  Oldamster  Landrecht, 
by  Wiarda  (1784) ;  and  Emsinger  Landrecht 
of  1312  (Hanover,  1824).  Literary  specimens 
of  several  North  Frisian  dialects  are  to  be 
found  in  Hansen,  Nahrung  fUr  Leseltut  in 
nord/riesischer  Sprache  (Sonderburg,  1883  et 
seq,) ;  Hettema,  FriesJce,  Hilgelaonner  en  Nord- 
frieske  Rymkes,  sammle  trog  (Dokkum,  1841); 
and  Nissen,  De  freiske  Siemstin,  in  course  of 
publication  (1874).  Trustworthy  works  on  the 
language  are :  I^yngby,  Chn  Nordfrisish  i  Boh- 
hingog  Hvidding  Herredcr  (Copenhagen  and 
Leipsic,  1858),  and  Bendsen,  Di^  nordfric- 
sisehe  Sprache  nach  der  moringer  Mundart 
(Leyden,  1860).  Consult  also  the  articles  on 
the  language  published  by  Clement  in  the 
recent  volumes  of  Herrig's  Archiv  fwr  das 
Studium  der  neueren  Sprachen  und  Litera- 
turen,  and  by  Strauss  in  Neties  Jahrbuch  der 


502 


FRITH 


FROEBEL 


herlinisehen  OaelUchaft  far  deuUche  Spraehe 
und  Alterthumskunde, 

FRITH,  WiUiui  Powell,  an  English  artist,  born 
at  Stadiej,  near  Ripon,  Yorkshire,  in  1819. 
He  is  one  of  the  most  snccessful  painters  of 
genre  of  the  modern  English  school,  selecting 
his  subjects  from  Shakespeare,  Cervantes,  Gold- 
smith, the  ^*  Spectator,^'  and  kindred  sources. 
Of  late  years  he  has  produced  some  striking 
representations  of  every-day  life.  Perhaps  his 
greatest  painting  is  the  ** Railway  Station" 
(1862),  for  which  he  received  £6,000;  the 
painting,  with  the  nght  of  engraving,  has  since 
been  sold  for  £23,000.  He  was  elected  an 
honorary  member  of  the  imperial  academy  of 
fine  arts  at  Vienna  in  1869,  and  of  the  royal 
academy  of  Belgium  in  1871. 

FETTZ,  Samel,  a  German  Roman  Catholic 
missionary,  born  in  Bohemia  in  1650,  died  in 
Jeberos,  Ecuador,  in  1730.  Being  sent  as  a 
missionary  to  the  Omagua  Indians  of  South 
America,  he  selected  as  his  field  of  labor  the 
district  between  the  mouths  of  the  Rio  Napo 
and  the  Rio  Negro  on  the  upper  Amazon, 
where  in  1688  he  had  succeeded  in  attaching 
five  other  tribes  to  the  Omagnas,  among  whom 
he  had  established  40  missions.  The  whole 
number  of  Indians  to  whom  the  gospel  was 
thus  preached  was  about  40,000.  In  1710  the 
war  of  the  Spanish  succession  which  was  oc- 
cupying Europe  seemed  to  the  Portuguese  of 
Par4  sufficienf  reason  for  making  an  irruption 
into  the  country  of  the  upper  Amazon,  and  of 
the  Indians  in  the  district  of  Father  Fritz  more 
than  20,000  were  carried  captive  to  Par^  and 
most  of  the  others  fled  to  their  native  forests. 
Fritjs  made  a  large  map  of  the  river  Amazon, 
which  long  maintained  its  authority. 

FRIULI  (Ger.  Friaul ;  so  named  from  the 
ancient  town  of  Forum  Juliij  now  Citidale 
del  Friuli\  an  old  province  of  N.  Italy,  for- 
merly embracing  some  ac^joining  districts  and 
divided  between  Austria  and  the  republic  of 
Venice,  and  afterward,  under  the  dominion  of 
Austria,  forming  the  circle  of  Gorz,  part  of 
Trieste,  and  the  delegation  of  Friuli  or  Udine 
in  Venetia.  It  was  one  of  the  most  important 
duchies  of  the  Lombard  kingdom,  and  after  the 
overthrow  of  that  monarchy  by  Charlemagne, 
and  even  up  to  the  15th  century,  when  it  was 
conquered  by  Venjce  and  its  territories  were 
dismembered,  it  retained  a  considerable  degree 
of  independence.  The  main  or  Venetian  por- 
tion was  ceded  to  Austria  in  1797,  was  annexed 
to  the  kingdom  of  Italy  in  1806,  recovered  by 
Austria  in  1814,  and  in  1866  united  to  the 
kingdom  of  Italy,  and  is  now  called  the  prov- 
ince of  Udine.  (See  Udine.)  The  Friulians 
are  a  tribe  kindred  to  the  Italians,  but  their 
language  is  largely  mixed  with  Celtic  elements. 

FRObEL.    See  Fboebel. 

FROBISHER,  Sir  Martlo,  an  English  explorer, 
born  near  Doncaster,  died  in  Plymouth,  Nov. 
7,  1594.  After  spending  15  years  in  fruitless 
endeavors  to  get  up  an  expedition  to  find  the 
northwest  passage,  he  at  length  sailed  with 


three  barks  from  Deptford,  June  8, 1576,  going 
as  far  as  Labrador  and  Greenland,  discovering 
the  bay  now  known  by  his  name,  and  return- 
ing in  October.  Indications  of  gold  were  dis- 
covered, which  led  to  the  despatch  of  a  large 
squadron  in  the  following  year;  and  the  ore 
brought  back  being  thought  valuable,  still  a 
third  expedition  was  fitted  out  with  15  ships 
in  1578,  but  the  fleet,  being  scattered  by  storms 
on  the  coast  of  Greenland,  was  obliged  to  re- 
turn early  in  the  winter  without  having  eflect- 
ed  any  settlement.  Relics  of  these  expeditions 
were  discovered  by  Hall  in  1860-'62.  In  1585 
Frobisher  went  with  Sir  Francis  Drake  to  the 
West  Indies ;  and  in  1688,  on  the  defeat  of  the 
Spanish  armada,  he  was  knighted  for  his  services 
in  the  action.  He  afterward  commanded  a 
fleet  on  the  Spanish  coast,  and  in  1594  support- 
ed Henry  IV.  against  the  leaguers  and  Span- 
iards, and  died  of  a  wound  received  in  an 
attack  on  Brest. 

FROBISHER  BAT,  an  arm  of  the  sea  in  British 
North  America,  setting  up  westward  from  the 
Atlantic  near  the  entrance  to  Davis  strait, 
between  Hudson  strait  and  Northumberland 
inlet.  It  penetrates  the  region  known  as  Met& 
Incognita,  is  240  m.  long,  80  m.  in  average 
breadth,  and  has  rugged  mountainous  shores. 

FROEBEL.  I.  Friedricli,  a  German  educator, 
founder  of  the  Kindergarten  system  of  schools, 
bom  at  Oberweissbach,  April  21,  1782,  died  in 
Marienthal,  June  21,  1852.  In  1826  he  pub- 
lished the  first  volume  of  his  work  on  educa- 
tion {Die  Menschenereiehung),  In  this,  as  well 
as  in  a  weekly  journal  which  he  edited  sabse- 
Quently  ( WoeJiensehrift  fur  alle  Freunde  der 
ifen$chenbildung)y  he  advocated  a  full  and 
harmonious  development  of  the  human  facul- 
ties. In  1887  he  founded  a  school  or  Kinder- 
qarten  for  little  children  at  Blankenburg, 
Thuringia,  which  became  the  model  of  simi- 
lar institutions  in  many  parts  of  Germany 
and  in  foreign  countries,  especially  in  Switz- 
erland. The  duke  of  Meiningen  gave  him 
the  use  of  his  mansion  of  Marienthal,  near 
Liebenstein,  for  the  establishment  of  a  nor- 
mal school,  where  female  teachers  were 
instructed.  The  great  freedom  which  he  al- 
lowed to  the  children  was  considered  dan- 
gerous, and  his  schools  were  denounced  as  nur- 
series of  socialism  and  atheism.  His  nephew, 
Karl  Froebel  (born  in  1808),  had  founded  a 
school  for  girls  at  Hamburg  in  1850,  the  pro- 
gramme for  which  furnished  a  pretext  to  the 
Prussian  government  for  prohibiting  (Aug.  7, 
1851)  all  Kindergarten  in  which  the  Froebel 
system  of  education  prevailed.  IL  JiltUy  a 
German  author  and  traveller,  nephew  of  the 
preceding,  born  in  Griesheim  in  1806.  He  en- 
gaged successively  in  various  scientific,  literary, 
and  statistical  labors,  and  attended  the  univer- 
sities of  Jena,  Munich,  and  Berlin.  In  1888  he 
was  appoint^  professor  of  geography,  natural 
history,  and  history  at  Zttrich,  and  was  subse- 
quently professor  of  mineralogy  in  the  high 
school  of  that  city.    Having  become  a  natu- 


FROG 


503 


ralized  citizen  of  Switzerland,  he  joined  the 
extreme  radical  party,  and  edited  the  *^  Swiss 
Repablican.^'  He  also  foanded  a  publishing 
house,  and  in  1844  relinquished  his  professor- 
ship. He  issued  several  scientific  works  and 
political  pamphlets ;  but  many  of  them  w^ere 
suppressed  in  Germany.  Having  returned  to 
Germany,  he  was  expelled  from  the  Prussian 
territory,  and  went  to  Dresden.  In  1848  he 
became  a  popular  leader  of  the  democratic  par- 
ty and  a  member  of  the  German  parliament  at 
Frankfort.  Accompanying  Robert  Blum  to 
Vienna,  he  was  arrested,  and  sentenced  to 
death  by  the  same  court  martial  which  sen- 
tenced Blum,  but  was  pardoned.  On  the  dis- 
solution of  the  parliament  he  repaired  to  Switz- 
erland, and  afterward  to  the  United  States. 
He  was  editor  of  a  German  newspaper,  and 
lectured  in  New  York,  went  in  1850  to  Ni- 
caragua, and  afterward  to  Santa  F6  and  Chi- 
huahua. During  this  period  he  was  a  frequent 
correspondent  of  the  "New  York  Tribune." 
In  1855  he  edited  a  journal  at  San  Francisco. 
In  1857,  after  his  return  to  Germany,  attempts 
were  made  to  expel  him  from  Frankfort,  the 
American  consul  protesting  upon  the  ground 
that  he  had  become  a  naturalized  citizen  of  the 
United  States.  Afber  residing  some  time  in 
London,  he  went  to  Vienna  in  1862  to  become 
editor  of  the  journal  representing  the  liberal 
cabinet  then  in  power.  From  this  time  he 
again  took  an  active  part  in  German  politics  as 
one  of  the  leaders  of  the  Gross- Deutsche  or 
federalistio  party.  After  the  fall  of  the  cabi- 
net he  went  to  Stuttgart,  and  in  1867  to  Mu- 
nich, where  he  established  the  SMdeutsche 
Past.  Among  his  works  are :  System  der  so- 
euUen  Politih  (2  vols.,  Mannheim,  1847) ;  Die 
RepublikaneTy  a  historical  drama  (Leipsic, 
1848) ;  Aus  Amerikoy  Er/ahrungen,  Reisen 
und  Studien  (2  vols.,  Leipsic,  1858 ;  English 
translation,  "  Seven  Years*  Travel  in  Central 
America,  Northern  Mexico,  and  the  Far  West 
of  the  United  Statees"  London,  1859);  Theorie 
der  Politih  (2  vols.,  Vienna,  1861);  Kleine 
politiseh^  Schri/ten  (2  vols.,  Stuttgart,  1866); 
and  Die  Wirthschaft  des  Menschengesehleehts 
auf  dem  Standpunhte  der  Einheit  idealer  und 
realer  Interessen  (Leipsic,  1870).  In  1873  he 
was  appointed  consul  of  the  German  empire  at 
Smyrna,  Asia  Minor. 

FE06,  a  batrachian  reptile  of  the  anourous 
or  tailless  order,  embracing  the  group  phanero- 
glosses  (Dum.  and  Bib.),  with  the  families  rani- 
dcs  or  common  frogs,  and  hyladrn  or  tree  frogs. 
The  general  characters  of  the  class  and  of  the 
order  have  been  sufficiently  given' in  the  article 
Akphibia,  so  that  the  principal  families,  gene- 
ra, and  species  will  only  be  mentioned  here. 
The  family  of  frogs  or  ranidm  include  those 
genera  the  free  extremities  of  whose  fingers 
and  toes  are  not  dilated  into  disks,  and  whose 
upper  jaw  is  provided  with  teeth;  among 
these  are  many  w^hose  thick  and  clumsy  bodies 
resemble  those  of  toads  (bufontdcs)  rather  than 
of  frogs ;  in  addition  to  maxillary  teeth,  most 


have  also  teeth  on  the  palate  and  vomer,  whose 
groupings,  together  with  the  form  of  the  tongue 
and  the  visibility  of  the  tympanum,  are  charac- 
ters distinctive  of  genera  and  species.  Almost 
all  have,  in  the  males,  the  vocal  vesicles  in  the 
throat,  communicating  with  the  mouth,  by  the 
entrance  of  air  into  which  their  remarkable 
and  loud  sounds  are  produced;  the  nostrils 
open  laterally,  near  the  end  of  the  snout ;  they 
have  four  non-palmated  fingers,  with  the  rudi- 
ment of  a  thumb,  and  five  webbed  toes ;  the  back 
is  generally  irregularly  roughened  by  glandular 
and  other  eminences,  while  the  under  surface 
is  smooth.  Frogs  pass  most  of  their  time  in  the 
water,  being  excellent  swimmers;  the  length 
of  their  hind  limbs  enables  them  to  make 
considerable  leaps,  and  to  travel  over  land  in 
this  way  long  distances  in  search  of  water; 
they  are  unable  to  climb  trees,  like  the  family 
hy lades  or  tree  frogs.  Some  species  prefer 
moist  localities  and  damp  woods,  where  they 
hide  in  the  grass  and  under  leaves;  others 
dwell  in  subterranean  hollows  which  they  dig 
on  the  borders  of  marshes,  coming  forth  at 
evening  or  on  rainy  days.  All  the  species 
when  adult  are  decidedly  carnivorous,  even  the 
smaller  eating  mollusks,  insects,  and  worms, 
and  all  are  characterized  by  great  voracity. 
The  frog  family  is  found  throughout  the  globe, 
though  most  abundantly  in  America;  indeed 
five  of  the  eight  genera  admitted  by  Dum6ril 
and  Bibron  are  peculiar  to  the  new  world ; 
after  America  come  Asia,  Europe,  Africa,  and 
Polynesia,  in  the  order  of  abundance  of  species. 
Of  the  numerous  genera  described,  the  genus 
rana  (Linn.),  which  includes  the  common  frogs, 
is  the  best  known  and  the  most  interesting. 
The  principal  characters  of  the  skeleton  of  the 
frog  are  the  small  number  of  vertebr»,  the  ab- 
sence of  true  ribs,  the  development  of  the  trans- 
verse processes  of  the  sacrum,  the  mobility  of 
the  iliac  bones,  the  length  of  the  coccyx,  the 
presence  of  occipital  condyles  and  an  arch  of 
scapular  bones  constituting  a  shoulder,  and  the 
elongation  of  the  bones  of  the  lower  extremi- 
ties. The  muscles  of  the  thigh  and  leg  resem- 
ble considerably  those  of  man  and  mammals. 
When  a  frog  is  at  rest,  the  articulations  of  the 
pelvis,  thigh,  leg,  and  foot  form  four  great  folds 
or  levers,  by  the  sudden  opening  of  which  at 
the  same  time  its  remarkable  leaps  are  effected ; 
the  swimming  of  the  frog,  which  has  errone- 
ously been  taken  as  a  model  for  man  in  this 
respect,  consists  in  a  series  of  horizontal  leaps, 
the  body  being  sustained  by  the  water,  and  its 
general  form  offering  little  resistance,  and  the 
anterior  limbs  being  folded  against  the  trunk 
instead  of  acting  as  aids  to  the  legs  in  locomo- 
tion ;  walking  of  course  must  be  difficult  and 
slow  where  there  is  such  disparity  in  the  length 
of  the  arms  and  legs.  The  skin  is  smooth, 
made  up  of  the  usual  layers,  and  in  many  parts 
of  the  body  separated  from  the  muscles  to  such 
an  extent  that  it  may  be  considerably  distended 
at  the  will  of  the  animal ;  the  thin  epidermis 
is  frequently  renewed;  in  the  pigment  layer 


is  very  imperfect;  the  tongne  is  not  an  organ 
of  taste  bot  of  iirehension,  soft  and  covered 
witii  a  viscid  mucQS,  its  base  attached  to  the 
concavity  of  the  lower  jaw,  ita  bifurcated 
point  extending  backward,  and  the  whole  organ 
capable  of  being  ]irojected  from  the  mouth  in  a 
reversed  position  for  the  seizure  of  its  insect 
prey;  the  organ  of  bearing  has  a  tynipannm, 
and  an  aerial  cavity  under  it  communicating 
with  the  throat.  The  munth  is  very  widely 
cleft,  and  some  of  the  larger  species  have  been 
known  to  awaUow  smalt  mammals  and  birds; 
like  other  araphibians  they  cannot  drink.  The 
Btructare  of  the  heart,  gills,  and  lungs,  and  the 
phenomena  of  the  circnlaUon  in  the  tadpole  and 
adnlta,  and  of  the  branchial,  pnlmonary,  and 
cutaneous  respirations,  have  been  described  in 
the  article  Auphibia.  The  well  known  voice 
of  the  frog  varies  so  much  in  intensity  and  tono 
as  to  render  it  difficult  trom  the  sound  to  as- 
certain the  distAnce  of  the  animal,  far  snrpnss- 
ing  in  this  re^>ect  the  efibrts  of  the  most  skilful 
ventriloquist;  it  can  make  a  dnll  sound  even 
nnder  water.  Among  the  many  authors  who 
have  attempted  to  imitate  in  words  the  sounds 
of  the  brog,  one  of  the  most  suoceBsful  is  Aris- 
tophanes, in  whose  comedy  of  the  "Frogs"  a 
frequent  verse  in  the  choms  is  breiekekex  hoax 
itooiE,  whose  night-long  repetition  in  spring  and 
summer  sometimes  renders  sleep  impossible  to 
those  unaccustomed  to  iL  By  their  power  of 
retarding  or  accelerating  the  respiratory  move- 
ments, and  of  aerating  the  blood  through  the 
vessels  distributed  to  the  akin,  frogs  are  able 
to  resist  considerable  changes  of  cold  and  heat, 
and  to  sustain  life  daring  their  winter  torpid- 
ity; the  absorption  and  exhalation  performed 
through  the  skin  explain  their  o(M3urrence  and 
prolonged  existence  under  circumstances  where 
ordinary  animals  wnuld  soon  perish,  as  under 
water  and  in  air-tight  places.  The  sexes  are 
separate,  and  the  reproductive  functions  ore 
performed  in  the  same  mechanical  and  passion- 
less manner  as  in  most  fishes;  the  ova  are  fe- 
cundated at  the  moment  of  their  exclnsion. 
As  the  eggs  are  expelled  they  are  enveloped  in 
a  glairy  mass,  in  which  the  embryos  are  seen 
distributed  like  black  dots ;  the  development 
is  very  rapid  under  favorable  circumstances  of 
temperalnre,  the  head  and  tail  becoming  per- 
ceptible in  the  course  of  the  second  day,  the 
gilJs  on  the  third,  and  the  tadpole  at  the  tem- 
perature of  80°  F.  (as  in  Rusconi's  ezpreri- 
ments)  may  leave  the  egg  on  the  fourth  or  fifth 
day ;  but  in  tbe  ordinary  seasons  of  temperate 
Europe  and  America,  the  young  are  not  hatched 
until  about  a  month  after  the  deposit  of  the 
eggs.  I'he  tadpole  is  half  an  inch  long  when 
hatched ;  the  mouth  is  distinct,  but  small  and 
without  lips;  the  gills  rapidly  enlarge,  and 
when  at  their  maximum  development  afford 
beautiful  objects  for  displaying  the  circulation; 
the  gilts  soon  begin  to  decrease  in  size,  and  are 
finally  withdrawn  within  the  branchial  cavity, 


as  in  fishes,  and  concealed  by  an  opercular  fold 

of  integument ;  the  eyes  are  perfectly  formed ; 
tbe  mouth  acquires  movable  lips,  is  placed  nearer 
the  end  of  tbe  bead,  and  is  used  for  the  intro- 
duction of  vegetable  food ;  the  caudal  fin  in- 
creases in  size,  and  serves  for  rapid  locomotion. 
Without  any  great  change  in  form,  tbe  Nze  is 
rapidly  increased ;  two  small  tubercles  appear 
near  the  vent,  the  rudiments  of  Che  posterior  legs, 
which  aresoou  developed  intothe|)erfect  limbs; 
the  anterior  limbs  are  afterward  formed  under 
tbe  skin  in  a  similar  manner;  as  the  legs  are 
perfected  the  tail  is  gradually  absorbed  from 
tbe  tip  to  the  base,  and  progression  is  effected 
by  the  hind  limbs.  The  lungs  are  now  fitted 
for  the  respiration  of  air,  and  die  little  creatures 
come  on  land  in  search  of  worms  and  insecta, 


Elgbt  ttue*  of  danlopraoil  of  Um  Udpok.  from  Um  n- 
ceDtjT  hilcb«d  (I>  to  tbe  adnJI  form  (i),  n*  Ulnatntnl  by 
Sl  Gmi8<  Ulnrt. 

and  in  snch  multitudes  in  damp  weather  as  to 
give  rise  to  the  belief,  still  popularly  adhered  to 
in  many  places,  that  it  has  rained  frogs.  They 
grow  rapidly  during  the  summer  and  antumn, 
and  in  winter  plunge  into  the  mnd  to  pass  their 
stage  of  hibernation.  In  the  tadpole  state  great 
numbers  are  devoured  by  fishes,  other  reptiles, 
and  by  each  other ;  and  the  adults  furnish  food 
for  all  classes  of  vertebrata  from  fishes  up  to 
man  himself  It  is  probable  that  not  more 
than  one  In  a  thousand  of  those  which  come 
from  the  egg  in  tbe  spring  live  to  reach  their 
winter  retreat ;  if  fortunate  enough  to  escape 
from  all  enemies,  frogs  may  live  many  years. 
Serpents  among  reptiles,  pickerel  among  fishes, 
vultures,  storks,  herons,  and  cranes  among 
birds,  are  the  worst  enemies  of  frogs ;  were  it 


FROG 


505 


not  for  the  storks  of  Egypt,  that  country  wonld 
he  overrun  with  frogs.  When  it  is  rememhered 
that  each  female  frog  of  the  hundreds  in  a 
single  locality  may  produce  1,000  yonog,  which 
hide  in  crevices  in  the  earth  and  under  stones, 
ready  to  come  forth  to  enjoy  the  genial  summer 
showers,  there  is  no  necessity  for  any  attempt 
to  explain  the  appearance  of  the  frog  multitudes 
by  supposing  them  to  have  fallen  from  the 
clouds,  as  has  been  believed  even  from  the  time 
of  Aristotle,  or  by  the  supposition  that  they 
have  been  taken  np  from  some  marsh  by  a 
whirlwind  and  let  fall  during  a  rain ;  the  latter 
occurrence,  on  a  small  scale,  is  not  impossible, 
in  exceptional  cases.  The  frogs  which  thus  ap- 
pear bear  marks  of  their  recent  metamorphosis, 
m  the  remnant  of  a  tail  and  other  organs ;  crawl- 
ing as  they  naturally  wonld  into  the  ground, 
the  swelling  of  the  earth  from  rain  wonld  drive 
them  out  by  compression.  From  facts  recorded 
in  the  ^*  Annals  and  Magazine  of  Natural  His- 
tory" (1858,  pp.  341  and  482),  it  would  seem 
that  frogs  and  toads  may  be  reproduced  without 
passing  through  the  intermediate  stage  of  tad- 

gole ;  it  is  only  of  late  years  that  many  common 
shes  have  been  ascertained  to  be  viviparous, 
and  it  is  not  improbable  that  eggs  laid  in  local- 
ities where  water  cannot  be  obtained,  as  in  cel- 
lars and  hot  houses  and  beds,  may  produce  frogs, 
whose  larval  form  is  very  soon  exchanged  for 
the  perfect  state,  the  gills  being  prematurely 
cast  to  enable  the  animd  to  accommodate  itself 
to  its  new  circumstances ;  and  it  may  be,  as  Mr. 
Jenyns  remarks,  that  the  frogs  are  hatched  on 
land  in  the  perfect  state,  the  gUls  either  never 
having  existed  or  having  disappeared  imme- 
diately after  birth.  On  the  other  hand,  it  has 
been  ascertained  that  the  larval  or  tadpole  state 
may  be  unnaturally  prolonged ;  Prof.  J.  Wyman 
(in  the  ^^  Proceedings  of  the  American  Academy 
of  Arts  and  Sciences,"  vol.  iii.,  p.  85)  experi- 
mented on  the  tadpoles  of  the  common  bnllfrog, 
the  greater  number  of  which  pass  the  winter 
without  having  undergone  metamorphosis,  not 
becoming  perfect  animals  until  the  following 
spring ;  he  found  that  the  tadpole  state,  by  the 
influence  of  darkness  and  low  temperature,  could 
be  prolonged  certainly  from  one  to  two  years, 
and  probably  much  longer;  possibly  some  of 
the  cases  referred  to  by  Mr.  Jenyns  and  others 
may  admit  of  explanation  by  prolongation  rather 
than  an  absence  of  the  larval  condition,  the 
young  frogs  having  been  the  result  of  tadpoles 
which  had  passed  their  larval  condition  in  some 
other  locality,  or  in  the  same  in  a  torpid  state 
for  a  year, — ^The  tenacity  of  life  in  frogs  is  very 
great ;  they  survive  the  severest  wounds,  live 
a  long  time  after  the  heart  and  entrails  are  re- 
moved, and  display  muscular  contractility  and 
the  phenomena  of  circulation  in  various  organs 
for  many  minutes  and  even  hours  after  death 
has  actually  taken  place.  On  this  account  the 
frog  has  from  time  immemorial  been  selected  as 
a  subject  of  experiment  to  ascertain  and  illus- 
trate the  most  important  phenomena  of  human 
physiology,  and  has  in  this  way  been  of  ines- 


timable advantage  to  mankind.  The  change  of 
a  fish-like  animal,  breathing  by  means  of  gills  in 
water,  to  a  leaping,  air-breathing  creature,  with 
the  corresponding  modifications  of  food  and 
habits,  is  well  calculated  to  excite  the  admiration 
of  a  thinking  person.  The  air  cells  of  the  frog's 
lungs,  the  membrane  of  its  foot,  and  the  delicate 
fringe  of  the  tadpole^s  gills,  afford  admirable 
and  easily  obtained  tissues  for  demonstrating 
under  the  microscope  the  circulation  in  the 
capillary  vessels,  with  their  chains  of  moving 
blood  globules.  The  structure  of  the  lungs  and 
the  mechanism  of  their  respiration  furnished  to 
anatomists  and  physiologists  proof  of  the  changes 
which  the  blood  undergoes  under  the  influence 
of  the  oxygen  of  the  air  through  the  medium 
of  a  thin  intervening  vascular  wall.  The  sensi- 
bility of  their  muscles  to  the  galvanic  currents 
led  Galvani  and  Yolta  to  most  important  dis- 
coveries in  electricity  and  galvanism,  whence 
flowed  the  great  results  obtained  by  Bell,  Fara- 
day, and  Matteucci  in  the  physiology  of  the 
nervous  system,  and  by  Davy  and  others  in 
physics  and  the  chemiccd  constitution  of  bodies 
previously  supposed  simple.  The  phenomena 
of  cutaneous  absorption,  exhalation,  and  respi- 
ration have  derived  their  fullest  illustration  and 
explanation  from  experiments  made  on  the  soft 
and  naked  skin  of  the  frog.  Thus  this  despised 
creature  has  rendered  the  greatest  services  to 
anatomy,  physiology,  physics,  and  chemistry, 
and  has  thrown  light  which  no  other  animal 
could  on  the  functions  of  innervation,  muscular 
contractility,  circulation,  respiration,  absorp- 
tion, and  generation.  The  frog  is  not  only  a 
graceful  and  harmless  animal,  but  is  actually  use- 
ful in  destroying  insects  and  slugs  iiguriouB  to 
vegetation.  Though  in  England  and  the  United 
States  frogs  are  rarely  eaten  by  man,  in  France 
and  southern  Europe  they  are  largely  consumed 
as  food ;  they  are  caught  in  various  ways,  and 
are  preserved  in  large  '^  froggeries  "  until  want- 
ed for  the  table ;  the  flesh  is  most  delicate  and 
nutritious  at  the  time  when  they  are  about  to 
enter  their  winter  quarters,  yet  great  numbers 
are  eaten  in  the  spring,  when  they  are  more 
easily  caught;  the  hind  limbs  are  generally 
the  only  part  eaten,  and  these  are  cooked  in 
various  modes,  in  all  of  which  they  are  as  much 
more  delicate  than  chicken  as  that  is  superior 
to  veal  and  pork.  In  the  materia  medica  the 
flesh  of  frogs  has  long  been  used  by  continental 
physicians  as  the  basis  for  anti-scorbutic  and 
restorative  broths. — The  largest  species  of  the 
genus  rana  in  the  United  States  is  the  bullfrog 
(R,  pipieju,  Latr.),  which  often  measures  when 
extended  18  or  21  in. ;  the  general  color  above 
is  green  in  front,  dusky  olive  behind,  with  ir- 
regular black  blotches,  and  below  yellowish 
white,  with  dusky  marks;  the  limbs  dusky, 
with  black  bars.  The  bullfrog,  so  called  from 
its  loud  voice,  is  rather  solitary  in  its  habits, 
living  about  stagnant  and  sluggish  water,  not 
very  abundant  in  one  place  except  during  the 
breeding  season ;  it  is  the  most  aquatic  of  the 
frogs,  and  an  excellent  swimmer,  often  living 


500  FI 

for  year*  in  wells,  where  it  is  allowed  to  re- 
mtia  under  tbe  BoppoBition  that  it  purifies  the 
water ;  it  is  also  an  active  leaper,  taking  to  the 
water  whan  alarmed.  Ite  voraoitj'  is  extreme ; 
it  devours  young  ducks,  enakes,  moles,  mica, 
insects,  worms,  enaila,  its  own  tadpoles,  and 


any  smalt  animal  it  can  catch ;  it  does  not 
seize  prey  unless  alive  or  in  motion.  The  spe- 
cies  is  very  generally  distributed  over  the  iJni- 
ted  States.  The  spring  frog  (R. /ontinali*,  Le 
Oonte)  is  green  above,  with  dusky  spots  be- 
hind ;  throat  and  abdomen  yellow  ;  hind  limbs 
dark  green,  with  dusky  bars;  a  oataueous  fold 
or  ridge  from  the  orbit  to  the  hind  legs ;  the 
total  length  is  atjont  S^in. ;  it  is  fond  of  springs 
of  cold  water,  and  feeds  on  worms  and  insects; 
it  is  Dommon  from  Maine  to  Virginia.  The 
marsh  fix)g  (£.  palvttrie,  Le  Coate)  is  pale 


brown  above,  with  two  longitudinal  rows  of  dark 
brown  sqnare  spots  on  the  back  and  sides,  yel- 
lowish white  below,  with  the  posterior  half  of 
the  thighs  bright  yellow  mottled  with  black ; 
it  is  slender  and  delicately  formed,  about  8  in. 
in  total  length ;  It  is  foood  from  Maine  to  Yir- 


the  borders  of  marebes  and  pools,  and 

IS  at  a  great  distance  from  water;  it 
has  a  pecoliar  strong  and  disagreeable  odor; 
from  its  being  a  favorite  bait  for  pike,  it  is 


L  Bprins  Vnv  (fiuu  h 

apecies,  being  green  above,  with  ovnte  spots 
of  dark  brown  margined  with  yellow,  and 
yellowish  white  beneath;  it  is  about  8^  in. 
in  total  length,  active,  and  able  to  leap  a  dis- 
tance of  8  to  10  ft.  when  alarmed;  it  is  called 
shad  frog  from  its  ajipearing  in  the  middle 
states  in  the  spring  with  this  fish ;  it  is  also 
called  water  and  leopard  frog ;  it  is  very 
widely  distributed  in  the  United  States,  ana 
is  the  nearest  representative  here  of  the  com- 
mon fr(^  of  Europe,  being  tike  that  sought 


ComiDoD  Frog  (Ruia  tdinponriaV 

after  by  epicures.  The  wood  frog  (R.  igl- 
vatiea,  Le  Conte)  is  pale  reddish  brown  above, 
and  yellowish  white  below;  the  bead  boa  a 
dark  brown  stripe  extonding  from  the  snoot 
to  the  tympanum  throngh  the  eye;  the  total 
length  is  a  little  over  5}  io. ;  it  is  found  from 


FROG 

Michigan  to  the  Caroliiias,  ohieflj  in  thick 
woods,  prefoirmg  those  of  oak ;  it  is  active, 
when  pursued  hiding  itacif  under  leaves;  it 
rarely  approaches  water  except  in  the  breeding 
season.  The  crying  frog  (£.  elamitaTts,  Bobc.), 
a  slender  species,  is  olive-colored  in  front, 
dusk;  behind,  and  silvery  white  belovr ;  the 
total  len)i:th  is  S^  ID. ;  it  is  very  active,  and 
when  leaping  frightened  into  the  water  ntters 
a  short  loud  cry ;  it  is  a  southern  species,  taking 
the  place  of  the  spring  frog  of  the  nortli,  and 
by  some  thought  to  bo  the  some. — Like  all 
other  reptiles,  the  common  frog  of  Europe  (£. 
Umporaria,  lAun.)  differs  from  all  American 
species ;  the  color  is  generally  hrown,  inclining 
to  reddish  or  yellowish  abo^e,  with  irregular 
spots  of  black  or  brown,  and  transverae  hands 
on  the  legs,  and  yellowish  white  below  witli 
smaller  and  fewer  spots;  the  most  constant 
mark  is  an  elongated  brown  patch  behind  the 
eye  on  each  side;  the  total  length  isabontT 
in. ;  it  is  found  very  generally  over  Europe. 
The  green  frog  of  Europe  (S.  eieulenta,  Linn.) 
is  of  a  general  greenish  color  above,  with  black 
or  brownish  marks,  and  sometimes  with  three 


FBOISSART 


507 


Grew  Frog  (Rui  acuIuU). 

yellow  stripes  on  the  back,  and  yellowish  white 
below ;  the  total  length  is  abont  8  in. ;  it  is 
distributed  over  Europe,  Asia,  and  northern 
Africa,  and  is  tlie  species  most  sought  after  for 
food.^There  are  several  species  of  small  frogs, 
priDcipally  American  and  subtr^ical,  belong- 
ing to  the  genns  cf/Mtiffnathut  (Wagler),  char- 
acterized by  the  almost  entire  ahsenoe  of  webs 
to  the  toes;  for  their  description  the  reader  is 
referred  to  the  work  of  Dr.  Holhrook  (vol.  i.), 
andof  Dumffril  and  Bibron(vol.  viii.).  The  ge- 
nus eeratopkryt  (Boie)  or  phryTuteeroi  (Tschu- 
dij  will  be  described  under  Eobned  Fboo;  the 
tree  frogs  {hyla,  Laurent!)  and  the  peeping 
f roga  (hj/lodet,  Fitz.)  will  be  noticed  under  Trkb 
Fboo,  belonging  as  tliey  do  to  the  family  hy- 
lada. — The  frogs  are  considered  by  Agassiz 
lower  than  the  toads  among  anonrons  batra- 
chiana,  on  acconnt  of  their  aquatic  habits,  the 
persistence  of  the  embryonic  webs  between  the 
toes,  and  the  non-existence  of  glands  developed 
io  the  substance  of  the  skin.  The  family  ra- 
ntid  are  the  most  nnmerunsly  represented  of 
the  fossil  anourous  batrachians,  and  their  re- 
mains occur  in  the  tertiary  and  diluvian  forma- 
tions, sometimes  of  large  size.    The  gigantio 


ektirothefiiim  or  lahyrinthodon  is  placed  by 
Jager,  Fitringer,  and  Owen  among  batrachians; 
this  immense  frog-like  animal,  with  a  head  2 
or  3  ft.  long  and  the  body  10  or  12,  first  ap- 
peared in  the  carboniferous  period,  was  abun- 
dant in  the  triossic,  and  probably  disappeared 
before  the  Jurassic  epoch.  From  the  facts  now 
ascertained  it  would  appear  that  the  muddy 
shores  and  flats  of  remote  geological  ages  were 
inhabited  by  batrachoid  forms  as  strange  as  tite 
flying  pterodactyl  or  the  great  iehtkymauru* 
aaA  pUHotauTUi,  and  tliat  possibly  frogs  12  St. 
long  (like  cAeiroCAeritim)  leaped  and  croaked  in 
the  ancient  marshes. 

FS0IS81KT,  Jehii,  or  Jcaa,  a  French  chron- 
icler, bom  in  Valenciennes  in  1387,  died  at 
Chimay  about  1410.     His  father,  a  heraldic 

Buoter,  destined  him  to  the  cierical  profession. 
'.a  was  scarcely  20  years  old  when,  upon  the 
invitation  of  Robert  of  Namnr,  he  undertook 
to  write  a  history  of  the  wars  and  adventures 
of  his  times.  lie  oompiled  from  the  VraU* 
ehroniquet  of  Jehan  le  Bel,  canon  of  St.  Lam- 
bert in  Li6ge,  the  first  part  of  his  own  "  Chron- 
icles," embracing  the  period  from  1829  to  1840. 
When  this  was  completed  he  went  to  England 
in  1860,  and  presented  it  to  Pbilippa  of  Htunant, 
the  qneen  of  Edward  I1L  In  1S62  he  was 
made  clerk  of  her  chapel  (having  already  taken 
holy  orders),  and  also  her  secretary.  In  1364 
he  visited  Scotland,  where  he  was  kindly 
treated  by  King  David  Brace,  and  eQJoyea 
the  hospitality  of  the  Douglases.  Alter  gath- 
ering ample  materials  in  Great  Britain,  he 
retorned  to  the  contment,  and  in  1S6S  went 
to  the  English  conrt  at  Bordeaux.  Thence 
he  retnmed  for  a  short  time  to  England,  and 
in  136S  we  find  him  accompanying  Lionel,  dnke 
of  Clarence,  to  Italy,  and,  with  Chaucer  and 
Petrarch,  witnessing  in  Milan  the  celebration 
of  the  marriage  of  that  prince  with  the  daughtei* 
of  Galeazzo  Vtsounti.  In  186S  ha  repaired  to 
his  native  country,  where  he  obtained  the  liv- 
ing of  Lestines.  But  the  life  of  a  country 
priest  did  not  suit  him,  and  he  attached  himself 
Ut  WencealoB  of  Luxemburg,  dnke  of  Brabant, 
who  intrusted  him  with  the  care  of  collecting 
and  writing  down  his  rondeaus,  ballads,  songs, 
and  virelays.  To  these  Froissort  added  some 
of  his  own  compositions,  and  the  collection 
formed  a  volume  with  the  title  of  Melyador, 
or  "The  Knight  of  the  Golden  Sun."  But 
Wenoeslas  died  before  the  work  was  completed, 
and  Guy,  connt  of  Blois,  made  Froissart  clerk  of 
his  chapel,  and  sent  him  with  a  letter  of  intro- 
duction and  gifts  to  Gaston  Phabus,  connt  of 
Foix,  After  sojourning  a  long  while  at  Orthez 
he  accompanied  this  princess  niece,  Jeanne  de 
Bonlogne,  when  she  went  to  Riom  to  marry 
the  duke  of  Berry.  Thence  he  repaired  to 
Paris,  and  afterward  travelled  again  through 
Holland,  Languedoo,  and  other  countries.  In 
1380  he  settled  at  Chimay,  having  been  ap- 
pointed canon  and  treararer  to  tiie  church 
there,  and,  with  the  exception  of  the  time 
spent  in  a  visit  to  England  for  the  pnrpose  of 


508 


FROME 


FRONDE 


presenting  Richard  II.  with  a  collection  of  his 
poems,  he  there  devoted  his  later  years  to  the 
completion  of  his  great  work.  His  hook  is  a 
living  picture  of  his  age.  An  admirer  of  he- 
roic deeds,  an  instinctive  courtier  of  every 
prince  or  lord,  delighted  with  feasts  and  pa- 
geants, he  vividly  depicts  all  that  interests  him, 
and  gives  more  prominence  to  individual  ex- 
ploits than  to  important  events.  He  is  devoid 
of  patriotism,  and  shows  no  partiality  to  the 
French,  narrating  their  defeats  with  as  much 
gusto  as  their  victories ;  he  has  no  jihilosophical 
views  nor  political  opinions ;  but  he  is  incon- 
trovertibly  the  most  amusing  and  vivacious  of 
chroniclers.  He  also  wrote  more  than  80,000 
verses,  a  few  specimens  of  which  have  been 
occasionally  published ;  but  his  fame  rests  ex- 
clusively upon  his  historical  M'ork.  The  finest 
copy  of  Froissart's  chronicle  is  at  Breslau; 
it  comprises  four  volumes,  most  carefully  writ- 
ten, and  embellished  with  magnificent  vignettes. 
The  chronicle  embraces  the  annals  of  the  14th 
centuiy  from  1326  to  1400,  and  was  printed 
for  the  first  time  about  1498  at  Paris  by  An- 
toine  V6rard  (4  vols,  fol.),  under  the  title  of 
Chraniques  de  France^  d^ Angleterre^  d^Scone^ 
WEspagney  de  Bretagne,  de  Gaseogne^  Flandres 
et  lieux  d'alentaur.  The  reprints  of  1614, 
1518,  and  1580  contain  continuations  to  the 
year  1518  by  unknown  authors.  The  chronicle 
was  translated  into  English  by  order  of  Henry 
VIII.  and  published  under  the  title  of  "  Chron- 
icles of  England  "  (2  vols,  fol.,  London,  1528-'6). 
The  English  versions  are  generally  preferred  on 
account  of  their  retaining  the  ori^nal  spelling 
of  the  proper  names.  The  best  French  edition 
is  by  Buchon  (15  vols.  8vo,  Paris,  1824),  re- 
printed with  important  additions  and  improve- 
ments in  the  Pantheon  littSraire^  under  the 
title  of  Lee  ehroniquee  de  sire  Jean  Froieeart^ 
qui  traitent  dee  meroeilleuses  entreprues,  no- 
bles aventvres  etfaits  Warmes  advenus  en  son 
temps  en  France,  Angleterre,  Bretaigne,  Bour- 
gogne^  ^eosse,  Espaigne,  Portingal,  et  ^  autres, 
nouvellement  remies  et  avgmentSes  d'aprh  les 
manuserits,  -avee  notes,  Selaireissements,  tables, 
et  glossaire  (3  large  vols.  8vo,  Paris,  1886-'6). 
A  volume  of  extracts,  containing  the  most  in- 
teresting parts,  was  published  in  1846.  Sir 
Walter  Scott  was  of  opinion  that  for  artlessness 
and  vivacity  of  style  the  old  version  is  to  be 
preferred  to  the  more  exact  and  learned  trans- 
lation made  by  Thomas  Johnes,  under  the  title 
of  "  Sir  John  Froissart's  Chronicles  of  England, 
France,  and  the  acyoining  Countries  "  (4  vols. 
4to,  Hafod  press,  1803-'5).  To  the  second 
edition  of  Johnes^s  translation  (12  vols.  8vo, 
London,  1805)  are  prefixed  a  life  of  the  author, 
an  essay  on  his  works,  a  criticism  on  his  his- 
tory, and  a  dissertation  on  his  poetry.  An- 
other edition  has  been  published  by. Henry 
Bohn  (2  vols.  8vo,  London,  1846). 

FBOME,  a  town  and  parliamentary  borough 
of  Somersetshire,  England,  19  m.  S.  E.  of  Bris- 
tol; pop.  in  1871,  11,846.  It  is  pleasantly  sit- 
uated on  an  affluent  of  the  Avon.    The  parish 


church,  an  ancient  Gothic  building,  has  a  tower 
and  spire  150  ft.  high,  and  there  are  four  new 
churches,  of  which  St.  Mary  the  Virgin,  opened 
in  1864,  is  the  finest.  Schools  and  charitable 
institutions  abound,  and  there  are  a  literary 
and  mechanics^  institute  and  a  church  institute 
with  library  and  reading  rooms ;  a  fine  build- 
ing for  a  museum  and  library  was  opened  in 
1867.  There  are  extensive  breweries,  and  man- 
ufactories of  woollens,  silks,  hats,  and  carriage 
linings. 

FROHERmf,  Eig^  a  French  painter  and 
author,  bom  in  La  Rochelle  in  December,  1820, 
died  Aug.  27, 1876.  He  studied  under  Cabat, 
and  exhibited  in  1847  excellent  pictures  of  Al- 
gerian scenery  and  public  buildings.  He  was 
sent  in  1852  on  an  archeeological  mission  to 
Algeria  by  the  committee  of  historical  monu- 
ments. After  his  return  to  Paris  he  produced 
many  landscapes  and  genre  pictures  relating  to 
Arab  life  and  scenery,  remarkable  for  their 
brilliant  coloring  and  their  delicacy  of  execu- 
tion. His  "  Chase  of  Gazelles  "  was  purchased 
by  the  government,  as  well  as  his  '*  Falcon 
Chase  "  and  "  Arabian  Falconer,"  which  latter 
are  in  the  Luxembourg.  He  published  Visites 
artistiques  (1852),  Simples  pelerinages  (1866), 
Une  annSe  dans  le  Sahel  (1858),  and  a  success- 
ful novel,  Dominique  (1863). 

FRONDE,  a  political  faction  in  France  which 
headed  an  insurrectionary  movement  during 
the  latter  part  of  the  minority  of  Louis  XIV. 
The  name  of  frondeurs,  whicli  means  literally 
slingers,  was  applied  to  its  members  in  derision ; 
in  their  sneering  and  fiippant  attacks  upon  Car- 
dinal Mazarin  they  were  said  to  resemble  boys 
throwing  stones  from  slings.  But  the  name, 
though  given  in  derision,  was  soon  accepted  by 
those  to  whom  it  was  applied.  The  long  and 
powerful  rule  of  Richelieu  had  completed  the 
work  of  centralizing  all  the  power  of  France 
in  the  hands  of  the  royal  government,  and 
finally  broken  the  might  of  the  independent 
families  in  the  kingdom.  The  spirit  of  oppo- 
sition, which  was  crushed  in  its  last  conspira- 
cies, revived  under  his  feebler  successor,  Ma- 
zarin,  who  was  hated  by  the  nobles  as  a  for- 
eigner and  friend  of  foreigners,  and  by  the  peo- 
ple for  his  extortions.  The  movement  assumed 
a  warlike  aspect  in  1648,  when  Mazarin  de 
clared  the  decrees  of  parliament,  which  had 
acted  as  an  independent  political  body,  to  be 
attempts  upon  the  rights  of  the  crown,  and 
arrested  the  president  and  one  of  the  mem- 
bers. The  next  day  the  people  of  Paris  rose 
in  arms,  dispersed  the  Swiss  guards,  and  erect- 
ed barricades  in  the  streets  adjoining  the  roy- 
al palace.  The  frightened  court  repealed  the 
recently  imposed  taxes  and  promised  a  bet- 
ter administration  of  justice.  This  still  more 
encouraged  the  frondeurs  of  the  parliament, 
whose  continued  opposition  finally  compelled 
the  court  to  retire  to  St.  Germain  (Jan.  6,1649). 
Paris  was  now  in  the  hands  of  the  insurgents, 
and  Prince  Louis  Cond6  at  the  head  of  7,000 
men  undertook  to  besiege  it     The  parliament 


FRONDE 


FRONTENAO 


609 


called  the  people  of  the  city  to  arms;  the 
prince  of  Conti,  the  dukes  of  LoDgueville,  Bean- 
fort,  Orleans,  Boaillon,  Elbeuf,  Vend6me,  and 
Nemonrs,  the  marshal  de  la  Mo  the,  and  the 
popular  De  Retz,  came  forward  as  tiieir  lead- 
ers ;  spirited  and  beantiful  ladies,  among  whom 
the  dnchess  de  Longneville  was  the  most  con- 
spicnons,  inspired  their  coarage;  and  foreign 
aid  was  expected  from  the  Netherlands.  But 
the  leaders  of  the  movement,  having  it  in  their 
power  to  change  it  into  a  complete  revolution 
like  that  which  had  just  been  achieved  in  Eng- 
land, became  afraid  of  the  consequences  of  their 
own  victory,  and  hastened  to  conclude  (March 
11)  a  treaty  with  the  court  at  Ruel.  The  sub- 
sequent phases  of  the  Fronde  were  composed 
of  intrigues  and  contentions  for  power  between 
the  princes  of  the  blood  and  the  cardinal-min- 
ister. After  the  return  of  the  court  to  the  cap- 
ital (Aug.  18),  Mazarin  again  used  violence,  and 
had  Longneville  and  the  princes  of  Oond6  and 
Oonti  arrested  (Jan.  18,  1650).  This  caused 
risings  in  the  provinces,  and  Marshal  Turenne 
hastened  to  the  rescue  of  the  princes ;  but  after 
several  advantages  he  was  routed  in  the  en- 
gagement of  Rethel  (Dec.  16).  The  triumphant 
minister  could  not  long  enjoy  his  success ;  the 
united  opposition  of  all  parties  compelled  Queen 
Anne  to  release  the  princes,  and  to  sacrifice 
Mazarin,  who  withdrew  to  Oologne  February, 
1651).  Anne  recalled  her  minister  when  the 
leaders  of  the  insurrection,  Gond6  and  Conti, 
were  quarrelling,  and  Oond6  fled,  repaired  to 
Bordeaux,  armed  his  numerous  adherents,  and 
marched  toward  the  capital ;  but  Turenne  now 
commanded  against  him,  and  Gond4  would  have 
been  routed  near  Paris  (July  2,  1652)  if  the 
gatee  of  the  city  had  not  been  thrown  open 
to  him.  Paris,  however,  tired  of  commotions, 
treated  with  the  court,  which  had  withdrawn, 
and  Louis  promised  an  amnesty  and  the  dismis- 
sal of  the  hated  minister.  Gond6,  having  re- 
ceived a  reinforcement  of  12,000  men  from 
Lorraine,  r^ected  the  propositions,  and  march- 
ed into  Champagne ;  but  finding  no  adherents, 
he  went  over  to  the  Spaniards  in  the  Neth- 
erlands. Louis  XIV.,  having  returned  to  his 
capital  (Oct.  21),  proscribed  Cond6,  and  for- 
bade all  political  action  on  the  part  of  the  par- 
liament. Mazarin  also  returned  triumphantly 
(Feb.  3, 1658)  to  his  post.  Many  who  had  dis- 
tinguished themselves  in  the  parliament  or  un- 
der Gondd  were  temporarily  banished,  and  the 
movement  in  the  provinces  soon  subsided.  It 
is  noteworthy  that  a  number  of  women  were 
the  leading  spirits  of  this  faction,  and  that 
everything  was  done  with  unparalleled  frivoli- 
ty, which  gave  to  the  whole  war  rather  a  ridicu- 
lous aspect.  Count  Saint-Aulaire  undertakes 
in  his  ffistoire  de  la  Fronde  (2  vols.,  Paris, 
1841)  to  present  it  as  a  genuine  attempt  at 
obtaming  a  constitutional  monarchy.  See  also 
Barante,  Le  pttrlement  et  la  Fronde  (1859), 
and  '<  The  Great  Cond6  and  the  Period  of  the 
Fronde,"  by  Walter  Fitzpatrick  (2  vols.,  Lon- 
don, 1878). 


FRONTEMAC,  an  E.  county  of  Ontario,  Can- 
ada, bounded  S.  by  the  St.  Lawrence  river, 
near  its  head  in  Lake  Ontario ;  area,  828  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  28,717.  It  contains  many 
small  lakes,  and  is  traversed  by  the  Grand 
Trunk  and  the  Kingston  and  Pembroke  rail- 
ways, and  by  the  Rideau  canal.  Capital, 
Kingston. 

FROlirTEirAC,  LmIs  is  Bnade,  count  de,  a 
French  governor  of  Canada,  bom  about  1620, 
died  in  Quebec  in  November,  1698.  He  en- 
tered the  army  at  the  age  of  17,  served  in 
Italy,  Flanders,  and  Germany,  and  in  1669  in 
Candia.  He  was  appointed  governor  general 
of  Canada  by  Louis  AlV.,  and  arrived  in  Sep- 
tember, 1672.  He  was  a  man  of  ability  and 
courage,  active  and  full  of  resource,  but  apt  to 
be  arbitrary  and  prejudiced.  One  of  his  first 
steps  was  to  build  Fort  Catarocoui  or  Fronte- 
nac  on  Lake  Ontario,  to  keep  the  Iroquois  in 
check.  He  sent  Marquette  and  Joliet  to  ex- 
plore the  Mississippi,  and  was  the  constant  pat- 
ron of  La  Salle ;  but  he  became  involved  with 
the  intendant  Duchesneau,  and  with  the  eccle- 
siastical authorities,  who  opposed  the  liquor 
trade  among  the  Indians.  He  was  accordingly 
recalled  in  1682;  but  when  Canada  had  been 
brought  to  the  verge  of  ruin  under  the  admin- 
istrations of  De  la  Barre  and  Denonville,  Fron- 
tenac  was  again  sent  opt  in  1689.  He  took 
part  in  the  proposed  expedition  against  New 
England  and  New  York,  and  set  to  work  wi^ 
energy  to  carry  the  war  into  the  British  colo- 
nies, attacking  them  at  Hudson  bay  and  by 
series  of  war  parties,  carrying  Fort  Peroaquid 
in  Maine,  Schenectady,  Salmon  Falls,  Casco, 
and  other  frontier  towns  and  posts.  He  com- 
pleted his  vigorous  campaign  by  the  repulse 
of  the  land  and  naval  force  under  Sir  William 
Phips  before  Quebec  in  1690.  He  afterward 
sent  a  force  into  the  Mohawk  territory  and 
humbled  that  tribe,  restored  Fort  Frontenac, 
which  had  been  abandoned  and  destroyed,  and 
again  revived  the  French  influence  among  the 
Indian  tribes.  As  this  failed  to  bring  the  can- 
tons to  peace,  he  led  an  army  in  person  in 
1696  to  the  heart  of  New  York,  laying  waste 
Onondaga  and  Oneida.  Iberville  at  the  same 
time  reconquered  most  of  Newfoundland,  and 
then  Bailing  to  Hudson  bay  defeated  an  English 
fleet  and  reduced  the  English  posts.  Having 
thus  restored  the  fallen  fortunes  of  France  in 
America,  Frontenac  died  soon  after,  and  was 
buried  in  the  church  of  the  Recollect  fathers, 
to  whom  he  was  greatly  attached.  On  the  de- 
struction of  the  church  his  body  was  removed 
to  the  cathedral  of  Quebec  in  1796.  His 
wife,  a  daughter  of  Lagrange  Trianon,  was 
one  of  the  famous  beauties  of  the  court,  and 
seems  to  have  entertained  a  strong  dislike  to 
her  husband,  being  reported  to  have  used  her 
influence  to  secure  his  reappointment  to  get 
him  out  of  France.  She  died  in  1707.  Park- 
man  devotes  a  volume  of  his  "  History  of  the 
French  Dominion  in  America"  to  a  full  ac- 
count of  the  career  of  Count  Frontenac. 


510 


FRONTIER 


FROST 


FRONTIEK,  a  S.  W.  county  of  Nebraska, 
formed  since  the  census  of  1870,  drained  by 
affluents  of  Frenchman's  fork  of  the  Republi- 
can river ;  area,  about  675  sq.  m. 

FKOSINONE  (anc.  Fru»ino\  a  town  of  Italy, 
formerly  capital  of  a  papal  legation  of  the 
same  name,  now  in  the  province  and  48  m.  £. 
8.  £.  of  the  city  of  Rome;  pop.  about  8,000. 
It  contains  several  churches  and  convents  and 
an  episcopal  palace;  and  near  it  are  remains 
of  a  Roman  amphitheatre.  It  is  a  favorite 
resort  for  artists  on  account  of  the  picturesque 
dress  of  the  women.  Good  wine  is  produced 
in  the  vicinity,  wool  is  manufactured,  and  there 
are  two  annual  fairs. — The  ancient  Frusino  was 
originally  a  town  of  the  Hernici  in  Latium, 
and  subsequently  a  Roman  colony,  and  long 
retained  some  prosperity,  mainly  on  account 
of  its  situation  on  the  Via  Latina.  The  lega- 
tion of  Frosinone  was  styled  the  Tyrol  of  the 
pope,  on  account  of  its  mountainous  character 
and  the  simple  habits  of  the  people. 

FROSSARD,  ChtrlM  Aigiste,  a  French  soldier, 
bom  April  26,  1807,  died  Sept.  1,  1875.  He 
was  educated  at  the  polytechnic  school  in  Paris 
and  the  military  school  in  Metz,  participated 
in  the  Belgian  campaign  of  1881-'2,  was  made 
a  captain,  went  to  Algeria  in  1833,  and  re- 
turned to  Paris  in  1846  with  the  rank  of 
major.  In  1849-^50  he  commanded  the  corps 
of  engineers  in  Rome.  In  1853  he  was  director 
of  the  fortifications  of  Oran  in  Algeria.  Du- 
ring the  Crimean  war  he  acted  as  chief  of  en- 
gineers of  the  army  of  the  East.  He  returned 
again  to  Algeria,  where  he  remained  till  1859, 
when  he  was  ordered  to  Italy  with  the  rank 
of  general.  At  the  close  of  the  war  he  was 
made  grand  officer  of  the  legion  of  honor, 
and  appointed  governor  of  the  imperial  prince. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  Franco-Grerman  war 
he  obtained  command  of  the  2d  corps  of  the 
army  of  the  Rhine,  and  opened  the  war  by  an 
attack  upon  Saarbrtlck,  Aug.  2,  1870.  Four 
days  later  he  was  defeated  at  the  Spichern 
heights,  between  that  town  and  Forbach,  and 
withdrew  to  Metz,  fought  at  Oourcelles,  Mars- 
la-Tour,  and  Gravelotte,  was  made  a  prisoner 
at  the  surrender  of  the  fortress,  and  was  de- 
tained in  Frankfort  till  the  close  of  the  war. 
He  published,  in  justification  of  himself.  Bap- 
port  aur  le$  opSrations  du  2"*  carps  de  tarmee 
du  Rhin  dans  la  cctmpagns  de  1870  (2  vols., 
Paris,  1872). 

FROST  (from  the  root  of  freeze)^  in  a  general 
sense,  the  act  or  process  of  freezing,  but  more 
commonly  used  to  signify  crystals  of  frozen 
dew  ;  in  the  latter  case  called  also  hoar  frost. 
When  the  atmosphere  contains  so  little  aqueous 
vapor  or  is  itself  already  at  so  low  a  tempera- 
ture that  a  reduction  to  a  point  below  »S2''  F. 
is  necessary  before  condensation  can  take  place, 
the  deposit  will  be  frozen,  and  instead  of  being 
technically  dew  it  wUl  have  the  form  of  hoar 
frost.  The  process  is  precisely  similar  to  the 
deposition  of  crystals  of  salts  from  their  solu- 
tion in  water.    In  this  latter  case  the  operation 


must  be  conducted  slowly  and  at  a  certain  low 
temperature ;  if  the  water  be  evaporated  by 
violent  ebullition,  we  h.ive  an  amorphous  pow- 
der, but  no  true  crystals.  In  a  similar  manner 
the  atmosphere  deposits  its  aqueous  burden 
in  crystals  or  liquid  form  according  to  the 
temperature.  The  most  remarkable  forma- 
tions of  ^ost  are  witnessed  on  the  summit 
of  Mount  Washington  during  the  autumn  and 
winter,  when  crystals  a  foot  or  more  in  length 
attach  themselves  to  every  object.  The  con- 
ditions favorable  to  frost  are  but  an  exagge- 
ration of  those  that  facilitate  the  formation 
of  dew.  The  destructive  effects  of  frosts  on 
tender  vegetation,  and  their  beneficial  influ- 
ences in  a  sanitary  point  of  view,  have  caused 
much  attention  to  be  given  to  this  phenom- 
enon. In  the  Mississippi  valley  it  is  com- 
monly said  that  the  spread  of  the  yellow  fever 
is  completely  checked  by  a  heavy  frost.  This 
however  was  notably  not  the  case  in  1878; 
and  it  may  be  fairly  questioned  whether  some 
other  agency,  especially  the  dryness  of  the  air, 
be  not  the  true  antagonistic  element.  What- 
ever hinders  the  deposition  of  dew  acts  also 
to  mitigate  the  severity  of  a  frost ;  to  this  end 
a  thin  or  loose  covering  of  cloth,  straw,  &c.,  is 
sufficient.  In  low  fiat  regions  it  is  found 
practicable  to  produce  clouds  of  smoke,  which, 
lying  quiescent  above  the  regions  to  be  pro- 
tected, serves  to  completely  protect  the  ground 
from  the  radiation  and  consequent  frost — The 
word  frost  is  somewhat  loosely  applied  also  to 
the  action  of  winter^s  cold  in  freezing  the  solid 
ground  and  the  water  it  may  contain,  when 
the  frost  is  said  to  be  in  the  ground ;  again,  in 
the  spring,  the  frost  is  said  to  come  out  of  the 
.ground.  These  expressions  allude  of  course 
to  the  simple  phenomenon  of  freezing,  and 
not  to  the  frost  deposited  on  the  surface  of 
gi'ass,  plants,  &c.  The  effect  of  cold  in  freez- 
ing the  water  within  the  earth  and  the  crev- 
ices of  wells  is  recognized  as  a  powerful  agent 
in  the  preparation  of  the  earth,  for  cultiva- 
tion and  the  growth  of  forests,  and  is  some- 
times called  into  requisition  in  the  quarrying 
of  rocks.  The  term  frostwork  is  applied  to 
the  formation  of  ice  crystals  on  the  inside  sur- 
face of  the  window  panes  of  a  warm  room. 
During  cold  weather  the  glass  panes  are  cooled 
to  a  temperature  below  the  freezing  point,  and 
a  coating  of  true  dew  is  deposited  upon  them ; 
this  dew  water  is  then  cooled  and  frozen  by 
the  continued  cold  of  the  pane  of  glass.  Tho 
phenomenon  is  that  of  the  freezing  of  a  thin 
film  of  water,  not  that  of  the  direct  deposition 
of  ice  crystals  as  in  the  true  frost.  A  similar 
distinction  is  to  be  made  in  the  case  of  the 
formation  of  snow  and  of  hail.  In  the  former 
the  minute  crystals  are  deposited  at  a  temper- 
ature lower  tJian  the  freezing  point;  but  in 
the  formation  of  hail  the  water  is  deposited 
first,  and  the  freezing  is  a  subsequent  process. 
Black  frost  is  the  effect  produced  when  the 
moisture  within  a  plant  is  frozen,  but  without 
any  hoar  frost  being  deposited  on  its  exterior. 


FEOST 


FROUDE 


511 


ROST,  iniBia  Edwird,  an  English  painter, 
bom  at  Wandsworth  in  1810,  died  Aug.  5, 
1877.  He  commenced  his  career  as  a  portrait 
painter,  and  ezecnted  in  the  course  of  14  years 
upward  of  300  pictures  of  this  class.  In  1839 
he  attempted  historical  composition,  and  his 
"  Prometheus  Bound,"  exhibited  in  that  year, 
gnined  the  gold  medal  at  the  academy.  In 
1843  he  won  a  prize  of  £100  in  the  Westmin- 
ster hall  competition  by  his  cartoon  of  ^^  Una 
alarmed  by  Fauns."  He  afterward  confined 
himself  chiefly  to  classical  subjects.  Among 
his  principal  pictures  are  the  *^  Disarming  of 
Cupid  "and  the  ''Bacchanalian  Revel."  He 
was  elected  a  royal  academician  Dec.  80, 1870. 

FROTHINGHill.  I.  Nathaniel  Umgdai,  an 
American  clergyman,  bom  in  Boston,  July 
23,  1793,  died  there,  April  4,  1870.  He  grad- 
uated in  1811  at  Harvard  college,  where  in 
the  following  year  he  became  instructor  in 
rhetoric  and  oratory.  In  the  mean  time  he 
studied  theology,  and  in  1815  was  ordained 
pastor  of  the  first  Congregational  church  in 
Boston.  This  charge  he  retained  till  ill  health 
compelled  his  resignation  of  it  in  1850.  He 
was  the  author  of  more  than  50  sermons  pub- 
lished occasionally,  and  of  a  volume  of  "  Ser- 
mons in  the  Order  of  a  Twelvemontli "  (Bos- 
ton, 1852).  He  also  contributed  in  prose  and 
verse  to  periodicals,  and  a  collection  of  his 
poems  has  been  published  under  the  title  of 
'* Metrical  Pieces^  Translated  and  Original" 
(Boston,  1855).  They  are  distinguished,  like 
his  prose  writings,  by  singular  refinement  of 
sentiment  and  grace  of  expression.  IL  Octavlu 
Bnwka,  an  American  clergyman,  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, bom  in  Boston,  Nov.  26,  1822.  He 
graduated  at  Harvard  college  in  1848,  spent 
three  years  in  the  Cambridge  divinity  school, 
and  was  settled  as  pastor  of  the  North  church 
(Unitarian),  Salem,  Mass.,  March  10, 1847.  He 
removed  to  Jersey  City,  N.  J.,  in  May,  1855, 
where  he  preached  till  Ma^,  1859,  when  he 
accepted  a  call  to  New  York,  and  became 
pastor  of  a  congregation  which  in  i860  was 
organized  under  the  name  of  the  ^^  Third  Uni- 
tarian Congregational  Church."  He  is  dis- 
tinguished for  the  intellectual  character  of  his 
preaching,  his  wide  scholarship  in  various 
branches  of  learning,  and  his  impressive  elo- 
quence. He  is  one  of  the  principal  leaders  of 
the  so-called  free  religious  movement,  which 
has  for  its  object  the  promotion  of  rationalist 
ideas  in  theology,  in  place  of  the  received  doc- 
trine of  the  Christian  church.  He  has  written 
extensively  for  various  journals,  contributed 
numerous  papers  to  prominent  reviews,  and, 
besides  publishing  more  than  150  sermons,  is 
the  author  of  the  following  works :  "  The  Para- 
bles" (Boston,  1864);  "Stories  from  the  Old 
Testament "  (Boston,  1864) ;  "  Kenan's  Critical 
Essavs,"  translated  (New  York,  1864);  "The 
Child's  Book  of  Religion  "  (New  York,  1871) ; 
"The  Religion  of  Humanity"  (New  York, 
1872) ;  and  "  The  Life  of  Theodore  Parker  " 
(Boston,  1874). 

340  VOL.  vn. — 83 


FROTHINGHAM,  Blchard,  jr.,  an  American  his- 
torian, bom  in  Charlestown,  Mass.,  Jan.  31, 
1812.  He  was  for  many  years  a  member  of 
the  staff  of  the  "Boston  Post,"  was  chosen  to 
the  Massachusetts  house  of  representatives  by 
his  native  town  in  1839,  '40,  '42,  '49,  and  '50, 
and  was  mayor  of  Charlestown  for  three  terms 
(1851-'3).  In  1851  he  was  a  delegate  to  the 
national  convention  of  the  democratic  party, 
and  in  1852  promoted  the  election  of  Mr.  Pierce 
as  president.  He  was  elected  in  1853  to  the 
convention  called  to  revise  the  constitution 
of  Massachusetts,  and  took  an  active  part  in 
its  debates.  He  has  published  "  History  of 
Charlestown  "  (1848) ;  "  History  of  the  Siege 
of  Boston,  and  of  the  Battles  of  Lexington, 
Concord,  and  Bunker  Hill"  (1849);  "Account 
of  the  Bunker  Hill  Monument"  (1849);  "Life 
of  Gen.  Joseph  Warren  "  (1865) ;  and  "  Rise  of 
the  Republic"  (1872). 

FROIJDE.  I.  James  Aathony,  an  English  his- 
torian, a  son  of  Archdeacon  Froude,  bom  at 
Dartington  rectory,  Totness,  Devonshire,  April 
23,  1818.  He  entered  Oriel  college,  Oxford, 
in  1886,  took  his  degree  in  1840,  and  two  years 
after  obtained  the  chancellor's  prize  for  an 
English  essay,  and  was  elected  fellow  of  Ex- 
eter coUege.  His  sympathy  with  the  high 
church  views  which  then  prevailed  led  him  to 
entertain  the  idea  of  studying  for  the  ministry ; 
and  he  proceeded  so  far  as  to  be  ordained  dea- 
con in  1845.  But  he  never  undertook  any 
clerical  duty,  and  soon  abandoned  theology  for 
literature.  In  1847  he  published  a  volume  of 
stories,  entitled  "  The  Shadows  of  the  Clouds," 
and  in  1849  "  The  Nemesis  of  Faith,"  both  of 
which  were  condemned  by  the  university  au- 
thorities. Soon  after  the  publication  of  the 
latter  Mr.  Froude  resigned  his  fellowship,  and 
was  obliged  to  give  up  an  appointment  which 
he  had  received  to  a  teachership  in  Tasma- 
nia. For  two  or  three  years  he  wrote  almost 
constantly  for  "Eraser's  Magazine"  and  the 
"  Westminster  Review."  One  of  his  articles 
in  the  latter  on  the  book  of  Job  has  been  re- 
printed in  a  separate  form.  In  1856  he  pub- 
lished the  first  two  volumes  of  his  "  History  of 
England  from  the  Fall  of  Wolsey  to  the  Defeat 
of  the  Spanish  Armada,"  which  was  continued 
from  time  to  time  till  its  completion  in  1870, 
in  12  volumes.  His  contributions  to  various 
periodicals  have  been  reprinted  under  the  title 
of  "Short  Studies  on  Great  Subjects"  (1st  se- 
ries, 1867 ;  2d  series,  1871).  He  also  published 
in  1871  a  small  volume  on  Calvinism.  He  was 
installed  as  lord  rector  of  the  university  of  St. 
Andrews  in  March,  1869.  In  1872-'3  he  deliv- 
ered a  series  of  lectures  in  the  United  States 
on  "  The  English  in  Ireland  in  the  Eighteenth 
Century,"  which  have  since  been  published  (3 
vols.,  London,  1873-'4).  His  "History  of  Eng- 
land "  attempts  to  show  that  Henry  VIII.  was 
a  much  better  man  than  he  has  been  commonly 
represented  to  be,  and  that  Queen  Elizabeth 
was  indebted  for  her  high  reputation  as  a 
sovereign  ohiefiy  to  the  abilities  of  her  min- 


512 


FRY 


FUAD  PASHA 


isters.  His  delineation  of  the  character  of 
Mary  qaeen  of  Scots  is  very  severe,  and  has 
given  rise  to  much  controversy.  IL  Richard 
HaiT«il,  brother  of  the  preceding,  an  ardent 
supporter  of  the  "  Oxford  movement "  in  the 
chnrch  of  England  in  its  earlier  stages,  born 
March  25,  1808,  died  Feb.  28,  1836.  He  was 
educated  at  Eton  and  Oxford,  in  1826  was 
elected  fellow  of  Oriel  college,  and  three  years 
after  was  ordained  by  the  bishop  of  Oxford. 
Four  volumes  of  "Remains,**  made  up  of  ex- 
tracts from  his  journals,  correspondence,  and 
writings,  in  which  may  be  seen  the  Roman 
tendencies  of  the  Oxford  movement  even  at 
that  period,  were  published  in  London  in  1838. 

FET,  laizaMh,  an  English  philanthropist, 
bom  at  Bramerton,  near  Norwich,  May  21, 
1780,  died  in  Ramsgate,  Oct.  12,  1845.  She 
was  the  daughter  of  John  Gurney  of  Norwich. 
The  family  belonged  to  the  society  of  Friends, 
but  did  not  adhere  strictly  to  its  usages  either 
in  dress,  language,  or  social  habits.  But  in 
1798  William  Savery,  an  American  Quaker, 
visited  England,  and  by  his  means  Elizabeth 
was  converted  to  the  strict  piety  and  customs 
of  a  "plain  Friend."  In  1800  she  was  married 
to  Joseph  Fry,  and  in  1810  she  became  a  min- 
ister. In  1818  she  made  her  first  visit  to  New- 
gate prison,  and  in  1817  succeeded  in  establish- 
ing a  school  and  manufactory  within  the  pris- 
on, organized  a  ladies'  association  for  the  ref- 
ormation of  the  prisoners,  and  thenceforward 
devoted  all  her  energies  to  the  promotion  of 
prison  refonn.  Within  a  few  years  her  influ- 
ence was  apparent  in  most  of  the  Jails,  houses 
of  correction,  lunatic  asylums,  and  infirmaries 
of  the  United  Kingdom.  From  1887  to  1842 
she  made  several  journeys  in  France  and  in 
northern  and  central  Europe,  visiting  prisons, 
and  expounding  her  plans  of  improvement  to 
the  public  authorities. — See  "  Memoirs  of  Eliz- 
abetli  Fry,  with  Extracts  from  her  Journals 
and  Letters,  edited  by  Two  of  her  Daughters  *' 
(2  vols.,  London,  1847). 

FET,  WlllUoi  Heiry,  an  American  composer 
and  journalist,  bom  in  Philadelphia  in  Au- 
gust, 1815,  died  in  the  island  of  Santa  Cruz, 
Dec.  21,  1864.  His  father,  William  Fry,  was 
proprietor  of  the  "National  Gazette''  of  Phil- 
adelphia. His  aptitude  for  music  was  very 
early  manifested.  His  first  orchestral  produc- 
tions were  four  overtures  performed  by  the 
philharmonic  society  of  Philadelphia  in  1835, 
for  which  he  received  an  honorary  medal  from 
the  society.  In  1889  he  became  regularly  con- 
nected with  the  "  National  Gazette,"  and  in 
1844  he  was  engaged  as  editor  of  the  Philadel- 
phia "  Ledger."  In  1846  his  opera  of  "  I^eo- 
nora "  was  performed  in  Philadelphia,  and  in 
1858  an  Italian  version  of  it  was  produced.  In 
1846  he  visited  Europe,  and  remained  there  six 
years,  residing  chiefly  in  Paris,  and  correspond- 
ing with  various  newspapers.  In  1852  he  de- 
livered in  New  York  a  series  of  ten  lectures 
on  the  history  of  music,  as  illustrations  to 
which  he  composed  two  ^symphonies,  "The 


Breaking  Heart"  and  "A  Day  in  the  Country;" 
these,  with  the  symphonies  "Santa  Clans" 
and  "  Childe  Harold,"  were  performed  by  Jul- 
lien^s  band.  He  published  a  Stahat  Mater, 
with  full  orchestral  and  vocal  score.  After  his 
return  from  Europe  he  was  attached  for  the 
rest  of  his  life  to  the  staff  of  the  "  New  York 
Tribune."  He  was  also  a  political  orator,  and 
a  popular  lecturer  on  miscellaneous  subjects. 

FKTKEN,  a  series  of  small  lakes  of  Sweden, 
about  12  m.  N.  W.  of  Lake  Wener.  They 
consist  of  three  distinct  parts  connected  by 
narrow  channels,  extend  about  40  m.  from  S. 
to  N.,  and  present  the  appearance  of  a  large 
river.  They  are  situated  in  the  Fryked^ 
renowned  for  its  beautiful  scenery.  At  the  N. 
end  of  the  lakes  is  the  viUage  of  Frykoende, 
and  at  the  S.  extremity  is  the  small  town  of 
Frykstaden. 

FETXELL,  Alders,  a  Swedish  historian,  bom 
at  Hesselskog,  in  Dalecarlia,  Feb.  7, 1795.  He 
studied  in  the  university  of  Upsal,  became  a 
professor,  a  clergyman,  and  provost  of  North 
Wermland,  which  post  he  resigned  in  1847  to 
devote  himself  exclusively  to  his  historical  la- 
bors, in  the  course  of  which  he  had  visited 
many  countries.  His  fame  rests  upon  his  Be- 
rdtteUer  ur  Stoenaka  Hutorien  ("Narratives 
of  Swedish  History,"  84  vols.,  1828-'64),  part 
of  which,  relating  to  Gustavus  Adolpbus,  has 
been  translated  into  several  languages. 

FUAD  PASHA,  a  Turkish  statesman,  bom  in 
Constantinople  about  1814,  died  in  Nice,  Feb. 
11,  1869.  He  received  an  excellent  education, 
and  his  father's  fortune  having  been  confiscated 
by  Sultan  Mahmoud,  he  studied  medicine.  In 
1884  he  was  appointed  physician  to  the  ad- 
miralty and  accompanied  the  naval  expedition 
to  Tripoli.  Returning  to  Constantinople,  he 
entered  the  diplomatic  service,  and  in  1840 
became  an  attach^  of  the  Turkish  embassy  in 
London,  and  in  1848  second  dragoman  of  tlie 
Porte  and  director  of  the  bureau  of  translation. 
After  having  fulfilled  special  missions  in  Sptun 
and  Portugal,  he  was  made  first  dragoman  in 
1845,  grand  referendary  of  the  divan  and  com- 
missioner general  in  the  Danubian  principali- 
ties in  1848,  minister  of  the  interior  in  Decem- 
ber, 1849,  and  minister  of  foreign  affairs  in  1852. 
He  strenuously  opposed  the  Russian  preten- 
sions which  led  to  the  Crimean  war,  and  re- 
signed his  office  in  March,  1858,  in  consequence 
of  a  dispute  with  Prince  Meni^ikoff,  the  Rus- 
sian ambassador.  In  1854  he  quelled  insur- 
rectionary movements  in  Epirus,  afterward  be- 
came a  member  and  president  of  the  newly 
established  council  (tamimat\  and  acted  again 
for  several  years  as  minister  of  foreign  affairs. 
In  1860-'61  he  distinguished  himself  as  a  com- 
missioner in  Damascus  and  the  Lebanon,  and 
in  Novem^ber,  1861,  became  grand  vizier.  He 
resigned  in  1868,  and  was  minister  of  war  from 
that  period  till  1866.  His  previous  adminis- 
tration of  financial  affairs  had  somewhat  im- 
paired his  popularity,  but  his  prestige  in  Eu- 
rope as  a  brilliant  diplomatist  led  to  his  return 


FUOA 

to  the  foreign  office  in  1807,  Aali  Pasha  beiag 

grand  vizier.    He  urged  the  aultan  to  visit  the 

Erinclpal  Earopean  sovereif^ns,  accompanied 
im  on  the  journey,  and  died  while  residing 
at  Nice  for  tiia  benefit  of  his  health.  He  was 
Earopean  in  his  manners  and  in  manj  of  his 
views,  spoke  French  flnentlj,  and  was  regarded 
as  the  ablest  Tarkish  statesman  of  bis  day. 
He  was  fond  of  poetry,  and  was  one  of  the 
earliest  members  of  the  Turkisli  academy  of 
science  and  literature.  He  pablished  a  Tnrklsh 
graromar  (1862),  and  La  vMti  *ur  la  jueition 
da  minttlieux  (18B3}. 

FDCA,  or  Jiu  in  F«ta,  Stnit  tf,  a  body  of 
water  lying  between  the  N.  W.  portion  of 
Washington  territory  and  the  8.  E.  extremity 
of  ViincoiiTer  island.  It  enters  the  Paoifio  at 
Cape  Flattery,  and  communicates  with  the  galf 
of  Oeor^a  through  Rosario  and  Haro  straits. 
It  is  abont  SO  m.  long,  11  m.  wide  at  its  W.  and 
25  m.  at  its  E.  end,  and  free  from  shoals. 

fVCffl,  Jthaaa  Neptank  tm,  a  German  chem- 
ist, bom  at  Mattenzell,  May  16,  1774,  died  in 
Munich,  March  5,  1859.  He  was  professor  of 
mineralogy  and  chemistry  at  Lakdshnt  and 
sabseqneutly  in  Munich,  where  he  was  also 
appointed  keeper  of  the  mineralogioal  collec- 
tions, and  held  other  important  functions  In  con- 
neotion  with  scientific  departments.  He  made 
various  ohemical  disooveries  and  researches, 
and  was  especially  distingnished  for  his  inven- 
tion of  soluble  glass  and  its  application  to 
stereoohromy,  as  explained  in  his  BerHtung, 
Eigentehqflen  und  Ifuttanuiendung  da  Wat- 
ttrglate*  (1867).  Among  bis  moat  valnable  con- 
tribntions  to  mineralogy  is  his  NaturgaehiehU 
dt»  Mineralrtieht,  included  in  his  OetammelU 
SehrifUn  (1866J.  His  life  has  been  written  by 
Eobell  (1866). 

FCCm,  Ktani  Httorick,  a  Gennan  physician, 
bom  in  Bamberg,  Dec  7, 1803,  died  m  GAttin- 
gen,  Deo.  3,  1866.  He  stadied  at  WQr^ibnrg, 
where  be  became  an  assistant  of  Bchfinlein, 
and  was  snbseqnently  professor  there,  and  fVom 
1888  in  Gattingen.  He  was  a  high  authority 
on  nosology,  diagnostics,  and  therapentics. 
His  principal  works  are  r  IHe  krankhaften 
VerSndeniTigen  der  Haut  vnd  ihrer  Anhdnge 
(3  vols.,  GMtingen,  1840-'41);  Die  UlUtten 
Sehr^fUteller  aher  die  Lutteeueke  in  DeuteeK- 
737id  (1845);  enA.  LthTJmeh  der  tpeeielUn  Noto- 
logU  und  Therapie  (4  vols.,  ie46-'8). 

FVCHS,  or  Fiebfln,  lewhard  tm,  a  German 
botanist,  bom  at  Wemdingen,  Swabia,  Jan.  17, 
15Q1,  died  May  10, 1686.  He  studied  at  Erfnrt 
and  Ingolstndt,  adopted  the  doctrines  of  Luther, 
became  in  1628  professor  of  medicine  at  Ingol- 
Etadt,  and  in  1628  first  physioinn  to  the  mar- 
grave of  Anspach,  and  neld  the  chair  of  med- 
icine at  T&bingen  from  16S5  till  his  death.  He 
was  knighted  by  Charles  T.  He  contribnted 
much  toward  overthrowing  the  anthority  of 
the  Arab  physicians  and  restoring  the  Greeks 
to  honor.  As  a  botanist  he  corrected  many 
current  errors  in  the  nomenclature  of  plants. 
An  American  plant,  the  fnchsia,  bears  his 


FUCHSIA 


613 


name.  He  wrote  a  nnmber  of  medical  and 
botanical  works,  of  which  the  most  important 
is  De  Hittoria  Stirpium  (fol.,  Basel,  1642). 

FVCBSIA,  popalarly  called  Ladies'  Eabdrop, 
a  genus  of  ornamental  and  mostly  very  showy 
plants,  belonging  to  the  natural  order  ona- 
gnuxm.  The  flowers  of  the  fuchsia  have  the 
tube  of  the  calyx  adherent  to  the  ovary,  with 
the  limb  four-lobed,  spreading  or  recurved; 
fonr  petals,  attached  to  the  calyx  tube,  and 
nsually  shorter  than  the  calyx  lobes  and  of  a 
diSerent  color ;  eight  stamens,  and  a  threadlike 
style.  The  fruit  is  a  fonr-celled,  many-seeded 
berry,  which  Is  ovate-globose  or  oblong  in 
shape.  The  species  are  shrubs  or  small  trees, 
havmg  usually  opposite  leaves,  the  fiowers 
borne  upon  single  axillary  pedicels,  or  some- 
times they  are  disposed  iu  racemes  at  the  ends 
of  the  branches.  Perhaps  the  history  of  no 
other  greenhouse  plant  presents  so  many  inter- 
esting items  as  do  the  changes  produced  by  the 
hybndizing  and  rearing  of  new  varieties  of  this 
elegant  flower.  Loudou,  in  his  "  Eneyclopedis 
of  Plants"  (182S),  gives  only  fonr  species  and  a 
single  variety;  in  his  "Arboretum  et  Frutice- 
tnm  Britannicum  "  (1844)  he  gives  21  species. 
At  present  tliere  are  about  60  admitted  speciea, 
while  the  varieties  produced  by  cultivators  are 
almost  innumerable,  each  year  bringing  a  long 
list  of  "novelties"  in  fuchsias.  With  the  ex- 
ception of  two  found  in  New  Zealand,  the  ge- 
nus is  an  American  one,  most  of  the  species 
being  natives  of  the  Mexican  and  Brazilian 
mountains.  The  fuchsias  in  cultivalion  may  be 
divided  into  three  sections :  the  long-flowered, 
the  short-fiowered,  and  those  with  the  flowers 
in  panicles.    Among  the  short-flowered  fuch- 


sias is  F.  eoteinea  (also  called  F.  gh^ta  by 
some  florists)  from  Chili,  which  for  many 
years  was  the  only  kind  known  in  the  United 
States,  and  considered  not  more  than  40  year* 
ago  one  of  the  most  elegant. of  plants,  con- 
spicDoos  for  its  axillary  and  drooping  flowers, 


511 


FUCHSIA 


with  scarlet  catjx  and  violet-oolored  petals. 
In  the  long-flowered  section  the  catyi  tnbe 
is  elongated  to  the  length  of  two  or  three 
inches.  F.  fulgent,  a  brilliant  Meiioan  spe- 
cies, belongs  here,  as  does  the  ooijmboae  fiich- 
sia  (f.  corymb^fiara,  Riik  and  Pavon),  the 


Fnebil*  (UlgaBi. 

floners  of  which  are  3  in.  long,  scarlet,  and 
liang  down  in  beantiful  corymbs;  an  elegant 
shrnb  about  6  ft.  high,  natjve  of  Peru  about 
Chincao  and  Muna.  As  an  example  of  tliose 
with  panicled  or  clustered  flowers,  we  ma;  cite 
the  tree-like  fuchsia  {F.  arboreiceni),  which  not 
unfrequenti;  attains  a  height  of  16  tl. ;  its 
branches  are   smootb,  the  leaves  disposed  in 


whorls  of  threes,  oval-ohiong,  acuminated  at 
both  ends,  pctiotate,  quite  entire;  the  panicle 
terminal,  trichotomous,  nearlj'  naked ;  the 
calyx  funnel -ah  aped,  with  tlie  lobes  ovate- 
acute,  eprendinply  reflezed,  as  are  also  the  pe- 
tals; a  native  of  Mexico.    It  wooldbediflScuJt, 


FDCU8 

if  not  unpoBuble,  to  determine  at  this  time 
from  what  species  the  present  highly  reputed 
varieties  have  been  obtained,  as  they  have  been 
hybridized  and  crossed  to  such  an  extent  that 
the  typical  forma  are  obliterated.  We  have 
now  both  double  and  single  varieties;  indeed, 
in  some  the  petals  are  multiplied  to  an  extent 
that  renders  the  flowers  roonetrons,  and  there 
is  one  variety  in  which  not  only  is  tie  number 
of  petals  increased,  but  the  long  utamens  hare 
become  petaloid  and  give  the  flower  a  singular 
two-storied  appearance.  In  a  florist's  clasmfi- 
cation  we  have :  calyx  red  and  curoUa  white, 
both  ungle  and  double ;  calyx  red  and  coroUa 
purple  or  bluish,  single  end  double;  and  calyi 
white  and  corolla  red  or  other  color,  single 
and  double.  Besidee  these  sections,  nnder  each 
of  which  there  are  many  varieties,  tJiere  are  a 
few  kinds  with  variegated  foliage.  The  taller 
growing  kiids  are  frequently  trained  to  single 
stems,  and  form  anperb-looking  objects  for  the 
oonaervatory.  Mr^  Downing  thought  the  F. 
eorallina,  among  many  kinds,  was  the  finest 
sort  for  this  treatment.  The  flowers  are  seen 
at  their  best  when  viewed  from  below,  and 
these  "pillar"  fuchsiaa,  as  they  are  called,  lift 
their  flowers  well  above  the  observer's  head ; 
we  have  aeen  the  same  effect  prodnccd  by 
training  the  plants  to  the  rafters  of  a  green- 
house. Fuchsias  are  admirable  plania  for  Bom- 
mer  decoration ;  the  winter- blooming  kinds 
are  few,  and  disappointment  often  results  from 
a  want  of  knowledge  of  this  fact.  They  are 
used  in  England  to  some  extent  as  bedding-out 
planti^  but  the  heat  of  our  summers  is  too  se- 
vere for  these  natives  of  the  Brazilian  n: 
forests.  Their  proper  use  is  in  the 
decoration  of  rooms,  conservatories,  and  veran- 
das, though  in  a  well  shaded  place  they  may 
be  turned  into  the  open  border.  When  they 
have  finished  flotvenng  the  plants  should  be 
allowed  to  rest  and  be  kept  in  the  cellar  nntil 
February  or  March,  when  they  may  be  brought 
into  growth.  Fuchsiaa  are  propagated  with 
the  greatest  ease  from  cuttings  of  the  new 
shoots ;  a  cutting  an  inch  or  two  long,  if  prop- 
erly treated,  may  be  gruwn  to  a  plant  several 
feet  high  in  a  single  season,  Owing  to  tlie 
readiness  with  which  shoots  slart  from  the 
stem,  the  plants  are  readily  trained  to  a  pyrami- 
dal, bush,  or  globular  form.  The  wood  of  F. 
eoecinea  is  used  in  Chili  to  make  a  black  color- 
ing matter,  and  the  leaves  and  branches  are 
used  for  some  kinds  of  medicine.  The  berries 
of  F.  mifrophylla  are  very  sweet.  Those  of 
F.  exeorlicata.  a  native  of  New  Zealand,  are 
greedily  eaten  by  swine ;  and  so  sweet  are  they 
when  ripe,  that  attemjits  have  been  made  to 
use  the  species  as  a  sugar  plant. 

KCra  (Gr,  ipvtof,  a  seaweed),  a  genus  of 
marine  metanospermous  algtc.  Of  this  genua, 
which  is  readily  recognized  by  the  inflated  air 
vessels  in  the  substance  of  the  siem  or  branch- 
es, tliere  are  but  two  species  upon  the  Atlantie 
coast  of  the  United  States,  two  on  the  Pacific 
coast,  and  two  ujion  the  coasts  of  Greenland 


FUOUS 


FUEL 


515 


and  Newfonndland.  Tbej  are  found  upon 
rocky  shores  growing  between  high  and  low 
water  marks.  Onr  Atlantic  species,  fuovM 
xe*icula%u%  and  F.  nodosus^  are  popularly 
called  rock-weed  and  bladder-weed,  and  form 
a  large  share  of  the  vegetation  of  the  tidal 
rocks  from  New  Jersey  northward,  where  they 
are  conspicuous  at  low  tide  and  give  the  rocks 
a  very  sombre  appearance.  Upon  the  shores 
of  northern  Enrope  the  species  of  fncus  are 
valued  as  furnishing  an  important  pai't  of  the 
winter  fodder  of  cattle,  the  animals  being  reg- 
ularly driven  to  the  pasturage  at  the  recess  of 
the  tide ;  in  some  localities  these  seaweeds  are 
collected  and  boiled  witli  coarse  meal  as  a  food 
for  animals.  The  chief  value  of  these  plants 
upon  our  coasts  is  as  a  fertilizer,  and  in  some 
localities  large  quantities  are  collected  to  apply 
to  the  land,  where  they  rapidly  decompose. 
Before  the  discovery  of  the  process  of  pre- 
paring soda  from  common  salt,  the  species  of 
fncus  were  of  considerable  economical  impor- 
tance, as  their  ashes,  called  kelp,  were  the  cnief 
source  of  soda,  and  afforded  a  large  income 
to  the  owners  of  estates  upon  the  coasts  of 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  as  well  as  to  the  in- 
habitants of  the  Orkney,  Shetland,  and  other 
islands.  But  little  kelp  is  now  produced,  as 
other  sources  furnish  soda  more  cheaply ;  but 
some  is  still  burned  for  the  purpose  of  pro- 
curing iodine,  of  which  the  fuel  and  the  rela- 
ted seaweeds  are  the  only  available  source. — 
Besides  lining  species  of  Aici,  there  are  others 
of  particular  interest  from  the  occurrence  of 
their  fossil  remains  in  the  most  ancient  strati- 
fied rocks,  associated  with  those  of  the  oldest 
forms  of  animal  life,  also  marine,  to  which  they 
no  doubt  served  as  nutriment.  They  are  abun- 
dantly met  with  in  the  sandstones  of  the  Ap- 
palachians, covering  the  surface  of  the  slabs 
with  irregularly  shaped  ridges.  The  flagstones 
obtained  from  the  Portage  group  of  the  New 
York  system  so  abound  with  them,  that  the 
fossils  are  seen  in  every  village  where  these 
stones  are  used  for  the  sidewalks.  They  are 
particularly  noted  in  the  streets  of  Geneva,  N. 
Y.  (See  HalPs  "  Geology  of  New  York,"  p. 
242.)  The  fossil  fuel  of  the  most  ancient  for- 
mations, according  to  A.  Brongniart,  ai'e  most 
nearly  related  toexistmg  species,  which  belong 
to  tropical  climates ;  but  the  forms  of  marine 
vegetation  found  fossil  in  the  rocks  of  the  sec- 
ondary and  tertiary  formation  resemble  those 
now  living  in  temperate  climates.  —  Some 
species  of  algsd  formerly  placed  in  the  genus 
fueus  and  others  related  to  it,  found  about  the 
islands  off  the  southern  extremity  of  South 
America,  are  so  remarkable  as  to  deserve  par- 
ticular notice.  They  grow  up  from  deeply 
sunken  rocks,  and  spread  over  the  surface  of 
the  ocean,  presenting  the  appearance  of  exten- 
sively inundated  meadows.  Ships  penetrate 
with  difficulty  through  the  obstructions  they 
present.  The  stems  grow  very  rapidly,  and 
have  been  known  to  attain  the  length  of  700  ft. ; 
Lamouroox  describes  them  as  even  exceeding 


800  ft. ;  the  Agassiz  expedition,  in  the  United 
States  coast  survey  steamer  Hassler  (1872), 
found  specimens  1,000  ft.  long.  Dr.  J.  D. 
Hooker,  in  the  "  Botany  of  the  Antarctic  Voy- 
age of  H.  M.  Discovery  Ships  Erebus  and 
Terror,  in  the  Years  1839-43,"  gives  an  in- 
teresting account,  among  others,  of  the  gigan- 
tic Lesaania  fucescena  and  macroeystis.  Seen 
from  the  surface  in  sailing  over  them,  they 
appear  like  groves  of  trees,  their  stems  from 
8  to  10  in.  in  diameter,  and  the  branches  of 
the  former  species  spreading  out  and  dividing 
into  sprays,  from  which  the  leaves  are  sus- 
pended. Covered  with  parasitic  algSB,  and 
with  numerous  species  of  adhering  shell  fish, 
as  the  chitons  and  patell»,  and  many  Crustacea 
and  radiata  swarming  among  their  tangled 
roots,  while  fish  of  different  species  are  seen 
darting  through  their  foliage,  they  remind  one 
of  the  coral  reefs  of  tropical  seas.  Their  stems 
strewed  upon  the  beaches  appear  like  drift- 
wood, ana,  as  they  decay,  exhale  an  almost 
insufferable  odor  like  that  of  putrid  cabbage. 
The  macrocystis  pyr\fera  is  a  conspicuous 
species  of  the  N.  W.  coast,  and  is  also  found  in 
the  south  Atlantic.  It  forms  stems  from  5  ft. 
to  severfd  hundred  feet  long,  which  bear  pear- 
shaped  air  vessels.  It  is  seen  upon  the  beaches 
rolled  up  by  the  waves  in  great  strands  larger 
than  a  man^s  body,  entangled  one  with  another. 
The  harbors  about  the  Falkland  islands,  Cape 
Horn,  and  Kerguelen  Land  are  so  filled  with 
it  ttiat  boats  can  hardly  be  forced  through. — 
The  charcoal  of  fueus  vesieulosuSy  or  bladder- 
weed,  has  been  used  in  goitre  and  scrofulous 
affections.  Its  efficacy  depends  apon  the  iodine 
which  it  contains,  although  in  much  less  quan- 
tity than  F,  digitatm  (or  laminaria  digitata) 
and  other  deep-sea  plants.  The  whole  plant 
has  been  employed  in  substance,  decoction,  and 
extract,  for  the  purpose  of  diminishing  obesity, 
and  with  alleged  success.  F.  (or  ^artina) 
helminthocorton  has  some  reputation  in  Europe 
as  an  anthelmintic,  and  is  said  also  to  be  a 
febrifuge. 

FUEL,  the  material  used  for  producing  heat 
by  combustion.  Wood,  the  most  universally 
known  variety  of  fuel,  presents  itself  in  forma 
and  qualities  varying  with  the  tree,  and  to 
some  extent  with  the  part  from  which  it  is 
obtained.  It  is  made  up  of  several  compounds 
— ^the  woody  tissue  or  lignine,  the  sap,  and  the 
alkaline  and  earthy  matters  which  remain  after 
combustion  as  its  ash.  It  also  contains  a  vari- 
able proportion  of  water.  The  first  two  named 
are  its  combustible  ingredients,  upon  which  its 
value  as  fuel  depends ;  and  of  these  the  lignine 
is  of  chief  importance,  often  constituting  in 
thoroughly  dried  wood  95  per  cent,  or  more 
of  its  weight.  Yet  it  is  not  the  ingredient 
which  gives  to  the  wood  its  distinctive  charac- 
ter, except  so  far  as  this  depends  on  its  density, 
for  pure  lignine,  freed  from  the  matters  soluble 
in  water,  alcohol,  or  alkalies,  is  of  uniform  com- 
position in  all  woods  and  leaves.  The  sap  and 
the  matters  it  brings  with  it  differ  in  the  differ- 


516 


FUEL 


ent  woodfl ;  on  those  of  the  pine  fkmilj  the  Bap 
bestows  their  resinous  properties,  on  the  oak 
its  tannin,  and  on  all  tiiie  peculiar  extractive 
matters  which  distinguish  them.  Its  propor- 
tion is  small  in  the  mass  of  the  wood,  and  varies 
at  different  seasons.  Schtlbler  found  that  the 
ash  tree  felled  in  January  contained  of  water 
28*8  parts,  while  that  cut  in  April  contained 
38*6  parts;  the  sycamore,  83*6  in  January,  and 
40-8  in  April ;  the  white  fir,  62*7  and  61*0.  As 
the  expulsion  of  the  water  present  involves  the 
consumption  of  a  portion  of  the  carbon  of  the 
wood,  the  more  thoroughly  this  is  air-dried 
or  seasoned,  the  greater  is  its  heat-producing 
power.  As  it  dries  it  loses  sometimes  one  fifth 
of  its  weight,  yet  from  20  to  25  per  cent,  of 
that  which  remains  is  moisture.  If  this  be 
all  expelled,  the  wood  will  absorb  from  the  air 
10  per  cent,  or  more  of  moisture.  The  mean 
quantity  of  hygrometric  water  in  100  parts  of 
various  specimens  of  wood  is  thus  given  in  the 
treatise  of  Richardson  and  Bonalds;  in  cord 
wood  the  seasoning  would  not  have  been  so 
effectual  as  in  the  specimens  employed : 


SIX  MONTHS  AFTER  FELLING. 

Trunk  wood 

Brash  wood 

Young  branch  wood. 

IN  THE  DRIEST  STATE. 

Tmnk  wood 

Brush  wood 

Young  branch  wood 


Rnlnoot 
woodt. 


29 
82 
88 


15 
15 
16 


Non-Rslnou 
wooda. 


26 
86 


17 

20 

9 


The  gravity  of  wood  varies  greatly  with  the 
different  species,  and  also  with  its  condition  as 
to  dryness.  Though  the  solid  fibre  is  heavier 
than  water,  the  air  contained  in  the  cells  causes 
it  commonly  to  float.  As  the  fibre  is  the 
heaviest  ingredient,  a  greater  weight  in  dry 
wood  indicates  a  greater  proportion  of  woody 
or  combustible  matter.  The  experiments  of 
Marcus  Bull  upon  American  woods  were  con- 
ducted with  great  nicety,  the  specific  gravity 
of  each  being  taken  by  coating  the  dry  sample 
with  a  varnish  of  the  same  weight  as  water, 
thus  retaining  the  air  in  tlie  cells.  The  table 
on  p.  617  is  contained  (except  changes  in  some 
of  the  names)  in  his  original  memoir,  read 
April  7,  1826,  and  published  in  the  **  Transac- 
tions of  the  American  Philosophical  Society  " 
(vol.  iii,,  new  series,  pp.  1-60).  This  gives  the 
weight  of  a  cord  of  wood  as  it  should  be  put 
up,  the  interstitial  matter  even  then  amounting 
to  44  parts  in  100  of  the  whole  bulk ;  as  it  often 
much  exceeds  this,  the  measure  aifords  an  esti- 
mate of  the  quantity  of  woody  matter  even 
more  uncertain  than  would  be  the  estimate  by 
weight,  variable  as  this  has  been  shown  to  be. 
The  arrangement  of  the  columns  is  as  follows : 
A,  specific  gravity ;  B,  lbs.  avoirdupois  in  one 
cord;  0,  charcoal  in  100  parts  of  dry  wood 
by  weight;  D,  specific  gravity  of  dry  coal;  E, 
lbs.  of  dry  coal  in  one  bushel;  F,  lbs.  of  dry 
coal  from  one  cord  of  dry  wood ;  G,  bushels 


of  coal  from  one  cord  of  dry  wood ;  H,  time 
in  hours  and  minutes  during  which  10**  of 
heat  were  maintained  in  the  room  by  the 
combustion  of  1  lb.  of  each  wood ;  I,  value  of 
specified  quantities  of  each  wood  compared 
with  shell-bark  hickory  as  the  standu^ — 
When  wood  is  exposed  to  the  action  of  heat^ 
its  more  volatile  ingredients,  as  the  hygro- 
metric moisture,  first  escape;  its  gaseous  ele- 
ments are  next  disturbed  from  their  state  of 
equilibrium,  and  the  hydrogen  and  oxygen 
when  set  free  from  one  combination  enter  into 
new  ones ;  portions  of  these  gases  combine  to 
produce  water ;  other  portions  seize  upon  the 
carbon  and  form  with  this  a  multitude  of  un- 
stable compounds,  varying  with  the  degree  of 
temperature  and  the  proportions  of  the  ele- 
ments present.  If  the  process  be  conducted 
in  close  vessels  away  from  the  action  of  idr  or 
oxygen,  the  volatile  ingredients  may  be  driven 
off  in  the  form  of  inflammable  gases,  and  of 
vapors  of  water  holding  in  solution  numerous 
combustible  principles,  and  last  of  all  the  va- 
pors of  the  resins  and  ethereal  oils  constituting 
tar.  When  wood  is  consumed  in  the  air,  heat 
is  first  applied  to  drive  out  the  volatile  de- 
ments. The  hydrogen  eliminated  in  Uie  pores 
of  the  fuel  at  a  heat  below  that  of  redness 
takes  hold  of  a  portion  of  the  solid  carbon,  and 
meeting  the  air  they  rapidly  enter  into  combi- 
nation with  oxygen.  New  supplies  of  the 
volatile  ingredients  are  disturbed  further  with- 
in the  mass  of  the  burning  body,  and  there  by 
their  ignition  serve  to  keep  up  the  process.  If 
the  supply  of  oxygen  is  sumcient,  the  combus- 
tion is  complete,  and  the  volatile  products  of 
the  distillation  process,  if  generatea  at  all,  pass 
immediately  into  the  stable  compounds  of  car- 
bonic acid  and  water.  The  carbon  attacked  at 
its  surface  by  the  oxygen  of  the  air  yields 
more  slowly,  and  a  portion  of  it  is  left  behind 
after  the  flame  and  rapid  chemical  action 
caused  by  the  combustion  of  its  volatile  asso- 
ciates have  disappeared.  When  concentration 
of  heat  is  required,  as  in  the  smelting  of  ores, 
a  condensed  form  of  fuel  like  charcoal  is  more 
effective  than  one  containing  gaseous  elements, 
which  in  their  combustion  dispense  a  very  un- 
certain amount  of  heat,  as  they  flit,  perhaps 
but  partially  consumed,  past  the  points  where 
the  effect  is  wanted,  carrying  with  them  a 
portion  of  the  carbon  of  the  fuel,  and  also 
more  caloric  rendered  latent  than  the  product 
of  combustion  of  an  equal  weight  of  carbon 
is  capable  of  absorbing.  The  difference  in 
the  pyrometrical  effect  of  wood  and  charcoal 
would  be  still  greater  than  it  is,  were  it  not 
for  the  property  of  charcoal  of  rapidly  absorb- 
ing moisture  from  the  air.  When  it  is  de- 
sirable to  apply  the  heat  generated  by  com- 
bustion at  a  distance  from  the  fire,  as  in  rever- 
beratory  furnaces,  fuel  is  preferred  that  bums 
with  a  fiame. — As  charcoal  is  obtained  from 
wood  by  charring,  so  from  peat  this  fuel  is  ob- 
tained in  a  condensed  form  called  peat  char- 
coal, and  from  the  bituminous  coals  the  mine- 


FUEL 


517 


TABLE  SHOWQTO  THB  OOMPARA.TrnE  TALITE  OF  DIFFEBENT  WOODS  AS  FUEL. 


VARIETY  OF  WOOD. 


White  oBh^J^'vutinug  Amsrloana 

Apple,  pyruB  mahu 

white  hiech^foiftts  ferruffinea 

Black  birch,  betula  Unta 

White  birch,  J?,  alba  popul^oUa 

Bnttannt,  jK(r2an0  einerea 

Bed  cedar,  JttiiiptfrtM  VirgUtiana 

American  coesCnut,  cofttanea  veaoa 

Wild  cherry,  eeraam  Virginicma 

Dogwood,  oornutjiorida 

White  elm,  tUmus  Americana.  ,.^ 

Soar  ^m,  nvMa  mvUifiora 

Sweet  ffyan^  liguidamber  $tyrac\fhta 

Shell-bark  hickory,  earya  mba ^ 

Fi^-nnt  hickory,  u.  poreina 

Western  hickory,  C.  nticata  f 

Witeh  hazel,  hamameUs  Virginiea 

American  holly,  ilsaa  opaea 

American  hornbeam,  earpintut  Amerioana 

Mountain  laureL,  kalmia  kUifolia 

Hard  mftple,  aeer  aaocharinuni 

Soft  maple,  A.  rubrum 

Luge  magnolia,  ma{pu>lia  grandifhra 

Chestnut  white  oak,  querotu  prinut 

White  oak,  Q.  alba 

VMt  aak^  Q,  obttuUoba  r 

Barren  Bcmb  oak,  Q.  CaUtbmi 

Pin  oak,  Q.  paltutrU 

Scrub  black  oak,  Q.iHcifolia 

Bed  oak,  Q.  rubra 

Barren  ook,  ^.  ft«^rra 

Bock  cheatout  oak,  Q.  primts  monttcola 

Yellow  oak,  Q.  prtntu  aettminata 

Spaniah  oak,  Q.falcata 

Pendmmon,  diotpyroa  Viroiniana 

Yellow  pine,  soft,  pinus  mitis 

Jersey  pine,  P.  inopt 

Fitch  pine,  P.  rigida 

White  pine,  P.  drobua 

Yellow  poplar,  Uriodsndron  tuHpifera 

Lombardy  poplar,  jMlptfjiM  (Mtototo 

Sasaaflraa,  aam^aa  qffleinale 

Wild  service,  om^aneM^r  Canad«nH» 

Sycamore,  pkUanm  oeoidentalia 

Black  walnut,  ^uortofw  nigra 

Swamp  whortieberry,  vaooinium  eorymbosum 


0*TT9 
0-«»7 

0-69T 
0-680 
0561 
0-M6 
O-028 
0-697 
0-816 
0-560 
0-T08 
0-684 
1-000 
O'MO 
0-829 
0-784 
0-602 
0-720 
0-668 
0-M4 
0-607 
0*606 
0-885 
0-866 
0-775 
0-747 
0-747 
0-75» 
0-728 
0-094 
0-678 
0*668 
0-648 
0-711 
0-661 
0-478 
0-426 
0-418 
0-668 
0-807 
0-618 
0-897 
0-686 
0-681 
0-762 


B. 

C. 

D. 

B. 

F. 

a. 

H. 

8,460 

26-74 

0-647 

28-78 

888 

81 

640 

8,115 

26-00 

0-446 

28-41 

779 

88 

640 

8,286 

19-62 

0-518 

27-26 

686 

28 

600 

8,116 

19-40 

0-428 

2252 

604 

27 

600 

2,869 

19-00 

0-864 

1916 

450 

24 

600 

2,684 

20-79 

0-287 

12-47 

•527 

42 

6  00 

2,626 

24-72 

0-288 

12-62 

624 

60 

640 

2,888 

26-29 

0-879 

19-94 

600 

80 

640 

2,668 

21-70 

0-411 

21-68 

679 

27 

6  10 

8,648 

2100 

0-560 

28-94 

766 

26 

6  10 

2,692 

24-86 

0-867 

18  79 

644 

84 

640 

8,142 

2216 

0-400 

21-06 

696 

88 

6  20 

2,884 

19-69 

0-418 

21-78 

658 

26 

6  00 

4^469 

26-22 

0-626 

82-89 

1,179 

86 

640 

4.241 

26-22 

0-687 

8862 

1,070 

82 

640 

8,706 

22-90 

0-609 

26-78 

848 

82 

680 

8,506 

2W0 

0-868 

19-86 

760 

89 

6  10 

2,691 

22-77 

0-874 

19-68 

618 

81 

620 

8,218 

1900 

0-455 

28-94 

611 

25 

600 

2,968 

2402 

0-467 

24-05 

712 

80 

640 

2,878 

21-48 

0^481 

22-68 

617 

27 

6  10 

2,668 

20-64 

0-870 

19-47 

651 

26 

600 

2,704 

21-60 

0-406 

21-86 

684 

27 

6  10 

8,966 

22-76 

0-481 

25-81 

900 

86 

680 

8,821 

21-62 

0401 

21-10 

826 

89 

6  20 

8,464 

21-60 

0-487 

22-99 

745 

82 

620 

8,889 

2817 

0-892 

20-68 

774 

88 

680 

8,889 

22-22 

0-486 

22-94 

742 

82 

620 

8,264 

28-80 

0-887 

20-86 

774 

88 

680 

8,264 

22-48 

0-400 

21-06 

680 

80 

620 

8,102 

2287 

0-447 

28-62 

694 

29 

620 

8,060 

20-86 

0-486 

22-94 

082 

28 

600 

2,919 

21-60 

0-295 

15-62 

681 

41 

6  10 

2,449 

22-95 

0-862 

19-06 

662 

80 

630 

8,178 

28-44 

0-469 

24-68 

746 

80 

680 

2,468 

28-76 

0-888 

17-68 

686 

88 

680 

2,187 

24-88 

0-886 

20-26 

582 

26 

640 

1,906 

26-76 

0.298 

16-68 

610 

88 

640 

1,868 

24-86 

0-298 

16-42 

465 

80 

640 

2,616 

21-81 

0-888 

20-16 

649 

27 

6  10 

1,774 

26-00 

0-246 

12-89 

444 

84 

640 

2,762 

22-68 

0-437 

22-47 

624 

28 

620 

8,9»4 

22-62 

0-694 

81-26 

897 

29 

6  20 

2.891 

28-60 

0-874 

19-68 

664 

29 

6  80 

8,044 

22  66 

0-418 

22-00 

6«t7 

81 

6  20 

8,861 

28-30 

0-506 

26-57 

788 

29 

680 

77 
70 
66 
68 
43 
61 
66 
52 
65 
76 
68 
67 
57 
100 
96 
81 
72 
67 
66 
66 
60 
64 
66 
86 
81 
74 
78 
71 
71 
60 
66 
61 
60 
63 
60 
64 
48 
48 
42 
62 
40 
69 
84 
63 
66 
78 


ral  charcoal  or  coke.  Peat,  which  is  found  in 
great  abundance  and  easily  procured  in  many 
of  the  £aropean  countries,  where  other  fuels  are 
scarce,  is  there  much  more  highly  appreciated 
than  it  is  in  tlie  United  States.  Its  qualities 
have  there  been  thoroughly  investigated,  and 
various  methods  have  been  contrived  for  im- 
proving its  adaptation  to  the  uses  for  which  it 
is  fitted.  (See  Peat.)  As  a  fuel,  this  mate- 
rial is  macb  used  for  domestic  purposes  in  the 
countries  where  it  abounds,  and  it  is  applied 
both  in  the  raw  state  and  charred  to  manu- 
facturing operations.  In  the  neighborhood  of 
Garolinen-Ufttte,  near  Aichthal,  in  Styria,  suc- 
cessful attempts  have  been  made  to  smelt  iron 
with  it  in  its  raw  state,  mixed  with  wood; 
while  the  charcoal  obtained  by  charring  it  has 
long  been  successfully  applied  to  the  same  pur- 
pose in  Bohemia,  Bavaria,  France,  Russia,  and 
other  countries.  When  freshly  cut,  peat  con- 
tains from  80  to  90  per  cent,  of  water,  which 
by  drying  is  commonly  reduced  to  about  25  per 
cent.  When  well  dried,  the  heating  power  of 
good  peat  is  about  the  same  as  that  of  wood, 
and  about  half  that  of  bituminous  coal.  The 
following  analyses  by  Sir  Kobert  Kane  and  Dr. 
W.  K.  Sullivan  are  of  peat  dried  at  220"  F. 
The  proportions  are  calculated  after  deducting 


the  ash.  The  percentage  of  the  mineral  ingre- 
dients varies  in  good  peat  from  1  to  6 ;  some 
qualities  contain  much  more,  even  88  per  cent., 
but  Such  are  worthless  for  fuel. 


VARIETIES. 


Surlkce  peat,  PhllllpBtown. . 

Dense  peat  "' 

Light  snrikoe  peat,  wood  of 

Allen . 

Dense  peat,  wood  of  Allen.. 
Surfhoe  peat,  Twlckneyin. . 
Liffht  sorfiioe  peat,  Shannon 
Dense  peat,  ** 


Carbon. 


68-694 
50-476 


60-920 
61-022 
60-102 
60-018 
61-247 


Hjrdro- 


6-971 
6-097 

6-614 
6-771 
6-728 
6-875 
6-616 


Oxygtn. 


NlttOftt, 


82-888   1-4614 


82-646 

82-207 
82-400 
81-288 
88-152 
81-446 


0-8806 

1-2688 
0-8070 
1-8S66 
0-9646 
1-6904 


— The  Chinese  have  for  ages  been  in  the  habit 
of  mixing  the  dust  from  their  coal  mines  with 
clay  and  bitumen,  and  a]  so  with  refuse  matter, 
and  such  artificial  fuel  is  in  China  an  article  of 
considerable  traffic.  The  methods  introduced 
in  western  Europe  of  utilizing  the  dust  of  min- 
eral coals  and  of  charcoal  are  nearly  all  based 
upon  the  principle  of  making  these  substances 
cohere  by  thoroughly  incorporating  them  with 
tar  or  pitch,  and  then  exposing  the  compound,- 
when  moulded  into  blocks,  in  some  cases  to  a 
current  of  air  to  dry  them,  and  in  others  to  a 
high  temperature  in  vessels  serving  the  pur- 


518 


FUEL 


pose  of  retorts.  The  former  mode  of  drying  is 
employed  for  mixtures  of  charcoal  dust,  tau,  and 
similar  substances,  with  tar  or  pitch,  and  the 
latter  when  refuse  bituminous  coal  is  used  with 
about  a  quarter  of  its  weight  of  pitch.  Unless 
this  distillation  is  conducted  at  a  heat  of  from 
400°  to  600°  F.,  so  as  to  dispel  the  volatile  in- 
gredients, there  is  danger  or  subsequent  spon- 
taneous combustion.  At  Blanzy  in  France 
the  coal  is  separated  from  the  slaty  and  py- 
ritous  particles,  and  is  then  crushed  and  in- 
troduced into  a  circular  metallic  basin,  which 
revolves  horizontally  in  a  reverberatory  fur- 
nace, the  flame  of  which  paases  under  it.  Hot 
tar  or  pitch  is  gradually  let  in  upon  the  coal 
from  a  reservoir  over  the  fire  to  the  amount  of 
7  or  6  per  cent.,  and  the  mixture  is  stirred  by 
stationary  rakes  attached  to  rods  let  down 
through  the  arched  cover.  When  sufficiently 
mixed,  the  materials  are  made  to  drop  through 
the  bottom  into  a  receptacle,  whence  they  are 
removed  while  plastic  to  the  moulds  and  there 
pressed  by  the  hydraulic  machine.  The  process 
of  Mr.  Bessemer  appears  to  be  most  highly  ap- 
proved. It  is  applied  only  to  fine  bituminous  coal 
without  mixture,  the  object  being  to  render  this 
plastic  by  heat  and  mould  it  by  heavy  pressure 
into  convenient  shapes.  In  the  softening  pro- 
cess the  coal  may  be  exposed  to  the  heat  long 
enough  for  a  portion  of  its  volatile  elements  to 
be  expelled,  by  which  the  product  is  rendered 
more  dense  and  of  the  nature  of  coke ;  or  it 
may  be  softened  so  quickly  as  to  be  but  slightly 
altered  in  its  chemical  composition.  It  is  then 
formed  into  blocks  by  machinery  working  un- 
der great  pressure.  There  are  vast  quanti- 
ties of  coal  dust  lying  as  waste  material  at  the 
various  extensive  coal  mines  in  this  country, 
w^hich  might  be  utilized  by  mixing  with  proper 
proportions  of  the  coal  tar  of  gas  works  and 
compressed  into  bricks  by  machinery  similar  to 
that  employed  by  Bessemer.  There  can  be  no 
doubt  that  fuel  could  be  furnished  in  this  way 
at  an  economical  price. — The  composition  of 
fuels  is  commonly  expressed  by  stating  the 
proportions  of  coke  or  charcoal,  volatile  mat- 
ters, moisture,  and  ash.  The  ultimate  analysis 
reduces  the  whole  to  its  elements,  and  expresses 
the  proportions  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  oxygen, 
nitrogen,  and  the  ingredients  of  the  ash.  In 
order  to  ascertain  the  fitness  of  fuel  for  making 
gas  and  producing  the  fatty  products,  the  pro- 
portion of  volatile  ingredients  must  first  be 
ascertained,  and  then  the  nature  of  these,  as 
the  proportion  of  the  infiammable  gases  to 
the  liquid  products.  For  other  purposes  the 
simple  form  of  analysis  is  commonly  sufficient. 
The  ash  is  obtained  by  thorough  combustion 
in  an  open  platinum  crucible,  continued  till 
nothing  is  left  but  the  gray  or  brown  ash.  The 
diflference  of  weight  of  the  crucible  and  its  con- 
tents before  and  after  the  operation,  deducted 
from  the  weight  of  the  fuel  employed,  gives 
that  of  the  ash.  Another  weighed  sample  sub- 
jected in  a  similar  way  to  a  heat  of  about  300° 
will  give  by  loss  of  weight  the  amount  of  moist- 


ure ;  the  crucible  containing  it  is  then  closely 
covered  to  exclude  the  air,  and  is  set  in  a  Hes- 
sian crucible  also  closed  with  a  cover,  and  con- 
taining calcined  magnesia.  This  supports  the 
platinum  crucible,  and  keeps  it  from  contact 
with  the  outer  one.  The  whole  is  now  exposed 
to  a  red  heat  for  an  hour.  The  volatile  mat- 
ters are  thus  driven  off,  and  the  difference  of 
weight  of  crucible  and  contents  before  and  after 
the  operation  gives  their  proportions.  The 
charcoal  or  coke  is  the  difference  between  the 
crucible  with  the  residuum  it  contains  and  that 
of  the  crucible  alone  less  the  weight  of  the 
ash.  This  may  be  again  obtained  by  consuming 
the  carbonaceous  residue  exposed  to  a  current 
of  air.  The  intense  degree  of  heat  evolved  in 
the  use  of  the  condensed  fuels  adds  largely  to 
the  capacity  of  heat  of  the  aqueous  vapor,  and 
hence  further  lessens  the  value  of  hydrogen  in 
fuels  intended  for  the  uses  to  which  they  are 
applied.  But  for  other  objects,  requiring  a 
quick  heat  and  at  the  same  time  diffused  over 
considerable  space,  the  more  inflammable  fuels 
are  found  more  efficient ;  and  according  to  the 
mode  in  which  their  heating  power  is  estimated 
they  may  even  be  classed  as  producing  a  greater 
amount  of  heat  than  the  more  carbonaceous 
varieties.  "Whenever  the  heat  from  the  com- 
bustion of  hydrogen  can  be  concentrated,  as  in 
the  oxyhydrogen  blowpipe,  a  more  intense  de- 
gree is  obtained  than  by  the  use  of  any  other 
fuel.  Other  considerations,  therefore,  besides 
the  chemical  composition  of  fbels,  affect  their 
value.  For  practical  purposes  a  mere  change 
in  the  mechanical  structure  may  ^ve  an  en- 
tirely different  character  to  them,  while  their 
real  calorific  power  is  not  altered.  This  is  ap- 
parent in  the  coals,  which  are  rendered  almost 
worthless  when  reduced  to  dust,  until  in  the 
patent  fuels  they  are  reconverted  into  solid 
form.  Wood  possesses  very  different  values 
in  solid  sticks,  in  shavings,  and  in  sawdust. 
In  ordinary  use  other  circumstances  are  to  bo 
taken  into  account,  as  the  arrangements  for 
utilizing  the  heat  produced,  so  that  there  shall 
be  the  least  amount  lost ;  also  the  provisions 
for  insuring  perfect  combustion  of  the  fuel. 
The  loss  of  heat  resulting  from  imperfect  ar- 
rangements in  these  respects  alone  has  been 
estimated  at  full  one  half  of  all  that  generated. 
The  chimney  necessarily  carries  off  a  consider- 
able portion,  as  there  will  be  no  draught,  and 
consequently  no  continued  supply  of  air  to  sup- 
port the  combustion,  unless  the  column  fioating 
upward  by  its  rarity  produces  a  partial  vacuum 
to  be  filled  with  fresh  air  passing  through  the 
fire.  The  quantity  of  this  admitted  should  bo 
limited  to  a  proper  excess  only  of  that  absolutely 
required  for  the  thorough  combustion  of  tho 
fuel,  and  this  can  be  determined  for  each  variety 
of  fuel  only  by  the  experience  and  good  judg- 
ment of  the  operator,  the  object  in  view  being 
a  uniform  rate  of  combustion,  more  or  less  rapid- 
ly conducted,  according  to  the  fuel  employed 
and  the  special  purpose  to  which  it  is  applied. 
The  quantities  necessary  for  complete  combus- 


FUEL 


519 


tion  of  one  ponnd  of  the  different  faels  are  given 
in  the  following  table,  the  temperature  of  the 
air  being  66-2°  F.  and  its  weight  0*075  lb. : 


NAME  OF  FUEL. 

Peat 

Peat  ebarcoa] 

Bltamliioas  coal,  by  the  lead  test  (average  22S).. 

Bitomlnoas  ciial.  Dr.  Richardson 

Bituminous  ooai  Avenge  qualities  from  the  coal 
fomtatioiL,  Regnault 

Bituminous  coal  from  the  upper  secondary  for- 
mation, Begnault 

Coke 

Anthracite,  by  the  lead  test 

Aothradto,  Regnault 


Cubic  tenL 

70  to  149 
155  to  2:2» 
170  to  279 
278  to  8U8 

320  to  882 

298  to  826 
lMto2M 
288  to  277 
812 


— ^The  qualities  of  the  American  coals  have  been 
investigated  by  Prof.  W.  R.  Johnson,  who  was 
commissioned  by  the  United  States  govern- 
ment for  this  purpose,  aud  whose  report  was 
addressed  to  the  navy  department  in  1844 
(Senate  Document  No.  886).  The  results  are 
presented  in  a  condensed  form  by  Prof.  John- 
son in  the  American  edition  of  Knapp^s  ^*  Chem- 
ical Technology,"  the  table  below  being  ar- 
ranged from  the  more  detailed  tables  contain^ 
in  his  report.    It  contains  25  varieties  of  coals, 


five  from  each  one  of  five  different  classes,  suc- 
ceeded by  a  summary  of  the  results,  presenting 
a  general  scale  of  relative  values  made  up  from 
the  averages  of  the  classes.  From  this  it  appears 
that  in  evaporative  power  under  equal  weights 
the  Cumberland  class  surpasses  the  anthracite 
by  about  2*8  per  cent.,  and  under  equal  bulks 
by  1*4  per  cent.  From  single  experiments, 
however,  the  most  water  evaporated  was  with 
anthracite.  The  anthracites  also  surpass  the 
foreign  bituminous  coals  20  per  cent,  when  we 
compare  equal  weights,  and  26  per  cent,  by 
equal  bulks.  In  freedom  from  clinker  the  an- 
thracites stand  preeminent ;  in  rapid  produc- 
tion of  steam  when  once  in  action,  the  Pennsyl- 
vania bituminous  coals  are  somewhat  superior 
to  all  others ;  and  for  rapidly  getting  up  steam 
the  foreign  bituminous  coals  are  most  effective. 
Column  A  gives  the  relative  evaporative  pow- 
er of  equal  weights  of  coal ;  B,  comparative 
power  of  equal  bulks  of  coal ;  0,  relative  free- 
dom from  tendency  to  clinker ;  D,  rapidity  of 
action  in  evaporating  water;  E,  facility  of 
ignition,  or  readiness  with  which  steam  is  got 
up ;  F,  sum  of  the  relative  values  in  the  pre- 
ceding columns. 


CLASS  OF  COALS. 


Cmnberland,  Md. 
bituminous..... 


IVee-bumiog 


AnthradtM  of  Pemisylvanla. . 


Free-burning  bituminous 
of  Pennsylvania. 


coals 


Highly  bituminous  coals  of  Vir- 
ginia  


Foreign  bituminous  ooals. 


General  scale  of  relative  values, 
formed  from  the  averages  of 
each  class 


NUDM  of  MnplM. 


A. 


Atklnson^s  and  Templeman^s |  1.000 

Easby^s  "coal  in  store'' 986 

Easbyand  Smith's 981 

New  Vork  and  Maryland  minin<7 914 

Ners 882 


Averages. 


Beaver  Meadow,  slope  5 

Forest  improvement,  Schuylkill. 

I  Peach  Mountain,  Schuylkill 

'Lackawanna 

Lehigh 


t         Averages. 


§ueen's  run 
lossburg 

'Dauphin  and  Susquehanna. 

Cambria  countv 

Lycoming  creek 


Averages. 


Chesterfield  mining  company. 

iMid-Lothian,  screened 

,  Creek  compainy's 

Crouch  and  Snead's 

iTippccanoe 


L I       Averages. 


Newcastle.  England 

Pictou,  N.  8.,  Cunard's  sample. 

Sydney,  N.  S 

Liverpool,  England 

Scotch 


Averages . 


Mar}'land  free-burning  coals. 

Pennsylvania  anthracites 

Pennsylvania  ftree-bumlng  bituminous. 

Virginia  bituminous 

.  Foreign  bituminous. 


982 

988 

940 
94.5 
915 
886 

911 

9«0 
909 
878 
868 
888 


6S7 

841 
886 
T87 
779 
724 


798 

F09 
793 
747 
T?8 
649 


1,000 
946 
908 
927 
906 


982 

964 

844 
878 

928 

918 
911 
880 
800 
6T1 


878 

722 
722 
692 
7S6 
61S 


709 

n6 

788 
669 
6^8 
629 


746,   694 


1,000 
977 
9M 

850 
601 


1,000 
9«^ 
OSS 
767 
741 


C. 


282 
451 
197 
111 
188 


285 

1,000 
741 
1J>8 
4^4 
555 

605 

45^ 
176 
171 
172 
184 


882 

148 
180 
186 
112 
149 


144 

191 

97 

276 

828 

107 


197 

805 
1,000 
890 
8^2 
881 


D. 


828 
658 
6s6 
677 
677 


765 

T28 
790 
901 
779 
792 


814 

827 
92S 
76* 

857 
847 


r. 


605 
286 
829 
876 

8<J8 

859 

807 
150 
142 
187 
158 


8.610 
8.277 
8,246 
8,005 
8,096 


797 

726 

996 
766 
867 
706 

692 

1,000 
780 
981 
635 
875 


163 

667 
505 
602 
250 
2D1 


481 

427 

888 
299 
481 
876 


8,248 

8,884 
8.576 
8,150 
8.209 
8,207 

8,890 

8,724 
8,586 
8,2S7 
8.108 

2,885 


I— 


8S4 

605 
5s8 
424 
5S1 
621 


844.  026 

Sf»i)\  6S2 

698  819 

1,000  9t4 

94S I  780 

94S  1,000 


8,299 

8.187 
2.856 

2,880 
2,748 
8,748 

2,872 

8.198 
8.148 
2.SS0 
8,167 
2,749 


8,02T 


His  operfttions  were  conducted  npon  a  large 
scale,  fonr  trials  being  usually  made  in  ascer- 
taining the  evaporative  power  of  each  coal, 


and  each  trial  consuming  from  800  to  1,200 
lbs.  The  total  number  of  trials  was  144,  in 
which  62 J  tons  were  consumed.    The  object 


620 


FUENTERRABIA 


FUGITIVE 


was  particularly  to  determioe  what  coals  were 
best  adapted  for  steam  navigation;  and  the 
points  of  special  attention  were  essentially  the 
same  as  those  to  which  the  attention  of  the 
commission  afterward  appointed  by  the  British 
government  was  directed,  viz. :  1,  the  capacity 
of  the  coals  for  raising  steam  quickly;  2,  for 
raising  it  abundantly  for  the  quantity  con- 
sumed ;  8,  freedom  from  dense  smoke  in  its 
combustion ;  4,  freedom  from  tendency  to 
crumble  in  handling;  6,  capacity,  by  reason 
of  its  density,  of  close  stowage ;  and  6,  free- 
dom from  sulphur.  The  names  and  the  exact 
localities  of  the  particular  kinds  of  coal  which 
were  employed  in  these  experiments  are  now 
in  most  instances  lost;  but  their  composition 
being  preserved  in  the  records  of  their  analyses, 
the  principles  established  art»  readily  applied  to 
other  coals  of  similar  composition. — For  fur- 
ther information  relating  to  the  subject  of  fuel, 
see  Anthraoitk,  Ohabooal,  Coal,  Coke,  Gas, 
Peat,  and  Wood. 

FUENTERRABIA,  or  Fontan^ia,  a  city  and  port 
of  Spain,  in  the  Basque  province  of  Guiptizcoa, 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Bidassoa,  on  the  French 
frontier;  pop.  about  8,000.  It  was  formerly 
well  fortified,  but  the  French  dismantled  it  in 
1794.  It  has  some  manufactures  of  hempen 
shoes,  linen,  cloth,  marine  stores,  and  earthen- 
ware. It  has  sustfuned  several  sieges,  and  was 
the  scene  of  a  victory  over  the  Carlists  by  the 
auxiliary  British  legion  under  Gen.  Evans  in 
1887.  During  the  peninsular  war,  the  Fuenter- 
rabianswere  reproached  with  singularly  inhos- 

Sitable  treatment  of  disabled  British  troops, 
[ilton  celebrated  it  in  connection  with  the 
rout  of  Roncesvalles. 

FUEROS  (from  Lat.  forurn^  a  law  court),  a 
term  applied  in  Spanish  law  to  customs,  codes, 
charters,  and  grants,  and  to  courts  and  their 
jurisdiction.  The  Fuero  Jvzgo^  or  Forum  Ju- 
dicum,  is  a  collection  of  Visigoth  laws,  which 
St.  Ferdinand  sent  to  Cordova  in  1241,  to  be 
observed  there  as  the  law  of  the  territory 
which  he  had  rescued  from  the  Moors.  The 
first  printed  edition  of  it  is  of  1600 ;  the  best 
is  that  of  the  academy,  in  Latin  and  Span- 
ish (1  vol.,  Madrid,  1815).  Tlie  fueros  or  con- 
stitutional privileges  of  the  Basque  provinces, 
Guiptizcoa,  Alava,  Biscay,  and  Upper  Navarre, 
place  them  outside  of  the  ordinary  administra- 
tion of  the  kingdom.  Their  government  is  es- 
sentially republican,  the  executive  having  only 
the  power  of  nominating  the  corregidor  or  chief 
magistrate,  whose  nomination  has  to  be  con- 
firmed by  the  junta  of  the  province,  a  legisla- 
tive body  elected  by  almost  universal  suffrage. 
The  inhabitants  of  these  provinces  are  ex- 
empt from  all  taxes  and  imposts,  except  such 
as  they  vote  themselves,  and  claim  by  virtue  of 
their  birth  the  privileges  of  Spanish  nobility. 
From  the  remotest  antiquity  they  have  main- 
tained their  rights  against  all  the  dynasties  of 
Spain.  In  the  13th  century  the  fueros  were 
embodied  in  a  written  code,  which  was  en- 
larged and  reconfirmed  in  the  reign  of  the  em- 


peror Charles  V.  The  fueros,  suppressed  in 
1812,  were  recovered  after  two  insurrections, 
in  the  last  of  which,  from  1821  to  1823,  the 
Basques  maintained  their  cause  till  the  French 
intervention  took  place.  Deprived  of  them 
again  by  Isabella  in  1833,  they  fought  for  their 
recovery  under  Don  Carlos  till  1889,  when  the 
queen,  and  in  1844  the  cortes,  guaranteed  their 
ei^joyment.    (See  Basques.) 

FIJERTE,  or  Villa  del  FMite,  a  town  of  Mex- 
ico, in  the  state  of  Sinaloa,  on  the  Fuerte  riv- 
er, about  60  m,  from  the  gulf  of  California, 
and  150  m.  S.  S.  E.  of  Guaymas;  pop.  about 
5,000.  It  is  situated  in  a  delightful  plain,  and 
possesses  many  handsome  houses.  It  is  chiefiy 
important  as  a  depot  of  the  transit  trade  be- 
tween Guaymas  and  the  interior. — ^TheRio  del 
Fuerte  rises  in  the  Sierra  Madre  toward  tlie 
W.  confines  of  Chihuahua,  and  after  flowing 
about  200  m.  in  a  generally  S.  W.  direction, 
empties  into  the  gulf  of  CaliSfomia. 

FIJCiCiER,  the  name  of  a  German  princely 
family,  whose  fonnder  was  Johannes,  a  weaver 
in  Graben,  near  Augsburg,  in  the  first  half  of 
the  14th  century,  who  acquired  a  large  property 
in  lands  by  commerce  in  cloths.  Uis  son,  of 
the  same  name,  continued  the  occupation  of 
weaver  and  cloth  merchant,  and  obtained  by 
marriage  the  right  of  citizenship  in  Augsburg. 
Andbeas,  eldest  son  of  the  latter,  was  known 
as  *^  Fugger  the  Rich."  The  nephews  of  the 
last,  Ulrioh,  Geobo,  and  Jakob,  bom  about 
the  middle  of  the  15th  century,  covered  the 
Baltic  with  their  commerce,  which  extended 
also  to  Hungary,  Italy,  and  even  to  India,  in- 
fluenced the  affairs  of  the  empire  by  lending 
money  to  the  princes,  married  into  the  most 
illustrious  families,  and  were  ennobled  by  the 
emperor  Maximilian  I.  They  built  in  Tyrol 
the  splendid  castle  of  Fuggerau,  embelli^ed 
the  city  of  Augsburg,  and  found  a  new  source 
of  wealth  by  working  the  mines  of  the  Inn 
valley.  The  only  heirs  of  these  three  brothers 
were  the  two  sons  of  Georg,  Raimund  (1489- 
1585)  and  Anton  (1493-1560).  The  emperor 
Charles  V.  resorted  to  them  both  when  pressed 
for  money,  yielded  to  them  the  privilege  of 
coining,  made  them  counts  and  princes  of  the 
empire,  and  was  lodged  in  the  splendid  mansion 
of  Anton  when  he  attended  the  diet  of  Augs- 
burg. They  established  at  Augsburg  a  cabi- 
net of  antiquities,  a  gallery  of  paintings,  and 
a  botanical  garden,  built  the  church  of  Saint 
Maurice,  paid  8,000  crowns  to  Titian  for  a  few 
paintings,  and  collected  the  two  largest  libra- 
ries that  had  yet  been  seen  in  Germany.  Their 
name  was  given  to  a  street  in  Madrid,  and  "  as 
rich  as  a  Fugger "  became  a  proverb.  Upon 
the  death  of  these  two  brothers  the  family 
divided  into  numerous  lines,  and  its  most  im- 
portant branches  at  present  are  the  princely 
houses  of  Fugger-Eirchberg  and  Fugger-Ba- 
benhausen. 

FUGITIVE  (Lat  fvgire,  to  flee),  literally,  one 
who  flees  away.  Under  this  head  might  be 
considered  two  classes  of  cases:   1,  that  of 


FUGUE 


FULLER 


621 


fogitiyes  from  jnstice,  by  which  is  meant  those 
who  flee  from  one  jarisdiction  to  another  to 
escape  prosecution  or  punishment  for  crime 
(see  Extbadition);  2,  that  of  persona  fleeing 
to  avoid  compulsory  labor  for  others.  It  was 
one  of  the  compromises  of  the  constitution  of 
the  United  States  that  ^^no  person  held  to  ser- 
vice or  labor  in  one  state,  under  the  laws 
thereof,  escaping  into  another,  shall,  in  conse- 
quence of  any  law  or  regulation  therein,  be  dis- 
charged from  such  service  or  labor,  but  shall 
be  delivered  up  on  claim  of  the  party  to  whom 
such  service  or  labor  may  be  due."  (Art.  iv., 
§  2.)  Although  the  word  slave  was  not  here 
employed,  the  purpose  was  to  provide  for  the 
reclamation  of  slaves  fleeing  from  their  masters ; 
and  in  1793  an  act  was  passed  by  congress  to 
give  effect  to  the  provision  by  means  of  the  ar- 
rest of  any  person  claimed  as  a  fugitive  from 
slavery,  and  his  return  to  the  state  from  which 
he  was  found  to  have  fled,  after  a  summary 
judicial  hearing.  The  repugnance  to  the  insti- 
tution of  slavery  on  the  part  of  large  numbers 
of  people  in  the  northern  states  rendered  this 
act  of  little  practical  value,  and  another  was 
passed  in  18o0  with  more  stringent  provisions. 
Some  of  these  were  exceedingly  obnoxious, 
especially  that  which  gave  a  larger  fee  to  the 
judicial  officer  when  the  person  arrested  was 
adjudged  to  be  a  slave  than  when  decided  to  be 
free,  and  that  which  required  all  persons  to  as- 
sist when  called  upon  in  the  arrest  and  return 
of  the  person  claimed.  Although  many  per- 
sons were  remanded  under  this  act,  the  hostility 
to  slavery  which  was  created,  or  at  least  inten- 
sified by  it,  probably  led  to  the  giving  of  assist- 
ance in  a  larger  number  of  escapes  than  had 
ever  been  made  before,  and  the  act  became  of 
little  service.  A  widespread  organization  to 
assist  fugitives  to  their  uberty  became  known 
popularly  as  the  *^  underground  railroad,"  and 
a  great  many  persons  were  aided  by  it.  The 
act  was  repealed  after  the  civil  war  broke  out, 
and  the  constitutional  provision  became  unim- 
portant after  slavery  was  abolished. 

FUGUE  (Lat.  /t^a,  flight),  a  species  of  musical 
composition  in  which  one  voice  or  part  seems 
to  be  perpetually  flying  away  from  another, 
whence  tne  name.  The  principal  musical 
thought  of  the  piece,  or  the  subject,  having 
been  performed  by  one  voice  or  part,  is  taken 
up  by  another,  and  so  on  with  all  the  voices 
or  parts,  each  commencing  after  the  others, 
and  all  performing  together.  The  result  is  an 
endless  pursuit  and  flight  of  the  same  theme 
by  the  different  parts.  Fugues  are  simple, 
double,  or  counter,  the  last  being  much  the 
most  complicated. 

fVhEICH,  Jaseph  von,  a  German  painter,  bom 
at  Kratzau,  Bohemia,  Feb.  9,  1800,  died  March 
13, 1876.  He  studied  in  Prague  and  Rome, 
and  was  early  associated  with  Overbeck  and 
other  artists  in  decorating  the  villa  Massimi. 
In  1834  he  settled  in  Vienna,  where  he  be- 
came professor  of  historical  painting.  He  stood 
at  the  head  of  his  profession  in  his  specialty 


of  Scriptural  painting,  and  executed  admirable 
works  for  the  church  of  the  Viennese  suburb 
Lerchenfeld  and  for  other  churches.  Among 
his  later  productions  are  the  celebrated  missal 
completed  in  1868  for  the  emperor  Francis 
Joseph  as  a  present  for  the  pope;  two  alle- 
gorical cartoons  representing  spring  and  au- 
tumn (1869) ;  and  a  series  of  illustrations  of 
the  parabl«  of  the  prodigal  son  (1870). 

FIJLDA9  a  town  of  Prussia,  in  the  province  of 
Hesse-Nassau,  on  a  river  of  the  same  name, 
here  crossed  by  three  bridges,  56  m.  N.  E. 
of  Frankfort;  pop.  in  1871,  9,490.  It  contains 
a  palace  and  gardens,  formerly  the  residence 
of  the  prince-bishops,  a  number  of  churches, 
two  convents,  an  ecclesiastical  seminary,  and  a 
number  of  schools.  The  cathedral  is  a  fine 
modern  building,  the  fourth  which  has  stood 
on  this  site.  Of  the  ancient  church  it  retains 
only  a  crypt,  in  which  is  the  sarcophagus  of 
St.  Boniface.  There  is  a  library  of  50,000  vol- 
umes, manufactories  of  cotton,  linen,  and  wool- 
len, and  trade  in  corn  and  cattle. — ^The  abbey 
of  Fulda  was  founded  about  750  under  the 
auspices  of  St.  Boniface,  became  fiourishing  in 
the  following  century  through  the  learning  of 
Rabanus  Maurus,  who  taught  at  the  school 
connected  with  the  abbey,  and  obtained  from 
Otho  I.  in  968  the  primacy  of  all  abbeys  in 
Germany.  It  was  raised  to  the  dignity  of  a 
bishopric  in  1752.  This  was  secularized  in 
1803,  and  given  to  the  prince  of  Orange-Nas- 
sau, was  annexed  to  the  grand  duchy  of  Berg 
in  1806,  and  in  1809  to  the  principality  of 
Frankfort  After  the  peace  most  of  the  terri- 
tory was  given  to  the  electorate  of  Hesse,  and 
in  1866  was  with  the  latter  annexed  to  Prussia. 

FIJLHiJI,  a  suburb  of  London,  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Thames,  about  6  m.  S.  W.  of  St. 
PauFs  cathedral;  pop.  of  the  parish  in  1871, 
28,378.  The  village  of  Fulham  is  connected 
with  Putney  by  a  wooden  bridge.  Though 
irregularly  built,  it  contains  many  fine  houses 
and  villas.  The  most  celebrated  public  build- 
ing is  the  palace,  which  has  been  the  summer 
residence  of  the  bishop  of  London  since  the 
days  of  Henry  VII.  The  grounds,  nearly  40 
acres  in  extent,  are  surrounded  by  a  moat  over 
which  there  are  two  bridges.  The  palace  is 
remarkable  for  its  size  and  historical  associa- 
tions rather  than  for  architectural  merit.  '  The 
ancient  parish  church  of  All  Saints  has  a  fine 
Gothic  tower  and  monaments  of  the  bishops 
of  London  and  other  notabilities.  There  are 
many  nurseries  and  market  gardens,  noted 
especially  for  the  cultivation  of  asparagus,  for 
the  London  markets.  The  population  of  the 
parish  is  rapidly  increasing. 

FULLER,  Andrew,  an  English  Baptist  theolo- 
gian, bom  at  Wicken,  Cambridgeshire,  Feb.  6, 
1754,  died  at  Kettering,  Northamptonshire, 
May  7,  1815.  He  was  settled  first  at  Soham 
in  1775,  and  afterward  at  Kettering  in  1782. 
In  1784  he  published  a  treatise  entitled  *^The 
Gospel  Worthy  of  all  Acceptation,"  which  ex- 
cited much  controversy.    In  1799  he  composed 


522 


FULLER 


his  "Dialogues  and  Letters"  (published  col- 
lectively in  1806).  In  1792  he  took  an  active 
part  with  Carey  and  others  in  establisliing  the 
baptist  missionary  society,  and  was  appointed 
its  first  secretary ;  and  tUl  the  close  of  his  life 
he  was  constantly  engaged  in  promoting  its 
missions.  In  1794  he  published  "The  Calvin- 
istio  and  Socinian  Systems,  examined  and  com- 
pared as  to  their  Moral  Tendency;"  in  reply 
to  which  Dr.  Joshua  Toulmin  wrote  "The 
Practical  Efficacy  of  the  Unitarian  Doctrine 
considered,"  and  Fuller  rejoined  in  "  Socinian- 
ism  Indefensible,  on  the  ground  of  its  Moral 
Tendency"  (1797).  He  was  the  author  of  a 
great  number  of  other  treatises,  sermons,  &c. 
His  "  Complete  Works "  have  been  published 
in  8  vols.  8vo  (London,  1824),  in  1  vol.  imperial 
8vo,  with  a  memoir  by  his  son  (1862),  and  in 
many  other  editions.  The  degree  of  D.  D.  was 
conferred  on  Mr.  Fuller  by  Yale  college,  and 
also  by  the  college  of  New  Jersey,  but  he  de- 
clined receiving  it  as  unscriptural  and  incom- 
patible with  Christian  simplicity. 

FCLLER,  Margaret.  See  Obsoli,  Maboabbt 
Ftjlleb. 

IVLLEB.  Rkbard,  an  American  clergyman, 
born  in  Beaufort,  S.  C,  April  22,  1804,  died 
in  Baltimore,  Oct  20,  1876.  He  graduated  at 
Harvard  college  in  1824,  studied  law,  and  be- 
fore his  21st  year  was  admitted  to  the  bar  of 
South  Carolina.  He  almost  immediately  en- 
tered upon  a  large  and  lucrative  practice,  and 
was  on  the  road  to  professional  eminence  when 
he  was  prostrated  by  sickness.  On  his  recovery 
he  became  a  member  of  the  Episcopal  church, 
afterward  joined  the  Baptist  denomination,  and 
studied  for  the  ministry.  He  was  ordained  in 
1633,  and  took  charge  of  the  Beaufort  Baptist 
church.  In  1847  he  assumed  the  charge  of  the 
seventh  Baptist  church  in  Baltimore.  He  pub- 
lished "Letters  concerning  the  Roman  Chan- 
cery," being  a  public  correspondence  between 
him  and  the  Roman  Catholic  Bishop  England 
(Baltimore,  1840) ;  "  Correspondence  with  Dr. 
Wayland  on  Domestic  Slavery"  (1845);  "An 
Argument  on  Baptism  and  Close  Communion" 
(1849);  volumes  of  "Sermons"  and  "Let- 
ters;" and,  in  connection  with  J.  B.  Jeter, 
"  The  Psalmist,"  a  hymn  book  in  general  nsb 
in  th^  Baptist  denomination. 

FULLEB,  Thonas,  an  English  author,  bom  at 
Aldwinckle,  Northamptonshire,  in  June,  1608, 
died  Aug.  15,  1661.  He  was  educated  at 
Queen^s  college,  Cambridge,  won  the  highest 
university  honors,  received  the  living  of  St. 
Benet's,  Cambridge,  where  he  exhibited  great 
eloquence  as  a  preacher,  and  was  also  made  a 
prebendary  of  Salisbury.  His  first  publica- 
tion was  a  poem  entitled  "David^s  Hainons 
Sinne,  heartie  Repentance,  heavie  Punishment " 
(London,  1631).  He  was  soon  after  presented 
to  the  rectory  of  Broad  Windsor,  Dorsetshire, 
where  he  prosecuted  several  works  that  he  had 
planned  at  Cambridge.  After  seven  years  he 
removed  to  London,  where  his  fame  for  pulpit 
eloquence  secured  for  him  the  lectureship  of 


the  Savoy,  and  he  published  his  "  Historic  of 
the  Holy  Warre  "  (Cambridge,  1639).     In  1640 
he  was  a  member  of  the  convocation  assem- 
bled in  Henry  VII. 's  chapel,  Westminster,  to 
make  canons  for  the  better  government  of 
the  church,  of  whose  proceedings  he  gives 
an  interesting  account  in  his  "Church  His- 
tory."   After  the  outbreak  of  the  civil  war 
he  identified  himself  with  the  royal  cause, 
and  obtained  a  chaplaincy  in  the  army  under 
Sir  Ralph  Hopton.     He  improved  the  leisure 
which  this  position  gave  him,  and  the  facili- 
ties presented  by  the  marches  and  counter- 
marches through  the  country,  in  collecting  by 
an  extensive  correspondence  and  personal  in- 
quiries the  materials  for  his  "Worthies  of 
England."    He  was  besieged  at  Basing  House 
in  1644  with  a  small  party  of  royalists,  but 
animated  the  garrison  to  so  vigorous  a  defence 
that  the  parliamentary  commander  was  obliged 
to  retire  with  considerable  loss.    Taking  ref- 
uge in  Exeter  on  the  defeat  of  Hopton  in 
1645,  he  preached  constantly  to  the  citizens 
till  its  surrender  in  April,  1646,  and  published 
there  his   "Good  Thoughts  in  Bad  Times" 
(1645).    His  "  Good  Thoughts  in  Worse  Times  " 
appeared  in  1646,  after  his  return  to  London, 
and  he  published  a  new  edition  with  the  "  Sec- 
ond Century  of  Good  Thoughts  in  Bad  Tinqes  " 
(1647) ;  in  1660  he  completed  the  series  with 
"  Mixt  Contemplations  in  Better  Times."    He 
continued  to  preach  and  to  publish  tracts  and 
sermons,  notwithstanding  "it  had  been  the 
pleasure  of  the  present  authority  to  make  him 
mute,"  and  notwithstanding  CromwelPs  prohi- 
bition of  all  persons  from  preaching  or  teaching 
schools  who  had  been  adherents  of  the  late 
king.    In  1648  he  became  rector  of  Waltham 
abbey  in  Essex,  and  in  1658  chaplain  to  Lord 
Berkeley  and  rector  of  Cranford.    Shortly  be- 
fore the  restoration  he  was  reinstated  in  his 
lectureship  at  the  Savoy,  and  after  that  event 
was  chosen   chaplain    extraordinary    to   tlie 
king,  and  regained  the  prebend  of  Salisbury. 
A  bishopric  was  expected  for  him  when  he 
died.    He  was  buried  in  his  church  at  Cranford, 
in  the  chancel  of  which  his  monument  still  re- 
mains.   His  "  Holy  and  Profane  State,  a  collec- 
tion of  Characters,  Moral  Essays,  and  Lives, 
Ancient,  Foreign,  and  Domestic  "  (Cambridge, 
1642),  proposing   examples  for  our  imitation 
and  abhorrence,  is  one  of  his  best  productions, 
and  fully  exhibits  his  sagacity  of  thought  and 
pithiness  of  style.    His  "Church  History  of 
Britain,  from  the  Birth  of  Jesus  Christ  until 
the  year  MDCXLVIII."  (I^ndon,  1656),  though 
abounding  in  jokes,  quibbles,  dedications,  anec- 
dotes, and  curious  and  irrelevant  learning,  is 
one  of  the  most  remarkable  works  in  the  lan- 
guage for  wit,  piety,  pathos,  and  imagination. 
The  "  History  of  the  Worthies  of  England,"  a 
collection  of  eccentric  biographies,  published 
posthumously  (London,  1662),  has  been  more 
generally  read  than  any  other  of  his  works, 
and  abounds  in  gossip,  admirably  told  stories, 
curious  details,  and  witty  and  excellent  re- 


FDILEBS'  EABTH 

flectioDB.     The  style  of  all  hia  writings  is  < 
tremelj  qustnt  aiiil  idioinatio,  in  abort  and 
Eimple  sentences,  and  Bingularlj  free  from  the 
pedantry  of  hia  time, 

FDIXEKS'  EARTH,  an  nuctuous  sort  of  clay, 
mufh  of  it  kaoliaite,  useful  in  fulling  cloth, 
from  its  property,  oommon  to  aluminouB  earths, 
of  absorbing  oil  and  grease.  That  variety  of 
clay  is  preferred  which  falls  to  pieces  when 
pQt  in  water,  making  a  slight  orackling  sound. 
Its  colors  are  various  shades  of  ydlowish, 
greenish,  bluish,  brown,  and  gray;  lustre  dull, 
but  appears  greasy  when  rubbed.  Its  compo- 
sition is  given  byDr,  Ure  as  follows:  silica  68, 
alumina  10,  peroxide  of  iron  9'T5,  magnesia 
1-35,  iirae  0-5,  water  24,  potash  a  trace.  Dr. 
Thomson  found  silica  44,  alnmina  23'06,  pro- 
toxide of  iron  3,  magnesia  2,  lime  4'08,  water 
24-9o.  It  is  not  now  esteemed  of  so  mncb 
value  as  formerly,  soap  having  taken  its  place. 
In  England  it  osed  to  be  so  highly  valued  that 
its  exportation  was  prohibited.  When  used, 
it  was  first  dried  by  the  son  or  by  fire,  and 
then  thrown  into  cold  water.  The  powder 
thus  formed  was  sorted  by  washing  into  coarse 
and  fine  qnalities,  the  former  of  which  were 
applied  to  inferior,  the  latter  to  finer  cloths. 

FDIXEBTON,  Lad;  Get^tsBa  Chaitotte,  an  Eng- 
lish aathoress,  born  Sept.  23, 1812.  She  is  the 
daughter  of  the  first  enrl  of  Granville,  and  was 
married  io  1833  to  Capt.  Alexander  George 
Fnllerton.  Her  first  publication,  a  novel  en- 
titled ''  Ellon  Middleton,"  appeared  in  1844, 
and  was  succeeded  within  a  few  years  by 
"Grantley  Manor."  Both  works  exhibit  con- 
Btrnctive  skill  and  an  analysis  of  character  of 
no  mean  order.  "  Lady-Bird,"  publiahed  in 
1832,  after  her  conversion  to  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic church,  ia  a  narrative  of  her  religious 
BtTDggles.  From  this  time  she  devoted  her 
pen  to  the  glorification  of  her  charoh,  and 
published  a  number  of  romances  on  ajiinta, 
misaons.  and  conversions ;  among  them,  "  Con- 
stance Sherwood"  (1865),  depicting  the  suf- 
ferings of  the  Cntholics  under  Elizabeth  ;  "  A 
Stormj  Life  "  (1867),  representing  Henry  vl.  as 
a  martyr-saint ;  "  ilespers  of  the  Holy  Souls  " 
(1898);  and  "Mrs.  Gerald's  Niece"  (1860). 
She  has  also  pnbliBhed  works  in  French,  as  La 
comtene  de  Boitnmal,  ffUtoire  dit  tempa  de 
Louit  XIV.  (1857),  and  Ko»e  Lehlane  (18G0). 

Fl'LUNfi,  also  called  Millino,  the  opera- 
tion of  removing  greasy  matters  from  woollen 
goods,  and  of  giving  to  them  a  more  compact 
texture  by  causing  the  fibres  to  entangle  them- 
selves more  closely  t<^ether,  as  in  the  process 
of  felting.  Fulling  mills  are  ancient  inven- 
tions, the  process  probably  having  been  ap- 
plied to  the  first  woven  fabrics,  as  felting 
must  already  have  been  then  known.  Cloths 
brought  to  the  fulling  mills  contain  the  oil 
which  was  applied  to  the  fibre  in  weaving. 
The  first  process  to  which  they  are  subjected 
is  called  scouring  or  braying.  This  is  effected 
by  placing  the  rolb  in  troughs  so  arranged  that 
they  can  retain  the  detergent  lifjuid,  as,  first, 


FOLMAR 


623 


Bt«1e  urine  and  hogs*  dnng,  subsequently  urine 
alone,  and  ag^n  fullers'  earth  and  water,  while 
heav;  oaken  mallets  or  pounders  slide  down 
with  force  into  one  end  of  the  troughs  and 
mash  and  roll  over  the  folds  of  cloth.  The 
ponnderB  are  lifted  by  revolving  cams,  and 
kept  in  action  for  hours  together,  one  to  each 
trough.  The  oil  is  absorbed  by  the  clay,  and 
both  are  washed  ofi'  by  the  water.  The  fulling 
is  properly  a  second  process  performed  in  the 
same  machines  with  the  use  of  soap  applied 
liberally  in  solotion.  The  stampers  are  better 
made  of  polished  iron,  and  tlie  operation  is  fa- 
cilitated, with  economy  of  soap,  by  keeping  the 
trough  filled  witli  hot  steam.  Cloth  is  also 
fulled  in  what  is  called  the  fulling  machine  with- 
out stamping,  the  cloth  being  pushed  in  a  suc- 
cession of  folds  through  a  low  trough,  the  top 
of  which  is  mode  by  weights  to  press  upon  these 
folds  and  resist  their  progress  through.  The 
soap  ia  washed  out  after  the  fulling,  and  the 
nap  is  raised  by  teazling.  To  full  a  piece  of 
ordinary  broadcloth  it  has  been  customary  to 
allow  from  60  to  65  hours,  and  11  lbs.  of  soap; 
the  shrinkage  in  width  ia  from  12  quartera  to 
7,  and  in  length  from  54  yards  to  40. 

FTUUB,  a  species  of  large  petrol  of  the 
genus  proeellaria  (Linn.)  or/ulmaru*  (Leach). 
This  bird  (P.  gl/Kialu,  Linu.)  is  about  20  in. 
long,  with  on  alar  extent  of  3  ft.  and  a  weight 
of  1^  lb.;  the  bill,  iris,  and  feet  are  yellow, 
the  latter  with  a  greenish  tinge;  the  head, 
peck,  and  lower  parts  pure  white;  back  and 
wings  light  grayish  blue,  palest  on  rump,  and 
the  tail  bluish  white;  quills  and  their  coverts 
blackish  brown ;  a  blacE  spot  before  and  partly 
over  the  eyes.  It  is  abundant  in  the  arotio 
seas,  where  it  attends  the  whale  ships,  seizing 
the  pieces  of  blubber  which  fall  into  the  water, 


Fulnur  (FrwKllvli  rIuSiUi). 

and  often  boldly  helping  itself  from  the  carcass 
while  the  men  are  at  work.  It  breeds  in  the 
northern  regions,  coming  down  on  the  Ameri- 
can coast  as  far  as  Long  Island  in  the  autumn, 
winter,  and  early  spring,  and  is  pretty  com- 
mon on  the  banks  of  Newfoundland,  where 


624 


FULMINATES 


FULTON 


it  feeds  on  the  garbage  rejected  by  the  cod 
fishers.  It  also  breeds  in  the  island  of  St. 
Kilda,  on  the  W.  coast  of  Scotland,  where  the 
inhabitants  eat  the  flesh  and  eggs,  preserve 
the  down  and  feathers,  and  collect  oil  by  boil- 
ing down  the  yonng,  which  is  nsed  for  burn- 
ing and  for  medicinal  purposes.  The  eggs 
are  pure  white,  with  very  brittle  shells,  regu- 
larly ovate,  ^  by  2  in.,  and  are  obtained  with 
great  difficulty  and  danger,  as  the  nests  are  in 
the  crevices  of  nearly  perpendicular  rocks.  It 
is  a  bold  and  powerfiil  bird,  a  rapid  and  grace- 
^  fnl  flyer,  an  excellent  swimmer,  but  awkward 
'  on  land ;  it  rarely  dives ;  it  is  hardy,  difficult 
to  kill  from  the  thickness  of  its  plumage,  and 
can  inflict  severe  wounds  with  the  bill.  Sev- 
eral other  large  species  of  petrels  are  also  called 
fulmar.    (See  Pbtrel.) 

FULHUATES.    See  Explosives. 

FVLMINIC  ACID  (Lat.  fulmm,  lightning),  one 
of  the  isomeric  modifications  of  cyanic  acid, 
represented  by  the  formula  OyaHtOj.  Its 
compounds  are  distinguished  for  their  explo- 
sive character,  in  which  they  differ  fipom  those 
of  cyanic  acid.  All  attempts  to  obtain  it  iso- 
lated have  failed,  from  its  tendency  to  instan- 
taneous decomposition  with  explosion. 

FULTON,  the  name  of  eight  counties  in  the 
United  States.  L  An  E.  county  of  New  York, 
drained  by  Sacandaga  river  and  East  Canada 
creek ;  area  about  680  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
27,064.  The  soil  is  fertile  and  the  surface 
uneven,  with  several  mountainous  elevations. 
The  New  York  Central  railroad  passes  near  its 
S.  boundary.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  4,530  bushels  of  wheat,  12,988  of  rye, 
107,428  of  Indian  com,  303,914  of  oats,  62,178 
of  buckwheat,  200,949  of  potatoes,  64,862  tons 
of  hay,  256,478  lbs.  of  cheese,  667,152  of  but- 
ter, 56,761  of  wool,  and  72,608  of  hops.  Tliere 
were  4,001  horses,  11,197  milch  cows,  7,327 
other  cattle,  16,099  sheep,  and  6,210  swine; 
118  manufactories  of  gloves  and  mittens,  14  of 
dressed  skins,  9  of  paper  and  wood  boxes,  8  of 
cheese,  1  of  hardware,  10  of  paper,  2  of  wool- 
len goods,  7  flour  mills,  23  saw  mills,  1  planing 
mill,  15  tanneries,  and  2  currying  establish- 
ments. Capital,  Johnstown.  IL  A  S.  county 
of  Pennsylvania,  bordering  on  Maryland,  and 
drained  by  Conoloway  and  Licking  creeks, 
tributaries  of  the  Potomac ;  area,  880  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  9,860.  Its  E.  boundary  is  formed 
by  Cove  mountain ;  Sideling  hill  lies  on  its  "W. 
frontier,  and  between  the  two  are  fertile  val- 
leys. The  uplands  produce  timber,  which  is 
one  of  the  principal  staples.  The  chief  pro- 
ductions in  1870  were  102,144  bushels  of  wheat, 
48,202  of  rye,  142,176  of  Indian  com,  103,705 
of  oats,  40,081  of  potatoes,  9,184  tons  of  hay, 
and  171,741  lbs.  of  butter.  There  were  2,945 
horses,  8,200  milch  cows,  4,600  other  cattle, 
6,879  sheep,  and  6,906  swino ;  8  flour  mills,  and 
7  tanneries.  Capital,  McConnellsburg.  III. 
A  N.  W.  county  of  Georgia,  bounded  N.  W. 
by  Chattahoochee  river ;  area,  200  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1870,  33,446,  of  whom  16,282  were  colored. 


The  surface  is  diversified  and  the  soil  fertile. 
Numerous  railroads  centre  at  Atlanta.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  24,604  bushels 
of  wheat,  134,996  of  Indian  corn,  10,207  of 
oats,  10,002  of  Irish  and  81,698  of  sweet  pota- 
toes, and  866  bales  of  cotton.  There  were  414 
horses,  716  mules  and  asses,  1,204  milch  cows, 
2,711  other  cattle,  727  sheep,  6,177  swine,  and 
many  manufacturing  establishments,  chiefly  at 
Atlanta,  the  capital,  which  is  also  the  capital 
of  the  state.  I?.  A  N.  county  of  Arkansas, 
bordering  on  Missouri,  and  drained  by  the  N. 
fork  of  White  river ;  area,  860  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  4,843,  of  whom  86  were  colored.  It  has 
a  hilly  surface  and  a  good  soil,  suitable  for 
grain  and  pasturage.  The  chief  productions 
in  1870  were  18,498  bushels  of  wheat,  141,925 
of  Indian  com,  10,598  of  oats,  276  bales  of 
cotton,  and  22,750  lbs.  of  tobacco.  There  were 
1,818  horses,  1,882  milch  cows,  8,620  other 
cattle,  8,711  sheep,  and  7^69  swine.  Capi- 
tal, Pilot  Hill.  V.  A  8.  W.  county  of  Ken- 
tucky, bounded  S.  by  Tennessee,  and  sepa- 
rated from  Missouri  on  the  "W.  and  N.  W.  by 
the  Mississippi  river;  area  about  200  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  6,161,  of  whom  987  were  colored. 
The  surface  is  somewhat  diversifled,  and  the 
soil  generally  fertile.  It  is  traversed  by  the 
Mobile  and  Ohio  and  the  Nashville  and  North- 
western railroads.  The  chief  productions  in 
1870  were  40,844  bushels  of  wheat,  488,014  of 
Ihdian  com,  and  888,686  lbs.  of  tobacco.  There 
were  1,298  horses,  1,210  milch  cows,  1,826 
other  cattle,  8,790  sheep,  and  12,428  swine. 
Capital,  Hickman.  VI.  A  N.  W.  county  of 
Ohio,  bordering  on  Michigan,  drained  by  Tiffin's 
river,  a  branch  of  the  Maumee ;  area  about  887 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  17,789.  It  has  an  un- 
dulating surface  and  a  fertile  soil,  suitable  for 
grain  and  pasturage.  It  is  intersected  by  the 
Lake  Shore  and  Michigan  Southern  railroad. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  288,206 
bushels  of  wheat,  199,725  of  Indian  corn,  176,- 
248  of  oats,  106,686  of  potatoes,  28,887  tons  of 
hay,  113,565  lbs.  of  cheese,  .51 2,290  of  butter, 
and  150,424  of  wool.  There  were  4,924  horses, 
6,048  milch  cows,  6,805  other  cattle,  88,868 
sheep,  and  10,182  swine ;  9  manufactories  of 
carriages  and  wagons,  2  of  cheese,  4  of  bar- 
rels, &c.,  5  of  saddlery  and  harness,  21  saw 
mills,  4  tanneries,  and  7  flour  mills.  Capital, 
Ottokee.  VII.  A  N.  county  of  Indiana,  drained 
by  Tippecanoe  river ;  area,  866  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  12,726.  It  has  a  level  surface,  occupied 
partly  by  prairies,  partly  by  oak  openings,  and 
partly  by  forests.  Iron  is  found  in  some  locali- 
ties, and  the  streams  furnish  abundant  water 
power.  The  soil  is  mostly  of  good  quality. 
The  Chicago,  Cincinnati,  and  Louisville  railroad 
passes  through  it.  The  chief  productions  in 
1870  were  278,145  bushels  of  wheat,  142,684 
of  Indian  com,  38,909  of  oats,  41,897  of  pota- 
toes, 13,246  tons  of  hay,  229,108  lbs.  of  butter, 
and  46,764  of  wool.  There  were  4,700  horses, 
3,817  milch  cows,  4,924  other  cattle,  14,940 
sheep,  and  10,588  swine ;  2  manufactories  of 


FULTON 


525 


carriages  and  wagons,  2  of  woollen  goods,  1  of 
boots  and  shoes,  6  flour  mills,  and  14  saw 
mills.  Capital,  Rochester.  YI1I«  A  W.  county 
of  Illinois,  bounded  S.  E.  by  the  Illinois  river, 
and  drained  by  Spoon  river ;  area,  870  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870, 88,291.  The  Illinois  river,  which 
is  here  navigable,  is  the  channel  of  a  large  ex- 
port trade.  Spoon  river  is  valuable  for  water 
power,  and  nearly  all  the  streams  are  bordered 
by  a  good  growth  of  timber.  The  soil  of  the 
county  is  rich,  and  the  surface  undulating,  oc- 
cupied partly  by  prairies  and  partly  by  wood- 
lands. Goal  is  found  in  abundance.  The  To- 
ledo, Peoria,  and  Warsaw  railroad,  and  a  branch 
of  the  Chicago,  Burlington,  and  Quincy  rail- 
road pass  through  it  The  chief  productions 
in  1870  were  417,599  bushels  of  wheat,  181,- 
711  of  rye,  1,608,768  of  Indian  corn,  261,- 
890  of  oats,  96,207  of  potatoes,  27,545  tons 
of  hay,  458,878  lbs.  of  butter,  and  105,259 
of  wool.  There  were  12,825  horses,  8,610 
milch  cows,  15,949  other  cattle,  2,078  sheep, 
and  57,966  swine;  8  manufactories  of  agri- 
cultural implements,  15  of  carriages  and  wag- 
ons, 8  of  boots  and  shoes,  6  of  furniture,  2 
of  hubs  and  wagon  material,  11  of  saddlery  and 
harness,  8  of  woollen  goods,  10  saw  mills,  and 
12  flour  mills.    Capital,  Lewistown. 

FULTOBT.  I.  A  village  of  Oswego  co.,  New 
York,  on  the  E.  bank  of  the  Oswego  river, 
about  10  m.  8.  S.  E.  of  Oswego,  and  on  the 
Oswego  canal,  and  the  Oswego  and  Syracuse 
and  New  York  and  Oswego  Midland  railroads ; 
pop.  in  1870,  8,507.  It  is  chiefly  noted  for  its 
manufactures.  The  principal  establishments  are 
machine  shops,  iron  fonnderies,  a  planing  mill, 
flour  mills,  woollen  mills,  and  manufactories  of 

{)ails,  tubs,  paper,  boats,  sashes,  doors,  and 
tlinds,  bedsteads,  lime,  potash,  edge  tools,  &c. 
There  are  marble  yards,  many  fine  stores,  two 
national  banks,  and  two  weekly  newspapers. 
The  Falley  academy  (Presbyterian)  in  1872  had 
5  instructors  and  82  pupils.  IL  A  town  and 
the  capital  of  Callaway  oo.,  Missouri,  on  a 
branch  of  the  Chicago  and  Alton  railroad, 
12  m.  'from  the  Missouri  river,  and  20  m.  N.  E. 
of  JeflTerson  City ;  pop.  in  1870, 1,586,  of  whom 
480  were  colored.  It  is  the  seat  of  the  state 
asylum  for  the  deaf  and  dumb,  and  of  the 
state  lunatic  asylum,  which  occupies  a  beau- 
tiful edifice,  five  stories  high  and  210  ft.  long, 
on  a  plot  of  460  acres.  Westminster  college 
(Presbyterian)  in  1872  had  12  professors  and 
instructors,  101  students,  and  a  library  of  2,600 
volumes.  The  town  contains  a  national  bank, 
three  weekly  newspapers,  and  manufactories 
of  earthenware. 

FULTOH,  Robert,  an  American  inventor,  bom 
at  Little  Britain,  Lancaster  co..  Pa.,  in  1765, 
died  in  New  York,  Feb.  24,  1815.  When 
about  three  years  old  he  lost  his  father.  He 
received  a  common  school  education,  went  to 
Philadelphia  at  the  age  of  17,  and  became  a 
miniature  painter.  Mechanical  pursuits^  how- 
ever, mingled  with  those  of  the  artist.  Before 
attaming  his  majority  he  had  laid  by  a  sum 


sufficient  to  buy  a  small  farm,  upon  which  he 
placed  his  mother,  and  soon  afterward  went 
to  London  to  study  under  West,  with  whom 
he  remained  several  years.  Afterward  he  be- 
came acquainted  with  the  duke  of  Bridgewa- 
ter,  at  whose  instance  he  adopted  the  profes- 
sion of  civil  engineer.  He  had  in  the  mean 
time  become  acquainted  with  Earl  Stanhope, 
who  was  engaged  on  a  scheme  of  steam  navi- 
gation. In  1793  Fulton  wrote  to  him,  sug- 
gesting some  of  the  views  which  he  afterward 
reduced  to  practice  on  the  Hudson.  At  Bir- 
mingham he  was  brought  into  communication 
with  Watt,  who  had  just  succeeded  in  his  great 
improvement  of  the  steam  engine,  with  the 
structure  of  which  Fulton  made  himself  fa- 
miliar. During  his  residence  here  he  devised 
an  improved  mill  for  sawing  marble,  for  which 
he  received  a  vote  of  thanks  and  an  honorary 
medal  from  the  British  society  for  the  promo- 
tion of  arts  and  commerce.  To  this  period  also 
are  referred  his  patented  machines  for  spinning 
flax  and  for  malnng  ropes,  and  the  invention  of 
an  excavator  for  scooping  out  the  channels  of 
canals  and  aqueducts.  In  1796  he  published 
in  London  his  treatise  on  the  improvement  of 
canal  navigation.  Having  obtained  a  patent  in 
England  for  canal  improvements,  Fulton  went 
to  France  with  the  view  of  introducing  them 
there,  but  his  attention  was  soon  diverted  to 
other  objects.  In  1797  he  took  up  his  resi- 
dence at  Paris,  where  he  resided  for  seven 
years  with  Joel  Barlow,  and  superintended  the 
Illustration  of  his  **  Columbiad."  At  this  time 
he  devised  the  submarine  boat,  afterward  styled 
a  nautilus,  connected  with  which  were  sub- 
marine bombs,  afterward  known  as  torpedoes. 
This  invention  he  oflTered  several  times  to  the 
French  government,  and  once  to  the  Dutch 
ambassador  at  Paris,  without  exciting  their  fa- 
vorable attention.  Negotiations  were  subse- 
quently opened  with  him  by  the  British  gov- 
ernment, which  induced  him  to  visit  London 
in  May,  1804.  A  commission,  at  the  head  of 
which  was  Sir  Joseph  Banks,  reported  that 
the  submarine  boat  was  impracticable.  In  Oc- 
tober, 1805,  he  was  permitted  to  experiment 
on  a  brig  of  200  tons  burden  with  a  carcass  of 
170  lbs.  of  powder.  In  15  minutes  from  the 
application  of  the  carcass  the  explosion  took 
place ;  the  brig,  according  to  Fulton^s  account, 
made  no  more  resistance  than  a  bag  of  feathers, 
and  went  to  pieces  like  a  shattered  egg  shell. 
Notwithstanding  this  success  Fulton  was  dis- 
appointed in  his  hopes  of  government  patron- 
age, and  at  length  embarked  for  his  native 
country.  He  reached  New  York  in  December, 
1806,  and  in  the  following  month  went  to 
Washington,  where  his  models  and  drawings 
made  a  favorable  impression,  and  a  sum  was 
appropriated  to  defray  the  cost  of  experiments 
with  the  torpedoes.  The  probability  of  a  rup- 
ture with  England,  consequent  on  the  affair  of 
the  Leopard  and  Chesapeake,  made  the  sum- 
mer of  1807  propitious  to  his  project,  and  on 
July  20  he  decomposed  a  large  hulk  brig  in  the 


526 


FULTON 


FULVIA 


harbor  of  New  York  with  a  torpedo  containing 
70  lbs.  of  powder.  In  1810  he  again  visited 
Washington,  and  explained  some  improvements 
in  his  plans  to  Jefferson^  Madison,  and  a  num- 
ber of  members  of  congress.  So  snccessful  was 
he  in  his  explanations  that  congress  appropri- 
ated $5,000  for  farther  experiments,  to  be  pros- 
ecated  under  the  direction  of  the  navy  depart- 
ment. The  sloop  of  war  Argus  had  been  pre- 
pared,  under  the  orders  of  Commodore  Kodg- 
ers,  to  defend  herself  against  Fulton^s  attack, 
which  proved  unsuccessful.  Various  reports 
were  made  by  the  commissioners,  but  Rodgers 
pronounced  Fulton^s  system  to  be  impracti- 
cable. Fulton  still  believed  in  it,  but  he  had 
engaged  in  other  schemes  which  left  him  no 
time  to  continue  his  experiments.  While  resi- 
ding in  Paris  he  had  become  acquainted  with 
Robert  R.  Livingston,  then  United  Btates  min- 
ister to  France,  who  had  previously  been  con- 
nected with  Nicholas  Roosevelt  and  John  Ste- 
vens in  steamboat  experiments  at  home.  He 
now  entered  into  the  views  of  Fulton,  and  of- 
fered to  provide  funds  for  an  experiment,  and 
to  contract  for  the  introduction  of  the  new 
method,  if  successful,  into  the  United  States. 
In  1798  an  act  was  passed  by  the  legislature 
of  New  York,  repealing  the  act  of  1787  in  fa- 
vor of  John  Fitch,  and  transferring  to  Living- 
ston the  exclusive  privilege  of  navigating  the 
waters  of  the  state  by  steam,  on  condition  that 
he  should  within  a  twelvemonth  give  proof  of 
his  having  built  a  boat  of  20  tons  capable  of  a 
mean  progress  in  the  Hudson  river  of  four 
miles  an  hour,  and  at  no  time  omit  for  one 
year  to  have  a  boat  of  this  construction  plying 
between  Albany  and  New  York.  This  act  was 
from  time  to  time  continued,  and  Fulton  was 
finally  included  within  its  provisions.  Late  in 
1808  Fulton  constructed  a  working  model  of 
his  intended  boat,  and  at  the  same  time  com- 
menced building  a  vessel  66  ft  in  length  and  8 
ft.  in  width.  When  finished,  it  did  not  move 
with  the  speed  that  was  expected.  In  the 
same  year,  however,  he  sent  an  order  to  Watt 
and  Boulton  for  a  steam  engine  to  propel  a 
boat  of  large  size,  which  was  completed  and 
reached  New  York  in  1806.  Fulton  had  mean- 
while informed  himself  of  everything  that  had 
been  attempted  in  steam  navigation  in  Europe 
and  the  United  States.  He  planned  for  the 
new  machinery  a  boat  that  was  completed  and 
fitted  in  1807  and  named  the  Clermont.  Its 
progress  through  the  waters  of  the  Hudson  is 
stated  at  five  miles  an  hour.  In  the  course 
of  the  ensuing  winter  it  was  enlarged  to  a  boat 
of  140  ft.  keel  and  16}  ft.  beam.  So  com- 
pletely was  the  utility  of  the  invention  estab- 
lished that  the  legislature  extended  the  ex- 
clusive privilege  of  Livingston  and  Fulton  tve 
years  for  every  additional  boat,  provided  the 
whole  term  should  not  exceed  30  years;  and 
in  1808  passed  another  act  subjecting  to  for- 
feiture any  vessel  propelled  by  steam  which 
should  enter  the  waters  of  the  state  without 
their  license.    His  second  large  boat  on  the 


Hudson  was  the  Car  of  Neptune,  built  in  1807. 
In  1809  Fulton  obtained  his  first  patent  from 
the  United  States;  and  in  1811  he  took  out  a 
second  patent  for  some  improvement  in  his 
boats  and  machinery.  Meanwhile  the  power 
of  the  legislature  to  grant  the  steamboat  mono- 
poly was  denied,  and  a  company  was  formed 
at  Albany  to  establish  anoUier  line  of  steam 
passage  boats  on  the  Hudson,  between  that 
city  and  New  York.  The  state  grantees  filed 
a  bill  in  equity,  and  prayed  for  an  injunction, 
which  was  refused  on  the  ground  that  the  act 
of  the  state  legislature  was  repugnant  to  the  con- 
stitution of  the  United  States  and  against  com- 
mon right.  This  decree  was  reversed  by  the 
court  of  errors,  and  a  compromise  was  effected 
with  the  Albany  company  by  an  assignment  to 
them  of  a  right  to  employ  steam  on  the  waters 
of  Lake  Champlain.  Other  litigation  followed, 
the  result  of  which  was  that  the  waters  of  the 
state  remained  in  the  exclusive  possession  of 
Fulton  and  his  partner  during  the  lifetime  of 
the  former.  A  similar  controversy  arose  in 
New  Jersey,  which  was  also  compromised. 
Pending  these  controversies,  Fulton  constructed 
ferry  boats  to  run  between  New  York  and  New 
Jersey,  one  for  a  Brooklyn  company,  a  boat 
for  Long  Island  sound,  Hve  for  the  Hudson 
river,  and  several  boats  for  steamboat  compa- 
nies in  different  parts  of  the  United  States,  some 
of  them  for  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi  rivers. 
In  1811  he  was  made  one  of  the  commissioners 
appointed  by  the  legislature  to  explore  the 
route  of  an  inland  navigation  from  the  Hudson 
river  to  tlie  lakes.  In  1814  congress  authorized 
the  president  to  build  and  employ  one  or  more 
floating  batteries  for  coast  defence,  and  Fulton 
was  appointed  the  engineer.  He  commenced 
immediately  the  construction  of  a  war  steamer, 
which  was  launched  within  four  months,  and 
was  styled  by  the  constructor  the  Demologos, 
though  it  was  afterward  named  Fulton  the 
First.  This  first  war  steamer  was  a  heavy  and 
unwieldy  mass,  which  obtained  a  speed  against 
the  current  of  some  2}  miles  an  hour ;  but  as 
tiie  pioneer  of  the  steam  navies  of  the  world  it 
was  regarded  as  a  marvel,  and  as  a  most  for- 
midable engine  of  defence.  The  war  having 
terminated  before  her  completion,  she  was 
taken  to  the  navy  yard  at  Brooklyn,  where 
she  was  used  as  a  receiving  ship  till  June  4, 
1829,  when  she  was  accidentally  blown  up. 
While  engaged  in  the  construction  of  this  war 
steamer,  Fulton  was  employed  by  the  president 
upon  an  improved  modification  of  his  submarine 
boat,  which  was  arrested  by  his  death.  The 
"Life  of  Robert  Fulton,"  by  C.  D.  Colden, 
was  published  in  1817.  His  life  has  also 
been  written  by  James  Renwick,  in  Sparks's 
"  American  Biography." 

FIXVIA,  a  Roman  lady,  bom  about  80,  died 
about  40  B.  C.  She  was  married  successively 
to  Clodius,  Curio,  and  Mark  Antony,  and  bad 
part  in  arranging  the  fearful  proscription  of  the 
second  triumvirate.  When  the  head  of  Cicero 
was  brought  to  her,  she  pierced  the  tongue 


FOMBINA 

witb  her  neeiUe.  To  witlidraw  Antonj  from 
Efi7pt,  where  the  charma  of  Cleopatra  de- 
tained hint,  and  to  take  revenge  upon  Octa- 
vius,  who  bad  affronted  her  bj  repadiating 
bis  wife,  her  daughter  Clodia,  ebe  excited  her 
brother-iu-law  Lucius  AotoDiiia  U>  inake  war 
Qpon  Octavias.  The  war  was  ODBUocessfut, 
and  Fulvia  escaped  to  Greece,  was  reproached 
by  Antony,  who  met  her  at  Athens,  and  died 
of  shame  and  regret  at  Sicyon. 

FOHBni.    See  Adiuawa. 

FDKCBll,  a  seajKirt  town  and  the  capiUI  of 
the  island  of  Madeira,  ou  the  S.  E.  coast,  in  lat 
82"  ST  N,,  Ion.  IS"  54'  80"  W. ;  pop.  about 
25,000.  It  Btanda  on  a  wide  shalJow  bay,  em- 
braced by  the  steep  promontoriea  of  Fnota  da 
CroE  on  the  west  and  Cape  Gartuiio  on  the  east, 
and  enclosed  in  the  rear  by  broken  voleanio 


fCnen 


52T 


ridges.  The  town  is  defended  by  fonr  forts.  It 
presents  a  pictaresque  appearanoe,  the  white 
walls  of  the  houses,  whicn  are  mostly  of  stone, 
contrasting  with  the  never  failing  foliage  of  the 
gardens.  The  streets  are  narrow,  with  steep  as- 
cents, and  pared  with  small  stones.  Trav^ing 
and  the  transfer  of  merchandise  are  done  on 
sleds,  drawn  by  oxen.  There  are  no  public 
buildings  of  mnoh  elegance,  and  the  numeroas 
charches  and  convents  Lave  no  archtteotnral 
beanty.  The  cathedral,  however,  deserves 
mention.  Tbe  harbor,  which  is  covered  by  the 
furts,  is  indifferent.  Fresh  meat  and  poultry 
are  sold  at  high  prices,  but  the  richest  fruits, 
eieellent  fish,  and  vegetables  may  be  bad 
cheaply  in  abondance.  The  town  is  resorted 
to  by  invalids  from  ail  ooantries  on  account  of 
its  delightful  climate.    The  mean  temperature 


is  about  68°  F.,  and  the  difference  between  the 
hottest  and  coldest  niontlia  (August  and  Febru- 
ary) averages  only  10°.  The  imports  for  1871 
amounted  to  $1,006,373 ;  the  esports  to  $798,- 
800,  of  which  wine  constituted  $633,000,  near- 
ly the  whole  of  which  was  sent  to  Great  Brit- 
sin  and  the  British  colonies.  The  entrances 
to  tbe  port  were  266  steamers  and  306  sailing 
vessels.  The  trade  is  chiefly  in  the  hands  of 
the  English  resideata. 

FimDT,  Bay  sf,  a  deep  inlet  of  the  Atlantic, 
separating  the  Canadian  provinces  of  Nova 
Scotia  and  New  Bmnswick.  It  is  about  170  m. 
long,  and  from  SO  to  60  m.  wide.  From  its 
month,  between  the  8.  W.  extremity  of  Nova 
Scotia  and  the  easternmost  point  of  Maine,  its 
coasts  trend  N.  E.  until  near  its  upper  extrem- 
ity it  branches  into  two  inlets ;  the  northern, 
called  Chignecto  bay,  is  about  30  m.  long  and 
8m.  broad;  the  soDthern  bears  the  name  of 
Ml  you  VII.— 84 


Miaas  channel,  and  opens  into  Minas  ba«n  in 
Nova  Scotia.  At  St.  John,  N.  B.,  sitaated  at 
the  mouth  of  the  river  SL  John,  on  the  N. 
coast,  the  bay  is  S6  m.  wide,  and  it  continnes 
of  nearly  uniform  width  from  that  point  to  its 
brancbing.  It  is  deep,  but  difBcult  of  naviga- 
tion. It  is  remarkable  for  its  extraordinary 
tides,  which  rush  np  from  tbe  sea  with  snob 
rapidity  as  sometimes  to  overtake  swine  feeding 
on  shellfish  on  the  shorea,  and  rise  in  Minas 
hasiu  40  ft.,  and  in  Chignecto  channel  60  ft. 
Grand  Manan,  Campo  Bello,  and  Long  islands 
lie  at  the  mouth  of  the  bay,  which  receives  the 
rivers  St.  John  and  St.  Croix. 

fCnEN  pan.  f)/en),  an  island  of  Denmark, 
having  on  the  N.  the  S.  W.  prolongation  of 
the  Cattegat,  E.  the  Great  Belt,  W.  the  Little 
Belt,  ami  S.  the  archipelago  connecting  the 
two  Belts;  area  about  1,160  so.  m.;  pup.  in 
1870,  217,244,  inclading  tbe  inliabitants  of  a 


528 


FUNERAL  RITES 


FUNGI 


namber  of  small  islands  which  come  mider  its 
administration.  It  is  the  largest  of  the  Danish 
isles  after  Seeland,  and  forms  with  the  islands 
W.  of  the  Great  Belt,  inclnding  Langeland  and 
Arr6,  a  drcle  of  the  kingdom.  The  coast  is 
not  very  elevated,  but  is  in  general  rugged  and 
steep,  and  much  indented  by  bays  and  arms 
of  tne  sea.  The  interior  toward  the  west  is 
somewhat  hilly ;  in  every  other  direction  it  is 
composed  of  large  and  fruitful  plains,  which 
produce  abundant  crops  of  com.  The  largest 
stream  in  the  island  is  the  Odense  Aa,  which 
has  a  northerly  course  of  36  m.,  and  dis- 
charges into  the  Odense  fiord,  about  9  m. 
long,  and  from  1^  to  nearly  5  m.  wide.  A 
canal,  navigable  by  vessels  drawing  8  ft.,  con- 
nects the  town  of  Odense  with  the  Odense 
fiord.  The  largest  lake  is  the  ArreskoT^  which 
is  about  7  m.  in  circuit,  and  abounds  m  fish. 
Ftlnen  is  divided  into  the  bailiwicks  of  Odense, 
which  contains  the  capital,  of  the  same  name, 
and  Svendborg. 

FVHERAL  RITES.    See  Bubial. 

FUlfiS,  Ciifgorto,  an  Argentine  historian,  bom 
in  Cordova,  died  there  in  1820.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Cordova,  entered  holy  orders,  became 
dean  in  the  cathedral  church,  and  attempted 
to  introduce  into  the  university  the  study  of 
the  higher  mathematics,  the  law  of  nations,  the 
modem  languages,  music,  and  drawing.  Du- 
rinff  the  revolutionary  tumults  the  possessions 
of  his  father  were  confiscated  by  the-  royahst 
party.  He  wrote  EnM/yo  de  la  historia  civil 
del  Paraguay^  Buenoa  Ayres  y  Tueuman  (8 
vols,  small  4to,  Buenos  Ayres,  1816  et  ieg,)y 
which  contains  an  excellent  epitome  of  the 
annals  of  a  vast  territory,  of  which  but  lit- 
tle was  yet  known  in  Europe. 

rtHFKJBCHElir  (fixe  churches ;  in  Hungarian 
Pies,  which  in  the  language  of  the  surrounding 
Slavic  tribes  means  five),  a  town  of  Hungary, 
capital  of  the  county  of  Baranya,  106  m.  8.  8. 
W.  of  Buda ;  pop.  in  1870,  17,447.  It  is  sur- 
rounded by  rich  vineyards,  in  the  vicinity  of 
mineral  springs,  and  is  one  of  the  pleasantest 
towns  of  Hungary.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  Roman 
Catholic  bishop,  and  has  an  old  Gothic  cathe- 
dral, built  on  the  site  of  a  Roman  castle,  two 
monasteries,  a  public  library,  several  schools 
and  hospitals,  and  a  theatre.  The  population 
consists  chiefly  of  Magyars,  but  the  Slavic  and 
German  inhabitants  are  also  numerous.  The 
town  has  a  large  trade  in  coal,  alum,  vitriol, 
wine,  grain,  tobacco,  rape  seed,  wool,  and  other 
products  of  the  neighboring  country. — Fftnf- 
kirchen  is  supposed  to  be  the  Colcmia  Serbinum 
of  the  Romans.  In  the  time  of  Hungarian  in- 
dependence it  was  larger  and  much  more  im- 
portant than  now.  History  m entions  that  2,000 
of  its  students  marched  out  to  the  battle  field 
of  Moh&cs,  where  the  Hungarians  were  de- 
feated by  the  Turks  under  Solyman,  Aug.  29, 
1526.  This  sultan  passed  some  time  at  Ftinf- 
kirchen,  during  the  siege  of  the  fortress  of 
Bzigeth,  and  was  so  delighted  with  the  place 
that  he  called  it  a  paradise  on  earth.    It  re- 


mained in  the  hands  of  the  Mussulmans  from 
1548  till  1686. 

FUNGI  (Gr.  tnr&yyoc,  a  sponge),  an  extensive 
f«nily  of  cryptogamic  plants,  generally  known 
under  the  names  of  mushrooms,  toadstools, 
rusts,  smuts,  bunt,  and  mildews.  With  rare 
exceptions,  they  are  parasitic  plants,  growing 
upon  and  drawing  their  nourishment  (or  at 
least  a  part  of  it)  from  the  substance  of  the  ob- 
ject they  infest.  Fungi  occur  in  i^  parts  of 
the  globe,  finding  their  maximum  in  tne  moist 
temperate  zones ;  abounding  in  a  climate  like 
that  of  Sweden,  which  has  produced  more  spe- 
cies upon  a  given  area  than  any  other  known 
locality,  except  perhaps  the  southern  United 
States.  They  are  found  wherever  there  is  de- 
caying vegetation,  upon  which  they  feed ;  they 
often  prey  upon  living  tissues,  which  they  de- 
stroy by  their  attacks ;  their  vegetating  fibres 
are  of  such  extreme  minuteness  tiiat  they  pene- 
trate the  hardest  woods,  and  powerfully  hasten 
their  decay.  Nothing  of  vegetable  origin  is  free 
from  their  ravages  when  exposed  to  influences 
favorable  to  their  growth.  They  are  found 
also  on  animal  dejections,  on  insects,  whose 
death  they  cause,  on  the  human  skin,  and  even 
on  bare  stones,  on  iron  which  was  in  a  forge  a 
few  hours  before,  on  lead,  and  on  chemical  so- 
lutions. The  disease  in  silkworms  is  caused  by 
a  mould  (hotrytis  hctmanct).  The  flies  found 
adhering  to  windows  in  autumn,  fixed  by  the 
proboscis,  are  destroyed  by  a  mould  {eporendo^ 
nema  mnsea)^  which  produces  the  little  white 
rings  between  the  abdominal  segments  and  dis- 
charges its  seed  upon  the  glass  around  like  a 
little  cloud.  The  celebrated  caterpillar  Amgus 
of  New  Zealand  {cordyceps  BoberUn)^  which 
infests  the  caterpillar  of  hepialus  wreaeerUj  is 
a  remarkable  instance.  American  caterpiUars 
are  destroyed  by  other  species.  The  larva  of 
the  common  May  beetle  {lackno»Uma  quer- 
etna),  which  passes  three  years  of  its  destruc- 
tive life  under  groxmd,  is  sometimes  attacked 
by  a  fungus  which  soon  causes  its  death.  Ony^ 
gena  equina  grows  on  the  hoofs  and  horns  of 
animals.  Some  of  the  microscopic  species  cause 
cutaneous  disorders  in  the  human  system,  and 
others  have  been  found  in  the  brains  of  birds. 
(See  Epiphytes.) — Notwithstanding  the  long 
time  which  has  been  given  to  the  study  of 
fungi,  there  is  no  class  of  organized  structures 
so  little  known.  Their  microscopic  character, 
their  abnormal  growths,  their  polymorphic 
forms,  have  bafiled  the  researches  of  the  closest 
observers.  It  is  only  within  a  comparatively 
short  time  that  an  approach  has  been  made  to 
a  clear  insight  into  their  laws  of  growth  and 
reproduction.  Some  even  now  deem  them  to 
be  of  spontaneous  or  chemical  origin,  an  opin- 
ion which  their  sudden  appearance  in  vast 
numbers  after  a  long  rest,  and  their  occurrence 
in  closed  cavities,  have  tended  to  establish. 
But  this  idea  has  been  dearly  disproved.  That 
they  are  perfect  plants,  growing  from  and  re- 
producing bodies  analogous  to  seeds,  is  too 
firmly  established   to  be  questioned.    When 


FUNGI 


529 


we  learn  that  a  single  plant  produces  millions 
of  these  reprodnotive  bodies,  so  small  that 
they  float  on  the  air  scarcely  influenced  by  the 
force  of  gravity,  that  they  may  remain  an  in- 
definite period  inert,  and  be  celled  into  sudden 
vitality  by  atmospheric  changes  favorable  to 
their  germination,  their  sudden  appearance  can 
be  rei^y  understood.  They  have  been  traced 
through  their  metamorphoses.  The  infinitesi- 
mally  small  spore  has  been  watched  in  its  growth 
into  a  perfect  plant ;  and  one  such  observation, 
unquestionably  made,  is  positive  proof  of  their 
being  perfect  plants,  having  a  development 
following  certam  laws. — Fungi  are  of  purely 
cellular  growth.  They  form  no  woody  fibre 
Jike  flowering  plants,  though  many  become 
corky,  woody,  and  homy  in  the  course  of  their 
growth,  nor  do  they  form  chlorophyl  in  their 
tissues.  They  consist  of  mere  aggregations  of 
homogeneous  cells,  but  exhibit  a  wonderful  va- 
riety of  external  forms.  Their  earliest  vegeta^ 
tion  is  a  prolongation  of  the  membranes  of  their 
spores,  a  name  given  to  their  reproductive  sem- 
inal dust,  which,  though  performing  the  ofiSce 
of  seeds,  differs  from  true  seeds  in  being  mere 
individual  cells.  From  these  arises  a  delicate, 
minute,  webby  growth,  called  the  myeelium^ 
which  is  the  true  vegetation  of  the  plant,  and 
which  gives  rise  to  the  reproductive  bodies  at 
once,  or  builds  up  a  receptacle  which  contains 
them.  It  is  this  mycelium  which  penetrates 
and  destroys  the  object  on  which  it  is  parasitic. 
It  is  made  up  of  radiating  and  intertwining 
fibres  formed  of  rows  of  cells  placed  end  to  end. 
These  are  in  many  instances  so  minute  that 
they  easily  traverse  the  tissues  of  living  plants 
and  the  pores  of  solid  wood.  From  this  my- 
celium grow  the  spores,  which  in  their  simplest 
form  consist  of  the  termini  cell  or  cells,  wnich 
drop  off  to  form  new  plants.  They  are  of  the 
extremest  minuteness,  appearing  to  the  eye 
like  a  mere  cloud  of  impalpable  powder.  As 
we  rise  in  the  scale,  special  branches  and 
processes  are  formed  to  bear  the  spores,  either 
singly  or  in  groups.  Still  more  complex  forms 
build  up  a  special  organ  called  the  peridium, 
within  which  the  spores  arise  contained  in 
little  sacs  termed  asci.  The  large  fleshy  growths 
met  with  in  the  woods  or  on  trees  are  processes 
belonging  properly  to  the  reproduction  and  not 
the  vegetation  of  the  plant.  They  are  very  dis- 
proportionately large  compared  with  the  my- 
celium, and  consist  of  a  main  stem  called  a 
stipe  and  an  expanded  top  called  a  pUetUy  on 
which  these  spores  are  borne  in  various  ways, 
on  gills,  ribs,  prickles,  &c.  The  mycelium  is 
sometimes  reduced  to  a  mere  trace  of  eva- 
nescent, floccose  growth ;  while  the  reproduc- 
tive body  becomes  a  fleshy  mass,  several 
pounds  in  weight.  But  the  spores  are  always 
minute,  being  sometimes  only  ^v.iinr  ^^  ^^  ^^^^ 
in  diameter. — ^Fungi  occupy  an  intermediate 
position  between  luga  and  lichens,  into  which ' 
orders  they  gradually  merge  at  different  points. 
Indeed,  so  nice  is  the  distinction  at  times,  that 
some  systematists  have  reduced  lichens  to  a 


suborder  of  fungi.  They  differ  «from  lichens 
mainly  in  deriving  their  sustenance  from  the 
object  on  which  they  grow  (though  this  has 
exceptions),  in  not  producing  a  foliaceous  thal- 
Ins,  and  in  not  forming  green  chlorophyl ;  from 
a]g»,  in  being  atrial,  not  aquatic,  and  in  deri- 
ving their  nourishment  irom  their  matrix  and 
not  from  the  surrounding  medium.  Those 
species  of  fungi  which  are  found  in  fluids,  such 
as  the  yeast  and  vinegar  plants,  are  now  proved 
to  be  merely  submerged  mycelia  of  certain 
moulds  (penieillium),  which  do  not  attain  their 
perfect  stage  until  ihey  reach  the  air.  Their 
propagation  in  fluids  is  due  to  a  power  the  my- 
celium possesses  of  retaining  its  vitality  under 
a  variety  of  circumstances,  of  suflering  divi- 
sion and  enduring  extremes  of  temperature. 
Besides  this,  it  has  a  propagating  power  anal- 
ogous to  that  of  budding.  In  some  adrial  forms 
it  goes  on  reproducing  itself  in  peculiar  ways, 
and  rarely  reaching  the  normal  or  perfect  as- 
cigerous  fructification.  For  this  reason  many 
species  have  beeii  thought  to  be  distinct  plants 
when  they  are  merely  arrested  stages  of  growth 
of  one  single  species.  Some  atrial  forms  nev- 
er reach'  a  further  growth  than  a  compact, 
dense  mass  of  mycelium.  Oak  trees  sometimes 
contain  a  solid  mass  of  a  leathery  texture 
{xylastrama  giganteum\  which  never  advances 
beyond  that  stage.  The  genera  sderotium 
and  rhuomofphOj  with  their  so-called  species, 
are  mere  compact  bodies  of  mycelium,  which 
have  in  some  instances  been  artificially  forced 
to  develop  themselves^  and  have  produced 
plants  of  widely  different  structure.  The  ergots 
of  grain  are  the  ovary  arrested  in  its  proper 
development  and  transformed  into  a  peculiar 
growth  by  the  presence  in  its  tissues  of  a  mi- 
nute fungus.  Tulasne  and  others  have  watched 
their  development  into  species  of  eordye0>€. 
These  forms  remain  constantiy  arrested;  but 
very  many  of  those  which  under  favorable 
circumstances  reach  perfection  remain  similarly 
checked,  and  confuse  the  student  with  their 
multiple  forms.  This  has  caused  the  naming 
of  hosts  of  species  which  are  merely  forms  of 
others.  There  is  no  branch  of  science  whose 
synonymy  is  more  burdensome.  It  is  almost 
a  hopeless  task  to  attempt  to  identify  the  spe- 
cies of  authors  by  description  alone,  the  plant 
itself  being  necessary  for  comparison.  Long 
and  continued  observations  are  required  to  de- 
termine and  connect  the  many  forms  which  a 
single  ftingus  may  assume  in  the  course  of  its 
existence. — ^Few  objects  in  nature  exhibit  more 
gorgeous  colors.  The  larger  fleshy  forms  pre- 
sent an  endless  variety  of  graduated  tints. 
Some  of  the  holeti  exhibit  on  being  broken  a 
remarkable  change  of  color,  the  white  or  yel- 
lowish hue  of  the  interior  changing  instantiy 
to  a  vivid  blue.  This  is  supposed  by  Prof. 
Robinson  to  be  due  to  a  molecular  and  not  to 
a  chemical  change.  Their  texture  is  as  varia- 
ble as  their  color.  Some  are  almost  fluid,  oth- 
ers fleshy,  papery,  leathery,  corky,  or  hard 
and  homy.    Their  size  is  equally  various,  from 


530 


FUNGI 


mere  specks*  to  masses  some  feet  in  girth. 
Their  rapid  growth  is  astonishing.  PnfT-balls 
sometimes  grow  6  in.  in  diameter  in  a  night. 
Masses  of  paper  pulp  thrown  out  hot  from  a 
vat  have  been  found  within  24  hours  filled  and 
swollen  with  a  species  of  agarieus,  Schweinitz 
records  the  growth  of  a  species  of  mthdlium 
found  on  a  piece  of  iron  which  was  heated  the 
night  before  in  a  forge.  Some  of  the  ephemeral 
eoprini  grow  up  in  a  night  and  melt  away  in 
the  morning  sun.  Other  species,  like  ih^poly- 
pori^  grow  very  slowly  and  add  a  new  layer 
every  year,  covering  that  of  the  previous  sea- 
son. Their  expansive  force  in  growing  is  very 
great  Notwithstanding  their  soft,  yielding 
texture,  agarics  are  able  to  raise  heavy  stones 
under  which  they  spring  up ;  Bulliard  tells  of 
a  phaUui  which  burst  a  glass  vessel  in  which  it 
had  been  confined ;  and  a  case  came  under  the 
writer's  observation  in  which  a  puff-ball  broke 
np  through  an  asphalt  walk  that  had  been  long 
established  and  well  hardened.  Their  sudden 
occurrence  over  wide  districts  depends  upon 
peculiar  states  of  the  atmosphere  favorable  to 
the  development  of  the  spores.  They  generally 
appear  in  the  greatest  abundance  in  moist  au- 
tumn weather,  though  some  are  found  wher- 
ever there  is  moisture.  Some  depend  so 
much  on  peculiar  states  of  the  atmosphere 
that  they  appear  suddenly  and  then  disappear 
for  a  while.  The  pustular  forms,  however, 
which  abound  on  the  dead  bark  of  trees,  shrubs, 
old  stumps,  and  fallen  twigs,  are  more  dura- 
ble from  their  more  solid  structure.  Some  spe- 
cies of  agaricu9  possess  a  remarkable  luminos- 
ity, and  certain  rhuomorphm  growing  in  mines 
shed  a  phosphorescent  light  of  extreme  bril- 
liancy. Fungi  differ  from  fiowering  plants  in 
their  chemical  infiuence  upon  the  air.  They 
absorb  oxygen  and  exhale  carbonic  acid,  per- 
forming the  same  office  in  this  respect  as  ani- 
mals, which  they  most  resemble  in  chemical 
composition,  in  being  highly  azotized.  The 
odors  they  emit  in  decay  are  more  like  putres- 
cent animal  than  vegetable  matter.  The  fleshy 
sorts  generally  possess  a  peculiar  earthy  odor, 
but  some  species  of  phalluB  and  elathrm  emit 
a  most  intolerably  offensive  stench,  which  will 
render  a  close  apartment  untenantable.  Oth- 
ers, on  the  contrary,  are  very  agreeable  to  the 
smell,  and  some  in  drying  acquire  a  fine  aroma. 
They  are  quite  as  variable  to  the  taste.  The 
prevailing  flavor  is  rather  negative  and  peculiar 
to  the  order ;  but  they  are  also  bitter,  acrid, 
biting,  astringent,  oily,  and  nauseous,  as  well 
as  savory  and  agreeable.  Most  of  them  lose 
these  qualities  in  drying. — ^Fungi  have  been 
used  as  an  article  of  food  from  remote  anti- 
quity. The  writings  of  the  ancients  make  fre- 
quent mention  of  them  as  among  their  most 
esteemed  viands.  They  are  extensively  eaten 
in  Europe  by  all  classes,  and  many  works  have 
been  written  laudatory  of  their  virtues,  with 
copious  directions  for  dressing  them  in  a  great 
variety  of  ways.  Notwithstanding  the  virulent 
poisonous  qualities  of  some,  others  are  eagerly 


sought  for,  and  in  some  places  it  is  said  that 
the  people  have  burned  down  woods  to  get 
certain  species  of  fungi  whose  growth  followed 
the  combustion.  Within  a  few  years  much 
attention  has  been  given  in  England  to  the 
edible  fungi,  and  societies  and  clubs  have  been 
formed  for  the  purpose  of  making  the  useful 
species  better  known  by  means  of  exhibitionsy 
excursions,  and  dinners,  at  which  the  various 
edible  fungi  take  the  place  of  meats.  So  im- 
portant is  this  subject  regarded  in  England  that 
in  1873  the  royal  horticultural  society  held  an 
exhibition  at  which  prizes  were  awarded  for 
collections  of  both  edible  and  poisonous  fungi. 
The  list  of  species  which  may  be  used  as  food 
is  now  large,  but  the  great  obstacle  to  the 
popularizing  of  them  is  the  difficulty  of  dis- 
tinguishing between  the  safe  and  dangerous 
ones.  In  America  they  have  for  the  most 
part  been  regarded  as  noisome  and  disgusting 
by  the  great  mass  of  the  people ;  they  have 
been  usually  despised  as  the  unsightly  evi- 
dences of  decay,  rather  than  eagerly  collected 
as  delicious  food,  which  many  of  them  are. 
During  the  late  civil  war  the  Rev.  M.  A.  Oor- 
tis  of  Society  Hill,  S.  0.,  who  had  long  been 
our  best  instructed  mycologist,  turned  his  at- 
tention to  the  fungi  as  a  source  of  food  supply, 
and  found  that  a  great  number  of  our  native 
species  were  not  only  edible  but  highly  palata- 
ble. He  embodied  his  observations  in  a  work, 
but  unhappily  died  without  seeing  its  publica- 
tion. The  mushroom  proper  {agariem  cam^ 
peatrtB)  grows  wild  in  old  fields  and  pastures, 
but  is  propagated  by  planting  its  spawn, 
which  is  the  mycelium  of  the  plant,  in  hot- 
beds. Although  this  is  the  most  widely  used, 
many  other  species  are  equally  excellent.  The 
truffle  (tuber  eibarium)  grows  beneath  the 
ground,  and  is  eaten  with  avidity  by  differ- 
ent animals.  (See  Mushboom,  and  Tbvfflr.) 
Their  reputation  as  aphrodisiacs  is  thought  to 
be  unfounded,  having  its  origin  in  the  old  doc- 
trine of  resemblances.  Polyponu  tuberoMter 
grows  from  the  celebrated  fungus  stone  pietra 
funghia^  which  is  a  mass  of  earth  traversed 
by  the  mycelium  of  the  plant;  the  latter  is 
watered  from  time  to  time,  and  produces  suc- 
cessive crops.  The  heads  of  poplar  trees  are 
watered  in  autumn,  and  they  then  bear  the 
agarieus  caudieintu^  greatly  esteemed.  Blocks 
of  the  hazel  tree  are  singed  over  straw  and 
watered,  and  they  produce  in  abundance  the 
polyporuM  CGrylinuB.  Among  other  species 
eaten,  the  principal  are  agarieus  prynuha^ 
areeUa^  proeerus,  and  exquintuej  lactaru$  de^ 
lieiosus,  eantharelluB  eibarius^  boletus  edulU^ 
marasmiua  oreades,  hydnum  rq^andumjJUtuli' 
na  hepatiea^  mareheUa  escuUnta^  and  Aehella 
erupa.  These  are  all  fleshy  ftmgi.  Some  of 
the  most  virulent  poisons  are  found  among 
fungi,  and  many  fatal  accidents  have  arisen 
from  the  eating  of  poisonous  species,  yet  fbn- 
gi  which  are  known  to  be  ordinarily  ii^D- 
rious  are  eaten  with  impunity  by  some.  Rye 
meal  containing  large  quantities  of  ergot  pro- 


FUNGI 


581 


Agariens  miucaiiiM. 


daces  a  terribly  disgusting  and  fatal  gangre- 
noQs  disease.  Fielding  and  salting  renders 
many  fungi  innocuous.  Agarictu  mti9caritu 
is  one  of  the  most  injurious ;  yet  it  is  used 
as  a  means  of.  intoxication  by  the  Eamtchat- 
dales.    One  or  two  of  them   are  sufficient 

to  produce  a  slight 
intoxication,  which  is 
peculiar  in  its  char- 
acter. It  stimulates 
the  muscular  powers, 
and  greatly  excites 
the  nervous  system, 
leading  the  partakers 
into  the  most  ridicu- 
lous extravagances. 
The  only  fungus  used 
at  the  present  day  in 
medicine  is  the  er- 
got of  rye,  sometimes 
employed  in  cases 
of  protracted  labor. 
Several  others  have 
been  used  in  times 
past,  like  the  cordy- 
eepe  SinentU^  a  sphsd- 
roid  species  parasitic 
on  a  caterpillar ;  but  these  are  now  thought 
to  be  of  no  value.  The  lycoperdons  or  puff- 
balls  have  been  used  as  styptics.  Some  po^ 
lypori  make  admirable  razor  strops  when 
sliced  with  a  sharp  knife.  Polyparus  fomen- 
tariu9  and  igniariut  have  for  many  years 
furnished  the  punk  which  is  used  as  tinder, 
the  corky  portion  being  pounded  till  its  com- 
pact mass  of  soft,  silky  fibres  becomes  loosened 
and  flexible,  and  is  sometimes  used  to  make 
caps  and  other  articles  of  clothing.  Agari- 
eu9  muBcarius  is  used  as  fly  poison.— Some 
fungi  are  among  the  greatest  pests  of  the  agri- 
culturist. The  rusts,  smuts,  and  bunt  of  grain 
are  all  fungi  of  the  genera  uredo,  mtiUtgo^  and 
puecinia.  Their  mycelium  penetrates  the  tis- 
sues of  the  plants,  destroys  their  vitality,  and 
bursting  through  their  cuticles  covers  them 
with  myriads  of  their  orange,  brown,  yellow, 
or  black  spores.  They  probably  induce  decay 
by  a  chemical  influence  which  they  exert  on 
the  juices  of  the  infested  plant,  as  well  as  by 
their  mechanical  interference  with  its  organ- 
ism. It  has  been  a  question  how  their  spores 
are  carried  into  the  tissues,  where  their  ear- 
liest growth  is  entirely  separated  from  the 
outer  atmosphere.  But  when  we  remember 
their  extreme  minuteness,  we  can  understand 
that  they  may  be  drawn  up  with  the  fluids 
which  enter  their  roots,  or  receive  them  di- 
rectly into  their  tissues  through  the  infinity 
of  breathing  pores  with  which  the  surfaces 
of  the  plants  they  infest  are  perforated.  For 
many  years  agriculturists  have  had  a  prejudice 
against  the  common  barberry  as  being  injurious 
to  wheat,  and  in  some  states  it  has  been  pro- 
hibited by  law  from  growing  near  wheat  fields. 
This  has  been  looked  upon  by  botanists  as  a 
whim  which  had  no  foxmdation  in  fact;  but  in 


this  case,  as  in  others,  popular  belief  was  ri^t, 
although  the  reason  it  assigned  for  the  effect, 
in  this  case,  the  pollen  of  the  barberry,  was 
wrong.  It  is  now  found  that  the  fungus  so 
common  upon  the  leaves  of  the  barberry  is  one 
of  the  several  forms  of  the  wheat  smut.  The 
mildews  of  the  grape  and  other  fruits  are  my- 
celoid  growths,  which  in  certain  stages  have 
been  thought  to  be  perfect  plants  (aidium), 
from  their  possessing  a  power  of  reproduction. 
Certain  cells  take  on  a  vesicular  growth  filled 
with  a  mass  of  minute  bodies  which  were 
thought  to  be  the  true  fruit.  But  the  later 
observations  of  L6veill6,  Tulasne,  and  others, 
have  shown  that  these  are  arrested  stages  of 
growth  of  an  entirely  different  ascigerous  ge- 
nus, eryaiphe.  These  produce  their  fruit  in 
minute  black  pustules,  from  the  base  of  which 
peculiar  radiating  processes  arise,  sometimes  of 
great  beauty.  The  mildews  grow  on  the  sur- 
face of  fruits,  and  injure  them  more  by  cho- 
king up  their  pores  and  mechanically  confining 
them  with  their  dense,  felty  growth,  than  by 
abstracting  their  juices.  The  potato  rot  is  ac- 
companied by  a  rapid  growth  of  the  mycelium 
of  hotrytU  i7\feBtaiu^  which  penetrates  the 
leaves,  stems,  and 
tubers,  inducing 
rapid  decay.  It  ap- 
pears on  the  sur- 
face in  the  form 
of  a  minute  white 
mould.  Many  other 
plants  are  similar- 
ly affected.  BoleH 
are  sometimes  trav- 
ersed by  a  minute 
mould,  aepedonium 
ehryaoepermum^ 
which  gives  a  gold- 
en-yeUow  hue  to 
the  flesh.  Dry  rot  in  timber  is  caused  by  the 
penetrating  mycelium  of  fneruHua  lacrymana 
and  polyparua  deatructor.  The  black  excres- 
cent growth  on  plum  trees  is  occasioned  by 
the  apharia  morhoaa^  which  covers  the  warts 
its  mycelium  has  made  with  its  minute  black, 
compacted  perUhecia,  The  fairy  rings  which 
in  olden  times  were  thought  to  be  the  scenes 
of  midnight  fairy  revels,  are  produced  by  the 
growth  of  different  species  of  ctgwricua.  As 
they  exhaust  the  soil  by  one  year's  growth, 
their  mycelium  pushes  into  the  richer  por- 
tions around;  and  thus  they  extend  the  cir- 
cle of  their  growth,  furnishing,  by  their  decay 
a  manure  for  the  next  year's  grass,  which 
is  darker  and  denser  in  consequence. — Fungi 
have  been  classified  in  various  ways  by  differ- 
ent mycologists.  By  the  early  writers  they 
were  arranged  according  to  their  external  ap- 
pearances ;  but  as  more  exact  means  of  obser- 
vation multiplied,  their  microscopic  structure 
became  better  known,  and  a  nearer  approach 
was  made  to  a  classification  in  consonance 
with  their  true  affinities.  From  Osdsalpinus  in 
1583  to  Neea  von^  Esenbeck  in^  1817,  tiie  pro- 


fiototuB  edoBs. 


682 


FUNGI 


gress  of  knowledge  was  comparatiyely  small  for 
a  period  of  nearly  260  years.  But  in  1821  ap- 
peared the  Syatema  Myeologiewn  of  Elias  Fries, 
a  work  of  the  most  learned  and  profound  char- 
acter, evincmg  a  comprehensiveness  and  thor- 
oughness far  surpassing  all  that  had  preceded  it 
It  is  even  now  the  great  work  to  which  all 
students  refer,  though  since  that  time  a  host 
of  observers  have  been  exploring  this  obscure 
field,  and  collecting  a  vast  array  of  facts  con- 
cerning the  laws  which  govern  these  minute 
organisms.  Montagne,L6veiI16,Tulasne,  Berke- 
ley, Desmazidres,  and  many  others  have  of  late 
years  been  engaged  in  the  elucidation  of  their 
structure.  The  latest  system  given  to  the 
world  is  that  in  Berkeley's  **  Introduction  to 
Oryptogamic  Botany,"  which  is  essentially 
similar  to  that  of  Fries.  The  two  principal 
divisions  are :  sporidiiferi^  spores  contained  in 
special  sacs  called  asci ;  and  sporiferi,  spores 
naked,  not  enclosed.  These  are  again  subdi- 
vided into  six  principal  orders,  all  formed  on 
the  mode  in  which  the  spores  are  borne,  viz. : 
1.  Aaeomyeetes (Berk.,),  eporesprodnoedin.  little 
sacs  (oMt),  and  formed  out  of  the  protoplasm 
they  contain.  This  order  comprises  a  vast 
number  of  the  black,  pustular  growths,  abun- 
dant on  dead  wood,  bark,  twigs,  leaves,  &c. 
They  are  generally  formed  of  a  mass  of  carbon- 
ized cells  arranged  in  the  form  of  hollow 
n>heres  or  cups  called  peritheeia.  Within 
uiese  grow  the  asci  containing  the  spores, 
which  escape  either  from  a  pore  in  the  perithe- 
cium  or  by  its  breaking  up  irregularly.  The 
basal  cells  bearing  the  asci  are  collectively 
termed  the  hymenium.  Among  these  are  the 
mildews  {erynphe)  and  the  black  mildews  (eop- 
nodium%  and  the  whole  great  tribe  oiipharim. 
The  truffles  {tvher)  also  belong  here.  They  are 
subterraneous,  fleshy  forms,  whose  substance 
is  intersected  by  veins  which  are  inward  folds 
of  the  hymenium,  covered  by  the  expanding 
growth  of  the  fleshy  receptacle.  The  morek 
OmreheUa)  and  the  heUMa  are  camose,  bulky 
forms,  which  have  their  asci  on  the  outer  sur- 
face of  a  variously  folded,  wrinkled,  and  pitted 
h3rmenium.  'The  eyttoHa  is  akin  to  these,  of  a 
sub-gelatinous  connstenco.  These  are  all  made 
up  of  compacted  cells,  forming  homy,  carbon- 
ized, or  heavy,  fleshy  masses.  2.  Phyaomyeetes 
(Berk.),  spores  growing  in  bladder-shaped  cells 
on  the  end  of  delicate,  individual,  scattered 
fibres,  composed  of  cells  applied  to  each  other 
in  a  linear  series.  A  small  group  comprising 
the  true  mou^s  (mueor),  8.  AyphomyeeteB 
(Fr.),  n>ores  naked,  simple,  or  aggregated  on 
the  ends  of  fertile  tiireads.  These  differ  from 
the  last  in  the  naked  growth  of  the  spores. 
Here  belongs  the  great  host  of  minute  moulds 
which  cover  almost  every  substance  exposed  to 
dampness  with  their  floccose  fibres.  rTotiiing 
organic  is  fi*ee  from  their  attacks.  Their  colors 
are  sometimes  extremely  beautiful.  To  this 
order  belong  the  mould  of  the  potato  rot  (&o- 
trytU  infestans)^  and  many  which  induce  decay 
iatrxut. laidium)y  the  bread«nd  cheese  moidds 


(penicUlium^  aspergilhuX  the  ri^d  black 
moulds  (eladatporium^  helminthoaparium)^  and 
the  yeast  and  vinegar  plants,  which  are  sub- 
merged mycelia  of  penoUlium.  (See  Febmkn- 
TATioN.)  4.  CimiomyeeUs  (Fr.),  spores  naked 
on  the  ends  of  filaments  or  vesicles ;  hymenium 

S 


1.  Wheat  straw  attacked  b^  mildew,  a,  a.  The  stem,  oa 
which  is  the  swelttng  6,  mm  which  has  grown  the  sheath- 
like  leaf  o,  c  S.  Closter  of  sporee  of  corn  mildew  magni- 
fied.  8.  Single  spore  of  com  mildew  magnified  SOO  timea. 

sometimes  obsolete,  sometimes  contained  in  a 
perithecium.  This  order  differs  from  the  last  in 
having  scarcely  any  filamentous  growth,  and  in 
having  the  spores  produced  in  the  utmost  pro- 
fusion, greatly  disproportionate  to  the  rest  of 
the  plant.  It  comprises  an  infinity  of  minute 
pustular  forms,  which  infest  the  tissues  of  every 
variety  of  plant,  many  presenting  to  the  eye  but 
a  mere  speck  on  their  surface.  Here  belong 
the  whole  family  of  rusts,  smuts,  and  bunt 


1.  Cluster  of  cups  from  the  hsrbeRy  magnified.    8. 
from  aboye.   8.  Leaf  of  barbeny,  with  a  similar  closter. 

(pueeinea^  uredo,  uHUaao,  tiUetia,  aeidiumy 
&c.),  which  creep  through  the  tissues  of  living 
plants,  and  finally  burst  forth  on  the  exterior 
and  fructify  in  dense,  dusty  masses,  which  cover 
their  whole  surfaces.  Different  species  affect 
different  organs,  some  being  on  stems  and 


leaves,  others  on  flowom  and  froit  They  are 
the  Boonrge  of  the  farmer,  whose  Selda  tbej 
devMtat«.  The  savin  trees  (jimyMnu)  are 
attaoked  bjapeoiiliargenus(jiMU(»iM),  which 
bOTvta  from  their  bark  and  swells  onder  the  in- 
fiaenoe  of  moistore  to  a  gelatiDOOB  mass.  It 
also  oooanons  the  globular  eicrescect  growth 
called  oedar  applea,  from  orifices  in  which  it 
protrodea  in  long  oruige-oolored  spurs,  formed 
b;  the  spores,  tipping  the  aggregated  mass  of 
filaments.  The  black,  irreguar  scars  on  apples 
are  oansed  bj  the  tpiloeaa  fmctifiena.  An  ex- 
tenaiTe  group  of  this  order  oomprlsea  those 
minate  pustular  forms  which,  reMmbiing  the 
trne  aaoigerons  fungi  in  man;  reapecta,  differ 
in  prodacing  their  spores  on  the  ends  of  the 
filaments  instead  of  being  contained  in  esci. 
There  is  great  obsonrit;  overhanging  this  whole 
group.  They  eihibit  themaelvea  in  so  man; 
snotDslona  forms  that  it  is  almost  impossible  to 
establish  limits  to  genera  whioh  maj  be  olear- 
\j  nnderstood.  Writers  on  the  snbjeot  record 
great  nombera  of  genera,  bat  hardly  any  two 
agree  apon  their  obsrsoters,  and  the  whole  sob- 
ject  ia  bnrdMied  with  su  inharmonioas  synon- 
ymy. New  light  has  been  shed  opon  the  snb- 
jectof  later  years  by  the  obeervations  of  Berke- 
ley, UveiU^  Tulama,  and  others,  wbo  have 
pretty  clearly  established  the  fact  that  many 
so-called  genera  are  merely  stages  of  growth  of 
true  asdgerotts  fangL  Some  genera,  snch  ss 
try*ipA«,  are  known  to  prodoce  several  diSerent 
kinds  of  reprodaotive  bodies;  and  TuUane  has 
oanied  Us  researches  into  this  manifold  fruoti- 
floation,  showing  that  many  ascigerons  species 
are  attended  by  prooesses  (pyontdfa)  which 
prodoce  minate  bodies  (tpermatia,  styloeporee) 
dlfiering  much  from  trae  spores,  and  growing 
beaids  them,  sometimes  within  the  same  re- 
ceptacle. He  shows  tbat  certain  growths  re- 
corded as  distinct  apeoiea  of  different  genera  and 
orders  are,  in  fact,  difierent  forms  of  one  «ngle 
plant,  whose  perfect  state  is  ascigerooa.  If  such 
De  triie  of  the  few  whose  progresdve  growth 
has  been  followed,  we  may  safely  conolade 
that  the  whole  mass  of  coniomycetoid  species, 
or  at  least  those  of  the  suborder  tphearontmti, 
may  be  arrested  or  non-developed  atagea  of 
growth  of  higher  ascigerons  forms.  Snch  being 
the  case,  the  olBssificatJon  of  this  whole  order 
of  plants  will  one  day  need  rearrangement. 
S.  Oattaromyeeta  (Fr.),  mycelium  gelatinouB, 
fiooooee,  or  cellular,  giving  rise  to  a  stalked 
IX  sesNle  peridinm,  composed  of  one  or  more 
coats ;  the  spores  borne  on  the  spicea  of 
fllaineots  lining  the  interior.  This  indades 
the  whole  tribe  of  pnff-balls,  as  welt  as  the 
snbterraneaa  fungi  which  look  like  tmffles, 
bnt  ore  dusty  and  smutty  within.  The  perid- 
iom  is  generally  of  a  rounded  form,  cracking 
in  various  ways  at  maturity,  and  giving  forth 
myriads  of  spores  like  a  cloud  of  dust.  In 
.some  tlie  hymenial  tdssne  dries  up  at  maturity, 
leaving  the  spores  tree  (lyeoperdmi) ;  in  others 
it  resolves  itself  into  a  Said  which  drnis  from 
ths  elongated  receptacle  (phallu$).    Id  some 


(triehia,  arepria).      The  alhaliitm,  which  i) 
feats  the  hotbeds  of  greenhouses,  belongs  here. 
The  earth  stars  (gea*t»r)  are  peculiar  in  the 
dehiscence  of  tbe  outer  peridinm,  which  splits 


EBth  BUr  (OtHtv  bjiianMite). 

into  segments  and  unfolds  in  a  starry  manner ; 
it  is  also  verjr  hygrometrioal,  nnfoli^ng  or  clo- 
sing as  it  is  moist  or  dry.  The  litue  bird's 
nest  fungoa  (eruaibulam)  is  peculiar  in  having 
its  spores  in  distinct  masses  at  the  bottom  of 


er  of  projecting  its  sporanginm  to  a  great  dis- 
tance; Uie  lower,  internal  port  of  the.  peridiam 
is  suddenly  inverted  at  matnrity,  qeoling  its 
soft  sporangium,  of  ths  nze  of  a  mustard  seed, 
several  inoEes.  The  qtecies  oSphalhu  and  do- 
thnu  are  notorious  for  the  intolerable  stench 
of  their  dissolving  hymeninm,  6.  Sj/mtru>- 
myMtM  (Fr.),  myoelinm  fioooose,  webby,  giv- 
ing rise  to  a  distinct  hjmenium,  borne  eitiier 
immediately  on  the  mycelium  or  on  spsdal  re- 
ceptacles bearing  the  spores  on  gills,  wrinkles, 
tnbes,  prickles,  &o.  Here  occur  the  jelly- 
like  MMto,  BO  common  on  trees  after  rains ; 
tbe  branching  coral-like  elawma^  aboDndmg 
in  our  woods  in  antnmn,  all  of  which  are  edi- 
ble ;  the  corky  polypori,  bearing  their  spores 
in  minnte,  compacted  tubes  beneath  the  recep- 
tacle termed  a  pilau*;  the  bahti,  whioh  re- 
semble the  laat  except  that  they  are  fleshy,  and 
of  which  many  are  eaten ;  the  hgdna,  whioh 
bear  their  spores  on  the  exterior  of  prickle- 
like processes;  and,  Isstlv,  the  agariei,  whioh 
inolude  tbe  edible  mushrooms  and  kindred 
forma,  whose  spores  are  borne  on  radiating 
blades  beneath  a  cap  borne  up  by  a  stem  like 
an  umbrella. — Mycology,  as  the  study  of  ftmgl 
is  termed,  ia  among  the  most  recondite  of  sci- 
ences. Among  the  authors  whose  works  are 
of  principal  volne  are  Berkeley,  Bulliard,  CJor- 
da,  DesmariSree,  Fries,  Oraville,  Klotzscb, 
Kromholz,  LfiveiM,  Link,  HoDtagne,  Nees  von 
Esenbeok,  Persoon,  Schaefier,  Schweinitz  (for 
American  species),  Sowerhy,  Tuloane,  and  Yit- 
tadini.  The  principal  recent  American  authors 
ore  the  Bev.  M.  A.  Curtis  and  Mr.  H.  W.  Bave- 
nel.  Of  special  value  is  Cooke's  "Handbook 
of  British  Fungi"  (3  vols.,  London,  1871). 
"  Rns^  Must,  and  Mildew,"  by  the  same  an* 


534 


FUNGIBLE 


FUR 


thor,  gives  a  popular  account  of  the  microscopic 
fungi. 

FtJNGIBLE,  a  word  supposed  to  be  derived 
Arom  the  phrase  /unctionem  reeipere^  in  the 
civil  law.  It  is  not  much  known  in  English 
law,  but  is  often  used  in  French  and  Scotch 
law,  and  has  recently  been  Introduced  into 
American  legal  language.  It  is  used  to  mean 
what  we  have  no  other  word  for,  that  is,  res 
qua  ponderej  numero,  et  mensura  constant  (1 
Bellas  **  Commentaries,"  p.  255),  or  things 
which  maj  be  returned  or  replaced  by  any 
others  of  the  same  kind,  in  contradistinction 
from  those  which  must  be  returned  or  deliv- 
ered specifically.  Thus  money  is  nearly  al- 
ways a  fungible,  because  so  much  paid  in  any 
way  that  is  a  legal  tender  satisfies  a  claim  for 
it.  But  it  might  happen  that  A  lent  B  cer- 
tain specific  coins,  for  a  specific  purpose,  which 
were  to  be  specifically  returned;  and  these 
would  not  be  ^ngibles.  If  one  lent  to  another 
com,  or  meat,  or  manure,  to  be  used,  and  re- 
turn to  be  made  in  a  like  quantity  of  things  of 
like  quality,  they  would  all  be  fungibles. 

FUft,  the  covering  of  certain  animals,  espe- 
cially such  as  inhabit  the  lands  or  waters  of 
cold  countries,  distinguished  from  hair  by  its 
greater  fineness  and  softness;  also  the  skins 
of  such  animals  dressed  with  the  fur  on.  Be- 
fore being  dressed  the  skins  are  known  in 
commerce  as  peltry.  Fur  is  used  especially 
for  winter  clothing,  for  which  it  is  well  adapted 
not  merely  by  reason  of  its  warmth  and  dura- 
bility, but  also  on  account  of  its  great  beauty. 
Skins  of  animals  were  among  the  first  mate- 
rials used  for  clothing.  The  ancient  Assyrians' 
used  the  soft  skins  of  animals  to  cover  the 
couches  or  the  ground  in  their  tents;  and 
the  Israelites  employed  skins  which  were  dyed 
red  as  ornamental  hangings  for  the  tabernacle. 
The  ancient  heroes  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans 
are  represented  as  being  clothed  in  skins ;  but 
the  Romans  of  later  periods  regarded  the 
clothing  as  that  of  barbarous  times  and  peo- 
ple, associating  it  with  the  habits  of  the  savage 
tribes  on  their  eastern  and  northern  frontiers. 
In  the  2d  or  8d  century  fur  dresses  appear  to 
have  been  in  use  and  in  high  estimation  with 
the  Romans.  The  fur  of  the  beaver  was  in 
use,  either  in  the  skin  or  for  manufacturing 
fabrics,  in  the  4th  century;  the  animal  was 
known  as  the  Pontic  dog.  The  sable  of  the 
far-off  regions  of  Siberia  was  not  known  till 
many  centuries  later ;  but  it  was  the  produc- 
tiveness of  that  region  in  furs  that  chiefiy 
prompted  the  Russians  to  its  conquest.  In  the 
early  periods  furs  appear  to  have  constiturted 
the  whole  riches  of  the  northern  countries; 
they  were  the  principal  if  not  the  only  ex- 
ports; taxes  were  paid  with  them,  and  they 
were  the  medium  of  exchange.  In  the  11th 
century  fhrs  had  become  fashionable  through- 
out Europe.  The  art  of  dyeing  them  was  prac- 
tised in  the  12th  century,  chiefiy  red.  Richard 
I.  of  England  and  Phillip  II.  of  France,  in 
order  to  check  the  growing  extravagance  in 


their  use,  resolved,  in  the  crusade  about  the 
end  of  the  12th  century,  that  neither  should 
wear  ermine,  sable,  or  other  costly  furs.  Louis 
IX.  followed  their  example  in  the  next  century, 
when  the  extravagance  had  grown  to  such  a 
pitch  that  746  ermines  were  required  for  the 
lining  of  one  of  his  surcoats.  In  these  times 
the  use  of  the  choicer  furs  was  restricted  to 
the  royal  families  and  the  nobility,  and  the 
fashion  extended  to  the  princes  of  less  civil- 
ized nations,  if  it  was  not  indeed  originally 
adopted  from  them.  In  1272  Marco  Polo  ob- 
served that  the  tents  of  the  khan  of  Tartary 
were  lined  with  rich  skins.  In  1887  the  use 
of  furs,  which  had  become  common  in  Eng- 
land, was  prohibited  by  Edward  III.  to  iJl 
persons  not  %ble  to  expend  £100  per  annum. 
The  early  trade  of  western  Europe  in  furs  was 
through  the  Hanse  merchants  on  the  south 
coast  of  the  Baltic,  who  received  them  from 
the  ports  of  Livonia.  In  the  16th  century  a 
direct  trade  was  opened  between  the  English 
and  Russians;  and  a  company  of  the  former, 
protected  by  the  czar,  established  posts  on 
the  White  sea  with  a  warehouse  at  Moscow, 
whence  they  sent  parties  to  Persia  and  the 
countries  on  the  Caspian.  Ivan  the  Terrible 
sent  presents  of  beautiful  furs  to  Queen  Mary 
and  to  Queen  Elizabeth;  but  the  latter  pro- 
hibited the  wearing  of  any  but  native  furs, 
and  the  trade  was  abandoned.  Siberia  was 
about  this  time  conquered  by  the  Russians, 
and  its  tribute  was  paid  in  furs.  This  country 
also  furnished  large  quantities  to  China;  but 
the  choicest  kinds  were  taken  to  Moscow  and 
Nizhni  Novgorod  for  the  use  of  the  princes  and 
nobles  of  Russia,  Turkey,  and  Persia. — The  set- 
tlers of  North  America  early  learned  the  value 
of  the  furs  of  the  numerous  animals  whioh 
peopled  the  rivers,  lakes,  and  forests.  They 
collected  the  skins  in  abundance,  and  found  an 
increasing  demand  for  them  with  every  new 
arrival  from  the  mother  country.  The  Indians 
were  stimulated  by  trifiing  compensation  to 
pursue  their  only  congenial  peaceful  occupa- 
tion. The  Frenchmen,  readily  assimilating  to 
the  Indian  habits,  became  themselves  hunters 
and  explorers ;  and  the  classes  of  voyageun  and 
coureun  des  boUj  to  which  this  trade  gave  rise, 
became  the  pioneers  of  all  the  new  setUements. 
To  protect  and  control  the  trade,  forts  were 
sooBi  required  in  the  Indian  territory.  That 
established  at  Mackinaw  became  an  important 
central  point.  The  value  of  this  trade  early 
engaged  the  attention  of  wealthy  and  influ- 
ential persons  connected  with  the  government 
of  Great  Britain,  as  Prince  Rupert,  the  duke 
of  Albemarle,  the  earl  of  Craven,  Lord  Ash- 
ley, and  others.  After  a  successful  enter- 
prise in  which  they  had  embarked  they  ob- 
tained from  Charles  II.  in  1670  a  charter  of 
incorporation,  giving  to  them  full  possession 
of  the  territory  within  the  entrance  of  Hud- 
son strait  not  already  granted  to  other  subjects, 
or  possessed  by  those  of  any  other  Christian 
prince  or  state.    In  this  was  included  the  mo- 


FUR 


535 


nopoly  of  all  trade  in  these  regions^  and  this 
was  the  origin  of  the  Hudson  bay  company. 
The  territory  they  claimed  extended  from  Hud- 
son bay  west  to  the  Pacific,  and  north  to  the 
Arctic  ocean,  excepting  that  occupied  by  the 
French  and  Russians.  They  soon  formed  set- 
tlements upon  the  rivers  which  empty  into 
Hudson  bay,  and  carried  on  their  operations 
with  great  vigor  and  success.  The  company 
continued  to  prosper  notwithstanding  the  per- 
sistent opposition  of  the  French.  Their  forts 
or  factories  were  extended  further  into  the  in- 
terior of  British  America:  and  their  power 
was  supreme  throughout  the  country,  and  in 
great  measure  over  the  Indians  whom  they 
employed  to  collect  the  skins.  Still  their 
charter  had  never  been  ratified  by  act  of  par- 
liament. In  1749  a  question  arose  in  parlia- 
ment respecting  their  rights,  which  was  de- 
cided in  their  favor.  But  the  Canadians  or- 
ganized a  company  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
last  century,  composed  of  some  of  the  chief 
merchants  of  Oanada,  under  the  name  of  the 
northwest  company.  Their  headquarters  were 
in  Montreal,  and  their  operations  were  carried 
on  with  great  energy  in  the  interior,  extending 
to  the  rivers  that  flow  into  the  Pacific,  where 
they  established  factories  about  the  year  1805. 
The  annual  meeting  of  the  active  partners 
were  held  at  Fort  William  at  the  mouth  of 
Pigeon  river,  on  the  N.  shore  of  Lake  Superior. 
The  company  thus  soon  became  a  formidable 
competitor  with  the  Hudson  bay  company  for 
the  furs  of  these  regions.  In  1818  they  ao- 
qaired  possession  of  Astoria  on  the  Columbia, 
tne  settlement  having  been  sold  to  them  by 
Mr.  Astor's  partners  in  consequence  of  the  war 
between  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain. 
The  two  companies  were  afterward  involved 
for  two  years  in  actual  war.  In  1821  they 
united  in  one  company,  called  the  Hudson 
bay  company,  with  the  privileges  of  the  old 
company  extended  by  act  of  parliament  over 
all  the  territory  occupied  by  bot^.  The  li- 
cense granted  on  May  80,  1888,  for  21  years, 
expired  in  1859.  Formerly  the  company  pos- 
sessed large  establishments  scattered  from 
Labrador  to  the  Pacific,  and  from  the  north- 
em  boundaries  of  Oanada  to  the  Arctic  ocean, 
which  are  of  no  value  for  any  other  purpose. 
In  1868  the  proprietors  sold  the  controlling  in- 
terest in  the  company  to  a  new  body  of  pro- 
prietors, who  in  reorganizing  increased  the 
capital  stock  from  £500,000  to  £2,000,000, 
and  elected  Sir  Edmund  Head,  who  had  been 
governor  general  of  Canada,  governor,  and  Sir 
Curtis  Lampson,  an  American  long  resident  in 
England,  as  deputy  governor.  The  new  organ- 
ization, after  protracted  negotiation  with  the 
governments  of  Great  Britain  and  Canada, 
transferred  to  the  latter  in  1869  almost  the 
whole  of  their  territorial  rights,  embracing  an 
area  nearly  equal  to  that  of  the  18  original  states 
of  the  American  Union,  for  £800,000,  reserving 
only  a  limited  area  in  the  vicinity  of  eadi  fort 
or  station..    In  1870  a  long  pending  dispute  be- 


tween the  United  States  and  the  Hudson  bay 
company,  growing  out  of  the  claims  of  settlers 
in  Oregon,  Pnget  sound,  &c.,  was  settled  by 
a  commission  sitting  in  Washington,  awarding 
to  the  Hudson  bay  company  $600,000.  The 
charter  of  the  company  having  expired  with 
all  its  rights  of  jurisdiction  and  territorial  pow- 
ers, it  is  now  simply  a  trading  company.  The 
furs  collected  are  sold  at  the  great  semi-annual 
sales  of  the  company  in  London.  Until  within 
a  recent  date  the  mode  of  conducting  these 
sales  was  at  auction  *^  by  the  candle.^'  A  pin 
having  been  stuck  into  a  lighted  candle,  the 
bidding  was  continued  until  iJbe  pin  fell  in  con- 
sequence of  the  approach  of  the  fiame,  and  the 
highest  bidder  before  the  fall  of  the  pin  was 
declared  the  purchaser. — The  importance  of 
the  fur  trade  led  to  the  early  settlement  of  the 
western  territories  of  the  United  States.  The 
first  organization  for  carrying  it  on  was  that 
conunissioned  in  1762  by  M.  id^Abadie,  director 
general  of  Louisiana,  made  up  by  merchants 
of  New  Orleans,  under  the  title  of  Pierre  Li- 
gueste  Lacldde,  Antoine  Maxan,  and  co.  La- 
ddde,  the  principal  projector,  conducted  the 
expedition  to  St.  Genevieve,  Mo.,  arriving  there 
Nov.  8,  1768.  The  same  year  he  selected  for 
the  site  of  his  establishment  the  spot  now  oc- 
cupied by  the  city  of  St.  Louis,  and  then  gave 
it  that  name.  The  place  soon  became  of  simi- 
lar importance  to  Mackinaw  and  Montreal. 
The  brothers  Auguste  and  Pierre  Chouteau 
were  of  his  party ;  and  they,  with  Pierre,  son 
of  the  latter,  became  identified  with  the  fur 
trade.  (See  Chouteau.)  In  1859  Martin 
Bates  of  New  York  and  Francis  Bates  of  St. 
Louis  became  the  successors  of  Pierre  Chouteau, 
jr.,  and  still  continue  in  the  trade.  The  vast 
Indian  territories  bordering  the  great  tributa- 
ries of  the  Missouri  and  the  Mississippi  opened 
a  boundless  and  almost  unexplored  field  for  the 
operations  of  the  tar  traders.  The  Rooky 
•mountains  served  only  for  a  time  as  a  barrier 
to  their  explorations,  their  trading  posts,  be- 
fore ten  years  of  the  present  century  had 
elapsed,  being  established  on  Lewis  and  Colum- 
bia rivers.  The  furs,  collected  by  long  and 
tedious  navigation  in  canoes  and  Mackinaw 
boats  from  the  most  distant  sources,  were 
brought  down  the  dangerous  rapids  of  the 
streams,  and  packed  upon  the  backs  of  men 
around  falls,  and  past  the  shoals  which  the 
hardiest  voyageurs  might  not  navigate.  Their 
market  was  then  reached  by  another  voyage 
of  several  months  to  New  Orleans,  where  they 
were  exchanged  for  a  return  freight  of  groce- 
ries ;  or  to  the  great  trading  post  of  Mackinaw, 
whence  the  voyageurs  went  back  with  English 
goods.  For  40  years  preceding  1847  the  an- 
nual value  of  the  tra'deto  St.  Louis  is  supposed  to 
have  been  between  $200,000  and  $800,000,  and 
the  latter  half  of  this  term  much  more  than  the 
larger  sum  named ;  but  it  was  of  still  greater 
importance  in  developing  the  resources  of  the 
wild  territories  west  of  the  Mississippi,  and 
opening  these  to  the  settlement  of  civilized 


536 


FUR 


races. — Of  the  eastern  merchants  engaged  in 
this  trade,  the  most  prominent  was  John  Jacoh 
Astor,  who  embarked  in  it  in  1784,  at  the 
same  time  making  his  residence  in  New  York. 
He  was  a  purchaser  of  fars  in  Montreal,  which 
nntil  the  treaty  of  1795  conld  be  taken  only  to 
England  for  sale.  Afterward  he  introduced 
them  into  New  York,  whence  he  shipped  them 
to  different  parts  of  Europe  and  to  China, 
his  ships  bringing  from  the  latter  in  exchange 
tiie  rich  products  of  the  East  About  1807  he 
engaged  in  the  trade  on  the  northern  fron- 
tier, competing  with  the  wealthy  companies  of 
Canada  that  had  long  occupied  this  field.  Sub- 
sequently his  trade  was  extended  to  the  north- 
west, and  the  magnitude  of  his  operations  be- 
came immense,  under  a  charter  in  the  name  of 
the  '*  American  Fur  Company,"  of  which  he 
furnished  the  entire  capital.  He  made  a  per- 
nstent  effort  to  carry  on  the  business  between 
the  Pacific  coast  and  China,  founding  the  town 
of  Astoria  at  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia  riv- 
er; but  that  establishment  bong  broken  up 
in  1818  by  the  bad  faith  of  a  partner,  who 
sold  it  for  a  nominal  sum  and  placed  it  un- 
der the  British  flag,  he  afterward  confined  his 
operations  to  the  region  east  of  the  Rooky 
mountains,  his  chief  poet  being  at  Mackinaw. 
— >The  acquisition  of  the  territory  of  Alaska  by 
the  United  States  in  1867  opened  to  Amer- 
icans a  new  field  for  the  prosecution  of  the 
ftir  trade.  Until  then  the  large  fur  products 
of  that  country  had  been  collected  by  the  Rus- 
sian American  fur  company  of  8t.  Petersburg, 
through  its  agents  in  AlasKa,  and  beihg  con- 
centrated annually  at  Sitka  were  sent  to  Lon- 
don and  Russia.  The  furs  from  Alaska  are 
mainly  those  of  the  fur  seal  taken  on  two 
small  islands  ill  Behring  sea;  the  sea  otter 
skins,  taken  moetiy  along  the  shores  of  the 
Aleutian  or  Fox  islands ;  and  gmeral  furs,  such 
as  those  of  the  beaver,  fox,  marten,  and  bear, 
found  in  the  forests  of  the  mainland.  These 
are  nearly  aU  collected  by  the  natives  of  the 
territory,  and  traded  off  for  the  necessaries  of 
their  mode  of  life.  The  catching  of  fur  seals, 
however,  is  a  special  branch  of  the  trade.  The 
demand  for  skms  of  this  kind  having  greatiy 
increased,  and  the  animal  having  been  near- 
ly exterminated  in  other  parts  of  the  world, 
the  United  States  extended  special  jurisdiction 
over  the  islands  of  St.  Paul  and  St.  George, 
and  passed  a  law  regulating  the  taking  of  the 
seals.  The  exclusive  privilege  of  catching  the 
f^r  seal  is  granted  by  the  government  to  the 
Alaska  commercial  company  of  San  Francis- 
co. The  number  of  seals  to  be  taken  is  limit- 
ed to  100,000  per  annum,  and  only  males  may 
be  killed.  No  restriction  is  placed  upon  the 
taking  of  other  kinds  of  animals,  and  the  gen- 
eral ftir  trade  is  open  to  competition.  The 
Alaska  commercial  company  has  about  20 
trading  posts,  on  the  mainland  and  islands  of 
Alask^  where  are  gathered  large  numbers  of 
skins,  which  are  annually  brought  to  San  Fran- 
•cisoo,  and  forwarded  tiieneeefaiefly  to  London. 


The  annual  value  of  the  fur  trade  of  Alaska  is 
estimated  at  upward  of  $1,200,000,  while  the 
sum  received  by  the  government  as  a  tax  im- 
posed upon  the  taking  of  seals  exceeds  $300,- 
000  yearly.  The  number  of  fur  skins  collecteid 
in  Alaska  in  1872  was  as  follows: 


Beaver. 17,561 

Ermine 1,849 

Fox,  Uue 8,981 

"     croM. 

"  red.. 
"  silver 
"  white 
Lynx 


Marte: 


U84 

6,408 

465 

666 

260 


n 10,684 


Mink 428 

Musqaaeb 4,000 

Otter,land 1,476 

**     sea 8,66S 

Sable 611 

Beal,^. 100,000 

•*     hair. 14T 

Squirrel 69 


— ^The  most  fashionable  and  costly  of  all  ftirs 
is  the  Russian  sable,  the  skin  of  the  mnstela 
ttbelUnOy  which  is  about  three  or  four  times  as 
large  as  the  common  weasel,  to  which  family 
it  belongs.  A  choice  skin  of  the  sea  otter  or 
the  black  fox  may  command  a  higher  price 
than  one  of  the  Russian  sable ;  but  Uie  cost  of 
the  latter  will  be  relatively  greater  on  account 
of  its  smaller  sixe.  The  ^r  of  the  Russian  sa- 
ble is  brown  in  summer,  with  some  gray  spots 
on  the  head,  and  may  be  distinguidied  from 
all  other  furs  by  the  hairs  turning  and  lying 
equally  well  in  any  direction.  In  winter,  when 
the  animal  is  usnaDy  tak^i,  tiie  color  of  the 
fur  is  a  beautiful  black.  The  darkest  skins  are 
the  most  valuable.  In  its  natural  condition 
the  fur  has  a  bloomy  appearance ;  but  dyed  sa- 
bles generally  lose  their  gloss  and  the  hairs  be- 
come twisted  or  crisped.  Sometimes  the  skins 
are  blackened  by  being  smoked,  but  the  deoep* 
tion  is  exposed  by  the  smell  and  the  crisped 
hairs.  A  dyed  or  smoked  fur  may  be  detected 
by  rubbing  it  with  a  moist  linen  doth,  which 
will  then  become  blackened.  It  is  said,  how- 
ever, that  the  Chinese  dye  Hie  sabUs  and 
give  them  a  permanent  color  without  destroy- 
ing the  gloss ;  in  this  case  the  fVaud  may  be 
detected  by  the  crisped  hairs.  The  best  skins 
are  obtained  in  Yakutsk,  Kamtoha&a,  and 
Russian  Lapland.  Only  about  25,000  are  an- 
nually taken,  and  these  command  extraordi- 
nary prices,  the  average  price  of  a  raw  skin 
being  about  $25,  while  a  cnoice  '*  crown '-  Rus- 
sian sable  w^  sell  for  $200.  But  few  of  these 
fhrs  reach  the  English  or  American  market 
The  chief  demand  is  in  Russia,  where  the  use 
of  the  sable  is  monopolized  by  the  imperial 
family  and  the  nobility,  by  whom  it  is  cniefly 
used  for  linings  for  civic  robes,  coats,  &c.,  and 
for  ladies'  sets.  In  America  Russian  sable  is 
used  for  ladies'  muffs  and  boas.  The  price  of 
tiie  choicest  sets,  consisting  of  these  two  arti- 
cles, is  from  $1,000  to  $1,600,  though  sets  of 
lighter  shade  and  inferior  quality  may  be 
bought  for  from  $250  to  $400.  Beautiful  sets 
are  also  made  of  the  tail  of  the  animal.  Of 
the  sables,  the  next  to  the  Russian  in  value 
and  beauty  is  the  pine  marten,  obtained  in 
British  North  America,  and  known  as  the 
Hudson  bay  sable.  The  fur  is  fine,  long,  and 
generally  of  a  lustrous  brown  color,  which 
is  frequently  tinted  to  resemble  the  Russian 


FUR 


637 


sable.  The  average  value  of  a  dressed  skin 
is  about  $8,  and  the  choioest  are  worth  abont 
$25.  The  Hudson  bay  sable  is  the  leading  fhr 
in  England,  France,  and  Germany,  for  muffs, 
capes,  collars,  boas,  &c.,  and  is  mucb  worn  in 
the  United  States  in  mufk  and  boas,  a  set  cost- 
ing from  $100  to  $800.  Much  inferior  to  this 
is  the  fur  of  the  European  pine  marten,  which 
is  usually  grayish  brown;  the  skins  range  in 
value  from  $1  to  $4,  and  are  chiefly  sent  to 
England  and  dye<l  to  imitate  the  finer  grades 
of  Hudson  bay  sable.  The  fur  of  the  beech 
or  stone  marten  is  yellowish  brown,  but  is 
often  dyed  in  imitation  of  more  valuable  sa- 
bles. The  French  excel  in  dyeing  this  ftir, 
which  therefore  is  often  known  as  French  sable. 
The  best  specimens  are  obtained  in  Europe, 
where  it  is  much  used  for  trimmings  and  articles 
of  ladies'  wear;  in  America  it  has  passed  out 
of  general  use.  The  value  of  an  average  skin  is 
about  $8,  and  of  the  finest  specimens  about  $5. 
The  mink  or  minx  (ptUoritu  vUon)  is  found  in 
the  northern  parts  of  America,  Europe,  and 
Asia,  the  demand  being  chiefiy  supplied  from 
America.  The  value  of  a  dressed  skin  ranges 
from  $3  to  $8.  The  choioest  furs  have  a 
chestnut-brown  color  glossed  with  black; 
those  of  a  lighter  color  are  less  valuable,  but 
are  dyed  in  imitation  of  superior  furs.  The 
mink  was  formerly  a  fiivorite  fur  in  America  for 
muffs,  collars,  &o.,  and  commanded  a  high  price; 
but  it  is  now  rapidly  passing  out  of  fashion. 
One  of  the  most  noted  furs  of  this  class  is 
that  of  the  ermine  (P.  erminea)^  a  small  ani- 
mal only  10  or  12  inches  in  length,  much  re- 
sembling the  common  weasel,  and  inhabiting 
the  northern  regions  of  Europe,  Asia,  and 
America.  About  400,000  skins  are  obtained 
annually,  the  best  from  Russia,  Sweden,  and 
Norway.  In  summer  the  fur  is  yellowish 
brown,  but  in  winter  at  the  north  it  becomes 
a  pure  white  and  exceedingly  beautifiil.  Fur- 
ther south  the  change  from  brown  to  white  is 
less  marked.  In  consequence  of  this  peculiar- 
ity, the  animal  is  generally  caught  in  the  winter, 
when  its  fur  is  most  valuable.  The  end  of  the 
tail  is  shining  jet  black  in  all  seasons,  and  is 
commonly  inserted  at  intervds  in  the  white  fur, 
as  an  ornament.  The  paws  of  the  black  Astra- 
khan lamb  are  often  substituted  for  the  tail  of 
the  ermine.  This  fur,  called  minever  in  her- 
aldry, has  been  the  royal  fur  of  several  Euro- 
pean nations,  and  has  been  much  used  in  Eng- 
land to  line  the  official  robes  of  judges  and 
magistrates,  its  snowy  white  color  being  re- 
garded as  the  emblem  of  purity.  In  the  reign 
of  Edward  IIL  its  use  was  restricted  to  the 
royal  family.  At  present  it  may  be  worn  by 
any  one ;  the  modes  of  ornamenting  it,  how- 
ever, as  it  is  worn  on  state  occasions,  serve 
still  to  distinguish  the  sovereign  and  the  rank 
of  the  peers,  peeresses,  judges,  &c.  Only  the 
robes  of  the  royal  family  can  be  trinmied  with 
ermine  thickly  spotted  with  black  paws  of  the 
Astrakhan  lamb.  The  use  of  the  ermine  fur 
is  restricted  in  Austria  to  the  imperial  family ; 


and  it  also  distinguishes  the  sovereigns  of  Ger- 
many, Portugal,  and  Russia.  The  ermine  is 
little  used  in  the  United  States.  The  value 
of  the  skin  is  from  $1  to  $8.— The  fur  of  the 
black  fox  is  exceedingly  rare;  a  single  skin 
commands  a  higher  price  than  that  of  any 
other  animal,  except  perhaps  the  sea  otter. 
The  color  is  a  glossy  black  with  a  silvery  griz- 
zle on  the  forehead  and  flanks.  It  is  found  in 
the  N.  W.  part  of  the  United  States,  in  British 
North  America,  and  in  the  arctic  regions,  the 
choicest  specimens  coming  from  Canada  and 
Labrador.  But  few  skins  are  obtained,  and 
these  command  enormous  prices;  single  speci- 
mens have  been  sold  in  London  for  £80,  and 
there  was  exhibited  at  the  world^s  fair  in  that 
city  in  1851  a  pelisse  belonging  to  the  emperor 
of  Russia,  lined  and  trimmed  with  this  fur  and 
valued  at  £2,000.  The  largest  demand  is  in 
Russia,  where  it  is  worn  by  the  nobility,  and  in 
China.  The  fur  is  fine  and  downy,  and  is  used 
chiefly  for  ladies*  sets  and  for  trimmings,  it  be- 
ing specially  adapted  as  a  trimming  for  velvet. 
A  muff  and  boa  of  black  fox  fur  are  valued 
at  from  $200  to  $500.  In  natural  history  and 
in  commerce  the  black  fox  is  known  also  as 
the  silver  fbx ;  but  among  farriers  and  purcha- 
sers a  marked  distinction  is  made  between 
a  skin  having  black  and  one  having  silver 
fur,  the  difference  being  chiefly  one  of  color. 
While  the  former  has  the  appearance  above 
described,  the  latter  presents  a  rich,  glossy, 
nlvery  color.  The  price  of  an  average  black 
fox  slon  is  about  $80,  and  of  the  choicest  about 
$200 ;  when  the  fdr  has  the  silvery  appearance, 
it  is  valued  at  only  about  half  as  much.  While 
these  two  grades  are  recognized  by  the  Lon- 
don dealers,  the  number  of  skins  bought  and 
sold  is  generally  classed  under  the  head  of  sil- 
ver fox.  Next  in  value  is  the  fur  of  the  cross 
fox,  the  choicest  skins  being  valued  at  about 
$10 ;  it  is  used  for  the  same  purposes  as  the 
preceding,  and  also  for  the  finest  kinds  of 
carriage  robes.  The  white  fox  (tulpes  lag<h- 
pus)  is  very  abundant  in  the  arctic  regions. 
Its  color  is  white  in  winter,  and  brown,  gray, 
or  bluish  in  summer.  The  fur  is  long,  fine, 
and  woolly;  it  is  used  for  ladies'  sets,  dress 
trimmings,  and  sleigh  robes.  The  price  of  an 
average  skin  is  about  $2  50,  and  of  the  choicest 
about  $5.  They  are  mostly  exported  to  Eu- 
rope. Other  varieties  of  fox  furs  of  less  value 
are  those  of  the  blue,  the  red,  the  kitt,  and  the 
gray  fox.  The  furs  of  the  two  last  named  are 
extensively  used  in  Turkey  and  Greece  for  li- 
nings for  robes,  &c.  The  skins  of  the  red  fox 
go  chiefly  to  Germany,  Poland,  and  Greece. 
The  fur  of  the  flsher,  a  North  American  animal 
much  resembling  the  fox,  is  rich  and  soft  and 
of  a  dark  brown  or  blackish  color.  It  is  not 
much  used  in  the  United  States,  but  is  generally 
sent  to  Germany,  Poland,  and  Russia,  where  it 
is  used  for  limngs  of  more  costly  furs,  for  trim- 
mings, and  ladies'  apparel.  The  tail  is  also 
used  for  trimmings,  and  frequently  as  an  orna- 
ment for  the  cap,  especially  at  marriage  fes- 


588 


FUR 


tivities  in  Poland.  The  skins  of  the  fisher  are 
worth  from  $10  to  $20  each.— The  use  of  fnr- 
seal  skins  has  recently  increased  to  such  an  ex- 
tent that  it  is  now  one  of  the  leading  fnrs  of  Eu- 
rope and  America.  In  England  it  is  a  staple 
article  for  ladies^  jackets.  In  Russia  it  is  much 
used  for  linings,  and  in  the  United  States  it  has 
hecome  fashionable  for  both  ladies'  and  gentle- 
men's wear.  The  total  number  of  fur-seal 
skins  annually  obtained  is  about  160,000.  They 
are  found  in  small  numbers  on  the  E.  coast 
of  Asia,  on  the  W.  coast  of  South  America, 
and  in  the  South  Atlantic  and  Indian  oceans ; 
but  most  of  the  vast  resorts  of  former  years 
in  the  Southern  ocean  have  disappeared,  and 
the  race  has  been  nearly  exterminated  by  in- 
discriminate killing.  The  chief  source  of  sup- 
ply is  now  the  islands  of  St.  Paul  and  St. 
George,  about  800  m.  from  tlie  coast  of  Alaska, 
where  seals  resort  in  great  numbers  from  May 
to  November  for  the  purposes  of  reproduction, 
rearing  their  young,  and  shedding  their  coats 
of  hair.  During  this  season  the  shores  for 
miles  are  lined  with  millions  of  these  animals, 
of  which  about  100,000  are  annually  taken. 
The  seal  skins,  when  taken  from  the  animal, 
are  Bimply  salted,  and  in  this  condition  sold 
to  the  manufacturers,  who  clean,  dress,  and 
dye  them  ;  the  process  taking  about  four 
months,  and  involving  a  vast  amount  of  labor 
and  skill  to  bring  them  into  a  proper  condi- 
tion to  be  made  into  garments.  In  the  pro- 
cess of  manufacture  each  skin  is  handled 
more  than  200  times  before  it  is  turned  out 
in  a  state  suitable  for  the  ftirrier's  use.  The 
natural  color  of  the  fur,  whidi  underlies  the 
coarse  hair  or  outside  covering,  is  a  dirty  cin- 
namon, and  the  skins  are  dyed  12  to  18  times 
to  bring  them  to  the  dark  bronze  or  jet-black 
usually  worn.  The  great  amount  of  skilled 
labor  required  to  perfect  them  adds  materially 
to  the  cost.  Thus  the  average  price  of  raw 
skins  is  about  $18  each,  and  of  dressed  about 
$21.  The  choicest  specimens  of  the  latter  are 
valued  at  about  $65.  Sacques  made  of  sed 
skin  for  ladies  command  prices  varying  from 
$100  to  $400.  This  is  the  only  standard  fur 
which  is  improved  by  being  dyed ;  in  all  other 
cases  this  process  is  used  to  palm  off  an  inferior 
fur  for  one  of  superior  grade.  But  the  fur  of 
the  seal  is  not  only  made  more  beautiful  in 
color  by  being  dyed,  but  it  is  changed  from  a 
curly  to  a  straight  condition,  and  acquires  a 
rich  velvety  quality.  The  chief  establishments 
for  the  preparation  of  seal  skins  are  in  Lon- 
don, and  employ  a  large  capital  and  numerous 
workmen.  The  knowledge  of  the  dye  used 
is  kept  a  strict  secret  There  is  but  one  es- 
tablisnment  of  this  kind  in  the  United  States 
(in  Albany,  N.  Y.),  and  this  is  of  limited 
capacity.  The  skin  of  the  hair  seal,  found  on 
the  £.  coast  of  North  America,  is  used  for 
trunks,  military  purposes,  &c. ;  that  of  the 
wool  seal  is  used  largely  in  the  French  army 
for  knapsacks. — The  skins  of  the  otter  (Intra 
vulgaris,  L.  Canadensu)  make  a  beautiful  and 


warm  fur,  which  is  much  valued,  especially  by 
the  Russians,  Greeks,  and  Chinese.  It  is  for 
the  most  part  an  American  product ;  but  it  is 
also  procured  to  some  extent  in  the  Britisli 
isles  from  a  smaller  variety  of  the  species. 
Another  small  variety  with  short  fur  is  iJso 
found  in  the  East  Indies.  The  American  otter 
is  most  abundant  in  the  British  possessions.  It 
has  a  dark  glossy  brown  fur,  which  is  of  two 
kinds,  one  being  short,  soft,  and  thick,  the 
other  longer  and  coarser,  and  intermixed  with 
the  former.  It  is  worn  chiefly  by  gentlemen, 
and  is  also  used  for  ladies'  trimmings.  The 
price  of  an  average  dressed  skin  is  about  $18, 
and  of  the  finest  specimens  about  $18.  Among 
valuable  furs  that  of  the  sea  otter  holds  a  high 
rank.  Its  production  is  limited,  and  it  com- 
mands a  very  high  price,  $400  being  some- 
times paid  for  a  choice  skin,  while  the  aver- 
age pnce  is  about  $50.  These  furs  are  exten- 
sively worn  by  the  nobles  of  Russia,  and  are 
highly  esteemed  by  the  Chinese.  The  supply 
is  obtained  chiefiy  from  the  ooasts  and  isl- 
ands of  the  North  Pacific  and  about  Kam- 
tchatka  and  Alaska.  About  4,000  are  annually 
taken  off  the  coast  of  Alaska.  The  thick  glossy 
iur,  which  is  exceedingly  fine  and  long,  has  a 
prevailing  rich  black  color,  tinged  with  brown 
above,  and  presenting  lighter  colors  below. 
The  finest  kinds  are  sometimes  tipped  with 
silver-gray  hairs.  It  is  a  curious  fact  that  the 
skins  of  this  animal  are  sometimes  taken  almost 
aroxmd  the  world  before  reaching  the  place 
where  used.  Thus  many  of  them,  caught  K. 
W.  of  Alaska,  are  sent  successively  to  San  Fran- 
cisco, London,  Leipsic,  Moscow,  Nizhni  Novgo- 
rod, and  finally  to  their  destinaGon  in  China. — 
The  chinchilla  (ehinehiUa  lanigera)  is  an  ani- 
mal intermediate  between  the  squiirel  and  the 
rabbit,  and  inhabits  South  American  conn- 
tries.  Individuals  producing  the  darkest  and 
best  colored  skins  are  found  in  the  cold  moun- 
tain re^ons  of  Chili  and  Peru.  The  fur, 
which  is  silvery  gray,  is  remarkable  for  its 
fineness  and  softness.  It  is  used  for  ladies'  and 
children's  sets,  but  more  especially  for  lining 
and  trimming  cloaks  and  other  articles  of  cloth- 
ing. About  100,000  skins  are  taken  annually, 
which  are  chiefly  consumed  in  France,  Ger- 
many, and  Russia.  The  best  skins  of  the 
Arica  chinchilla,  from  Buenos  Ayres,  are  worth 
about  $6,  though  the  average  price  is  only 
about  half  that  sum. — ^The  lynx  includes  the 
Canada  lynx  and  the  lynx  cat  (felts  Canaden- 
siSy  F,  rvfck).  The  fur  is  soft,  warm,  and  light, 
naturally  grayish,  with  dark  spots,  but  com- 
monly dyed  a  beautiful  shining  black.  It  is 
used  for  facings  and  linings  of  cloaks,  for  the 
most  part  in  America,  brought  back  from 
England.  It  is  also  largely  used  for  ladies' 
mourning  attire.  The  skins  of  the  lynx  are 
valued  at  from  $8  to  $5.  The  fitch  is  the 
European  polecat  (futori%u  communis).  Its 
fur  is  of  about  the  same  value  as  that  of  the 
lynx,  and  is  used  chiefly  for  coat  linings  and 
ladies'  wearing  apparel.    The  demand  for  it 


FUR 


539 


in  the  United  States  has  greatlj  diminished. 
— ^Less  costly  furs  used  for  general  purposes 
are  those  of  the  raccoon,  rabbit,  skunk,  squir- 
rel, wild  cat,  and  muskrat.  The  skins  of  the 
raccoon  (procyon  lotor)  are  obtained  from 
North  America,  and  sent  chiefly  to  Russia  and 
Germany,  where  they  are  the  great  popular  fur 
for  lining  coats,  &c.  The  average  price  of  raw 
skins  is  about  60  cts.,  though  the  choicest  black 
specimens  sell  for  $8.  This  fur  has  dso  been 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  hats.  Rabbit  skins 
are  used  in  the  natural  condition  and  dyed  for 
articles  where  cheapness  is  essentiaL  They  are 
extensively  used  by  hatters.  The  Siberian 
squirrel  has  a  short  silky  fur  of  a  beautiful  gray 
color,  which  is  used  chiefly  in  Europe  for 
linings  and  small  articles  worn  by  ladies  and 
children.  The  skins  are  worth  from  60  to  76 
cts.  each.  Of  about  the  same  value  is  the  skin 
of  the  wild  cat,  used  chiefly  in  Europe  for  coat 
linings  and  cheap  sleigh  robes.  The  musk- 
rat  or  mus<iuash  (Jibsr  zibethicm)  is  a  native 
of  North  America,  found  generally  along  the 
banks  of  streams  and  in  meadows.  The  skins 
are  worth  about  80  cts.  each.  They  are  gener- 
ally dyed,  and  furnish  a  popular  fur  in  Germany 
and  Italy  for  linings  and  ladies'  apparel.  The 
skin  of  the  skunk  is  an  American  production, 
valued  at  from  60  cts.  to  $1.  It  has  been  used 
in  this  country  for  linings  and  small  articles  of 
apparel,  often  under  the  name  of  AlaeJca  sable. 
The  demand  for  it  is  rapidly  decreasing,  and  it 
is  now  chiefly  used  in  France  and  Germany. — 
The  fur  of  the  beaver  {e(uUyr  Americanui)  is 
fine,  thick,  and  of  a  uniform  reddish  brown. 
The  skins  are  obtained  chiefly  in  British  Amer- 
ica and  exported  to  England.  The  price  of 
•an  ayerage  dressed  skin  is  about  $3  60,  and 
of  the  best  about  $8.  Formerly  this  fur  was 
mach  used  in  the  manufacture  of  hats,  and  was 
the.leading  article  in  the  fur  trade ;  but  its  use 
for  thb  purpose  greatly  diminished  in  conse- 
quence of  the  employment  of  silk  and  other 
less  expensive  materials.  It  has,  however, 
again  been  brought  into  extensive  use  by  the 
introduction  of  a  process  of  preparing  the  skins 
by  which  a  handsome  fur  for  trimmings  and 
for  gentlemen's  collars  and  gloves  is  obtained. 
The  fine  silky  wool  of  the  beaver  has  also  been 
SQccessfully  woven.  The  white  wool  from  the 
belly  of  the  animal  is  still  used  in  France  for 
bonnets.  Sleigh  robes  are  often  made  of  beaver 
skins.  Much  resembling  the  fur  of  the  beaver 
is  the  nutria  fur  of  the  coypu,  obtained  from 
South  America.  The  skins  are  worth  from 
12  to  26  cents  each,  and  are  chiefly  used  in 
America  in  the  manufacture  of  hats. — ^The 
above  constitute  the  leading  furs  used  as  ar- 
ticles of  apparel  for  comfort  or  ornament. 
There  are  valuable  skins  of  other  animals  which 
are  extensively  used  for  special  purposes. 
Among  these  are  the  bear,  buffalo,  wolf,  and 
wolverene.  In  northern  regions  bear  skins 
afford  the  most  usefid  and  comfortable  mate- 
rial for  beds,  caps,  gloves,  and  other  articles 
of  dothing.     Further  south,  in  Europe  and 


America,  they  are  used  for  sleigh  robes  and 
mats.  The  most  valuable  of  the  bear  skins  is 
that  of  the  white  or  polar  bear,  which  has  a 
fine,  long,  soft  far,  silvery  white  tinged  with 
yellow.  The  average  value  of  a  dressed  skin  is 
about  $60,  while  a  skin  of  the  best  quality  is 
worth  about  $1 60.  The  skins  of  the  black  bear 
(urgus  Amerieanw)  and  grisly  bear  {W,  horri- 
bilu)  are  used  for  military  purposes,  while 
articles  of  ladies'  apparel  are  sometimes  made 
of  the  fur  of  the  brown  bear.  The  skins  of 
the  black  and  the  brown  bear  sell  for  from 
$20  to  $40  each,  while  that  of  the  grisly 
bear  commands  a  somewhat  lower  price.  The 
skins  of  the  wolf  and  the  wolverene  are  gen- 
erally used  for  sleigh  robes  and  mats,  though 
cloak  linings  are  sometimes  made  of  the  latter 
in  Germany.  The  average  value  of  wolf  skins 
is  about  $2;  the  finest  specimens  fVom  the 
Hudson  bay  region  are  wortii  about  $6.  The 
skins  of  the  wolverene  are  valued  at  from  $8 
to  $7. — Valuable  furs  are  supplied  from  many 
other  animals  besides  those  enumerated,  as  the 
badger,  whose  long  wiry  hairs  are  also  used  for 
shaving  brushes.  The  domestic  cat  is  bred  in 
Holland  for  its  fur,  and  the  skins  are  merchant- 
able in  the  United  States,  being  worth  from  10 
to  60  cts.  each.  Mention  has  been  made  of 
the  paws  of  the  black  Astrakhan  lamb.  This 
animal  is  covered  with  the  most  rich  and  glossy 
silk-like  fur,  all  the  more  delicate,  it  is  said, 
when  obtained,  as  is  not  unusual,  by  slaughter- 
ing the  mother  before  the  birth  of  the  lamb. 
The  fur  of  the  Persian  gray  and  black  lambs 
is  made  the  bettes  to  retain  its  curliness  by  the 
practice  of  sewing  the  animal  tightly  in  leather 
immediately  after  its  birth.  The  furs  of  the 
leopard,  tiger,  lion,  &c.,  find  uses  as  sleigh 
robes,  mats,  (fee. — The  most  valuable  furs  are 
generally  obtained  from  small  animals  inhabit- 
ing cold  countries.  Land  fur-bearing  animals 
are  taken  by  means  of  the  dead-fall,  poisoning, 
shooting,  and  steel  traps.  The  last  named 
method  is  the  best  and  the  one  most  generally 
practised,  as  the  fur  of  the  animal  if  captured 
in  any  of  the  other  ways  is  likely  to  be  injured. 
All  furs,  at  least  of  the  land  animals,  are  in  the 
best  condition  in  the  winter;  the  trapping, 
therefore,  is  generally  carried  on  between  the 
first  of  OctoW  and  the  middle  of  April.  Du- 
ring the  summer  the  fur-bearing  animals  gener- 
dly  shed  their  coats,  or  at  least  lose  the  finest 
and  thickest  part  of  their  Air.  At  the  ap- 
proach of  winter  the  ftu:  becomes  glossy,  thick, 
and  of  the  richest  color,  and  the  inside  part  of 
the  skin,  or  pelt,  when  taken  from  the  animal 
and  dried,  has  a  clean,  white  appearance.  The 
fur  seal,  however,  is  taken  between  May  and 
November. — As  a  rule,  furs,  except  those  of  the 
highest  class,  are  not  regarded  with  the  most 
favor  in  the  country  where  they  are  obtained. 
The  price  of  the  ftir  is  regulated  more  by  fashion 
than  by  its  intrinsic  value,  and  is  therefore 
Bubj^t  to  marked  fluctuations.  The  handsome 
fur  of  the  black  skunk  was  fashionable  for 
many  years  before  it  was  worn  in  the  United 


540  F 

States;  while  the  for  of  the  fitch,  which  waa 
at  one  time  generallj  worn  here,  was  not  es- 
teemed ID  Oerman; ;  and  bo  the  Rilver-graj 
rabbit,  despised  in  England,  was  long  highl; 
prized  hj  the  mandarins  of  China,  Several 
kinds  of  furs  which  commandedi  high  prices  a 
few  years  ago  are  now  in  little  demand  in  oon- 
aeoaence  of  naving  become  onfuhionable.  The 
valDes  heretofore  mentioned  are  given  hj  0. 
6.  Gunther's  sons  of  New  York,  the  leading 
dealera  of  the  United  States  in  manDfaotnred 
Aits,  as  the  average  wholesale  prices  for  18T4, 
sooording  to  the  London  market.  The  greater 
portion  of  the  furs  of  oommeroe  are  collect- 
ed from  the  North  American  continent.— The 
chief  fur  market  of  the  world  is  London.  Two 
great  semi-annnal  sales,  attended  hj  dealers 
from  all  parts  of  the  world,  are  held  in  March 
and  September,  besides  a  sale  of  less  impor- 
tance in  January  of  each  year.    Two  great  an- 


nnal  fairs  for  the  sale  of  tan  and  other  articles 
are  also  held  in  Leipsio,  the  supply  of  fars  be- 
ing largely  obtained  from  the  London  sales. 
The  larger  portion  of  the  Airs  sold  in  Londtai 
are  oSered  by  the  Hndaon  bay  company  and 
C.  M.  Lampson  and  co.,  the  former  importers 
and  the  latter  coinmiBBlon  merchants.  It  is 
estimated  that  the  valne  of  the  fare  sold 
annually  by  tbem  and  some  smaller  dealers 
is  about  £1,800,000,  inclnding  seal  akina  vsl- 
ned  ot  £400,000,  all  of  which  are  the  pro- 
duction of  the  United  6tat«a  and  Bntiah 
America.  In  addition  to  the  above,  Amer- 
ican fiirs  to  the  valne  of  ahoot  £100,000  are 
annually  sent  direct  to  Germany  and  Rus- 
sia. The  variety  of  Airs  in  use,  their  relative 
valne,  and  the  extent  of  the  Air  trade,  are  in- 
dicated in  the  following  table  of  aalea  in  Lon- 
don in  ISTB  of  the  two  leading  Air-dealing 
companies  of  the  world: 


«C«OH..rOOMPA»T. 

UMDS. 

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,-. 

T-Wj. 

.n^ini. 

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s.»- 

X- 

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iii 
J 

1 

.is 

i 

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sr 

AfHv 

£   fc  d. 

IMS 
llO! 

1 

i.'ssi 

Is 

SSSM 

si 

moBf 

lOl.OTl 

1 

IW 

4i8.au 

IM.Ml 

£.710 

T,SM 
«.4M 
S,SIS 

10.008 
I.8W 

LIM 

litis 

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M.®U  Id. 

e  t.  d. 

aik::.: 

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Ftahw 

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-"  E"::: 

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&"■::: 

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ss£::;:; 

s 

Bi.@£SISi. 

»10    0 

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22 

HScTlSITl. 
£81Cli.S£n. 

t,.  &  iZ.  »a, 

4«.  a  £1  81.  Sd 

S3.  Q  i«d. 

ID    0    D 

e  0  0 

IB    0 
IB    U 

"■1?  JfiSSS: 

J'S    J 

■   60 

Bkunk 

Wolf 

Wolvmnt.. 

l.»l            U.0tJ4. 

i.*M    Ua^Um. 
Im     8*%£l  u. 

la  0 

In  addition  to  the  above,  abont  160,000  far- 
seal  skins  were  sold  at  from  5*.  to  £4  4«. 
each,  the  average  price  being  abont  £2. 
There  are  also  sold  nnnaally  in  London  a  con- 
siderable number  of  chinchilla,  nntria,  and  er- 
mine skins.  Besides  the  fnrs  sold  in  London,  a 
moderate  portion  of  tltose  annually  collected 
is  the  United  States  are  retained  there  for 
Qse,  amounting  to  about  160,000  mink  and 
760,000  musquash  skins;  and  a  small  number 
of  the  other  furs  are  manufactored  and  w 
The  nomber  of  the  chief  Air  skins  annually 
collected  in  Russia,  Sweden  end  Norway,  Ice- 
land, and  Greenland  has  been  estimated  as 
A>llows:    badger,  23,000;    bear,  3,300; 


206,000 ;  ermine,  50,000 ;  fitch,  220,000 ;  fox 
—silver  and  cross  100,  blue  fl.600,  white  28,000, 
red  86,000 ;  hare,  1,200,000 ;  lynx,  9,000 ; 
marmot,  6.000;  marten,  60,000 ;  mlnk^  66,000; 
otter,  0,000;  sable,  S,000;  seal  (bur),  830,000; 
sqoirrel,  1,000,000;  stone  marten,  160,000; 
wolf,  (1,000;  wolverene,  TOO.— Ffb  Dexsamo. 
As  skins  are  sent  to  market  they  have  been 
commonly  merely  dri^d  in  the  sun  or  by  a 
fire ;  but  small  skins  are  sometimes  first  steep- 
ed in  a  solution  of  alom.  The  object  ia  to  ren- 
der the  pelt  perfectly  dry,  so  that  when  packed 
it  shall  not  be  liable  to  putrefy.  When  stored 
in  large  quantities  the  skins  are  carefnily  pro- 
tected from  dampness.    As  the  fur  dreseer  re- 


t  IndodUf 


«,4«l  M  Un  JuuiT  ule. 


FUREEDPOOR 


FUENAOE 


541 


ceives  the  skins  he  oanaes  them  to  be  subjected 
to  different  processes  according  to  the  kind  of 
fnr  and  the  object  for  which  it  is  intended. 
The  fine  qualities  for  ornamental  dresses  are 
nsuaUj  placed  in  tabs  together  with  a  quantity 
of  rancid  butter  or  lard,  and  are  then  trampled 
upon  bj  the  feet  of  men.  The  pelt  thus  be- 
comes softened,  as  if  partially  tanned.  They 
are  next  cleaned  of  the  loose  bits  of  integu- 
ment by  rubbiug  them  with  a  strip  of  iron. 
The  grease  is  then  removed  by  trampling  them 
again  with  a  mixture  of  sawdust  (that  of  ma- 
hogany is  preferred)  and  occasionally  beating 
them,  and  combmg  the  fur.  Another  process 
is  to  steqo  the  skins  in  a  liquid  containing  bran, 
alum,  and  salt,  in  order  to  cleanse  them  from 
greasmesB,  and  then  to  apply  a  preparation  of 
soap  and  soda,  which  removes  a  kind  of  oil 
formed  in  the  fur  itself.  Finally  the  skin  is 
washed  in  clear  water  and  dried,  when  it  is 
found  to  be  dressed  and  converted  into  thin 
soft  leather.  This  is  all  that  is  necessary  to 
prepare  them  for  the  cutter,  whose  ofSce  it  is 
to  cnt  out  the  variously  riiaped  pieces,  and  sew 
them  together  to  make  the  diJSerent  articles. 
The  cutting  requires  much  skill  to  avoid  waste. 
From  a  great  number  of  similar  skins  parts  of 
the  same  shades  of  color  are  selected,  and  thus 
each  muff,  mantle,  or  other  article  is  made  to 
present  a  uniform  color.  The  seams  are  con- 
cealed by  the  lining  with  which  the  furs  are 
finished.  For  the  treatment  of  fur  skins  used 
for  felting,  see  Hat. — ^Furs  are  subject  to  in- 
jvry  by  moths,  which  deposit  their  eggs  at 
the  roots  of  the  fine  hairs,  and  as  soon  as  the 
worm  is  hatched  it  begins  its  work  of  destruc- 
tion. They  will  also  decay  if  exposed  to  moist- 
ure. To  preserve  furs,  therefore,  it  is  necessary 
to  keep  them  dry  and  well  aired,  and  to  protect 
them  from  moths.  The  latter  object  is  often 
accomplished  by  frequently  beating  the  furs 
and  keeping  them  in  a  camphor-wood  or  ce- 
dar-wood trunk  or  apartment,  or  by  sprinkling 
them  with  camphor,  tobacco,  or  powdered  ce- 
dar or  sandal  wood.  Some  of  the  largest  def- 
ers find  that  the  most  effective  method  for  pre- 
serving furs  from  moths  is  simply  to  beat  them 
about  once  a  month  with  a  rattan. 

FIJRHBDPOOR,  or  Dacca  Jelalpeer,  a  district 
of  the  commissionership  of  Dacca,  Bengal, 
British  India,  bounded  N.  by  Mymunsing,  £. 
by  Dacca,  8.  by  Backergunge,  and  W.  by  Jes- 
sore  and  Pubna ;  area,  2,052  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
about  650,000.  It  is  wholly  alluvial,  and,  being 
intersected  frequently  by  the  Ganges  and  its 
branches,  is  periodically  inundated,  particular- 
ly in  the  8.  and  N.  E.  parts,  which  are  low 
and  marshy;  but  in  the  N.  and  N.  W.  the 
land  is  more  elevated.  The  soil  is  of  extraor- 
dinary fertility,  producing  large  crops  of  rice, 
sugar  cane,  cotton,  hemp,  indigo,  pulse,  and 
oil  seeds.  Sugar,  indigo,  and  rum  are  manu- 
factured, and  much  coarse  cotton  cloth  is  made 
for  home  use.  The  population  is  composed  of 
Mohammedans  and  Brahmans,  about  equaUy 
divided,  the  latter  being  the  more  numerous 


in  the  N.  part.  There  are  also  several  thou- 
sand native  Christians,  descendants  of  the  off- 
spring of  Portuguese  men  and  native  women. 
The  district  was  granted  to  the  East  India  com- 
pany in  1765  by  Shah  Alum. — Fubexdpoor, 
the  capital  of  the  district,  is  a  straggling  town 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Ganges,  115  m.  "S,  E. 
of  Calcutta.  The  principal  buildings  are  those 
of  the  civil  departments  of  the  government. 
It  was  once  a  noted  resort  of  river  pirates. 

FVKimiRi!^  iatelM,  a  French  author,  bom 
in  Paris  about  1620,  died  May  14,  1688.  He 
was  successively  an  advocate,  a  fiscal  agent,  an 
abb6,  and  a  prior,  and  was  admitted  into  the 
French  academy  in  1662.  While  the  academy 
was  preparing  its  dictionary,  Fureti^re,  re- 
garding the  work  as  defective,  determined  to 
edit  and  publish  a  lexicon  on  his  own  account. 
Hence  the  academy  excluded  him,  and  a  war 
of  epigrams,  satires,  and  libels,  unsurpassed 
for  violence,  began  between  him  and  the  lead- 
ing academicians.  Fureti^re  was  protected  by 
the  most  important  personages,  by  Eacine, 
Boileau,  Molidre,  Bossuet,  and  even  Louis 
XIY.,  and  his  wit  and  vivacity  distinguished 
him  in  society ;  but  his  death  occurred  before 
the  suit  which  he  prosecuted  against  the  acad- 
emy was  decided.  His  dictionary,  enlarged 
by  Baonage,  passed  through  several  editions. 
He  wrote  also  a  few  fables  and  poems. 

FIJEIES*    See  Eumenides. 

iUKLONG  (Sax. /or  or  fur  and  lcng\  an  old 
English  measure  of  40  rods  or  poles,  equiva- 
lent to  t  of  a  mile.  In  Ireland  it  is  0*15  of  a 
mile,  and  in  Scotiand  0*1409.  In  the  United 
States  the  measure  is  not  in  use.  As  a  super- 
ficial measure,  a  furlong  in  Great  Britain  is 
generally  10  acres,  according  to  the  acre  of 
different  counties ;  but  it  was  formerly  used 
for  a  piece  of  land  of  no  particular  dimensions. 

FOUTACE  (Lat.  /amax)^  a  structure  contain- 
ing a  fireplace,  intended  for  maintaining  in- 
tense heat.  In  many  of  the  useful  arts  the  first 
requisite  is  the  means  of  obtaining  a  very  high 
temperature.  In  all  metallurgic  operations,  Ihe- 
object  of  which  is  the  reduction  of  the  ores 
and  treatment  of  the  metals,  and  in  almost 
every  art  involving  the  use  of  fire,  a  furnace 
of  some  kind  for  producing  this  heat  is  in  de- 
mand. The  ancient  Greeks  employed  furnaces 
for  casting  statues  of  bronze ;  Homer  makes 
mention  of  a  blast  furnace  with  20  crucibles 
(II.  xviii.  470).  The  Egyptians  are  known  to 
have  made  use  of  melting  pots,  but  we  have 
no  knowledge  of  their  furnaces.  An  ancient 
smelting  furnace  was  discovered  near  Aries, 
in  southern  France,  which  was  shaped  like  an 
inverted  bell,  having  under  the  surface  of  the 
ground  a  channel  for  the  discharge  of  the 
melted  metal.  Strabo  speaks  of  furnaces  built 
in  Spain,  which  were  raised  to  a  great  height 
for  conveying  off  the  noxious  fttmes ;  tbey  were 
also  furnished  with  long  fines  and  chambers 
for  collecting  the  oxides  and  other  sublimed 
matters.  The  forms  and  dimensions  of  modem 
furnaces  vary  greatly  according  to  the  different 


543  FUR] 

purpoMS  thev  are  designed  to  serve.  TLe  iron 
maoafoctnrer,  smelting  the  ores  apoD  a  vast 
scale,  bailds  an  immense  strnctare  with  a  capa- 
city of  hnodreds  of  toQB,  and  furnisheB  it  with 
heav^  machinery  for  snppljing  the  great  rol- 
ome  of  air  blown  in  almost  without  oeasine, 
aa  the  operation  ia  oontinn^  daring  a  single 
blast  of  two  years  or  more.— All  furnaces  em- 
ployed in  melting  refractory  materials— those 
for  assaying,  as  well  as  those  operating  upon  a 
large  scale — require  a  free  supply  of  air,  pro- 
portional in  qoantity  to  the  amount  of  fuel  they 
oonsnme.  Tbegeneratioaof heatdependsnpon 
the  rapid  chemical  combination  of  oarlioa  with 
oxygen,  and  a  sufficient  supply  of  the  latter  ele- 
ment is  as  essential  as  is  Chat  of  the  former. 
Every  pound  of  good  bituminous  coal,  accord- 
ing to  Dr.  Thomson,  requires  160  cubic  feet  of 
air,  or  allowing  one  third  more  for  waste,  there 
should  be  supplied  at  least  SOO  cubic  feet.  So 
immense  is  the  quantity  of  this  invisible  ele- 
ment consumed  and  wasted  in  the  large  fur- 
aaces  for  smelting  iron  ores,  that  its  weight 
even  ia  greater  than  that  of  all  the  other  mate- 
rials, ores,  coal,  and  flux,  introduced;  and  tlie 
power  required  to  force  this  volume  of  air 
through  the  dense  column  of  heated  matters 
fkr  exceeds  that  expended  in  charging  the  fur- 
nace with  its  solid  contente,  even  adding  to 
this  the  power  involved  in  the  removal  of  the 

f'Todncts  of  the  operation .  To  provide  for  th  is 
arge  supply  is  then  a  matter  of  the  first  conse- 
qnence  to  tnrnaces ;  and  according  to  the  mode 
in  which  this  is  effected  thoy  are  separated 
into  two  classes.  -The  kind  c^ed  air  or  wind 
or  reverberatory  farnaces  receive  their  supply 
by  means  of  the  current  produced  by  a  tall 
chimney,  the  heated  column  rushing  upward 
through  the  flue.  To  fill  the  space  in  the  lower 
part  of  the  flue,  bat  presses  in  from  without 
throDgh  everj  apertnre;  and  none  being  al- 
lowed except  those  leading  through  the  recep- 
tacle for  the  fuel,  the  supply  of  air  is  thus  se- 
cured, beet  is  generated  for  the  purposes  re- 
4]uired,  and  a  portion  is  expended  in  furnishing 
the  mechanical  power  involved  in  the  move- 
ment of  the  current  of  air,  Fireplacea,  stoves, 
and  grates  are  examples  of  air  Rimaces;  and 
by  means  of  the  blower,  which  causes  the  air 
admitted  into  the  chimney  to  pass  flret  throagh 
the  Are,  the  fiue  is  prevented  from  becoming 
chilled  by  the  entrance  of  cold  air,  the  column 
ascends  more  rapidly,  an  increased  supply  of 
air  ia  furnished  to  everj  portion  of  the  body 
of  fnel,  and  the  ohemical  process  goes  on  with 
augmented  intensity  and  generation  of  heat. 
The  other  classes  of  furnaces  are  supplied  with 
air  through  bellows  or  other  blowing  appara- 
tus. (See  Blowi?io  M&cmNBS.)  The;  are  called 
for  this  reason  blast  furnaces,  and  are  used 
when  the  resistance  opposed  to  the  passage  of 
the  current  of  air  by  the  density  of  the  con- 
tents of  the  furnace  ia  so  great,  that  sufficient 
quantity  cannot  penetrate  to  keep  up  thoroufch 
oorabuation  throughout  the  mosa;  or  when  the 
operations  do  not  admit  of  the  large  openings 


beneath  the  fire,  which  the  free  adraissITm  of 
Buch  bodiea  of  air  would  require ;  or  again, 
when  the  nature  of  the  operation  demands  an 
intenaity  of  heat  CDnoentrat«d  in  one  spot.  The 
blast  in  tbia  case  acU  like  the  jet  of  .the  blow- 
pipe, and  its  effeot  is  in  many  caaea  greatly  in- 
creased by  its  being  conveyed  through  iron 


and  gases  which  escape  from  the  ohimnev.  It 
thus  restores  to  the  interior  of  the  furnace,  in 
the  form  of  highly  heated  air,  a  portion  of  the 
caloric  that  would  otherwise  be  lost.  Furnaces 
of  both  classes  are  often  used  in  the  chemical 
laboratory;  but  the  blaat  furnace  is  rather 
preferable  because  it  can  always  w  more 
perfectly  controlled.    Tlie  one  commonly  em- 

Eloyed  for  general  purposes  is  a  wind  furnace, 
uilt  of  6re  brick,  and  strongly  secured  with 
iron  rods  and  straps.    It  has  a  flat  top,  with 
two  or  more  openings,  and  on  these  are  placed 
pans  of  cast  iron  for  holding  sand  in  wluch 
vessels  ore  placed  for  exposure  to  moderate 
heat.     The  fomace  has  under  the  flue  that 
leads  into  the  chimney  an  oven  for  drying. 
With  a  good  draught   this  furnace  produces 
sufficient  beat  for  many  crucible  operations. 
These  are,  however,  better  conducted  in  small- 
er furnaces,  either  wind  or  blast,  constructed 
specially  for  this  use. — The  construction  and 
manner  of  naing  the  various  kinds  of  reverbe- 
ratory, blast,  and  assay  furnaces  will  be  found 
described  under  the  heads  Assatino,  Bloom- 
ABT,  Cabting,  Coppbb  Smbltino,  Ihoit  Manu- 
PAOTVBE,  and  others  which  treat  of  proceeaea 
involving  the  use  of  these  furnaces. — Gas  ftir- 
naces  employ  gas  instead  of  solid  fuel,  and  are 
constructed  in  a  variety  of  forms,  but  always 
upon  the  principle  of  the  Bnnaen'a  burner. 
(See  Flamb.)    Griffin'a  blast  gas  furnace,  for 
metallurgic  operations  requiring  high  heat,  is 
shown  in  section  in  fig.  1.    Two  flre-clsy  cylin- 
ders, a,  II,  form  the  body  of  the  furnace.    They 
rest  upon  a  perforated  fire-clay  plate,  i,  intv 
which  the  gas  burner, 
e,  is  introduced.     A 
plumbago  cmcible,  d, 
sets  upon  a  perfora- 
ted plumbago  cylin- 
der, «,  and  IS  cover- 
ed to  a  oonaiderahle 
depth    with    quartz 
penbles  from  half  an 
mch  to  an  inch  in  di- 
ameter; //are  plugs 
which   may    be    t«- 
moved  to  admit  of  in- 
apection.    The  bam- 
er  ia  represented  in 
fig.  2,   and   conuata 
of  two  chambers  of 
Tia  i-<ioBn-.Gul^inu«.    Cylindrical  cast  Iron, 
one  for  the  receplioo 
of  air  and  the  other  for  gks.    Tubes,  varying 
in  number  from  6  to  20  or  more,  pass  from 
the  air  chamber  through  the  gse  chamber,  and 


throngh  the  axes  of  tnbes  paneing  from  the  lat- 
ter, ttiDS  BecnrioK  admixture  of  the  combustible 
gases.  A  Btaiid,  g,  fig.  1,  supplied  with  a 
Utumb  serevr,  holds  the  burner  &t  aii;r  desired 
distance  below  the 
crucible.  The  gas  is 
supplied  at  the  usual 
pressore,  bat  the  air 
IS  nrged  with  a  bel- 
lows or  other  blowing 
niachioe  at  about  10 
timM  that  pressare. 
la  the  eiperiments 
made  b7  the  inven- 
tor, the  );as   and  air 


long,  the  gas  having 
a  half-inch  and  the 
air  a  five-inch  water  pressure.    Tbe  qnantity 
of  gas  osed  per  hour  was  about  100  cnbio  feet. 
Fig.  1  represents  the  furnace  with  the  gas  burn- 
er in  an  erect  position,  but  it  is  perhaps  more 
A-eonently  nsed  at  the  top,  inverted,  as  shown 
in  ng.  8,  in  which  an  additional  perforated  clay 
plate.  A,  is  laid  on  the  top  of  the  upper  clay 
07li]ider.    Into  the  perforation  the  barner  is 
introduced,  and  when 
in  action  throws  its 
flame  down  npon  the 
top  of  the  crucible,  if. 
Which  is  now  placed 
upon  a  foundation  of 
cinj  plates,  jt,  ;i^  h, 
raised  to  the  proper 
height,  and  of  sncn  a 
size  as  to  leave  a  va- 
cant  space  between 
them    and    the  clay 
cylinders,    which    is 
filled      with      qnarta 
pebbles,  and  through 
which     the    burned 
gases  pass  on  their' 
exit,  which  is   now 
throngh  perforations 
in  the  two  lower  clay 
platee.   The  hot  gases 
give    up    nearly    all 
their  heat  to  the  peb- 
bles, and  escape  at  a  raaoh  lower  temperature 
than  would  bo  supposed.     The  following  ex- 
periment shows  the  power  of  this  furnace:  A 
clay  cracibte,  S  in.  in  both  diameters,  wits  filled 
with  24  oz.  of  cast  iron,  and  not  covered.    The 
flame  being  tbrown  directly  upon  the  iron,  it 
was  soon  covered  with  a  crust  of  magnetic 
Oiide.   In  20  minutes  the  crucible  was  removed, 
and  a  hole  being  broken  throngh  the  crust,  SO 
oz.  of  melted  iron   was  poared   out.     In  the 
same  furnace  IG  oz.  of  copper  can  be  fused  in  10 
minutes,  commencing  with  the  furnace  oold,  or 
in  T  minntes  after  it  is  hot.    Gore's  gas  furnace 
ia  heated  by  a  burner  in  which  the  air  and  gas 
are  more  thoroughly  mixed  previous  to  ignition 
than  in  Griffin's,  but  it  is  generally  used  in 
842  VOL.  VII. — 85 


Fio.  S.— Oriffln'i 


ACE  643 

smaller  operations. — One  of  the  most  important 

improvements  which  have  been  made  in  the 
arts  is  Siemens's  regenerating  gas  fiimace, 
wliich  received  the  grand  prize  at  the  Paris 
exposition  of  1667.  The  Invention  is  not  only 
important  as  affording  an  easily  managed  fur- 
nace of  great  power,  but  in  possessing  great 
economy  in  regard  to  fuel.  It  consists  of  three 
essential  parts:  1,  a  gas  producer;  2,  a  re- 
generator; and  S,  a  furnace  chamber.  The 
gas  producer  is  shown  in  fig.  4,  and  is  con- 
structed somewhat  like  a  base-burner  wanning 
stove,  although  the  action  and  gaseous  pro- 
ducts are  diObrent  because  of  the  different  di- 
rection of  the  draught.  BitumiuoDs  coal  is 
introduced  at  A,  and  falls  down  over  an  in- 
clined plane,  B  0,  the  lower  part,  C,  being  a 
grate  for  the  admission  of  sJr.  At  D  there 
is  a  stoppered  opening,  through  which  an  iron 
bar  may  be  passed  to  clear  the  walls  of  clink- 
ers. At  E  tnere  is  on  opening  controlled  by  a 
valve,  and  which  leads  into  a  flue,  F,  posnng 
to  tbe  regenerator.    The  action  ia  as  follows: 


Fni.  i.~Ou  Piedncer,  Slaiuana's  Fnnuwd 

The  coal,  being  igiuted  at  the  grate,  is  heated 
to  different  degrees,  a  portion  being  converted 
into  hydrocarbon  gases  and  vapors,  in  the 
as  in  a  gas  retort.    Another  por- 


the  grate  and  forms  carbonic  acid,  which  is 
therefore  a  waste  product;  but  a  portion  of  it 
decomposes  steam  and  furnishes  combustible 
gases,  as  will  presently  bo  explained.  But  this 
carbonic  acid,  having  to  rise  along  with  the 
other  gases  through  the  incandescent  coalabovo, 
combines  with  another  equivalent  of  carbon, 
forming  oarbonie  oxide,  which  passes  on  into 
the  flue  with  tbe  other  combustible  gosea.  But 
for  every  cubic  foot  of  carbonic  oxide  thus  pro- 
duced (the  air  consisting  of  about  four  parts  in 
five  of  nitrogen  by  volume),  two  cubic  feet  of  in- 
combustible nitrogen  are  also  taken  up,  tending 
to  diminish  the  healing  power.  A  small  stream 
of  water  is  delivered  by  the  pipe  G  at  the  foot 
of  the  grate,  and  there  being  converted  into 
steam  ascends  with  the  draught  into  tbe  incan- 
descent coal,  where  it  is  decomposed,  with  the 
generation  of  hydrogen  and  carbonic  acid  gases. 


644 


FURNACE 


The  generation  of  these  gases  is  at  the  expense 
of  heat,  and  therefore  the  amount  of  heat  which 
they  add  in  hurning  is  inconsiderable,  but  the 
use  of  the  steam  serves  to  regulate  the  heat  in 
the  gas  producer.  When  the  heat  rises  more 
steam  is  decomposed,  which  action  diminishes 
the  heat  in  the  gas  producer,  but  increases  it 
in  the  furnace  chamber,  where  the  mixed  gases 
and  air  are  burned.  Fig.  5  gives  a  representa- 
tion of  the  regenerators  and  the  furnace  cham- 
ber. There  are  two  pairs  of  regenerators  to 
each  furnace  chamber ;  one  in  each  pair  being 
for  the  transmission  of  air  and  the  other  for 
that  of  the  gases  furnished  by  the  gas  produ- 
cer. The  regenerators  are  chambers  contain- 
ing fire  bricks,  L,  built  up  with  open  spaces 
between  them  to  allow  of  the  passage  of  the 
gases  and  air.    These  fire  bricks  are  for  the 


purpose  of  absorbing  the  heat  which  issues 
from  the  furnace  chamber,  and  again  yielding 
it  to  the  gases  which  pass  to  the  furnace  cham- 
ber; and  this  isefi*ected  by  having  two  pairs, 
which  are  alternately  made  to  deliver  currenta 
to  and  receive  them  from  the  furnace  chamber, 
by  turning  the  valve  S,  in  the  centre  of  the 
figure,  one  way  or  the  other.  K  K  is  the 
heating  chamber,  into  the  right-hand  end  of 
which,  as  the  valve  8  is  now  turned,  the  gases 
and  air  are  received  from  the  regenerators  on 
the  right  hand  also.  The  air  enters  through 
the  openings  O  0,  and  the  gases  from  the  gas 
producer  through  R  R.  The  air,  having  trav^ 
ersed  the  openings  between  the  hot  fire  bricks^ 
passes  through  N  into  the  entrance  of  the  fur- 
nace chamber,  where  it  meets  with  the  gases, 
heated  in  the  same  manner,  coming  through 


<t 


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it 


II II II II H  iiln 


lillHIIIIIIIII 


11 H II II H II 


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liUJLILLILl  n 


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I  II II II  W  II II 


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H II II II  h  li  li  Ii  I 


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i!ji^|iii  iMin 


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[iJLIlJLItill! 


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PI  II  nil  111.  I 


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nrnriiiii 


ill  1!  IIMl  II  MM  I 


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nil  mill  ill  f 


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Fio.  S.— 8iemen8*8  Fdihaool 


M.  The  two  unite  and  produce  an  intense  and 
uniform  flame.  The  heated  gases  which  are 
the  products  of  the  combustion  in  the  furnace 
chamber  pass  out  at  the  other  end,  down  the 
fines  M'  W  and  through  the  regenerators, 
yidding  their  heat  to  the  fire  brick  in  them, 
«nd  passing  into  the  flue  of  the  tall  chimney  T. 
When  these  regenerators  have  become  suffi- 
ciently heated,  the  valve  8  is  reversed,  and  the 
ur  and  gases  are  received  through  0'  O  and  R' 
R,  passing  up  through  M'  N'  into  the  left-hand 
end  of  the  furnace  chamber,  and  out  at  the 
other  end,  through  M  and  N,  where  before 
they  were  received.  The  flues  which  pass  from 
the  gas  producer  to  the  regenerators  are  not 
shown  in  the  figures.  The  gas  producers  are 
at  a  higher  level  than  the  regenerators,  and 
therefore  a  current  of  gas  can  be  made  to  flow 
from  the  former  to  the  latter  by  allowing  it 


to  cool  in  the  descending  portion.  The  mix- 
ture of  gases  on  leaving  the  producer  has  a 
temperature  between  SOC"  and  400°  F.,  but 
on  arriving  at  the  descending  portion  of  the 
flue  has  lost  from  100°  to  150°,  which  increases 
its  density  15  or  20  per  cent,  so  that  a  cur- 
rent is  urged  toward  the  regenerators,  which 
is  increased  by  the  expansion  produced  by  the 
heated  fire  bricks.  These  furnaces  are  used 
with  great  advantage  when  high  and  regular 
heats  are  required  for  long  periods,  and  are 
peculiarly  applicable  for  metallurgic  operations, 
on  account  of  the  facility  with  which,  by  in- 
creasing the  amount  either  of  air  or  of  gas  in 
the  combustible  mixture,  an  oxidizing  or  a  car- 
bonizing flame  may  be  produced.  They  are 
also  admirably  adapted  to  glass  manufacture, 
and  were  at  first  ohiefiy  employed  for  that 
purpose. 


FURNESS 


FUSE 


545 


WRinSS,  WiniaH  Heiry,  D.  D.,  an  American 
olergyman  and  author,  bom  in  Boston,  Mass., 
April  20,  1802.  He  studied  at  the  Boston 
Latin  school,  graduated  at  Harvard  college  in 
1820,  completed  his  theological  course  at  Cam- 
bridge in  1823,  and  was  ordained  pastor  of  the 
first  Congregational  Unitarian  church  in  Phila- 
delphia in  January,  1825.  One  of  his  constant 
labors  as  a  preacher  and  author  has  been  to 
ascertain  the  historical  truth  and  develop  the 
spiritual  ideas  of  the  records  of  the  life  of 
Christ.  To  this  end  he  has  published  **  Re- 
marks on  the  Four  Gospels"  (Philadelphia, 
1836;  London,  1836  and  1851);  "Jesus  and 
hU Biographers" (Philadelphia,  1888) ;  a  ''  His- 
tory of  Jesus"  (1850 ;  new  ed.,  Boston,  1858); 
"  Thoughts  on  the  Life  and  Character  of  Jesus 
of  Nazareth  "  (Boston,  1 869) ;  "The  Veil  partly 
lifted  and  Jesus  becoming  visible"  (Boston, 
1864);  and  lastly,  "Jesus"  (Philadelphia, 
1870).  These  works  reveal  a  highly  cultivated 
intellect,  impelled  by  enthusiastic  ardor  and 
enriched  by  a  glowing  fancy,  and  present  a 
peculiar  humanitarian  view  of  the  character 
of  Christ.  "iEsthetio  considerations,"  says  a 
writer  of  his  own  denomination,  "  weigh  more 
with  him  than  historical  proofs,  and  vividness 
of  conception  than  demonstration."  Dr.  Fur- 
ness  has  published  a  volume  of  prayers,  en- 
titled "Domestic  Worship"  (2d  ed.,  Boston, 
1850),  and  a  volume  of  discourses  (Philadelphia, 
1856).  He  has  also  written  hymns  and  other 
devotional  pieces  in  verse,  and  has  made  ex- 
quisite translations  from  the  German,  among 
which  are  the  "  Mirror  of  Nature  "  from  Schu- 
bert, the  "  Song  of  the  Bell "  from  Schiller,  a 
volume  of  "  Gems  of  German  Verse  "  (enlarged 
ed.,  1859),  and  a  volume  entitled  "  Julius,  and 
other  Tales,  from  the  German  "  (Philadelphia, 
1856).  He  edited  for  three  years  the  "Diadem," 
a  Philadelphia  annual,  has  contributed  a  few 
articles  to  the  "  Christian  Examiner  "  of  Bos- 
ton, and  is  the  author  of  a  large  number  of 
published  occasional  sermons;  one  of  these, 
on  the  "  Bight  of  Property  in  Man,"  appeared 
in  1859.  During  the  anti-slavery  connict  Dr. 
Fumess  was  a  prominent  abolitionist. 

FURNITILL,  Frederick  J.    See  supplement. 

FVRftUCUBAD,  a  city  of  British  India,  capi- 
tal of  a  district  of  the  same  name,  in  the  divi- 
sion of  Agra,  Northwest  Provinces,  95  m.  N.  W. 
of  Lucknow  ;  pop.  about  65,000.  It  is  a  walled 
town,  and  has  clean  wide  streets,  a  number  of 
which  are  shaded  by  trees.  It  has  some  good 
buildings,  but  most  of  the  bouses  are  mere  mud 
hovels.  The  trade  is  considerable,  the  sur- 
rounding country  being  fertile  and  well  culti- 
vated. On  the  banks  of  the  Ganges,  8  ra.  W., 
is  Fnttehghur,  formerly  a  British  military  sta- 
tion.— The  district  has  an  area  of  2,122  sq.  m. 
and  a  population  of  over  1,000,000.  It  is  an 
alluvial  flat,  except  in  the  S.  W.,  where  it  is 
hOly,  and  is  very  fruitful.  The  principal  pro- 
ductions are  cotton,  wheat,  barley,  maize,  in- 
digo, tobacco,  sugar  cane,  and  timber.  It  was 
annexed  by  the  East  India  company  in  1802. 


FPrSTT,  Jillis,  a  German  orientalist  of  Jewish 
descent,  bom  at  Zerkowo,  in  the  grand  duchy 
of  Posen,  May  12,  1805,  died  in  Leipsic,  Feb. 
9,  1878.  He  studied  at  Posen  and  Breslau, 
and  in  1889  became  lector  at  the  university 
of  Leipsic,  and  in  1864  professor.  His  histori- 
cal, critical,  and  lexicographical  works  are  nu- 
merous at)d  widely  used ;  the  principal  of  them 
are :  Lehrgehdude  der  aramdUchen  Idiome 
(1885) ;  Cone<»'danti4B  Librorum  Saerarum  Ve- 
terii  Testamenti  Hehraica  et  Chaldaica  (1837- 
*40) ;  ffebrdischesundchalddischesSehuliDdrter' 
buck  (1842),  expanded  as  Hebr&itches  und  chal- 
ddisches  Handwarterhuch  (1857-'61),  and  trans- 
lated into  English  by  Davidson  (London,  1865- 
'6);  Geschichte  der  hiblUehen  Literatur  und 
des  judiseh'kellenuchen  8chr\ftthum»  (2  vols., 
1867-70) ;  and  Der  Kanon  des  alten  Testa- 
ments  notch  den  Ueberli^erungen  in  Talmud 
und  Midraseh  (1868).  He  also  published  Cktt' 
tur-  und  Literaturgesekichte  der  Juden  in  Aeien 
(1849) ;  Bibliotheca  Judaiea  (8  vols.,  1849-*68) ; 
Oeschiehte  des  Karderthums  (2  vols.,  1862-'6) ; 
and  Daspeinliche  Rechtsverfahren  imj&disehen 
Alterthume  (1870).  From  1840  to  1851  he  ed- 
ited Der  Orient. — His  son  Lrvius  (bom  in 
Leipsic,  May  27,  1840)  is  a  physician,  and  au- 
thor of  Das  mdrehen  eon  den  sieben  Baben 
(1864)  and  Domrdschen  (1865). 

iff  KTH,  a  town  of  Bavaria,  in  the  province  of 
Middle  Franconia,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Red- 
nitz  and  Pegnitz  rivers,  4}  m.  by  rail  N.  W.  of 
Nuremberg ;  pop.  in  1871,  24,569.  This  rail- 
way, opened  in  1835,  was  the  first  in  Germany 
on  which  locomotive  engines  were  used,  and 
now  extends  from  Frankfort  to  Munich.  About 
8,000  of  the  population  are  Jews,  chiefly  de- 
scendants of  exiles  from  Nuremberg,  who  have 
a  Talmud  school,  several  minor  schools  and 
synagogues,  two  Hebrew  printing  establish- 
ments, and  various  benevolent  institutions. 
One  of  the  synagogues  and  the  city  hall  are 
among  the  most  noteworthy  buildings.  It  is 
the  most  flourishing  manufacturing  town  of 
Bavaria,  with  a  large  industry  in  looking- 
glasses,  gold  leaf,  and  articles  known  as  Nu- 
remberg wares.  Gustavus  Adolphus  occupied 
Farth  in  the  summer  of  1632,  and  in  1684  it 
was  burned  by  the  Croats. 

FUSE,  Safety,  a  tubular  cord  of  cotton,  ren- 
dered slowly  combustible  for  communicating 
fire  to  the  explosive  used  in  blasting.  The 
cavity  in  the  centre  of  the  cord  is  filled  with 
some  slow-burning  compound,  and  the  cord  is 
then  wound  with  tarred  twine,  and  covered 
outside  with  a  coating  of  tar.  It  is  thus  pro- 
tected from  moisture,  and  is  made  sufficiently 
firm  and  hard  not  to  be  cut  by  the  fragments 
used  in  tamping.  It  burns  about  three  feet  in 
a  minute.  A  method  has  been  patented  of  in- 
troducing a  combustible  thread  through  the 
centre  of  the  cord  in  the  powder,  with  the  view 
of  providing  another  means  of  conmiunicating 
the  fire  in  case  the  powder  is  interrapted  or  the 
cotton  of  the  tube  does  not  continue  to  bum. 
For  its  use,  see  Blasting. 


546 


FUSEL  OIL 


FUSIBILITY 


FUSEL  OIL,  or  Inyl  Alcob«l,  a  liquid  colorless 
when  pure,  of  offensive  smell  and  burning  taste, 
obtained  by  continuing  the  distillation  of  the 
fermented  infusions  used  for  the  preparation 
of  ardent  spirits  after  the  alcoholic  portion  has 
been  drawn  off.  In  this  condition,  however, 
it  is  mixed  with  water,  from  which  it  should 
be  separated  hj  a  second  distillation,  the  water 
coming  over  first.  As  this  brings  with  it  a 
portion  of  oil,  it  is  to  be  set  aside  for  the  latter 
to  separate,  and  form  a  layer  on  the  surface. 
Ardent  spirits  contain  fusel  oil,  particularly  if 
the  distillation  has  been  pushed  far.  It  is  de- 
tected by  redistilling  whiskey,  especially  that 
obtained  from  potatoes,  a  milky  fluid  coming 
over  at  the  last,  fro^i  which  the  oil  separates 
by  standing;  or  by  redistillation,  water  first 
coming  over,  and  then  the  oil  at  its  boiling 
point  of  269**.  Thus  obtained,  it  is  usually  of 
a  pale  yellow,  of  specific  gravity  0-818;  at  4° 
below  zero  it  congeals  in  crystalline  leaves.  It 
infiames  only  when  heated  to  180**.  It  unites 
with  alcohol  in  all  proportions,  but  has  little 
affinity  for  water.  The  resins,  fats,  camphor, 
sulphur,  phosphorus,  &c.,  are  dissolved  by  it. 
Upon  the  animal  system  it  acts  a^  an  irritant 
poison ;  its  vapor  produces  nausea,  headache, 
and  giddiness.  Its  composition  is  represented 
by  the  formula  CftHiaO ;  or,  on  the  supposition 
of  its  being  a  hydrated  oxide  of  amyle,  its  for- 
mula is  GftHiiHO.  Fusel  oil  is  used  to  some 
extent  for  burning  in  lamps,  and  for  dissolving 
copal  and  other  resins  for  varnishes,  &c.  Its 
presence  is  highly  iivjurious  to  liquors,  and  when 
in  sufficient  quantity  to  be  perceptible  to*  the 
smell  and  taste  indicates  bad  rectification  or  the 
use  of  damaged  grain.  It  may  be  detected  by 
agitating  the  liquor  with  water,  and  leaving  it 
to  stand  for  the  oil  to  rise  and  appear  at  the 
surface.  It  is  separated  in  rectifying  by  the  in- 
troduction of  some  soft  wood  charcoal.  Olive 
oil  may  also  be  added,  and  the  mixture  being 
well  shaken  the  oils  will  afterward  collect  to- 
gether at  the  surface,  when  they  may  be  de- 
canted and  the  spirits  be  again  distilled. 

FVSELI,  JobB  Henry,  a  painter  and  writer  on 
art,  bom  in  Ztlrich,  Switzerland,  Feb.  7,  1741, 
died  near  London,  April  16,  1825.  His  father 
was  John  Casper  Ffissli,  also  a  painter.  He 
received  a  good  classical  education  in  his  native 
town,  and  in  1761  took  orders.  A  pamphlet 
written  by  himself  and  Lavater,  who  was  his 
schoolfellow,  in  which  a  public  functionary 
was  severely  handled,  was  the  cause  of  his 
leaving  Ztlrich,  and  after  spending  some  time 
in  Vienna  and  Berlin  he  went  to  England, 
where  for  a  time  he  supported  himself  by  lite- 
rary labors.  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  to  whom  he 
showed  some  of  his  drawings,  advised  him  to 
devote  himself  to  art,  and  he  accordingly  spent 
eight  years  in  Italy  among  the  works  of  the  old 
masters.  Here  he  changed  his  name  to  its  Ital- 
ian form,  Fuseli,  which  he  ever  after  retained. 
Returning  to  England  in  1778,  he  executed 
a  number  of  pictures  for  BoydelPs  "Shake- 
speare Gallery."    In  1790  he  was  elected  an 


academician,  and  in  1799  he  exhibited  a  series 
of  47  designs  on  a  large  scale  from  Milton^s 
works.  In  the  same  year  he  became  professor 
of  painting  in  the  academy.  Among  his  lit- 
erary labors  was  a  translation  of  Lavater^s 
"Aphorisms  on  Man.''  His  "Lectures  on 
Painting''  was  published  in  1881,  and  trans- 
lated into  German  by  Eschenburg  (1883).  As 
a  painter  he  possessed  high  imaginative  powers, 
but  his  drawing  was  imperfect  and  unnatural 
See  his  "Life  and  Writings,"  edited  by  John 
Knowles  (8  vols.,  London,  1831). 

FIJSIBlLmr,  that  property  by  which  solid 
bodies  are  rendered  liquid  by  the  application 
of  heat.  It  is  probably  possessed  by  all  bodies, 
but  some  are  so  altered  by  chemical  changes 
among  their  own  elements  or  by  the  action  of 
external  bodies  in  contact,  that  they  cease  to 
retain  their  individual  characteristics  before 
their  melting  point  is  reached.  Although  it 
seems  that  in  some  crystalline  organic  com- 
pounds, and  also  in  some  of  the  fats,  the  fusing 
point  varies  after  the  body  has  been  once  melted, 
it  is  generally  the  case  that  the  fusion  takes 
place  at  a  constant  temperature  for  the  i(ame 
body,  that  this  point  is  ascertained  for  many, 
and  is  given  witb  each  as  one  of  the  distinctive 
qualities.  Carbon,  however,  resists  this  deter- 
mination, and  the  assertions  of  its  fusibility 
made  by  some  experimenters  are  not  generally 
admitted  as  establishing  the  fact.  The  range 
of  the  fusing  point  of  bodies  is  very  great,  some 
existing  in  tlie  solid  state  only  far  below  the 
ordinary  temperatures,  while  others  require  the 
most  intense  artificial  heat  to  cause  them  to 
assume  the  liquid  form.  This  is  exhibited  in 
the  following  table,  which  comprises  many  of 
the  bodies  thus  arranged  by  PouiUet : 


SUBSTA>'CES. 


English  hAmmered  Itqii 

Bteel 

Gnv  cast  Iron,  second  ftision.. 
White  cast  Iron,  very  fusible.. 

Very  fine  gold 

Standard  gold 

Silver,  very  pure 

Bronze 

Antimony 

Zinc 

Lead 

Bismuth 

Tin 

Sulphur 

Iodine 

Phosphorus 

White  wax 

Spermaceti 

Ice 

Oil  of  turpentine 

Mercury 


Cenilgnd*. 


1,600 

1^  to  1,400 

1,200 

i,oao 

1,250 

1,180 

1,000 

900. 

4S3 

800 

820 

202 

280 

114 

107 

48 

68 

49 

0 

-10 

—89 


F^iwlidt. 


2,912 

2,872  to  2.668 

2,192 

1,922 

2,23 

2,166 

1,6» 

1,6S2 

810 

660 

896 

446 

8ST 

SS5 

109 

154 

180 

82 

14 

-88 


The  fusing  point  of  oils,  &c.,  is  ascertained  bj 
introducing  them  together  with  a  fine  thermom- 
eter into  small  glass  tubes,  and  placing  these  in 
water,  which  is  gradually  heated  till  the  sub- 
stances melt.  The  thermometer  indicates  the 
temperature.  The  method  of  determining  the 
high  melting  points  of  the  metals,  &c.,  will  be 
described  in  the  article  Ptbometeb. 


FUSIBLE  METALS 

RISIBLE  XETIU.     See    Allot,  and    Bis- 

uxna. 

nsiOR  DISK.    See  supplement. 

FUSIIiMi,  a  ToIcADO  of  Japan,  in  the  chain 
wliich  traverses  Niphon,  the  loflieet  peak  in 
the  empire,  its  height  being  14,177  ft.    It  is 


FYZABAD 


64T 


covered  with  periietnal  anow.  It  was  formerly 
the  moat  active  volcano  in  Japan,  but  no  ernp- 
tlou  has  taiien  place  since  1707.  Native  htsb>- 
rians  assert  that  in  the  year  263  B.  C.  an  ex- 
traordinarj  nataral  revolution  produced  in  a 
single  night  both  this  nionntain  and  the  ba«n 
of  the  great  lake  Oitz  Hitzoo ;  the  elevation  of 
surface  caused  hj  the  former,  as  it  rose  from 
Ihe  boaom  of  the  earth,  being  exactly  counter- 
balanced hy  the  depression  which  constitutes 
the  latttT.  The  Japanese  hold  this  mountain 
in  religious  veneration.  Some  of  its  ravines 
are  consecrated  to  the  worship  of  Buddha, 
and  every  August  crowds  of  devotees  make 
pilgrimages  to  the  idols  in  these  spots. 

FVSTIC,  the  dvewood  of  the  morui  tlneta- 
ria,  a  tree  which  grows  to  a  great  height  in 
Brazil  and  the  West  India  islands.  A  yellow 
dye  is  obtained  by  boiling  the  wood,  and  this 
is  principally  used  for  converting  silks  and 
woollens,  cotton  yarn,  and  light  fabrics,  al- 
ready dyed  blae,  to  a  green.  Its  use  is  almost 
wholly  for  compound  colors,  bichromate  of 
potassa  and  lead  giving  a  better  yellow.  The 
yellow  crystalline  substance  morine  separates 
from  a  concentrated  decoction  of  fustio  by 
cooling.  The  wood  is  known  as  old  fustic  to 
diatingaish  it  from  tlie  wood  of  the  rhui  eolp- 
niM,  or  Venice  sumach,  which  is  sometimes 
called  young  fustic,  but  more  properly  fvtUt, 
the  name  used  by  the  French.  The  latter  is 
a  shrab  cultivated  in  Italy  and  the  south  of 
France  for  pnrposes  of  dyeing  and  tanning. 
Its  wood  gives  a  yellowi^  decoction,  which 
is  naed  as  an  assistant  to  procure  some  par- 
ticular tint.    The  color  is  too  furtive  for  use 


alone.  The  principal  fnstine  is  extracted  from 
this  wood. 

FtnrrERCHCB,  fMtiKBrh,  or  Fatagkir,  a  town 
of  British  India,  division  of  Agra,  Northwest 
Provinces,  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Ganges,  in  the  district  and  8  m.  £.  of  the  city 
of  Furmckabad.  It  woa  once  a  considerable 
military  establishment,  but  on  the  eitenwonof 
the  British  frontier  to  the  northwest  the  troops 
were  withdrawn  and  many  of  the  buildings 
have  &Uen  into  decay.  The  arsenal  is  pro- 
tected by  a  fort  built  of  mud,  and  most  of  the 
houses  are  of  the  same  material.  A  few  Eu- 
ropean merchants  reside  there.  The  chief  na- 
tive industry  is  the  manufacture  of  teuta. 

FinTEHPOOl,  a  city  of  British  India,  capital 
of  a  district  of  the  same  name,  in  the  division 
of  Allahabad,  Northwest  Provincea,  on  the 
line  of  the  great  trunk  railway,  70  m.  N.  W.  of 
Allahabad ;  pop.  abont  20,000.  It  is  a  large 
and  thriving  town,  with  some  good  houses,  a 
well  supplied  bazaar,  and  an  elegant  mosque, 
and  is  the  chief  seat  of  the  civil  establishment 
of  the  district.  The  place  existed  before  tlie 
12tb  century.  In  the  sepoy  revolt  it  was  cap- 
tured by  the  rebels,  bat  was  retaken  by  Gen. 
Uavelock  on  July  13,  1S57.— The  district  has 
an  area  of  l.GSS  sq.  m.  and  a  population  of 
about  700,000,  The  climate  is  remarkable  for 
dryness  and  wide  range  of  temperature.  The 
principal  productions  are  wheat,  barley,  cotton, 
opium,  indigo,  and  sugar  cane. 

FCTTEHFOOB  SIIBA,  a  town  of  British  India, 
Northwest  Provinces,  in  tlie  district  and  23 
m.  W.  of  the  city  of  Agra;  pop.  about  6,000. 
It  was  enclosed  by  a  high  stone  wall,  S  m.  in 
circuit,  with  towers  and  battlements,  by  the 
emperor  Akbar,  whose  favorite  residence  it 
was  1  but  it  contains  now  little  more  than 
heaps  of  massive  ruina,  a  grand  mosque,  and 
a  good  bazaar.  The  mosque  is  built  on  a 
commanding  hill,  and  is  still  in  tolerable  re- 
pair. Near  the  remains  of  a  vast  palace  ia  a 
column  40  or  60  ft.  high,  built  of  composi' 
tion moulded  to  imitate  elephants'  tusks;  and 
outside  the  walls  is  a  ruined  embankment,  SO 
m.  in  circuit,  which  pent  up  the  waters  of  a 
torrent  till  they  formed  a  broad  lake,  on  the 
margin  of  which  was  an  amphitheatre  for  pub- 
lic games.  These  great  works  were  constrnct- 
ed  by  Akbar  about  IG71. 

FVZiUD,  or  Baagia,  a  town  of  British  India, 
in  the  province  of  Oude,  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Gogra,  which  in  the  rainy  season  is  here 
sometimes  l}  m.  wide,  78  m.  E.  of  I.ucknow ; 
|iop.  estimated  at  100,000.  It  was  founded  by 
Soadat  All  Khan,  first  vizier  of  Oude,  and  was 
beautified  by  his  successors,  particularly  by 
Surajoh  Dowlah,  under  whom  it  became  the 
capital  instead  of  the  ancient  city  of  Oude 
or  Ayodba,  adjoining  it  on  the  southeast.  In 
1775  the  seat  of  gorernment  was  removed  to 
Lucknow.  Since  that  time  the  deserted  city 
has  been  falling  to  decay,  and  its  population  ia 
rapidly  decreasing.  The  only  manufactures  of 
consequence  are  cloth,  hardware,  and  arms. 


548 


G 


GABOON 


G 


GTHE  seventh  letter  in  the  Latin  alpha- 
j  bet,  and  in  others  derived  directly 
from  it,  as  the  English,  French,  German,  and 
Italian.  In  Hebrew,  Greek,  and  some  other 
alphabets  of  Phoenician  origin,  it  is  the  third 
letter.  In  English  it  has  two  entirely  distinct 
normal  sounds:  the  hard,  as  in  get,  and  the 
soft  (also  represented  by  J),  as  in  gem.  In 
pronouncing  hard  G,  the  root  of  the  tongue  is 
raised  so  as  to  close  the  openings  from  the 
pharynx  into  the  nostrils,  and  then  by  expel- 
ling the  breath,  vocalized  by  the  vibrations  of 
the  membranes  of  the  larynx,  the  sound  is 
formed.  The  chief  difference  between  hard  G 
and  K  is  that  in  the  latter  the  breath  issues 
without  vocalization.  (Tor  the  mode  of  pro- 
nouncing the  soft  G,  see  J.)  In  English,  G  at  the 
beginning  of  a  word  has  the  hard  sound  when 
immediately  followed  by  a,  o,  or  u.  The  words 
gaol  and  m&rtgagor,  when  thus  spelled,  form 
exceptions  to  this  rule ;  but  they  are  now  com- 
monly written  jail  and  mortgageor.  In  gu^ 
followed  by  another  vowel,  the  u  is  generally 
silent,  as  in  guard  and  guide;  in  a  few  words, 
mainly  of  Spanish  origin,  as  guano  and  guanaeo^ 
it  is  pronounced  as  gw  (in  Spanish  as  Aw,  or 
simply  w).  In  gy^  except  in  a  few  terms  of 
natural  history,  toe  g  is  pronounced  soft,  as  in 
gymnastics.  When  followed  by  «  or  t,  G  may 
have  either  the  hard  sound,  as  in  get,  give,  or 
the  soft,  as  in  gem^  gin ;  the  general  rule,  to 
which  there  are  many  exceptions,  being  that  it 
is  hard  in  words  derived  from  the  Saxon,  and 
sofb  in  those  from  Greek,  Latin,  and  French. 
At  the  end  of  a  syllable  G  is  hard  unless  soft- 
ened by  a  final  «,  as  in  rag,  rage ;  before  an 
affix  commencing  with  »,  the  softening  e  is  usu- 
ally omitted  in  writing,  as  in  r^rangible;  if 
the  affix  begin  with  a,  the  silent  e  is  retained, 
as  in  changeable,  G  enters  into  combination 
with  several  other  consonants.  In  gh,  at  the 
beginning  of  a  syllable,  the  h  is  silent,  the  g 
having  its  hard  sound,  as  in  ghost ;  at  the  end 
of  a  syllable  gh  is  sometimes  silent,  as  in 
though,  and  sometimes  it  has  the  sound  of/, 
as  in  trough ;  in  hough  (now  usually  written, 
as  pronounced,  hoch)  it  has  the  sound  of  Jc;  in 
ght,  the  t  only  is  sounded,  as  in  night.  In  gl 
and  gr  both  letters  have  their  full  sound,  the  g 
being  hard,  by  whatever  vowel  followed.  In 
an,  whether  at  the  beginning  or  end  of  a  syl- 
lable, the  g  is  silent,  as  in  gnaw,  deign.  Kg  in 
English  occurs  only  at  the  end  of  a  syllable ; 
it  has  but  one  sound,  by  whatever  vowel  pre- 
ceded, as  in  sang,  sing,  song,  and  sung.  In  the 
Greek,  Hebrew,  and  Germanic  languages,  and 
some  others,  G  is  hard  in  all  positions.  In  the 
Romanic  languages  the  rules  for  its  hard  sound 
are  generally  the  same  as  in  English,  but  its 
soft  sound  differs  in  character  in  French  and 
Spanish.  (See  J.)  It  is  never  absolutely  mute 
in  any  language  but  English,  but  is  nearly  so 


in  Spanish  before  ua,  and  as  a  terminal  in 
Danish. — In  the  calendar  G  is  the  last  domini- 
cal letter.  In  music,  it  is  the  name  of  the  5th 
diatonic  interval,  and  the  6th  string  of  the 
diatono-chromatic  scale.  It  is  the  clef- 
altered  into  the  acQoining  form— of  the 
violin  or  the  treble.  Capital  G  marks  the 
deepest  tone  of  the  human  voice,  its  oc- 
tave being  the  small  g.  It  is  named  sol  in  sol- 
mization. 

GABfliENTZ,  Hai8  Cww  tm  der,  a  German 
philologist,  bom  at  Altenburg,  Oct.  18,  1807. 
He  completed  his  studies  at  the  universities 
of  Leipsic  and  Gdttingen,  entered  the  service 
of  Saxe-Altenburg,  and  was  a  member  of  the 
Frankfort  preliminary  parliament,  and  subse- 
quently of  the  Erfurt  parliament.  He  has  pub- 
lished Elements  de  la  grammaire  mandehotte 
(Altenburg,  1833) ;  a  translation  into  Mantchoo 
of  the  Chinese  works  Se-shu,  Shu-hing,  and 
Shi-king,  with  a  Mantchoo-German  glossary 
(Leipsic,  1864) ;  and  a  large  number  of  minor 
writings  on  the  Mordvin,  Sirian,  and  numerous 
other  idioms.  He  has  also  published  a  new  edition 
of  Umias's  Gothic  Bible  version  (2  vols.,  1843). 

GABIROL.    See  Solomon  ben  Gabihol. 

6AE00N  (called  also  the  Mpongo  or  Mpongwe 
in  the  language  of  the  people  at  its  mouth),  a 
bay  on  the  coast  of  west  Africa,  about  lat.  0^ 
80'  N.,  Ion.  9°  20'  E.  It  receives  the  united 
stream  of  the  Olombo  and  the  Rhamboe,  and 
was  formerly  believed  to  be  a  large  and  power- 
ful river;  but  it  is  simply  an  inlet  of  toe  At> 
Ian  tic  ocean,  about  40  m.  long,  9  m.  wide,  and 
from  10  to  60  ft.  deep.  In  1848  the  French 
established  a  fortified  factoiy  on  the  coast  of 
the  Gaboon  bay,  and  obtained  gradually  from 
the  native  chiefs  the  whole  coast  land  from  Cape 
I^pez,  in  lat.  0*^  86'  S.,  to  the  I^ucie  promon- 
tory, in  lat.  0°  40'  N.  In  1867  the  area  of  this 
cdony  was  reported  to  be  8,000  sq.  m.  It 
had  about  5,000  inhabitants  and  1,000  troops. 
The  latter  were  withdrawn  during  the  Franco- 
German  war  of  1870-'71 ;  and  the  protectorate 
of  Grand  Bassam  and  Assinie  was  abandoned 
by  the  French  in  1872,  because  they  could  not 
control  the  native  chiefs.  At  the  beginning 
of  1874  there  were  no  French  authorities  at 
Gaboon  except  the  naval  officers  at  the  sta- 
tion, whose  commander  acts  as  governor.  The 
settlement  has  substantial  public  buildings, 
stores,  hospitals,  a  small  dockyard,  and  a  large 
depot  of  coals.  French,  English,  American, 
German,  and  Portuguese  missionaries  reside 
here,  as  well  as  a  French  bishop.  The  Mpongwe 
language,  which  is  spoken  by  the  natives^  has 
been  reduced  to  writing,  and  is  taught  gram- 
matically in  the  American  missionary  sdbools, 
and  the  French  have  translated  pirt  of  the 
New  Testament  into  it.  The  use  of  a  corrupt 
English  jargon  is  spreading.  A  number  of 
slaves  continue  to  be  kept   all    along   the 


GABOEIAU 


GAOHARD 


549 


coast  for  domestic  parposes.  With  a  view  of 
making  the  colonj  self-sustaining,  an  export 
daty  has  been  recently  imposed  by  the  home 
government,  which  hampers  trade. 

CABOKIAP,  tmSkj  a  French  noyelist,  bom 
about  1834,  died  in  Paris,  Sept.  29,  1878.  His 
literary  career  began  with  sketches  of  theatri- 
cal, military,  and  fashionable  Ufe,  published  in 
the  lesser  Parisian  journals.  Collections  of 
these  sketches  were  published  under  the  titles 
Jitue$  d'tmunir,  Let  conUdienne$  adarSes,  Ma- 
riage$  cTaventurey  &o.  In  1866  appeared  his 
novel  Daatier  i\r^  118,  which  was  followed  in 
rapid  succession  by  Le  crime  d*  Oreival^  V Af- 
faire Lerouge,  Lee  eeelavee  de  Parie^  La  vie 
ir^female^  La  eorde  au  eou^  and  other  stories. 
Ninette  Sueor  and  L* Argent  dee  autree  were 
published  posthumously.  Most  of  Gaboriau's 
works  are  elaborate  detective  stories,  the 
gloomy  romance  of  crime.  The  plots,  which 
have  been  compared  to  those  of  Edgar  A.  Poe 
and  Wilkie  Collins,  are  wrought  out  with  great 
skill  and  dramatic  effect.  Daseier  N*  118  and 
Le  crime  d'Oreival  are  considered  the  best. 
Two  have  been  translated  and  published  in  the 
United  States,  under  the  titles  *'The  Mystery 
of  Orcival "  and  "The  Widow  Lerouge "  (1878). 

GABOVED)  AaMity  a  French  historian,  bom 
about  1805,  died  in  1867.  He  began  life  as  a 
journalist,  and  became  chief  of  bureau  in  the 
ministry  of  the  interior.  He  published  many 
historical  works  in  the  ultramontane  and  mo- 
narchical interest,  including  Hietoire  de  la  rS- 
volution  et  de  Vempire  (10  vols.,  1846-^51), 
Hietoire  de  France  (20  vols.,  1857-'62),  Hie- 
toire de  Paris  (5  vols.,  1868-5),  and  Hietoire 
eontemporaine  (7  vols.,  1864-'7). 

GABEIEL  (Heb.,  the  mighty  one  of  God),  the 
angel  sent  to  Daniel  to  interpret  the  vision  of 
the  ram  and  the  he  goat  (Dan.  viii.),  and  to 
communicate  the  prophecy  of  the  70  weeks 
(ix.  21-27);  employed  also  to  announce  to 
Zacharias  the  birth  of  John  the  Baptist  (Luke 
1.  11),  and  that  of  the  Messiah  to  the  Virgin 
Mary  (i.  26).  Though  there  is  nothing  in  the 
Scriptures  concerning  his  rank,  he  is  accounted 
both  by  Jewish  and  Christian  writers  one  of 
the  archangels.  According  to  rabbinical  le- 
gends, he  is  the  prince  of  fire,  and  presides 
over  the  ripening  of  fruit;  he  alone  of  the 
angels  understood  Chaldee  and  Syriao,  and 
taught  Joseph  the  70  languages  spoken  at 
Babel;  and  he  witli  Michael  set  fire  to  the 
temple  at  Jerusalem  and  destroyed  the  host 
of  Sennacherib.  Mohammedan  writers  esteem 
him  one  of  the  four  most  highly  favored  an- 
gels ;  he  is  styled  the  spirit  of  troth,  and  to 
him  a  copy  of  the  Koran  was  committed, 
which  he  dictated  in  successive  portions  to 
Mohammed.      

fiABBlEL  CHAiniiZM  a  remarkable  channel  in 
Patagonia,  between  Dawson  island  and  Tierra 
del  Fuego,  about  lat.  54**  20'  S.,  Ion.  70°  40' 
W.  It  is  25  m.  long  and  from  i  to  H  m. 
wide,  with  shores  nearly  parallel.  The  N. 
shore  is  a  ridge  of  slate  rising  to  a  sharp  edge 


and  descending  abruptly  on  the  other  side  into 
a  valley.  The  S.  shore  is  a  mass  of  mountains, 
two  of  which,  Mts.  Buckland  and  Sarmiento, 
are  remarkable.  The  former,  estimated  to  be 
4,000  ft.  high,  is  a  pyramidal  peak  of  slate; 
the  latter,  6,800  fb.  high,  terminates  in  two 
peaks.  The  summit  of  the  range  between 
these  mountains  is  an  immense  glacier,  which 
forms  as  it  melts  many  cascades  that  find  their 
way  into  the  channel.  From  the  humidity  of 
the  climate  these  peaks  are  usually  enveloped 
in  fogs.  Whirlwinds  sometimes  descend  the 
S.  ridge  and  burst  with  violence  on  the  oppo- 
site shore. 

GABRUEUi,  Citiriwi,  an  Italian  vocalist,  bom 
in  Rome  in  1780,  died  in  1796.  She  was  the 
daughter  of  a  cook  employed  by  Count  Ga- 
brieUi,  who,  being  strack  with  the  girPs  re- 
markable voice,  had  her  educated  by  Garcia 
and  Porpora ;  and  about  1747  she  gave  her  first 

Eerformance  at  Lucca,  assuming  the  name  of 
er  protector.  In  1750  she  excelled  to  such 
an  extent  as  Dido  in  Jomelli's  opera  of  that 
name,  that  Metastasio  engaged  her  as  first 
prima  donna  for  the  Vienna  opera.  She  was 
as  celebrated  for  her  amours,  prodigality,  and 
eccentricities  as  for  her  vocal  and  histrionic 
talent.  In  Parma  she  was  the  mistress  of  the 
infante  Don  Ferdinand,  whose  excesnve  jeal- 
ousy impelled  her  to  escape  to  St.  Petersburg, 
where  Catharine  II.  received  her  with  open 
arms.  She  asked  5,000  rubles  a  month,  and 
the  empress  remarking  that  this  salary  ex- 
ceeded that  of  field  marshals,  Gabrielli  pro- 
posed to  her  to  make  those  warriors  sing. 
After  her  return  to  Italy,  the  tenor  Pacchia- 
rotti  was  so  overcome  by  her  wonderful  sing- 
ing that  he  fied  from  the  stage  while  perform- 
ing with  her  in  Venice  in  1777.  She  had 
tempting  ofi^ers  from  London  managers,  but 
would  not  go  to  England,  where  she  feared 
that  her  whims  would  not  be  tolerated.  Her 
last  performances  were  at  Milan,  where  she 
sang  together  with  her  rival  Marches!,  and 
the  opera-goers  of  that  city  formed  two  par- 
ties wnich  led  to  disturbances.  She  ended  her 
life  in  retirement  in  Rome. — Fbanobsoa  Ga- 
BBiELLi  (1755-'95)  was  another  renowned  vo- 
calist, who  became  known  as  Gabriellina,  to 
distinguish  her  from  the  preceding. 

GABKIEIU.  Hletl^,  count,  an  Italian  compo- 
ser, bom  in  Naples  in  1815.  He  was  for  14 
years  director  of  the  music  of  ballets  in  the  San 
Carlo  theatre  at  Naples,  and  subsequently  re- 
moved to  Paris.  He  has  produced  ballets  for 
the  Grand  Op6ra,  including  Gemma  (1854),  Lee 
elfee  (1856),  and  V6toile  de  MeeHne  (1861) ; 
and  a  comic  opera  of  his  was  performed  at  the 
Op^ra  Comique  in  1859. 

GACHAKD,  LMds  Prosper,  a  Belgian  archivist, 
bom  in  Paris,  Oct.  12,  1800.  He  was  a  jour- 
neyman printer,  joined  the  Belgian  revolution 
of  1880,  and  was  naturalized  in  Belgium  in 
1831.  He  was  appointed  archivist  general, 
and  commissioned  to  seek  in  the  national  and 
in  foreign  libraries  for  documents  relating  to 


650 


GAD 


GADFLY 


Belgian  history,  and  in  1884  became  secretary 
of  the  historical  commission.  He  has  most 
diligently  explored  the  archives  of  Simancas 
in  Spain,  and  others  at  home  and  abroad,  and 
has  published  a  great  number  of  works  and 
documents  relating  to  the  history  of  Belgium. 
Among  the  works  edited  by  him  are  many  vol- 
umes of  correspondence  of  William  the  Silent, 
Charles  V.,  Philip  II.,  the  duke  of  Alva,  Mar- 
garet of  Parma,  &c.,  on  the  affairs  of  the  Low 
Countries ;  official  letters  to  the  states  general, 
and  the  acts  of  that  body  from  1576  to  1585 ; 
and  Relations  dea  troubles  de  Gand  sous  Charles 
v.,  par  un  anonyme^  with  830  documents.  In 
his  work  Jeanne  la  Polle  (1869),  he  sets  forth 
opinions  opposed  to  those  of  Gustav  Bergen- 
roth  concerning  the  mother  of  Charles  V. 

GAD  (Ueb.,  fortune),  the  seventh  son  of  Ja- 
cob, elder  son  of  Zilpah,  Leah's  miud,  and  whole 
brother  of  Asher.  Of  his  youth  there  is  no 
record.  At  the  descent  into  Egypt  he  had 
seven  sons. — The  tribe  of  this  name  marched 
in  the  wilderness  on  the  S.  side  of  the  taberna- 
cle, and  numbered  45,650.  At  the  entrance 
into  Canaan  Gad  and  Reuben  had  many  flocks, 
and  obtained  permission  to  settle  E.  of  the  Jor- 
dan, where  the  territory  of  Gad  was  central 
between  Reuben  on  the  south  and  Manasseh 
on  the  north,  including  the  mountain  district 
of  southern  Gilead  and  the  lowland  of  the  Jor- 
dan valley.  The  Gadites  were  restless  half- 
nomads,  and  early  extended  over  all  Gilead; 
and  later  the  names  Gilead  and  Gad  were  used 
interchangeably.  They  were  fierce  and  war- 
like, and  some  of  them  joined  David  during  his 
outlawry.  Among  the  famous  members  of  the 
tribe  were  Jephtha  and  Barzillai,  and  probably 
the  prophet  Elijah.  The  isolation  of  the  tribe, 
and  perhaps  the  impulsive  character  of  its  peo- 
ple, weakened  its  influence  in  national  affairs. 
its  territory  was  the  battle  field  of  Israel  and 
Syria,  and  its  population  was  carried  away 
captive  by  Tiglath-pileser  about  740  B.  C. 

GADARA,  an  ancient  city  of  Palestine,  the 
capital  of  Persea  (the  country  beyond  or  E. 
of  the  Jordan),  and  one  of  the  ten  cities  called 
the  Decapolis.  It  was  about  8  m.  S.  E.  of 
Lake  Tiberias,  and  gave  its  name  to  the  canton 
or  district  known  as  Gadaritis  or  the  country 
of  the  Gadarenes.  In  Matthew  it  is  called 
the  country  of  the  Gergesenes,  but  this  term, 
as  well  as  the  existence  of  the  city  of  Gergesa, 
is  supposed  to  have  been  invented  by  Origen 
in  the  endeavor  to  reconcile  various  readings, 
as  no  such  city  can  be  traced.  Though  now 
wholly  in  ruins,  in  the  time  of  Josephus  Ga- 
dara  was  an  important  city,  strongly  fortified, 
having  a  court  of  justice,  and  in  its  vicinity 
sever^  famous  hot  baths  and  medicinal  springs, 
reckoned  by  the  Romans  inferior  only  to  those 
of  Bai».  Among  the  remains  of  Gadara  are 
tombs  excavated  in  limestone  rock,  consisting 
of  chambers  about  20  fb.  square,  with  recesses 
in  the  sides.  The  ruins  of  Urn  Keis  reveal  the 
splendor  of  ancient  Gadara.  It  was  captured 
by  Vespasian,  who  reduced  it  to  ashes.    It  be- 


came later  the  seat  of  a  bishop,  but  was  aban- 
doned after  the  Mohammedan  conquest. 

GADDI.  I.  Gadd«,  a  Florentine  artist,  bom 
in  1249,  died  in  1812.  He  was  an  excellent 
worker  in  mosaic,  and  is  considered  the  found- 
er of  the  modem  mosaic  art.  He  also  painted 
altarpieces.  IL  Tid4e«,  a  painter,  son  of  the 
preceding,  bom  about  1300,  died  about  1860. 
His  decorations  of  the  Spanish  chapel  in  the 
church  of  Santa  Maria  Novella  at  Florence,  in 
competition  with  Memmi,  are  among  the  finest 
specimens  of  art  produced  in  the  14th  century. 
On  one  of  the  waUs  of  this  chapel  are  the  re- 
puted portraits  of  Petrarch  and  Laura.  Tad- 
deo  was  also  distinguished  as  an  architect.  Ill* 
Aigelt,  son  of  the  preceding,  bora  about  1324, 
died  about  1890.  He  was  an  imitator  of  his 
father  and  of  Giotto,  but  did  not  improve  in 
proportion  to  his  abilities.  He  lived  for  many 
years  in  Venice,  where  he  engaged  in  com- 
merce, and  has  been  considered  the  founder  of 
the  Venetian  school. 

GADE,  Meto  Wilheln,  a  Danish  composer,  bom 
in  Copenhagen,  Feb.  22, 1817.  He  commenced 
the  stody  of  music  at  a  comparatively  advanced 
age,  and  in  a  few  years  became  an  accomplished 
performer  on  the  violin  and  pianoforte,  after 
which  he  devoted  himself  to  composition.  In 
1841  his  overture  entitled  "Echoes  of  Ossian'" 
received  the  prize  of  the  Copenhagen  musical 
union,  and  secured  to  him  a  royal  stipend  to 
travel  and  study  his  art  abroad.  He  passed 
several  years  in  Germany  and  in  Italy,  and 
greatly  increased  his  reputation  by  a  symphony 
in  C  minor.  In  1844  he  was  appointed  to  suc- 
ceed Mendelssohn  in  the  direction  of  the  Ge- 
wandhaus  concerts  at  Leipsic.  In  1850,  hav- 
ing received  the  appointment  of  royal  chapel 
master  to  the  king  of  Denmark,  he  returned 
to  Copenhagen,  where  he  now  lives.  Among 
his  published  works  are  seven  symphomes,  a 
number  of  overtures,  sonatas,  quintets,  and  ro- 
mances, Comala,  a  lyrical  drama,  "The  Cra- 
saders,^*  a  reli^ous  cantata,  and  the  NiheHnn" 
ffen,  an  opera. 

GADES.    See  Cadiz. 

GADFLY,  a  dipterous  insect,  belonging  to  the 
genus  tabanus  (Linn.),  with  three-jointed  an- 
tennsa  and  wide-spreading  wings.  The  gad- 
flies attack  not  only  man,  but  cattle,  horses, 
camels,  and  various  ruminating  animals.  The 
most  common  species  in  the  United  States  is 
the  T.  atratus  (Fabr.),  of  a  black  color,  with 
a  whitish  bloom  on  the  back,  like  that  of  a 
plum ;  the  eyes  are  very  large,  almost  meeting 
at  the  top  of  the  head,  and  of  a  shining  purplish 
or  bronze  black  color,  with  a  jet-black  band 
across  the  middle;  it  is  about  an  inch  long, 
with  an  expanse  of  wings  of  nearly  two  inches. 
The  orange-belted  gadfly  (7*.  einetvs,  Fabr.)  is 
smaller  and  less  common,  black,  with  the  first 
three  abdominal  rings  orange-colored.  A  small- 
er and  very  common  species  is  the  T,  lineola 
(Fabr.),  which  has  a  whitish  line  along  the 
top  of  the  hind  body.  There  are  many  other 
American  species,  described  and  unde^cribed. 


GADBDEN 

There  are  ftboat  40  Earopean  species,  for  a 
knowledge  of  whose  habits  and  metamorphosei 
we  are  principall;  indebted  to  De  Geer.  The 
apeciea  which  bo  tormenta  cattle  is  the  T.  bo- 
riitui  (Linn.),  about  on  inch  long;  the  thoru 
and  abdomen  are  dark  brown,  the  former  with 
Tcllowish  hair,  and  the  latter  with  a  reddish 
7elIow  cross  band  on  the  hinder  edge  of  the 
segments,  and  bright  jellow  triangular  ipota; 
abdomen  yellowish  gray,  with  black  triangplar 
spots;  thighs  dark  brown,  and  tibia  bright 
yellow.  These  insects  appear  aboot  the  end 
of  June,  and  continae  their  attacks  throngb 
sammer;  the  proboscis,  thoagh  not  very  long, 
is  armed  with  six  very  sharp  needles,  bj  wbicli 
they  can  pierce  the  thickest  hide.  In  the 
allied  genns  ehrytopt  (Meigen),  or  golden- 
eyed  g^dies,  may  be  mentioned  the  C.  eacu- 
lieru  (Meig,),  about  one  third  of  an  inch  long, 
common  in  Enrope  in  meadows  and  pasture 
lands,  stinging  both  men  and  horses  very  se- 
verely ;  the  yellowish  brown  thorax  is  marked 
with  three  long  black  stripes ;  wings  white  with 
blackish  brown  spots ;  abdomen  yellowish. 
American  speeiea  are  (7.  ferrugatia  (Fabr.), 
black,  and  C.  tittatut  (Wied.),  striped  blacli 
and  yellow ;  they  are  found  in  woods  and 
thickets  in  Jnly  and  August.  The  genus  hama- 
topata  (Meig.)  contains  the  troublesome  gadfly 
called  cleg  in  Scotland ;  this,  the  S.  plutiali* 
(Meig.),  is  about  the  w£e  of  the  common  house 
tif ;  the  large  eyes  are  greenish,  with  four  un- 
dulating brown  bands  ninniog  through  each  of 
them;  the  body  is  g^sj,  vith  brownish  cross 
Rtripes;  the  wings  gray,  spotted  with  brown. 
It  attacks  man,  cattle,  and  especially  horses, 
in  sultry  weather  jast  before  rain ;  the  wonnds 
are  painful  at  the  time,  but  are  not  followed 
by  any  lasting  homing  or  itching,— The  name 
of  gadfly  is  also  given  to  several  species  of 
ailrtu,  especially  to  that  which  depOMts  its  eggs 
sbont  the  knees  and  sides  of  the  horse,  and 
which,  conveyed  into  the  stomach,  constitute 
the  disease  known  as  bots.    (See  Bots.) 

ClKDEIf,  a  N.  oonnty  of  Florida,  bordering 
on  Georgia,  bounded  E.  by  the  Ooklookonnee 
river  and  W.  by  the  Appalachicola ;  area,  700 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  9,802,  of  whom  6,038 
were  colored.  It  is  traversed  by  the  Jackson- 
ville, Pensacola,  and  Mobile  railroad.  It  has 
an  uneven  surface  and  a  fertile  soil.     The  chief 

froductions  in  1870  were  ]46,1S5  bushels  of 
ndian  com,  13,076  of  oats,  40,980  of  sweet 
potatoes,  3,258  bales  of  cotton,  118,799  lbs.  of 
tobacco,  82,78fi  of  rice,  42,3S4  gallons  of  mo- 
las'tes,  and  00  hogsheads  of  sugar.  There  were 
691  hordes,  SOS  mules  and  asses,  7,S60  cattle, 
and  7,380  swine.     Capital,  Qnincy. 

G1D9DEM,  ChrWepbfr,  an  American  slat«gman, 
bom  in  Charieaton,  8,  C,  in  1724,  died  there, 
Aug,  28,  1805.  His  father  having  lost  his  large 
estate  in  play  with  Admiral  Anson,  the  son 
engaged  in  mercantile  hnsineas  with  such  suc- 
cess as  to  recover  it  all  by  purchase.  He  was 
one  of  the  boldest  in  denouncing  British  op- 
pression from  the  time  of  the  stamp  act,  and  is 


GADWALL 


551 


said  to  have  been  Ibe  first  to  speak  of  Ameri- 
can independence.  He  was  a  delegate  to  the 
stamp  act  congress,  which  assembled  in  New 
York  in  1T6S,  and  to  the  flrst  continental  con- 
gress in  17T4,  in  which  he  urged  an  immediate 
attack  upon  Gen.  Gage  at  Boston;  became 
senior  colonel  and  afterward  brigadier  of  three 
SoQth  Carolina  regiments  in  1776  ;  was  actii'ely 
engaged  at  the  siege  of  Charleston  in  1776; 
was  one  of  the  framers  of  the  constitution  of 
South  Carolina,  adopted  in  1779;  resigned  his 
military  commission  in  1779;  and  aslieutenant 
governor  of  the  state  signed  the  oapituietion 
when  Oharleston  was  taken  by  Sir  Henry  Clin- 
ton in  1780.  .Shortly  after,  in  violation  of  the 
terms  of  capitulation,  he  was  arrested  with 
77  other  influential  public  men,  burried  on 
board  a  prison  ship,  and  conveyed  to  St.  Aa- 
gustine.  He  alone  of  the  prisoners  refused  to 
enter  into  any  engagements  to  secure  a  degree 
of  freedom  on  parole,  and  was  therefore  incar- 
cerated for  42  weeks  in  the  dungeon  of  the 
castle  of  St.  Augustine.  Being  exchanged,  be 
was  sent  to  Philadelphia,  and  after  his  rctnrn 
to  Charleston,  as  member  of  the  state  legisla- 
ture, he  opposed  the  confiscation  of  the  prop- 
erty of  loyalists.  He  was  elected  governor 
of  the  state  in  17S2,  but  declined  the  honor, 
preferring  to  retire  to  private  life. 

GlDWllX,  a  fresh-water  orriver  dnok  of  the 
subfamily  aTidtirui,  and  the  genus  chaulelatmu* 
(Gray).  In  this  genns  the  bill  is  as  long  aa 
the  head,  the  lamellse  distinctly  visible  below 
its  lower  edge,  and  its  color  black ;  the  head 
and  neck  brownish  white,  each  feather  spotted 
with  dusky,  and  the  top  of  the  head  generally 
with  a  reddish  tinge ;  lower  neok,  breast^  back, 


iH  (ChMlleluuiiu  gtnpeniB).— 


I.  Fem. 


and  sides  banded  with  narrow  bars  of  black  and 
white ;  rump  and  tail  coverts  black ;  greater 
wing  coverts  velvet  black,  middle  chestnut,  and 
speculum  white  with  a  black  border.  From  its 
general  color  it  is  often  called  tbe  gray  dock. 
The  lengtb  is  about  22  in.,  the  extent  of  wings 


552 


GAEL 


8G,  and  the  weight  abont  I)  lb.  The  only  spe- 
cies described  is  t]ie  C.  ttrepaia  (Qraj),  which 
IB  geDerollf  conudeced  the  same  in  America 
and  Europti.  The  gadwall  is  a  good  diver  and 
Hwimmer,  and  waJks  nncommonlj  well;  it  is 
a  rapid  flier,  with  a  whittling  noise  of  the 
wingB ;  in  its  excursions  on  land  it  nibbles  the 
tender  grass,  and  will  eat  aoorns,  seeds,  and 
grain.  Experiment  has  proved  that  this  spe- 
cies is  CHpable  of  domestication,  tbe  pecoliaritj 
of  the  plumage  being  retained. 

GAEL,  or  iiaU  (Gaelic,  Oaedhil,  Oadkel,  or 
Gaoidheal),  tbe  plural  of  Qal  or  Cal  (akin  to 
Latin  eelo,  to  hide,  as  the  people  dwelt  or 
were  hidden  in  forests ;  or  more  probably  sig- 
nifying wanderer),  the  name  of  the  northern 
and  western  branch  of  the  great  Celtic  faoiilj 
of  nations,  whose  other  branch  is  formed  by 
the  Kyrori  or  Cjmri.    Tbe  Gael  inhabit  the 
Scotch  highlands  and  Ireland,  and  distinguish 
themselves  as  Gael  Albioacb,  or  Gael  of  Al- 
bion, and  Gael  Erin- 
nach,  or  Gael  of  Erin 
(from  or  or  iar,  west, 
and  U,  island ;    Ro- 
maniied    into    leme 
and  Qiberaia).    Both 
these    divisions    are 
called  Erse,  the  for- 
mer   by  the    Scotch 
lowlanders,  who  de- 
rive them  fVom  Ire- 
land.     The    descen- 
dants of  the   Kymri 
dwelling  in  Wales  are 
called    Gwyddel    by 
the  Gael,  while  those 
in  France  are  named 
Breiziz (Britons);  and 
those     of     Cornwall 
(com,  «rim,  rock,  and 
gat)    ceased    in    the 
18th  centnry  Xa  speak 
their  pecnliar  dialect. 
Gaedhilic  or  Gaoid- 

hilg  is  the  epithet  especially  appropriated  to 
the  Irish  and  to  their  tongue,  nnd  Gaelic  espe- 
cially denot«s  both  the  highland  Scotch  and 
their  language.  Caledonia  is  composed  of  Cal 
and  dun  or  don,  mountain ;  Gaeldoch  of  Gael 
nnd  doeh.  land ;  both  being  names  of  Scotland ; 
bnt  Gaoildoch  or  strangers'  land  is  the  distinc- 
tive name  of  Chat  part  of  Bcottand  which  is  in- 
habited by  non-Celtic  people.    (See  Celts,  and 

CkLTS,  LaKQUAOES  ABD  LlTEBATTRB  OF  THK.) 

6i£Tl  (anc.  CaeUi^.  a  fortified  city  of  S. 
Italy,  in  the  province  of  Caserta,  on  the  gnlf 
of  QaeiA,  an  arm  of  the  Hediterraoean,  72  m. 
S.  E.  of  Rome;  pop.  of  the  oitjr,  including  its 
Buhnrbs,  about  8,000,  and  of  the  commune 
about  16,000.  It  is  neatly  though  irregularly 
built  The  principal  public  edifices  are  the 
citadel,  one  of  the  strongest  fortresses  in  Italy, 
and  formerly  the  key  of  the  kingdom  of  Na- 
ples, and  the  cathedral,  a  handsome  symmetri- 
cal stTQcture,  with  a  fine  tower.    On  tbe  higb- 


G.£TtrLIA 

est  point  of  the  promontory  of  GaSta  is  the 
tomb  of  Lucius  Munatins  Hancns.  Among  its 
antiquities  is  a  12-sided  colnmn  with  the  12  di- 
rections of  the  wind  inscribed  upon  it  in  Latin 
and  Greek.  The  rocea  Spaceata  is  shown  as 
having  split  in  two  for  grief  when  hearing 
St.  Francis  preach  about  the  death  of  Christ. 
Through  the  crevice  of  this  rock  a  flight  of 
stairs  loads  to  a  chapel,  built  in  commemora- 
tion of  the  Diiracle.'^-GaEta  is  said  to  have 
been  founded  by  .(Eneas,  in  honor  of  his  nurse 
C^eta,  who  died  on  the  shore.  It  certainly 
existed  before  Rome.  In  the  6th  century  it 
fell  into  tbe  power  of  tbe  Ostrogoths,  snd 
afterward  into  that  of  the  Byzantine  empire. 
In  tbe  time  of  Charlemagne  it  was  known  aa 
an  independent  republic.  It  was  subsequently 
ruled  by  dukes.  The  Normans  took  It  in  tb« 
11th  century.  It  was  fortified  by  Alfonso  V. 
of  Aragon,  who  had  saised  it  by  surprise,  and 
Charles  V.  enlarged  it.     In  1707  it  was  be- 


sieged by  tbe  Austrians ;  in  I7S4  it  snccnmbed 

to  the  united  efforts  of  the  French,  Spaniards, 
and  Sardinians;  in  1T69  it  was  taken  by  tb« 
French,  and  in  1808  by  the  troops  of  Joseph 
Bonaparte,  then  king  of  Naples.  The  Austriaoa 
reduced  it  in  1S15,  and  made  it  part  of  th« 
kingdom  of  Naples.  Pius  IX.  escaped  fnMn 
Rome  to  Gaeta  Nov.  24,  1B48,  and  reuded 
there  till  April,  1850,  when  he  returned  to 
Rome.  Francis  II.  also  fled  to  this  place  in 
1860,  and  shut  himself  up  in  the  citadel  with 
his  army ;  but  after  a  aege  of  three  months 
Gafita  surrendered  (Feb.  18,  1861)  to  Victor 
Emanuel's  forces  under  Cialdini,  Francis  taking 
refuge  on  board  a  French  frigate. 

GATiULli,  an  ancient  country  of  Africa,  S. 
of  Mauritania  and  Numidia,  bounded  E.  by  iilla 
separating  it  from  tbe  country  of  the  Gara- 
mantes,  W.  by  the  Atlantic  ocean,  and  8.,  ac- 
cording to  Pliny,  by  the  river  Niger.  Nearly 
all  of  this  region  was  included  in  the  Sahara  or 


GAGARIN 


GAIL 


553 


great  desert,  the  W.  oasis  of  which,  and  per- 
haps some  portions  of  the  fertile  belt  on  its  N. 
margin  and  of  the  basin  of  the  Niger,  were  in- 
habited by  the  Gaatali.  They  were  one  of  the 
two  great  aboriginal  races  of  N.  Africa,  W.  of 
Egypt,  the  otlier  being  the  Libyans,  and  had  for- 
merly dwelt  on  the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean, 
bat  were  expelled  by  the  Manritanians  and  Nu- 
m'ldians,  and  driven  S.  of  Mt.  Atlas.  They  were 
nomadic,  warlike,  and  savage,  living  on  milk 
and  flesh,  clothed  with  skins,  and  without  regu- 
lar government.  They  were  divided  into  sev- 
eral tribes,  one  of  which,  the  Melanogsetoli, 
were  nearly  black  from  intermingling  with  the 
Nigrit®  on  the  south.  In  the  Jngurthine  war 
they  served  as  cavalry  against  the  Romans, 
but  afterward  a  body  of  them  Joined  the  army 
of  Marius ;  and  from  this  period  to  the  close  of 
the  civil  wars  we  frequently  find  them  serving 
as  auxiliaries  with  the  legions.  They  were 
sometimes  troublesome  to  tihe  Romans,  and  in 
the  reign  of  Augustus  an  army  under  the  com- 
mand of  Cornelius  Oossus  Lentulus  had  to  be 
sent  against  them.  The  barbarians  were  van- 
quished, and  the  general  obtained  a  triumph 
and  the  surname  of  Gstulicus.  The  Gcetuli 
appear  to  have  been  the  ancestors  of  the  mod- 
ern Berbers. 

filGAKIN)  the  name  of  a  princely  Russian 
family,  deriving  its  origin  from  the  rulers  of 
Starodub,  having  its  seat  in  Moscow,  and  of 
which  the  most  distinguished  members  are  the 
following.  I.  Matfei  Petrtvltehy  governor  gene- 
ral of  Siberia  under  Peter  I.,  was  executed  in 
June,  1721,  on  the  charge  of  having  conspired 
to  make  himself  sovereign  of  that  province. 

11.  Alexjuider  IvanaTltdi,  a  general  officer  in  the 
Russian  army,  distinguished  himself  in  the  Gau- 
oasos  and  the  Crimea,  and  in  1857,  while  gov- 
ernor general  of  Kutais,  was  assassinated  by 
the  prince  of  Suanethi,  which  province  he  was 
endeavoring  to  annex  to  the  empire.  Ill*  Pavel 
PavltTttchy  an  influential  statesman  under  Alex- 
ander II.,  was  prominent  as  a  member  of  the 
council  of  emancipation;  from  1864  to  1869 
presided  over  the  council  of  ministers  and  that 
of  the  empire ;  and  subsequently  he  was  asso- 
ciated in  tne  latter  office  with  the  grand  duke 
Constantine  until  his  death  in  St  Petersburg, 
March  4, 1872.  1¥.  Jehu  (Ivan),  a  Jesuit  writer 
and  missionary,  born  in  Moscow,  Aug.  1,  1814. 
Like  most  of  the  younger  members  of  his  fam- 
ily, he  embraced  a  diplomatic  career,  and  was 
secretary  of  the  Russian  embassy  in  Paris, 
when  he  joined  the  Roman  Catholic  com- 
munion, and  entered  the  society  of  Jesus  Aug. 

12,  1843.  After  receiving  holy  orders,  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  theology  in  the  Jesuit 
seminary  at  Laval,  and  in  1857  founded  con- 
jointly with  P6re  Charles  Daniel  a  serial  en- 
titled Etudes  dp.  theologiSy  dephiloBophU  et  d'hU- 
toire,  at  first  published  quarterly,  then  month- 
ly, and  finally  fortnightly.  Father  Gagarin 
spent  several  years  in  Constantinople,  where 
he  founded  the  society  of  St.  Dionysius  the 
Areopa^te,  which  aims  at  reuniting  the  Greek 


and  Latin  churches.  He  has  published  a  large 
number  of  pamphlets,  mainly  relating  to  the 
history  of  the  Gr»co-Russian  church  and  to  its 
reunion  with  that  of  Rome,  the  most  recent 
of  which  are  Constitution  et  situation  presente 
de  toutes  Us  JSglises  de  V  Orient  (Paris,  1865), 
and  Le  dergS  russe  (Brussels,  1871 ;  English 
translation,  London,  1872). 

GAGE,  a  S.  £.  county  of  Nebraska,  bordering 
on  Kansas,  and  intersected  by  Big  Blue  river ; 
area,  about  900  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  8,859. 
The  surface  is  diversified ;  the  soil  fertile.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  129,238  bushels 
of  wheat,  146,180  of  Indian  corn,  42,586  of 
oats,  20,122  of  potatoes,  and  5,316  tons  of  hay. 
There  were  1,088  horses,  835  milch  cows,  1,527 
other  cattle,  1,979  sheep,  and  2,020  swine. 
Capital,  Beatrice, 

GI6E9  ThenaS)  the  last  royal  governor  of 
Massachusetts,  bom  in  England,  died  there  in 
April.  1787.  He  was  an  active  officer  during 
the  seven  years'  war,  was  appointed  governor 
of  Montreal  in  1760,  and  succeeded  Gen.  Am- 
herst in  1763  in  the  chief  command  of  the 
British  forces  in  America.  Being  appointed  to 
supersede  Hutchinson  as  governor  of  Massa- 
chusetts, he  arrived  in  Bostcm  in  May,  1774, 
while  the  people  of  that  colony  were  preparing 
to  resist  the  port  act.  Though  personally  es- 
teemed, he  inspired  the  public  with  neither 
confidence  nor  fear.  He  was  instructed  to 
seize  and  punish  Samuel  Adams,  Hancock,  and 
Warren,  but  durst  not  even  attempt  their  arrest 
As  precautionary  measures  he  seized  the  pow- 
der in  the  public  magazine  in  Charlestown 
(Sept.  1),  and  began  to  fortify  Boston.  He 
planned  the  expedition  to  Concord  which  re- 
sulted in  the  battle  of  Lexington  (April  19, 
(1775),  and  on  June  12  established  martial  law 
throughout  Massachusetts,  and  proscribed  Sam- 
uel Adams  and  John  Hancock  by  name,'  offer- 
ing pardon  to  all  other  rebels  who  would  re- 
turn to  their  allegiance.  After  the  battle  of 
Bunker  Hill  (June  17,  1775)  Gage  was  super- 
seded by  Gen.  Howe,  and  sailed  for  England 
on  the  following  Oct.  10. 

GAIL.  I.  Jean  Baptiste,  a  French  author,  bom 
in  Paris,  July  4,  1755,  died  there,  Feb.  5, 1829. 
He  acquired  eminence  as  a  Hellenist,  and  be- 
came in  1791  a^unct  and  in  1802  titular  pro- 
fessor of  Greek  literature  in  the  college  de 
France.  He  gave  for  many  years  gratuitous 
instruction  to  a  number  of  poor  students  whom 
he  boarded  and  lodged  in  his  house.  He  trans- 
lated and  edited  many  Greek  classics,  and  pub- 
lished Greek  grammars.  Among  his  numerous 
works  are  Le  philologve  (22  vols.,  1814-'28), 
and  Oeographie  d'Merodot  (2  vols.,  1823).  II* 
Edmt  Sepliie,  a  musical  composer,  wife  of  the 
preceding,  born  at  M^lun  in  1776,  died  in 
Paris,  July  24,  1819.  She  was  a  daughter  of 
the  surgeon  Garre,  and  married  Gail  in  1794, 
but  soon  separated  from  him  and  devoted  her- 
self altogetner  to  music,  studying  under  Men- 
gozzi  and  giving  concerts  in  southern  France 
and  in  Spain.    On  returning  to  Paris,  she  be- 


554 


GAILLAO 


GAii!ra:s 


came  famous  by  her  ballads,  while  she  stndieid 
under  F^tis  and  other  masters.  Her  comic 
opera  Les  deux  jaloux  became  exceedingly 
popular  in  1818,  but  her  subsequent  operas 
were  less  successful,  though  Boleldien  was  her 
collaborator  in  Angela,  La  serenade,  however, 
was  much  applauded  at  the  Theatre  Feydeau 
in  1818. 

GAILLAC,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Tarn,  on  the  rigbt  bank  of  the  river 
Tarn,  an  affluent  of  the  Garonne,  12  m.  W.  by 
S.  of  Albi ;  pop.  in  1866,  7,870.  It  is  in  a  fer- 
tile region,  abounding  in  vineyards,  and  sur- 
round(;d  by  suburbs,  one  of  which  contains  a 
large  square,  but  the  streets  are  exceedingly 
narrow.  It  contains  two  old  churches,  a  com** 
munal  college,  a  military  prison,  and  an  agri- 
cultural society,  and  various  industrial  estab- 
lishments. Gaillac  produces  white  and  red 
wines  of  superior  quality,  the  latter  celebrated 
for  enduring  long  sea  journeys.  ^ 

GAILLARD,  Gabriel  Henri,  a  French  historian, 
born  at  Ostel,  near  Soissons,  March  26,  1726, 
died  at  St.  Firmin,  near  Chantilly,  Feb.  13, 
1806.  He  studied  law,  but  devoted  himself 
to  literature,  and  was  the  lifelong  intimate 
friend  of  Malesherbes.  He  spent  the  latter 
part  of  his  life  in  the  utmost  seclusion,  living 
in  the  most  frugal  manner. '  His  principal 
works  are  histories  of  Francis  I.  (8  vols.),  of 
Charlemagne  (4  vols.),  of  the  rivalry  between 
France  and  England  (11  vols.),  and  between 
France  and  Spain  (8  vols.) ;  Dietionnaire  his- 
torique  (6  vols.,  1791),  in  the  Encyclopedie 
moaeme;  and  Milangee  litteraires  (4  vols., 
1 856-'7).  Several  of  his  works  passed  through 
new  editions.  Though  his  arrangement  of  his- 
torical events  is  loose  and  his  style  rather  stilt- 
ed, he  is  regarded  as  a  conscientious  and  pains^ 
taking  historian. 

GAINES.  1.  Ednud  Fendletoi.  an  American 
general,  born  in  Culpeper  co.,  Va.,  March  20, 
1777,  died  in  New  Orleans,  June  6,  1849.  He 
entered  the  army  as  ensign  in  1799,  was  for 
many  years  actively  employed  in  frontier  daty, 
and  was  instrumental  in  procuring  the  arrest 
of  Aaron  Burr.  About  1811  he  resigned  his 
commission,  but  at  tbe  commencement  of  the 
war  of  1812  returned  to  the  array,  with  which 
he  remained  connected  until  his  death.  At 
the  battle  of  Ohrystler's  field,  Nov.  11,  1813, 
he  rendered  important  services  by  covering 
the  retreat  of  the  American  forces  with  his 
regiment,  the  25th,  and  he  subsequently  com- 
manded at  Fort  Erie  when  the  night  assault 
by  the  British  troops  under  Gen.  Drummond 
w^as  repulsed.  For  his  conduct  during  the 
siege  of  this  place,  where  he  was  severely 
wounded,  he  was  made  brevet  mtjor  general, 
and  received  the  thanks  of  congress  and  a  gold 
medal.  He  received  similar  testimonials  from 
the  states  of  Virginia,  Tennessee,  and  New 
York.  He  was  engaged  in  the  Creek  and 
Seminole  wars,  after  which  he  had  routine 
duty  only.  U.  Myra  dark,  an  American  heiress, 
wife  of  the  preceding,  born  in  New  Orleans 


about  1806.  Her  father,  Daniel  Clark,  bom  in 
Sligo,  Ireland,  about  1766,  emigrated  to  New 
Orleans,  where  he  inherited  his  nnde^s  propertj 
in  1799.  He  was  United  States  consul  there 
before  the  acquisition  of  Louisiana,  and  repre- 
sented the  territory  in  congress  in  1806-^8.  He 
died  in  New  Orleans,  Aug.  16,  1813,  and  his 
estate  was  disposed  of  under  the  provisions  of 
a  will  dated  May  20,  1811,  which  gave  tbe 
property  to  his  mother,  Mary  Clark,  who  bad 
followed  him  to  America  and  was  living  at 
Germantown,  Pa.  His  business  partners,  Relf 
and  Chew,  were  the  executors.  Clark  was  re- 
puted a  bachelor,  but  was  known  to  have  had 
a  liaison  with  a  young  French  woman  of  re- 
markable beauty,  Zulimo  des  Granges,  daring 
the  absence  of  her  reputed  husband  in  Europe. 
Two  daughters  were  bom  of  this  connection, 
one  at  Philadelphia,  in  April,  1802,  the  other 
(Myra)  in  New.  Orleans,  probably  in  1806.  The 
latter  was  taken  to  the  house  of  Col.  Davis,  a 
friend  of  Clark^s,  nursed  by  a  Mrs.  Harper,  and 
in  1812  went  with  Davis^s  family  to  reside  in 
Philadelphia,  where  she  passed  by  the  name  of 
Myra  Davis.  In  1830  Davis,  being  then  in  the 
legislature,  sent  home  for  certain  papers ;  and 
Myra,  in  searching  for  them,  discovered  some 
letters  which  partially  revealed  the  circum- 
stances of  her  birth.  In  1832  she  married  W. 
W.  Whitney  of  New  York,  who  in  followinff 
up  the  discovery  received  from  Davis  an  old 
letter  which  gave  an  account  of  a  will  made  by 
Clark  in  1813,  just  before  his  death,  giving  all 
his  large  estate  to  Myra  and  acknowledging  her 
as  his  le^timate  daughter.  Whitney  and  his 
wife  went  to  Matanzas,  Cuba,  saw  the  writer 
of  the  letter,  and,  after  collecting  other  evi- 
dence, instituted  suits  to  recover  the  estate, 
which  included  some  of  the  most  valuable 
property  in  New  Orleans.  On  the  trial  of  one 
of  these  causes,  Mrs.  Harper  testified  that  four 
weeks  before  his  death  Clark  showed  her  the 
will  he  had  just  made  in  favor  of  Myra,  per- 
mitting her  to  read  it  from  beginning  to 
end,  and  acknowledged  the  child's  legitinaacy. 
Baron  Boisfontaine  testified  that  Clark  told 
him  the  contents  of  the  will  and  acknowl- 
edged the  child.  On  this  and  other  similar 
evidence  the  lost  or  destroyed  will  was  received 
by  the  supreme  court  of  Louisiana  (Feb.  18, 
1856)  as  the  last  will  of  Daniel  Clark,  though 
of  the  document  itself  no  vestige  had  ever  ap- 
peared. But  by  the  law  of  Louisiana  a  testator 
cannot  make  devises  to  his  adulterine  bastard. 
It  was  proved  by  the  testimony  of  two  sisters 
of  Myra's  mother,  one  of  whom  swore  she  was 
present  at  the  ceremony,  tliat  Clark  privately 
married  her  in  Philadelphia  in  1808,  a  Catholic 
priest  ofiSciating;  she  having  previously  learned 
that  Des  Granges,  her  supposed  husband,  had 
a  prior  wife  living,  and  was  therefore  not  legally 
her  husband.  Clark's  contemplated  acknowl- 
edgment of  the  marriage  was  said  to  have  been 
frustrated  by  suspicions  of  her  fidelity;  and, 
deserted  by  him,  she  contracted  a  third  mar- 
riage. In  another  suit  the  United  States  supreme 


GAINSBOROUGH 


GAIU8 


555 


court  decided  that  the  fact  of  the  marriage  and 
legitimacy  was  established.  Mrs.  Whitney  sur- 
vived her  husband,  married  Gen.  Gaines  in 
1889,  and  survived  him  also.  In  1856  she  filed 
in  the  supreme  court  of  the  United  States  a  bill 
in  equity  to  recover  valuable  real  estate  then  in 
the  possession  of  the  city  of  New  Orleans,  and 
a  decision  in  her  favor  was  rendered  at  the 
December  term  of  1867.  This  substantially 
concluded  one  of  the  most  celebrated  causes 
ever  tried.  The  value  of  the  property  claimed 
was  estimated  in  1861  at  $35,000,000,  of  which 
Mrs.  Gaines  had  up  to  1874  obtained  possession 
of  $6,000,000,  and  numerous  actions  for  eject- 
ment were  still  in  progress.  The  testimony, 
documents,  and  opinions  in  these  suits  cover 
8,000  closely  printed  pages.  A  good  history 
of  the  affair  is  contained  in  Wallace's  **  Cases 
argued  and  adjudged  in  the  Supreme  Court  of 
the  United  States,''  vol.  vi.,  p.  642. 

CALVSBOROVGII,  a  town  of  Lincolnshire, 
England,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Trent,  which 
is  crossed  here  by  an  arched  stone  bridge,  16 
m.  N.  N.  W.  of  Lincoln ;  pop.  in  1871,  7,564. 
It  contains  a  fine  parish  and  a  new  district 
chnroh,  a  grammar  school,  and  a  literary  in- 
stitute. The  quaint  old  Elizabethan  h<dl  or 
manor  house,  supposed  to  have  been  partly 
boilt  by  John  of  Gaunt,  and  recently  restored, 
contains  tlie  mechanics'  institute  and  assembly 
rooms  and  the  theatre.  Gtunsborough  shares 
with  Dull  in  the  Baltic  trade ;  the  river  Trent 
is  navigable  for  ships  of  200  tons,  and  various 
canals  alford  communication  with  almost  all 
important  commercial  centres;  the  outward 
and  inward  vessels  number  annually  about  500, 
with  an  aggregate  tonnage  of  upward  of  25,000. 
The  principal  manufacture  is  that  of  linseed 
oil,  and  ship  building,  matting,  rope  mailing, 
and  other  industries  are  actively  carried  on. 

GAINSBOROUeH,  Thmias,  an  English  land- 
scape and  portrait  painter,  born  in  Sudbury, 
Suffolk,  early  in  1727,  died  in  London,  Ang. 
2,  1788.  At  a  very  early  age  he  manifested  a 
taste  for  drawing.  About  1744  he  was  placed 
mider  the  instruction  of  the  engraver  Gravelot 
and  the  painter  Hayman,  and  soon  began  to 
paint  landscapes  and  portraits.  But  his  posi- 
tion did  not  improve  until  his  marriage  in 
1746  with  a  young  lady  named  Burr,  of  striking 
beauty  and  considerable  fortune.  He  then 
residcHi  successively  in  Ipswich  and  Bath,  and 
in  1774  returned  to  London,  where  some  por- 
traits of  members  of  the  royal  family  at  once 
gave  him  a  name  and  ample  employment.  He 
passed  the  remainder  of  his  life  in  London, 
where  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  his  great  rival 
and  friend,  had  settled  before  him.  In  1768 
he  was  chosen  one  of  the  original  36  academi- 
cians, and  from  that  time  until  1784  he  sent 
numerous  pictures  to  the  academy.  As  a 
landscape  painter  Gainsborough  achieved  the 
highest  excellence,  and  was  the  first  in  Eng- 
land to  show  any  real  originality.  The  ^*  Life 
of  Thomas  Gainsborough,"  by  George  William 
Falcher,  appeared  in  London  in  1856. 


GIIRDITEB,  Wmimf  a  British  physician,  bom 
near  Ayr,  Scotland,  Nov.  11,  1793,  died  in 
Avignon,  France,  in  April,  1867.  He  gradu- 
ated in  medicine  at  Edinburgii  in  1813,  and 
until  1822  spent  most  of  his  time  on  the  con- 
tinent. He  then  settled  in  London  and  com- 
menced practice.  He  was  distinguished  for 
his  observations  on  the  medical  uses  of  iodine, 
and  published  a  treatise  on  this  subject.  His 
"Gout,  its  History,  Cause,  and  Cure"  (Lon- 
don, 1849)  has  long  been  a  standard  work. 

61IIJ9,  Gi^BS)  or  CalUf  a  Roman  jurist,  who 
flourished  in  the  2d  century  of  our  era,  during 
the  reigns  of  Hadrian,  Antoninus  Pius,  and 
Marcus  Aurelius.  Of  his  personal  history  lit- 
tle or  nothing  is  known,  and  even  the  spell- 
ing of  his  name  has  been  the  subject  of  con- 
troversy. From  the  references  contained  in 
the  Digest  it  appears  that  he  was  the  author  of 
more  than  15  works,  of  which  the  Institutes  was 
by  far  the  most  important.  This  is  supposed 
to  have  been  the  first  work  of  the  kind  not 
compiled  from  previous  sources,  and  to  have 
afforded  the  first  instance  of  a  popular  man- 
ual of  Roman  law  in  the  sense  of  modern 
elementary  text  books.  After  a  lapse  of  four 
centuries  from  its  publication  it  was  incorpo- 
rated almost  bodily  into  the  celebrated  Insti- 
tutes prepared  by  the  order  of  Justinian.  In 
1816  Niebuhr  examined  a  palimpsest  in  the 
cathedral  library  at  Verona,  containing  251 
pages,  of  which  one  detached  and  undefaced 
leaf  of  two  pasres  had  been  described  and  partly 
published  by  Scipio  Maffei  60  years  before,  with 
a  coi\jecture  that  it  was  part  of  a  compendium 
of  Justinian's  Institutes.  With  this  exception 
the  whole  original  manuscript  had  been  washed 
and  sometimes  scratched  out  and  6verlaid  with 
the  epistles  of  St.  Jerome,  and  63  pages  had 
been  written  over  a  second  time ;  yet  Niebuhr 
succeeded  in  restoring  and  deciphering  a  por- 
tion of  it.  He  communicated  the  results  of  his 
labors  to  Savigny,  who  published  them,  to- 
gether with  a  learned  note  suggesting  that  the 
ancient  text  of  the  parchment  was  the  lost  In- 
stitutes of  Gains.  The  royal  academy  of  Berlin 
in  1817  sent  two  accomplished  civilians,  G5- 
schen  and  Bethmann-Hollweg,  to  Verona,  who, 
after  incredible  labor  in  deciphering  the  char- 
acters on  the  parchment,  succeeded  in  making 
a  transcript  of  the  original  writing,  with  the 
exception  of  three  leaves  and  a  few  scattered 
passages  which  were  illegible.  A  comparison 
of  the  work  with  the  quotations  in  the  Digest, 
and  its  agreement  with  the  Institutes  of  Jus- 
tinian, confirmed  Savigny 's  conjecture,  and  the 
discovery,  by  clearing  up  difficulties  in  the  in- 
terpretation of  ancient  jurisprudence  before  re- 
garded as  hopeless,  formed  an  era  in  the  study 
of  Roman  law.  Several  editions  of  the  text 
have  been  published,  that  of  Gdschen  (im- 
proved by  Lachmann)  of  1842  being  consid- 
ered the  best ;  and  commentaries  on  detached 
portions  by  Van  Assen,  Heffler,  Klenze,  Book- 
ing, and  others,  have  appeared.  The  text, 
with  an  English  translation  and  conunentary 


666 


GALAOTODENDRON 


GALAPAGOS 


by  Tomkins  and  Seniors,  was  published  in 
London  in  1869;  a  translation  with  notes,  by 
Abdy  and  Walker,  in  1870 ;  and  a  translation 
and  commentary,  by  Edward  Poste,  at  Oxford 
in  1871. 

GILACTODENDRON.    See  Oow  Tbeb. 

GALACTOMETEK  (Gr.  y&Xa^  gen.  ydhucroc,  milk, 
and  fiirpovy  measare),  an  instrument  for  deter- 
mining the  specific  gravity  of  milk.  The  com- 
mon hydrometer  may  be  used  for  this  purpose, 
but  a  better  instrument  is  that  called  the  cen- 
tesimal galactometer,  invented  by  M.  Dino- 
court.  This  is  a  glass  tube  made  to  float  up- 
right in  the  liquid,  and  surmounted  with  a  stem 
upon  which  are  two  scales,  one  intended  to  be 
used  in  skim  milk,  the  other  in  milk  from 
which  the  cream  has  not  been  removed.  The 
normal  range  of  each  quality  is  designated  upon 
one  of  the  scales,  and  the  divisions  above  are 
intended  to  mark  hundredths  of  water  that 
has  been  added.  Though  the  specific  gravity 
of  genuine  milk  commonly  is  found  between 
1*026  and  1*081,  the  determination  of  this  is  a 
very  uncertain  test  of  its  purity.  Cream  being 
specifically  lighter  than  milk,  its  removal  leaves 
the  fluid  comparatively  heavier ;  water  might 
be  added  to  this,  and  the  specific  gravity  be 
thus  brought  to  that  of  genuine  milk.  The 
instrument  therefore  should  be  used  only  in 
connection  with  another  called  the  lactometer, 
the  object  of  which  is  to  determine  the  propor- 
tion ot  cream  present.  This  being  known,  and 
the  specific  gravity  ascertained  with  the  accu- 
racy due  to  the  graduation  of  the  galactometer, 
the  quality  of  the  milk  can  be  more  correctly 
determined  than  by  other  instruments. 

G1LAG4K    See  Lemub. 

GALANGAL,  the  root  of  an  unknown  Chinese 
plant,  probably  belonging  to  the  ginger  family. 
Two  kinds,  the  larger  (klpinia  gahmga)  and 
smaller,  are  described.  It  resembles  ginger  in 
many  respects,  and  is  but  little  employed  in 
medicine,  but  occasionally  forms  an  ingredient 
in  some  quack  formula,  or  is  peddled  under 
some  assumed  name  as  a  specific  for  diarrhoea, 
cholera,  &c.  It  contains  a  volatile  oil,  a  resin, 
and  various  extractive  matters.  The  only  ac- 
tive principles  are  the  oil  and  resin.  It  was 
known  to  the  Greeks  and  Arabians,  and  its 
aromatic  and  stimulant  properties  led  at  one 
time  to  its  extensive  use.  Recently  discovered 
agents  of  similar  action  but  more  agreeable 
taste  have  superseded  it.  It  may  be  given  in 
substance  or  infusion.  The  dose  of  the  former 
is  about  20  grains ;  of  the  latter,  two  or  three 
fluid  ounces. 

GALIfAGOS,  a  group  of  islands  lying  in  the 
Pacific  ocean,  under  the  equator,  about  600 
m.  from  the  coast  of  Ecuador,  to  which  politi- 
cally they  belonpr.  They  were  discovered  by 
the  Spaniards,  who  named  the  group  from  the 
numerous  land  tortoises,  called  galdpagoB  in 
Spanish ;  but  the  single  islands  have  received 
English  names.  In  the  latter  part  of  the  17th 
century  they  became  a  great  rendezvous  of 
the  buccaneers,  who  resorted  to  them  for  re- 


freshments and  to  fit  out  expeditions  against 
the  Spaniards.  The  group  consists  of  six  prin- 
cipal islands,  nine  smaller  ones,  and  many  islets, 
some  being  mere  rocks.  Its  northern  and  south- 
ern limits  (including  Culpepper  and  Wenman 
islands)  are  lat.  1°  40'  N.  and  V  27'  S.,  and  it 
lies  between  Ion.  89**  30'  and  92*^  5'  W.  The 
largest  island,  Albemarle,  is  about  60  m.  long 
and  about  15  broad ;  it  is  also  the  most  elevated, 
reaching  a  height  of  4,700  ft.  The  next  in  size 
is  Indefatigable  island,  after  which  come  Nar- 
borough,  James,  Chatham,  and  Charles.  All 
the  islands  are  volcanic,  and  with  the  excep- 
tion of  a  few  ejected  fragments  of  fused  granite, 
found  by  Darwin,  every  part  consists  of  lava, 
volcanic  tuff,  basalt,  and  other  eruptive  rocks. 
The  general  shape  of  the  islands  is  that  of  the 
migority  of  oceanic  volcanoes,  a  large  dome, 
surmounted  by  a  wide  and  shallow  crater,  and 
the  sides  furrowed  by  numerous  lava  streams. 
Small  cones  of  eruption  are  occasionally  seen 
on  the  flanks,  but  are  particularly  numerous 
near  the  foot;  Darwin  estimates  that  there 
are  2,000  of  them  in  the  group.  The  8.  W. 
point  of  Albemarle  island  is  studded  with  them. 
V  olcanic  activity  seems  to  be  nearly  extinct  at 
present.  On  Narborongh  island  two  craters 
were  seen  in  action  by  H.  M.  S.  Tagus  in  1814, 
and  a  terrific  eruption  is  described  in  MorrePs 
voyage  in  1826.  Darwin  saw  in  1885  a  small 
jet  of  smoke  issuing  from  one  of  the  great 
craters  of  Albemarle  island.  It  is  certain 
that  on  these  two  islands  the  lava  streams 
look  much  fresher  than  on  the  others,  and 
the  vegetation  is  much  more  scanty.  As  a 
rule,  the  volcanoes  of  the  eastern  islands  ap- 
pear to  have  been  extinct  for  a  much  longer 
time  than  those  of  the  western.  The  climate 
is  remarkably  temperate,  considering  the  posi- 
tion directly  under  the  equator.  This  is  due  to 
the  low  temperature  of  the  Peruvian  current, 
which  coming  from  the  antarctic  regions  strikes 
here  to  the  westward  after  having  followed 
closely  up  the  coast  of  South  America.  This 
current  meets  here  a  part  of  the  equatorial 
current  starting  from  the  bay  of  Panama,  ao 
that  the  curious  phenomenon  was  observed  by 
H.  M.  S.  Beagle  of  the  water  being  60"*  on  the 
southern  side  of  Albemarle  island  and  80^  on 
the  northern.  The  lower  parts  of  the  islands 
are  remarkably  arid  and  destitute  of  water ;  but 
the  summits,  which  are  generally  covered  by 
clouds,  receive  from  them  sufficient  moisture 
to  sustain  an  abundant  vegetation  and  to  be 
susceptible  of  cultivation.  The  rainy  season  is 
from  November  to  March,  but  cannot  be  com- 
pared to  the  continental  rainy  season.  Severe 
droughts  occur  occasionally;  in  1872,  previ- 
ous to  the  visit  of  the  United  States  steamer 
Hassler,  more  than  2,000  head  of  cattle  had 
perished  from  that  cause  on  Charles  island. 
The  Galapagos  had  no  permanent  inhabitants 
till  1882,  when  a  party  of  exiles  were  brought 
over  from  Ecaador  by  Don  Jos6  Vilamil. 
The  largest  settlement  is  on  Charles  island, 
and  is  called  Floriana,  at  one  time  containing 


GALAPAGOS 


GALATIANS 


557 


from  200  to  800  inhabitants.  At  the  time 
of  the  Hassler^s  visit  the  whole  settlement 
had  dwindled  down  to  a  so-called  governor 
and  about  a  dozen  peons,  who  were  very  des- 
titate,  owing  to  the  abandonment  of  the  isl- 
ands as  a  place  of  call  for  whalers  and  other 
vessels,  which  can  no  longer  procure  the  sup- 
plies of  turtles  for  which  the  islands  were  once 
famous.  Besides  Charles  island,  the  onlj  other 
inhabited  island  is  Ohatham.  —  The  zodlogj 
and  botany  of  these  islands  possess  a  peculiar 
interest,  first  revealed  by  the  researches  of 
Darwin.  Not  only  is  there  a  large  number  of 
animal  and  vegetable  forms  not  found  in  any 
other  part  of  the  world,  but  some  of  them  are 
confined  to  single  islands  of  the  group,  and, 
what  is  still  more  extraordinary,  strongly 
marked  varieties,  if  not  different  species,  of 
the  same  genus  replace  one  another  in  islands 
not  far  apart.  Considering  the  evidently  re- 
cent formation  of  the  islands,  the  problem  of 
the  origin  of  organic  life  presents  itself  here  in  a 
most  striking  manner.  Both  the  fauna  and  the 
fiora  have  a  most  undoubted  western  American 
character.  Of  mammalia  there  are  no  indige- 
nous terrestrial  representatives ;  a  rat  and  a 
moase  found  on  some  of  the  islands  were  prob- 
ably introduced.  Beals,  however,  are  very  plen- 
tifnl.  Cattle,  pigs,  and  goats  have  been  intro- 
duced on  Charles  and  Ch  at  ham  isl  ands.  About 
26  species  of  birds  are  known  to  inhabit  this 
group.  Most  of  the  water  birds  and  a  few  of 
the  land  birds  are  American.  The  extreme 
tameness  of  these  birds  has  always  been  a  won- 
der to  visitors.  The  reptiles  are  of  great  inte- 
rest. It  has  been  mentioned  that  the  islands 
were  named  from  the  land  tortoises,  testudo  ni- 
fP'o^  formerly  so  abundant  that  single  ships  are 
said  to  have  taken  away  as  many  as  700.  They 
were  found  weighing  several  hundred  pounds, 
but  at  present  they  have  greatly  diminished  in 
number,  and  large  ones  are  seldom  seen.  Of 
lizards  there  are  three  or  four  species,  one  or 
two  small  and  belongmg  to  a  South  American 
genus,  and  two  large  ones  belonging  to  the 
genus  amblyrhynchus^  confined  altogether  to 
these  islands.  Of  these,  one  (A,  crUtatui)  is 
the  only  marine  saurian  of  our  epoch.  It  in- 
habits the  shores  of  all  the  islands,  swimming 
out  to  sea  and  feeding  on  seaweed.  The  other 
species  {A.  Demarlii)  is  terrestrial  and  her- 
bivorous, inhabiting  burrows  or  crevices  in  the 
lava;  it  is  confined  to  the  central  islands  of 
the  group.  Both  attain  a  size  of  3  or  4  ft., 
but  the  terrestrial  is  somewhat  the  smaller. 
A  small  snake  of  a  South  American  species  is 
abundant.  Sea  turtles  are  also  very  numerous. 
The  fishes  are  mostly  of  South  American  types, 
but  are  not  yet  sufficiently  known.  Insects 
are  scarce  and  small.  One  half  of  the  shells, 
according  to  Mr.  Cuming,  are  peculiar  to  the 
islands,  &e  other  half  partly  South  American, 
partly  common  to  the  central  parts  of  the  Pa- 
cific. Coral  reefs  do  not  exist  here ;  but  pieces 
of  coral  of  two  species,  found  also  in  Panama, 
were  picked  up  on  the  beaches  by  the  Hassler 


expedition.  The  scanty  vegetation  is  so  small- 
leaved  in  general  in  the  lower  parts  as  to 
present  scarcely  any  appearance  of  verdure. 
Two  large  cactuses,  a  cereus  and  an  apuntia^ 
are  arborescent  and  give  a  strange  character  to 
the  landscape.  Near  the  tops  of  tlie  mountains 
the  vegetation  is  more  luxuriant,  and  grosses 
and  ferns  abound,  but  there  are  none  of  the 
palms  or  tree  ferns,  so  characteristic  of  the 
tropics. 

GALASHIHiS,  a  burgh  of  Scotland,  partly  in 
Selkirkshire  and  partly  in  Roxburghshire,  on 
both  sides  of  the  Gala,  27  m.  S.  E.  of  Edinburgh ; 
pop.  in  1871,  6,488  (in  1801,  1,214,  and  in  1881, 
2,209).  The  place  is  of  considerable  antiquity, 
but  the  wool  manufactures,  to  which  it  owes 
its  recent  progress,  have  only  since  the  begin- 
ning of  the  present  century  been  carried  on  to 
any  great  extent.  The  town  is  well  built,  has 
six  principal  streets,  and  is  lighted  with  gas. 

GALATA*    See  Conbtantinoplb. 

GALATEA.    See  Aois. 

GALATIA,  an  ancient  province  of  iVsia  Minor, 
bounded  N.  by  Bithynia  and  Paphlagonia,  £. 
by  Pontus,  S.  by  Cappadocia  and  Lycaonia,  and 
W.  by  Phrygia,  of  which  it  was  once  a  part. 
The  HalyS  traversed  it  from  S.  to  N.  It  was 
called  Gallo-Grfficia  or  Galatia  from  the  Gauls, 
who  conquered  this  region  and  settled  in  it  in 
the  latter  part  of  the  dd  century  B.  C.  They 
were  divided  into  three  great  tribes  and  twelve 
tetrarchies,  each  under  a  separate  chief.  They 
aided  Antiochus  the  Great  against  the  Romans, 
but  the  latter  against  Mithridates,  for  which 
one  of  their  tetrarchs,  Deiotarus,  was  made 
king,  receiving  also  Pontus  and  Armenia  Minor. 
He  fought  with  Pompey  against  CsBsar  at  Phar- 
salia,  was  accused  of  an  attempt  on  the  life  of 
CsBsar  and  defended  by  Cicero,  and  at  the  close 
of  his  life  sided  with  Brutus  and  Cassius.  On 
the  death  of  his  successor,  King  Amyntas,  the 
country  was  annexed  to  the  Roman  empire,  25 
B.  C.  Its  inhabitants,  though  intermixed  with 
Greeks,  retained  their  native  Gallic  language  at 
the  time  of  St.  Jerome,  and,  according  to  him, 
were  in  the  4th  century  the  only  people  in  Asia 
Minor  who  could  not  speak  Greek.  Roman 
writers  call  the  inhabitants  Galli.  Theodosius 
I.  divided  the  province  into  Qalatia  Prima  and 
Galatia  Secunda.  Famous  cities  of  Galatia 
were  Ancyra,  now  Angora,  Pessinus,  and  Gor- 
dium,  where  Alexander  the  Great  cut  the 
knot.  Galatia  forms  now  part  of  the  Turkish 
vilayet  of  Angora. — The  Galatians  were  less 
effeminate  and  less  debased  by  superstition 
than  the  natives  of  Phrygia,  and  therefore 
more  ready  to  receive  the  gospel.  Paul  first 
breached  Christianity  and  organized  churches 
m  Galatia.  He  was  there  once  with  Silas  and 
Timothy  (Acts  xvi.  6),  about  A.  D.  58,  and 
again  several  years  later,  on  his  return  from 
Corinth  (Acts  xviii.  23). 

GALATIANS,  Epistle  to  the,  a  letter  addressed 
by  the  apostle  Paul  to  the  churches  of  Galatia, 
and  forming  one  of  the  canonical  books  of  the 
New  Testament.    It  is  one  of  those  Pauline 


558 


GALATZ 


epistles  wLose  authenticity  hns  never  been 
questioned  by  the  critical  theotogiaoB,  and 
which  is  therefore  of  prime  importance  for 
establishing  tlie  theological  views  of  the  apos- 
tle. It  consists  of  two  ports.  Tlie  first  (chap. 
i.  to  V.  12),  chiefly  doctrinal,  vindicates  tlio 
apostolic  commission  of  Paul,  nrges  the  doc- 
trine of  salvation  ee  the  cardinal  truth  of 
Cliristianity,  and  illustrates  the  relation  of  the 
Christian  to  the  Jewish  church.  The  second 
contains  exhortations  ajid  benedictions.  It 
was  called  forth  by  some  agents  of  the  Jew- 
ish Christian  party  wlio  endeavored  to  over- 
throw the  belief  in  salvation  by  grace,  and 
to  incorporate  circumcisinn  and  other  Jewish 
rites  with  the  ordinances  of  Christian  worship. 
There  is  much  divarsity  of  opinion  as  to  when 
and  where  the  epistle  was  written ;  the  m^or- 
ity  of  exegetical  writers  at  present  appear  to 
asanme  that  it  woe  written  from  Ephesus,  about 
the  year  66.  Special  commeuttu^es  on  this 
epistle  have  been  written  by  Winer  (4th  ed., 
186il),  Fhitt  (1B28),  Usteri  (1833),  RQckert 
(1833),  Hilgenfeld  (1852),  and  Wieseler  (1858). 
See  also  Ilolsten,  Inhalt  vnd  Gedaukengang 
det  Brii^es  an  dU  Qalater  (1859). 

fiALlTZ,  or  Galifz,  a  town  of  Roumania,  in 
Uoldavia,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Danube,  be- 
tween the  mouths  of  the  Sereth  and  Fnith,  120 
m.  8.  by  E.  of  Jassy;  pop,  nearly  80,000,  in- 
cluding many  Greeks  and  Jews,  some  Arme- 
nians, and  a  vast  multitude  of  foreign  resi- 
dents of  almost  all  European  nadonalitios. 
The  old  part  of  the  town  consists  of  filtliy 
and  narrow  streets,  bat  the  new  part  contains 
good  stone  honsee,  and  has  a  more  pleasant 


appearance.  The  quay  is  used  as  the  princi- 
pal street,  and  there  are  extensive  warehouses, 
granaries,  and  ship  yards,  and  a  large  bazaar. 
The  new  Roman  Catholic  and  several  of  the 
Greek  churches  are  large  edifices,  and  there 
ore  several  educational  institutions,  a  hospital. 


GALAXY 

and  an  excellent  quarantine  building.  Galata 
is  a  free  port,  and  one  of  the  most  impor- 
tant emporiams  of  the  Dannbe.  The  open- 
ing of  that  river  to  all  nations  by  the  terms 
of  the  treaty  of  Paris  of  1856  produced  a 
great  influx  of  merchants  and  traders,  and 
the  population,  which  had  increased  iratn 
8,000  in  1836  to  60,000,  ^wing  chiefly  da- 
ring the  Crimean  war,  rapidly  rose  to  70,000, 
but  bas  of  late  increased  more  slowly,  ow- 
ing to  the  partial  diversion  of  the  trade  b; 
railways  to  other  points.  Abont  half  of  the 
trade  by  skiing  vessels  is  carried  on  nnder 
the  Greek  flag,  though  the  English  and  Ital- 
ian mei-chants  have  become  great  rivals  of 
the  Greeks.  Tlie  Snlina  month  of  the  Dan- 
ube forms  the  outer  harbor  for  the  accommo- 
dation of  large  ships,  and  the  port  of  Galatz 
proper  is  accessible  to  craft  of  SOO  tons.  The 
exports  of  1871  included  nearly  400,000  quar- 
ters of  wheat  and  about  500,000  of  maize,  be- 
sides flour  and  other  cereals.  Deo]  boards 
and  timber  are  exported  in  great  quantities, 
and  tallow,  wool,  and  hides  to  some  extent. 
One  tliird  of  the  imports  are  from  England, 
and  the  total  value  of  imports  (including  those 
of  Brula),  chiefly  manufactured  and  colonial 
goods  and  metals,  is  about  £3,000,000.  The 
average  annual  number  of  ships  clearing  for 
the  Black  sea  is  1,150.  Railways  running  re- 
spectively through  Braila  and  Roman  connect 
Galatz  with  Bucharest  and  Czemowiti.  The 
Russians  took  the  town  in  May,  1789,  and 
the  Turks  guned  a  victory  here  in  Aujniet 
of  the  same  year.  Between  1848  and  1850 
Galatz  was  on  several  occasions  occupied  hv 
Tnrkish,  Russian,  and 
Austrian  troops. 
— ;:7_  ClUXy    (Gr.    jiJji, 

'—■  milk ;  i  j-ttAo^ioi  irin>.oc 

.:,  the   milky   zone),    tie 

'_  lio    lactea^    or    milky 

-      -  way,  an  irregular  band 

,:     "      -^~^--  of  light  visible  in  the 

,  ^         ■  ■  -~    "_ --_i        heavens    on    a    clear 
"   ~  _  -    ...     night.     The  following 

is  an    abridgment   of 
Sir  John  Herschel's  ac- 
count of  this  phenom- 
enon.   In  the  northern 
heavens  the  milky  way 
is  for  the  most  part 
f^int.     From  CepLeus 
over   Cassiopeia,  Per- 
seus, Auriga,  &c.,   to 
Monoceros,  it  forms  a 
single  stream,    except 
where   in    Perseus    it 
throws   out   a    brancb 
which  can  ho  traced  as 
far  as  t  Fersei,  and  probably  to  the  Pleiades 
and  Hyades.     Beyond  Uonoceros,  southward, 
it  becomes  broader,  brighter,  and  more  com- 
plicated,  opening  out  in  Argo  into   a  fan- 
tike  expansion  20°  wide.    Here  the  continu- 
ity  of  the  stream   is  interrupted,   a  broad 


GALAXY 


559 


black  rift  extending  right  across  it  in  this  part 
of  its  coarse.  Beyond  the  rift  is  another  fan- 
like expansion,  whose  widest  part,  like  that 
of  the  other,  abnts  upon  the  rift.  As  the 
milky  way  narrows  down  toward  the  neck 
of  this  expansion,  it  becomes  brighter,  and  its 
outline  is  in  places  singularly  well  marked. 
In  Grox  it  expands  again,  bat  in  the  very  heart 
of  the  expansion  is  a  large  black  space  perfect- 
ly clear  of  lacid  stars  and  of  millcy  light.  This 
is  tJie  Southern  Coalsack.  Passing  on  toward 
Scorpio,  we  find  the  milky  way  dividing  close 
by  a  Oentauri  into  two  branches,  of  which  one 
only  can  be  traced  as  a  distinct  branch  for  any 
distance.  This  stream  passes  northward  over 
Sagittarius,  where  it  exhibits  a  remarkably  rich 
condensation,  over  Aquila,  where  are  several 
such  condensations,  and  thence,  rapidly  dimin- 
ishing in  brightness,  to  Oygnus.  The  other 
branch,  as  soon  as  it  enters  Scorpio,  exhibits 
a  multitude  of  complicated  divisions,  subdi- 
visions, and  detached  portions.  Near  Antares 
it  throws  out  a  great  projection  toward  Libra 
— that  is,  nearly  at  right  angles  to  that  of 
the  main  stream.  Another  subdivision,  pass- 
ing toward  Serpens,  seems  to  seek  the  main 
stream,  but  cannot  be  traced  quite  up  to  it, 
coming  to  an  end  a  few  degrees  to  the  north 
of  the  star  fi  Sagittarii.  Returning  to  the  oth- 
er stream  near  Oygnus,  we  find  it  proceeding 
to  Cassiopeia,  throwing  out  a  projection  from 
Cepheus  toward  the  north  pole,  while  from 
Cygnus  a  branch  extends  southward,  very 
rich  in  Oygnus,  but  thence  rapidly  fading  in 
brightness,  until  it  comes  to  an  end  on  the 
equator.  In  most  maps  this  branch  is  carried 
southward  beyond  the  equator  to  meet  the 
branch  which  terminates  near  fi  Sagittarii; 
but  the  two  branches  do  not  meet  in  reality. 
— ^The  ancients  held  a  variety  of  opinions  con- 
cerning the  milky  way.  Aristotle  regarded 
it  as  constituted  of  the  same  substance  as 
comets.  Theophrastus  looked  upon  it  as  the 
band  along  which  the  celestial  hemispheres 
had  been  knit  together,  so  carelessly  that  the 
fiery  heavens  beyond  could  be  discerned.  But 
Democritus  formed  the  just  opinion  that  the 
milky  way  consists  of  a  multitude  of  stars.  It 
was  not  until  the  invention  of  the  telescope 
that  its  real  nature  could  be  demonstrated. 
Galileo,  even  with  the  small  telescopic  power 
at  his  disposal,  was  able  to  resolve  the  salaxy 
in  manypiaces  into  discrete  stars.  The  labors 
of  the  Herschels,  father  and  son,  fumidi  the 
means  of  forming  definite  ideas  respecting  its 
constitution.  In  the  first  instance,  Sir  W.  Her- 
schel,  regarding  the  milky  way  as  of  the  same 
constitation  as  the  star  groups  in  our  neigh- 
borhood, applied  to  it  his  famous  method  of 
star  gauging.  Where  he  counted  most  stars 
in  the  field  of  view  of  his  telescope,  he  judged 
that  the  extension  of  the  sidereal  system  was 
greatest,  and  thus  he  was  led  to  the  theory 
which  has  been  called  the  **  cloven  grindstone  ^' 
tbeorj,  according  to  which  the  sidereal  sys- 
tem is  greatly  extended  in  the  direction  of  the 
d48  VOL.  vn.— 86 


milky  way,  and  so  forms  a  fiat  stratum,  di- 
vided into  two  laminffi  opposite  the  part  of  the 
milky  way  which  appears  double.  Herschel 
advanced  this  view  in  1785 ;  but  the  progress 
of  his  labors  compelled  him  to  abandon  the 
theory  that  the  milky  way  is  constituted  like 
the  star  regions  in  our  neighborhood.  Thus 
in  1802  he  writes :  ^^  The  stars  we  consider  as 
insulated  are  also  surrounded  by  a  magnifi- 
cent collection  of  innumerable  stars,  called  the 
milky  way,  which  must  occasion  a  very  pow- 
erful balance  of  opposite  attractions,  to  hold 
the  intermediate  stars  in  a  state  of  rest.  For 
though  our  sun,  and  all  the  stars  we  see,  may 
truly  te  said  to  be  in  the  plane  of  the  milky 
way,  yet  I  am  now  convinced,  by  a  long  in- 
spection and  continued  examination  of  it,  that 
the  milky  way  itself  consists  of  stars  very 
differently  scattered  from  those  immediately 
around  us.  On  a  very  slight  examination  it 
will  appear  that  this  immense  starry  aggrega- 
tion is  by  no  means  uniform.  The  stars  of 
which  it  is  composed  are  very  unequally  scat- 
tered, and  show  evident  marks  of  clustering 
together  into  many  separate  allotments."  In 
1811  he  abandoned  even  more  definitely  the 
principle  on  which  his  system  of  star  gauging 
had  been  based.  "  By  continuing  my  sweeps 
of  the  heavens,"  he  says,  "my  opinion  of  the 
arrangement  of  the  stars  and  their  magnitudes, 
and  of  some  other  particulars,  has  undergone 
a  gradual  change.  .  .  .  An  equal  scatter- 
ing of  the  stars  may  be  admitted  in  certain 
calculations ;  but  when  we  examine  the  milky 
way,  or  the  closely  compacted  clusters  of  stars 
of  which  my  catalogues  have  recorded  so  many 
instances,  this  supposed  equality  of  scattering 
must  be  given  up."  In  1817  Herschel  adopted 
a  new  method  of  estimating  the  profundity 
of  certain  of  the  richer  parts  of  the  milky  way. 
He  regarded  the  dimensions  of  the  telescope 
necessary  to  effect  the  complete  resolution  of 
such  regions  as  affording  a  measure  of  the  dis- 
tance to  which  the  milky  way  extended  out- 
ward into  space.  It  is  not  too  much  to  say, 
however,  that  this  method  was  as  imperfect 
as  that  of  star  gauging,  since  it  involved  an 
assumption  equally  opposed  to  existing  analo- 
gies. In  star  gauging  Herschel  assumed  that 
there  was  a  general  equality  of  scattering ;  he 
now  assumed  a  general  equality  of  stellar 
lustre.    If  we  consider  his  application  of  this 

Erinciple  to  the  great  cluster  in  the  sword 
and  of  Perseus,  we  shall  see  that  it  was 
unsound.  For  from  the  gauging  powers  ne- 
cessary to  effect  incipient  resolution  on  the 
one  hand  and  perfect  resolution  on  the  other 
(the  latter  not  attained,  but  only  a  lower  limit 
indicated),  he  inferred  that  the  nearest  part 
of  this  cluster  is  at  about  the  12th  order  of 
distance,  the  furthest  certainly  beyond  the 
844th  order.  But  the  cluster  occupies  but  a 
minute  space;  it  is  indeed  double^  and  the 
moon^s  ^k  would  nearly  hide  both  clusters 
at  once.  Is  it  credible,  then,  that  we  have 
here  to  deal  with  a  long  conical  space  having 


660 


GALAXY 


GALBA 


a  minnte  vertical  angle,  and  the  sun  placed 
exactly  at  the  vertez,  while  the  remotest  por- 
tion of  the  space  thus  occupied  with  stars  is  at 
least  twenty-seven  times  inrther  away  than  the 
nearest?  Such  a  portion  of  space  would  have 
the  shape  of  a  long  straight  rod  very  delicate 
in  its  proportions.  Apart  from  the  antecedent 
improbahility  of  such  an  arrangement,  it  is 
certain  that  a  cluster  of  stars  so  shaped  would 
have  no  dynamical  stability.  Moreover,  tiie 
cluster  in  Perseas  is  not  a  solitary  instance, 
since  upward  of  thirty  similar  clusterings  were 
counted  by  Herschel  in  the  northern  heavens 
alone,  and  Sir  John  Herschel  observed  many 
more  in  the  southern  portions  of  the*  milky 
way.  These  considerations  seem  to  dispose 
of  the  principle  on  which  Sir  W.  Herschel 
based  this  his  latest  method  of  star  gauging. 
It  seems  demonstrated  by  the  evidence  that 
the  stars  seen  in  the  clustering  aggregations 
of  the  milky  way  are  of  many  orders  of  real 
magnitude,  and  arranged  at  distances  among 
which  there  is  not  even  an  approach  to  general 
uniformity.  Sir  John  HerschePs  observations 
of  the  mUky  way  in  the  southern  heavens  go 
far  to  confirm  these  conclusions,  though  he 
himself  adopted  a  theory  in  some  sense  re- 
sembling that  which  his  father  advanc^  in 
1785 ;  only  that  instead  of  regarding  the  galaxy 
as  shaped  like  a  cloven  disk,  he  held  tiiat  it 
resembles  in  figure  a  flat  ring  (cloven,  neces- 
sarily, to  explain  the  double  portion  of  the 
milky  way).  The  elder  Struve  was  among 
the  first  to  point  out  that  the  arrangement  of 
the  brighter  stars  over  the  heavens  does  not 
accord  with  either  the  cloven  disk  or  the 
cloven  ring  theory  of  the  galaxy.  He  found 
that  the  stars  down  to  the  eighth  magnitude, 
which  according  to  either  theory  should  show 
no  marked  gathering  toward  the  milky  way 
zone,  are  nevertheless  aggregated  in  the  most 
striking  manner  upon  that  region.  Hence 
Struve  inferred  that  there  is  an  aggregation 
of  stars  toward  the  medial  plane  of  the  milky 
way ;  and  he  adopted  (quite  unnecessarily,  as 
it  appears  to  the  present  writer)  the  theory 
that  the  range  of  stars  constituting  the  milky 
way  stratum  is  illimitable  in  all  directions  lying 
witiiin  that  stratum.  Struve's  theory  of  an 
indefinite  extension  of  the  milky  way  in  its 
own  plane  seems  disposed  of  by  the  younger 
HerschePs  observation  that  *^  throughout  by 
far  the  largest  portion  of  the  extent  of  the 
milky  way  in  both  hemispheres,  the  gener^ 
blackness  of  the  ground  of  the  heavens  on 
which  its  stars  are  projected,  and  the  absence 
of  that  innumerable  multitude  and  excessive 
crowding  of  the  smallest  visible  magnitudes, 
too  smaU  to  afiect  the  eye  singly,  which  the 
contrary  supposition  would  appear  to  necessi- 
tate, must,  we  think,  be  considered  unequivo- 
cal indications  that  its  dimensions,  in  direc- 
tions where  these  conditions  obtain,  are  not 
only  not  infinite,  but  that  the  space-penetrating 
power  of  our  telescopes  suffices  fairly  to  pierce 
through  and  beyond  it."    Moreover,  Sir  John 


Herschel  disposed  very  completely  of  the  rea- 
soning on  which  Struve  based  the  theory  that 
light  is  gradually  extinguished  in  its  passage 
through  space.  "  We  are  not  at  liberty,"  he 
said,  ^'to  argue  that  at  one  part  of  the  miU^ 
way*s  circumference  our  view  is  limited  by 
this  sort  of  cosmical  veil  which  extinguishes 
the  smaller  magnitudes,  cuts  off  the  nebulous 
light  of  distant  masses,  and  closes  our  view  in 
impenetrable  darkness;  while  at  another  we 
are  compelled,  by  the  clearest  evidence  our 
telescopes  can  afford,  to  believe  that  star- 
strewn  vistas  lie  open,  exhausting  their  pow- 
ers and  stretching  beyond  their  utmost  reach, 
as  is  proved  by  that  very  phenomenon  which 
the  existence  of  such  a  veil  would  render 
impossible,  viz.,  infinite  increase  of  number 
and  diminution  of  magnitude,  terminating  in 
complete  irresolvable  nebulosity."  Recent  re- 
searches have  led  to  the  inference  that  the 
structure  of  the  galaxy  is  not  so  simple  as  any 
of  the  theories  advanced  by  the  Herschels  or 
Struve  would  imply.  The  stars,  even  in  one 
and  the  same  portion  of  the  galaxy,  seem  to 
present  all  those  varieties  of  size  and  aggre- 
gation which  have  hitherto  been  ascribed  to 
the  effects  of  distance.  It  appears  that  often 
where  the  Herschels  supposed  that  they  were 
passing  further  and  further,  by  means  of  their 
powerful  telescopes,  into  the  depths  of  space, 
they  were  in  reality  merely  searching  more  and 
more  scrutinizingly  a  particular  region  of  our 
star  system.  The  galaxy,  according  to  these 
more  modem  views,  would  come  to  be  re- 
garded as  an  infinitely  complicated  spiral,  witii 
outiying  branches  extending  beyond  the  range 
of  the  most  powerful  telescopes  yet  made. 
Moreover,  it  seems  as  if  those  mysterious  ob- 
jects the  nebulsB,  instead  of  being  distant  gal- 
axies as  had  been  supposed  (at  least  as  respects 
the  stellar  nebnls),  were  in  reality  but  portions 
of  our  own  sidereal  system.  It  is  at  least  cer- 
tain that  the  mysteries  of  the  galaxy  have  not 
yet  been  fully  solved,  even  if  any  noteworthy 
advance  has  been  made  toward  dieir  solution. 
CIALBI9  SerriiB  Silpidu,  a  Roman  emperor, 
born  near  Terracina,  Dec.  24,  8  B.  C,  died 
Jan.  16,  A.  D.  69.  As  he  inherited  great  wealth 
and  possessed  great  talents,  it  was  predicted 
both  by  Augustus  and  Tiberius  tliat  he  would 
become  the  head  of  the  Roman  world.  He 
att^ed  the  prratorship  in  A.  D.  20,  and  the 
consulship  in  88,  carried  on  a  war  in  Gaul  in 
89  against  the  Germans,  was  intrusted  with  the 
administration  of  Africa  in  45,  lived  in  retire- 
ment for  several  years  under  Nero,  but  in  61 
was  invested  with  the  government  of  Hispania 
Tarraconensis.  He  was  faithful  to  the  emperor 
till  in  68  Yindex  rebelled  in  Gaul,  and  his  own 
assassination  was  plotted  by  Kero.  He  then 
took  the  title  of  legate  of  tiie  Roman  senate 
and  people,  marched  toward  Rome,  and  on  the 
death  of  Nero  received  the  imperial  dignity 
from  the  senate.  He  offended  the  protorian 
guard  by  refusing  the  donative  which  bad  been 
promised  in  his  name,  and  completed  his  ruin 


GALBANUM 


GALEN 


561 


by  adopting  Piso,  a  noble  joang  Roman,  for  bis 
Bucoessor.  Otho,  who  had  hoped  for  the  adop- 
tion, formed  a  conspiracy  among  the  soldiers, 
and  Galba  was  murdered  in  the  fomm  seven 
months  after  the  beginning  of  his  reign. 

CILBANVM,  a  gnm  resin  obtained  from  India 
and  the  Levant.  The  plant  which  produces  it 
is  not  known  with  certainty,  bat  it  is  probably  a 
species  of  ferula^  a  genus  of  the  order  umbel- 
lifera.  Ilie  dmg  is  imported  in  massive  Inmps 
of  irregular  shapes,  apparently  made  up  of  ag- 
glutinated tears.  They  are  brownish  yellow, 
sometimes  greenish,  the  tears  sometimes  trans- 
lucent and  bluish  or  pearl  white.  Its  consis- 
tency in  cold  weather  is  that  of  wax ;  in  warm 
weather  it  is  soft  and  adhesive,  and  at  212°  F. 
it  can  be  strained,  a  process  requisite  to  separate 
the  stems  and  other  impurities  with  which  it 
is  commonly  mixed.  W^en  quite  cold  it  is 
brittle  and  may  be  pulverized.  The  taste  of 
galbanum  is  bitterish,  hot,  and  acrid,  and  its 
odor  balsamic,  peculiar,  and  disagreeable.  It 
is  wholly  soluble  in  dilute  alcohol ;  less  so  in 
ether.  Its  specific  gravity  is  1'212;  and  its 
composition,  by  the  analysis  of  Meissner,  is  as 
follows:  resin,  65 '8;  gum, 22*6;  bassorin,  1*8; 
volatile  oil,  3*4 ;  bitter  matter  with  malic  acid, 
0'2;  vegetal  remains,  2*8 ;  water,  2;  loss,  1*4; 
total,  100.  An  essential  oil  is  obtained  by  dis- 
tillation, of  a  fine  indigo  blue,  which  it  imparts 
to  alcohol.  Varieties  of  galbanum  of  some- 
what different  qualities  are  occasionally  met 
with.  Galbanum  is  rarely  used  medicinally  as 
an  internal  remedy,  though  it  i>os8e8ses  stimu- 
lant, expectorant,  and  antispasmodic  properties, 
on  account  of  which  it  is  sometimes  prescribed 
in  catarrhs,  chronic  rheumatism,  &c.  Its  most 
useful  application  is  in  the  form  of  a  plaster, 
alone  or  in  combination  with  other  substances, 
to  produce  a  mild  degree  of  counter-irritation. 
When  given  internally  the  dose  is  fVom  5  to  16 
grs.,  which  may  be  administered  in  the  form 
of  pills,  or  made  into  an  emulsion  with  gnm 
arable,  sugar,  water,  and  the  like. 

GALE,  Jaaes,  an  English  inventor,  bom  near 
Plymouth  in  July,  1 888.  Before  reaching  man- 
hood he  became  totally  blind.  He  was  for  a 
time  a  partner  in  a  manufacturing  house,  and 
afterward  practised  as  a  medical  electrician  at 
Plymouth.  In  1865  he  announced  that  he  had 
**  discovered  a  means  of  rendering  gunpowder 
non-explosive  and  explosive  at  will,  the  process 
for  efiTecting  the  same  being  simple,  efrectual, 
and  cheap,  the  quality  and  bulk  of  the  gun- 
powder remaining  uniiyured."  The  invention 
consists  in  mixing  powdered  glass  with  the 
gunpowder,  which  renders  it  unexplosive,  but 
which  by  a  simple  process  can  be  separated 
from  it  again.  Mr.  Gale  has  also  invented  an 
ammunition  slide  gun,  a  fog  shell,  and  a  balloon 
shell.  His  biography,  by  John  Plummer,  was 
published  in  1868,  under  the  title,  ''The  Story 
of  a  Blind  Inventor." 

CiALEyTlieapUlis,  an  English  theologian,  bom 
at  Eing^s  Teignton,  Devonshire,  in  1628,  died  at 
Newhigton  in  March,  1678.    He  graduated  at 


Magdalen  college,  Oxford,  in  1649,  became  a 
fellow  and  an  active  tutor  in  1650,  and  after- 
ward a  popular  preacher  in  Winchester.  At 
the  restoration  he  was  ejected  from  his  fellow- 
ship for  nonconformity.  In  1677  he  became 
pastor  of  a  congregation  at  Holborn,  and  after- 
ward taught  private  pupils  at  Newington.  At 
his  decease  he  left  his  property  to  trustees  for 
the  education  of  dissenting  students,  and  be- 
queathed his  library  to  Harvard  college.  Be- 
sides his  great  work,  "  The  Court  of  the  Gen- 
tiles, or  a  Discourse  torching  the  Original  of 
Human  Literature,  both  Philologic  and  Phi- 
losophic, from  the  Scriptures  and  Jewish 
Church,"  &c.  (5  vols.  4to,  1669-'77),  he  pub- 
lished  **The  True  Ideal  of  Jansenism"  (1669), 
PhUoBophia  Generalis  (1676),  sermons,  &o. 

GiLE,  WilllaB.    See  supplement. 

GALEAZZO*    See  Sforza,  and  Yisoonti. 

GALENy  Chrlst^ph  Berahard  tm,  a  German  sol- 
dier and  prelate,  born  at  Bispink,  Westphalia, 
about  1600,  died  at  Ahtfus,  Sept.  19,  1678. 
Eariy  connected  with  the  church,  and  having 
studied  at  the  Jesuits^  college  and  in  various 
universities,  he  became  prominent  in  the  civil 
as  well  as  in  the  ecclesiastical  administration 
of  Miinster,  and  was  promoted  to  be  bishop 
of  that  see  in  1650,  after  the  death  of  the 
elector  Ferdinand  of  Cologne.  But  he  had  no 
sooner  restored  the  discipline  and  prosperity  of 
his  diocese,  and  caused  the  last  remnants  of  the 
foreign  invaders  to  leave,  than  he  had  to  con- 
tend with  the  jealousy  of  the  deacon  Malling- 
krott,  and  with  the  refractory  citizens  of  Mtln- 
ster.  On  his  threatening  to  put  the  place  in  a 
state  of  siege,  they  sent  emissaries  with  whom 
he  concluded  an  arrangement.  But  the  feeling 
against  him  continued,  and  the  representative 
of  the  city  at  the  Hague  declared  that  it  would 
rather  be  ruled  by  the  Turks,  or  even  by  the^ 
devil,  than  by  the  bishop.  While  the  Nether- 
lands loaned  25,000  florins  to  the  insurgent  city, 
the  emperor  Leopold  I.  threatened  (1660)  to  put 
it  under  the  ban  of  the  empire,  and  sent  troops 
for  the  restoration  of  obedience.  Mdnster  was 
obliged  to  surrender  (March,  1 661)  to  the  bishop, 
who  ruled  thenceforward  with  an  iron  hand 
and  remained  undisturbed  in  his  authority. 
In  1664  he  was  appointed  by  the  diet  of  Ratis- 
bon  as  inspector,  together  with  the  margrave 
Frederick  of  Baden,  of  the  military  organiza- 
tion of  the  Rhenish  alliance,  Joined  with  the 
bulk  of  his  army  the  war  against  the  Turks, 
and  gained  a  renown  which  encouraged  him 
to  retaliate  upon  the  Dutch  republic,  by  at- 
tacking  it  on  land,  while  England  was  to  en- 
gage in  hostile  naval  operations.  Through  the 
mediation  of  Louis  XIV.  peace  was  made  in 
April,  1666,  and  the  bishop  was  restored  to 
the  possession  of  his  whole  diocese  with  the 
exception  of  the  domain  of  Borkelo.  In  1672 
hostilities  were  renewed  by  his.  joining  France 
against  the  Netherlands,  after  having  in  the 
preceding  year  settled  his  differences  with  the 
Brunswick  dynasty  in  regard  to  the  abbey  of 
Eorvei,  of  which  he  had  been,  appointed  ad- 


662 


GALEN 


GALENA 


ministrator  in  1 662.  The  operations  against  the 
Netherlands  opened  aaspicioaslj,  bat  he  was 
overwhelmingly  defeated  at  Coevorden  at  the 
close  of  1672;  and  the  emperor  of  Germany 
having  entered  into  a  coalition  with  the  elector 
of  Brandenburg,  the  bishop  hastened  home  to 
protect  his  own  dominions.  He  sacceeded,  with 
Tarenne,  in  occupying  several  Westphalian  pos- 
sessions of  the  elector,  bat,  with  an  army  con- 
siderably reduced  in  numbers  by  defeats,  he 
was  but  too  glad  to  accept  terms  of  peace  in 
1674,  pledging  himself  to  restore  to  the  Dutch 
all  the  places  which  he  had  taken  from  them. 
Ever  ready  to  join  a  fray,  the  warrior-bishop 
sided  in  1676  with  the  emperor  against  France, 
and  in  August  of  the  same  year  he  joined  Den- 
mark and  Brandenburg  in  operations  against 
Sweden.  He  personally  conducted,  the  op- 
erations against  the  duchies  of  Bremen  and 
Yerden,  which  then  formed  part  of  the  latter 
kingdom,  and  in  August,  1676,  captured  Stade, 
the  capital  of  the  •  duchy  of  Bremen ;  after 
which  he  divided  the  conquered  territory  with 
the  dukes  of  Brunswick,  receiving  the  whole 
of  Bremen  and  other  localities.  He  now  in- 
creased his  military  forces  in  order  to  furnish 
to  8pain,  in  1677,  a  contingent  of  9,000  men 
agunst  France,  and  to  Denmark  one  of  5,000 
against  Sweden,  while  part  of  his  troops  re- 
enforced  the  imperialists  on  the  Rhine  and  the 
Moselle.  But  a  portion  of  his  soldiers  having 
taken  up  winter  quarters  in  East  Friesland, 
complications  arose  in  that  region,  again  in- 
volving him  in  war;  and  he  would  hhve  in- 
sisted upon  a  permanent  occupation  if  the  East 
Frieslanders  had  not  induced  him  by  consider- 
able bribes  to  evacuate  their  soil  in  1678.  He 
participated  in  the  negotiation  of  peace  at  Nime- 
guen. — ^TtLcking  has  published  Gegchiehte  dea 
8t\fU  MunsUr  under  Oalen  (Mtlnster,  1865). 

CIALEN  (Galsnub),  Cludlis,  an  ancient  phy- 
sician, born  in  Pergamus  in  Mysia,  A.  D.  130, 
died,  according  to  Suidas,  in  200  or  201,  but 
according  to  his  Arabic  and  some  other  biogra- 
phers, from  10  to  18  years  later.  Galen  at 
15  studied  logic  and  philosophy ;  two  years  af- 
terward he  began  the  study  of  medicine ;  and 
at  about  the  age  of  20  he  travelled  into  various 
countries  to  complete  his  education.  He  was 
absent  from  Pergamus  nine  years,  and  when 
he  returned  he  was  appointed  city  physician  to 
the  school  of  gladiators.  Some  popular  com- 
motions having  arisen  a  few  years  after  his  ap- 
pointment)  he  went  to  Borne,  where  he  spent 
about  four  years,  and  acquired  great  reputa- 
tion for  skill  in  anatomy  and  medicine.  As 
soon  as  the  troubles  in  Pergamus  had  passed 
away,  Galen  hastened  back ;  but  hardly  had 
he  reached  his  destination  when  he  was  sum- 
moned by  the  emperors  Marcus  Aurelius  and 
Verus  to  attend  them  at  Aquileia  where  a 
pestilence  raged  in  the  camp.  Verus  died  of 
apoplexy  on  the  way  to  Rome,  and  Galen  ac- 
companied Marcus  Anrelius  thitHer.  When  re- 
turning to  the  camp  after  the  apotheosis  of  his 
colleagae^  Marcus  Aurelius  urged  Galen  to  ac- 


company him,  but  he  declined  under  pretence 
that  iEsculapius  had  eigoined  him  to  remain. 
How  long  he  sojourned  in  Rome  during  his 
second  visit  is  uncertain,  but  while  there  he 
continually  added  to  his  fame  by  his  lectures, 
writings,  and  practice.  He  ultimately  returned 
to  his  native  city,  and  died  there.  Galen  was 
not  only  the  most  eminent  physician,  but  also 
one  of  the  most  learned  and  accomplished 
men  of  his  age ;  and  for  more  than  1,000  years 
after  his  death  his  authority  in  medical  matters 
was  regarded  in  Europe  as  almost  supreme. 
He  was  a  very  voluminous  writer  on  medical 
and  philosophical  subjects.  There  are  still  ex- 
tant 88  treatises  of  his,  and  16  of  his  commen- 
taries on  various  works  of  Hippocrates,  besides 
fragments  of  his  lost  works  and  writings  falsely 
attributed  to  him.  The  best  edition  of  his 
works  is  that  by  Knhn  (20  vols.  8vo,  Leipsic, 
1821-'88).  Writings  attributed  to  him  were 
discovered  and  published  in  Paris  by  Minas  in 
1844,  and  by  Daremberg  in  1848. 

GiLEIfl,  sulphuret  of  lead,  the  ore  which 
furnishes  most  of  the  lead  of  commerce.  It 
occurs  in  highly  crystalline  masses,  which  sep- 
arate into  cubical  fragments.  Its  structure  is 
also  granular,  and  sometimes  fibrous.  Freshly 
fractured,  it  presents  a  brilliant  lustre  like 

Solished  steel,  which  changes  by  exposure  to  a 
ull  lead-gray  color.  Its  hardness  is  from  2*6 
to  2 '75 ;  specific  gravity,  7*25  to  7 '7.  Its  com- 
position, represented  by  the  symbol  PbS,  is 
lead  86*6,  sulphur  18*4;  but  it  often  contains 
other  metals,  as  antimony,  silver,  zinc,  iron,  and 
copper,  as  well  as  the  substance  selenium.  It 
is  also  largely  intermixed  with  the  earthy  gan- 
gues  that  form  the  principal  portion  of  the 
veins  in  which  it  is  found.  From  these,  and 
from  the  sulphurets  of  zinc  and  the  pyritous 
copper  and  iron  usually  associated  witli  the  ore, 
it  is  separated  as  far  as  practicable  before 
smelting  by  the  processes  of  stamping  or 
crushing,  jigging,  &c.  (See  Lead,  and  Met- 
ALLUBOT.)  In  some  veins  and  beds  it  is  fre- 
quently found  in  large  groups  of  cubical  crys- 
tals, which  are  very  free  from  foreign  sub- 
stances. In  this  form  it  is  met  with  in  the  fis- 
sures in  the  limestone  of  the  lead  region  of 
Wisconsiu,  Iowa,  and  Illinois,  imbedded  in  the 
clay  with  which  the  fissures  are  filled.  Galena 
is  a  valuable  ore  for  the  silver  it  often  contains^ 
as  well  as  for  the  lead.  In  reducing  the  ore 
by  smelting,  the  silver  all  goes  with  the  lead, 
which  is  run  out ;  and  from  this  it  is  separated 
either  by  the  process  of  cupel!  ation,  or  parting 
by  crystallization,  or  other  method.  The  lead 
ores  however  do  not  tdl  contain  silver  enough 
to  render  its  extraction  profitable,  although  the 
separation  is  so  cheaply  conducted  that  8  oz. 
of  silver  to  the  ton  of  lead  will  pay  for  the 
operation.  Galena  rich  in  silver  is  a  product 
of  numerous  veins  in  the  granitic  and  meta- 
morphic  rocks  of  New  England  and  the  Pacifio 
states;  but  the  more  argentiferous  it  is,  the 
less  certain  is  the  yield  of  the  veins  in  quanti- 
ty, and  few  of  this  character  have  been  found 


GALENA 


GALESBURG 


563 


profitable  to  work.  In  Cornwall  and  Devcm- 
shtf  6,  England,  mines  of  argentiferous  ^ena 
have  been  worked  profitably  for  centorieS) 
even  when  a  product  of  9  or  10  oz.  of  silver  to 
the  ton  of  silver-lead  was  reqaired  to  pay  the 
expense  of  separation.  The  richest  metal  was 
from  the  ores  of  mines  near  Beer  Alston  in  Dev- 
onshire, which  yielded  from  80  to  120  oz.  of 
silver  to  the  ton  of  lead ;  one  portion  of  the 
mines,  known  as  the  South  Hooe,  yielded  lead 
containing  140  oz.  of  silver  to  the  ton.  These 
mines,  though  now  of  little  importance,  were 
famous  for  their  production  in  the  time  of  Ed- 
ward I.  and  II.  The  most  celebrated  mines 
of  argentiferous  galena  in  the  United  States 
are  those  of  the  Washoe  district,  Nevada. 
Galena  may  be  formed  artificially  by  fusing 
lead  with  sulphur. 

fiALiSfA,  a  city,  port  of  delivery,  and  the 
county  seat  of  Jo  Daviess  co.,  Illinois,  and  the 
centre  of  the  region  known  as  the  **  Galena 
lead  mines,"  situated  on  both  sides  of  the  Ga- 
lena river,  6  m.  from  its  mouth  in  the  Missis- 
sippi, and  on  the  N.  division  of  the  Illinois 
Central  railroad,  14  m.  S.  E.  of  Dubuque, 
Iowa;  pop.  in  1850,  6,004;  in  1860,  8,196;  in 
1870,  7,019,  of  whom  2,478  were  foreigners. 
Gialena  river  is  generally  navigable  for  any 
steamboats  that  can  ascend  the  rapids  of  the 
Mississippi.  The  ground  upon  which  the  city  is 
built  rises  abruptly  at  a  short  distance  from  the 
river  on  both  sides,  and  some  of  the  bluffs  reach 
a  height  of  upward  of  200  ft.  These  bluffs, 
which  encircle  the  whole  city,  are  composed 
of  mountain  limestone,  and  give  the  place  an 
extremely  irregular  and  picturesque  appear- 
ance. The  streets  rise  one  above  another,  and 
communicate  with  each  other  by  steps.  The 
public  and  private  buildings  are  mostly  of 
brick,  and  many  of  them  in  a  good  style  of 
architecture.  Gn  the  W.  side  of  the  river  are 
a  fine  high  school  building,  the  United  States 
marine  hospital  (now  used  by  the  normal 
school),  and  the  government  building,  accom- 
modating the  custom  house  and  post  office. 
In  the  environs  are  many  streams  of  water, 
which  afford  ample  power  for  manufacturing 
purposes.  The  city  contains  an  iron  foundery, 
two  manufactories  of  furniture,  a  woollen  mill, 
two  fionr  mills,  a  saw  mill,  two  planing  mills, 
and  a  sash  and  blind  factory.  There  are  two 
nadcmal  banks,  with  a  capital  of  $825,000. 
For  the  year  ending  June  80, 1878,  the  number 
of  vessels  belonging  to  the  port  was  60,  with 
an  aggregate  tonnage  of  7,782,  of  which  26  of 
8,768  tons  were  steamers,  and  85  of  4,019  tons 
iMffges.  The  shipments  in  1872  were  800,000 
bnwels  of  oats,  75,000  pigs  of  lead,  4,000  tons 
of  zinc  ore,  75,000  barrels  of  fiour,  46,000  of 
pork  and  lard,  42,000  dressed  hogs,  and  250,000 
lbs.  of  meat  in  bulk ;  receipts,  7,000,000  feet  of 
lumber.  The  Northwestern  German-English 
nonmd  school  in  1872  had  6  instructors  and  62 
students.  The  number  of  public  schools  was 
16,  having  19  teachers  and  898  pupils.  There 
are  one  daily,  one  tri- weekly,  and  three  weekly 


fone  German)  newspapers,  and  12  churches.^- 
Galena  was  laid  out  in  1827,  and  incorporated 
as  a  city  in  1889,  deriving  its  name  from  the 
sulphuret  of  lead  so  call^  which  abounds  in 
the  locality.    (See  Lbad.) 

GALE0PITHECIJ8.    See  Flying  LsiniB. 

GALERIIJS,  Calls  Valerlu  Mailnlans,  a  Roman 
emperor,  reigned  from  A.  D.  805  to  811.  A 
native  of  Dncia  and  the  son  of  a  peasant,  he 
distinguished  himself  in  the  armies  by  his 
courage,  and  was  appointed  Caesar  in  292  by 
Diocletian,  whose  daughter  he  married.  Re- 
ceiving Thrace  and  Macedonia  for  his  province, 
he  was  defeated  by  the  Persian  king  Narses, 
but  was  so  disdainfully  received  by  the  em- 
peror at  Antioch  on  his  return  that  he  again 
set  out,  crossed  the  Euphrates,  and  gained  a 
decisive  victory  over  the  Persian  king.  He 
now  extorted  from  Diocletian  an  edict  of 
proscription  against  Christianity,  which  was 
bloodily  executed.  After  the  abdication  of 
Diocletian  in  805  he  reigned  over  the  East; 
but  when  Italy  recognized  the  authority  of  the 
usurper  Maxentius,  he  marched  thither  to  be- 
siege Rome,  which  he  had  never  yet  seen,  but 
was  defeated  by  Maxentius  (807).  The  rest  of 
his  life  was  devoted  to  the  draining  of  lakes 
and  the  clearing  of  forests. 

GALES.  I.  Jmtphy  an  American  joui-nalist, 
bom  in  England  about  1760,  died  in  Raleigh, 
N.  C,  Aug.  24,  1841.  He  was  ori^ally  a 
printer  and  bookseller  at  Sheffield,  where  he 
founded  and  published  the  **  Sheffield  Regis- 
ter." His  republican  principles  involved  him 
in  difficulty  with  the  government,  and  in  1798 
he  sold  his  journal  to  James  Montgomery  the 
poet,  and  emigrated  to  the  United  States.  He 
settled  in  Philadelphia,  where  he  conducted 
the  ^^  Independent  Gazetteer  "  for  two  or  three 
years,  and  introduced  the  practice  of  report- 
ing by  shorthand  the  debates  in  congress.  In 
1799  he  sold  the  paper  to  Samuel  Harrison 
Smith  and  removed  to  Raleigh,  N.  C,  where 
he  established  the  "Register,"  which  he  con- 
ducted for  nearly  40  years.  IL  Jiiseph,  son  of 
the  preceding,  bom  at  Eckington,  near  Shef- 
field, April  10, 1786,  died  in  Washington,  D.  0., 
July  21,  1860.  He  was  educated  at  the  uni- 
versity of  North  Carolina,  went  to  Philadel- 
phia to  learn  the  art  of  printing,  and  in  1807 
settled  at  Washington  as  the  assistant  and 
afterward  as  the  partner  of  Samuel  Harrison 
Smith,  who  in  1800  had  removed  the  "  Inde- 
pei^dent  Gazetteer  "  to  Washington  and  changed 
its  name  to  the  "National  Intelligencer."  In 
1810  Mr.  Gales  became  sole  proprietor  of  the 
journal,  which  was  published  tri- weekly.  In 
1812  he  took  into  partnership  his  brother-in- 
law,  Mr.  William  W.  Seaton,  and  in  January, 
1818,  began  to  issue  the  "National  IntelU- 
gencer  "  daily.    It  was  continued  till  1869. 

GALESBUSGt  &  city  and  the  county  seat  of 
Knox  CO.,  niinois,  on  the  Chicago,  Burlington, 
and  Quincy  railroad,  at  the  junction  of  the  Bur- 
lington and  Peoria  branches,  160  m.  W.  S.  W. 
of  Chicago  and  40  m.  E.  by  N.  of  Burlington, 


564 


GALESVILLE 


GALIOIA 


Iowa;  pop.  in  1860,  4,968;  in  1870, 10,158,  of 
whom  8,186  were  foreigners.  It  is  snrronnded 
bj  a  rich  fanning  region,  and  has  an  active 
trade.  The  machine  &op8  and  stock  yards  of 
the  railroad  company  are  sitaated  liere,  and 
the  city  also  contains  three  large  fonnderies,  a 
manufactory  of  agricultaral  implements,  and 
two  hotels.  It  is  noted  as  the  seat  of  Lombard 
nniversity  (Universalist),  organized  in  1857, 
which  in  1871-2  had  11  professors  and  in- 
structors, 165  students  (82  collegiate),. and  a 
library  of  8,800  volumes ;  and  of  Knox  college 
(Congregational),  organized  in  1841,  which  had 
15  professors  and  instructors,  829  students  (68 
collegiate),  and  a  library  of  6,200  volumes. 
Both  institutioDS  admit  females.  There  were 
27  public  schools  in  1872,  including  a  high 
school,  having  56  teachers  and  2,821  pupils. 
The  city  library  contains  6,500  volumes,  and 
that  of  the'yoQi^Sr  nien^s  library  association 
4,000  volumes.  There  are  three  national  banks, 
with  $850,000  capital,  a  daily,  a  semi-weekly, 
and  two  weekly  newspapers,  a  monthly  period- 
ical (Swedish),  and  15  churches,  of  which  three 
are  Swedish,  one  German,  and  two  colored. 

6ALE5T1LLE,  a  town  and  the  capital  of 
Trempealeau  co.,  Wisconsin,  situated  on  Bea- 
ver creek,  about  6  m.  from  the  Mississippi,  and 
120  m.  N.  W.  of  Madison;  pop.  in  1870,  1,068. 
It  is  the  seat  of  Galesville  university  (Method- 
ist), organized  in  1855,  which  in  1872-8  had 
5  professors,  145  students  (85  collegiate  and 
110  preparatory),  and  a  librarv  of  4,500  vol- 
umes. The  town  was  laid  out  in  1854  by  the 
Hon.  George  Gale,  who  gave  a  considerable 
sum  for  the  endowment  of  the  university. 

GALICU  (Ger.  Galieien,  Pol.  Oalicya\  a 
crownland  or  province  of  the  Gisleithan  divi- 
sion of  the  Austro-Hungarian  empire,  now  com- 
prising the  kingdom  of  Galioia  and  Lodomeria, 
the  duchy  of  Auschwitz  fOswiecim)  and  Zator, 
and  the  grand  duchy  oi  Cracow.  It  lies  be- 
tween lat.  47°  40'  and  50°  50'  K,  and  Ion.  18° 
54'  and  26°  85'  E.,  and  is  bounded  N.  by  Rus- 
sian Poland,  from  which  it  is  in  part  separated 
by  the  Vistula,  E.  by  Russia,  S.  by  Bukowina 
and  Hungary,  being  separated  from  the  latter 
by  the  Carpathian  ridge,  and  W.  by  Austrian 
and  Prussian  Silesia ;  area,  80,809  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  December,  1872  (estimated),  5,629,861.  Its 
8.  part  is  occupied  by  the  N.  branches  of  the 
Carpathians,  which  in  some  parts  rise  to  a 
height  of  6,000  ft.,  and  in  some  peaks  above 
8,000.  The  oentrid  region  is  hilly ;  the  north- 
em  belongs  to  the  great  Polish  plain.  From 
the  Carpathians  and  their  offshoots  descend  all 
the  rivers  which  cross  the  country,  flowing 
mostly  in  a  K  and  partly  in  a  S.  £.  direction. 
Those  flowing  N.,  the  Biala,  Sola,  Skawa,  Ra- 
ba,  Dun^jec,  Wisloka,  San  (which  divides  the 
country  into  two  unequal  parts),  and  the  Bug, 
are  tributaries  of  the  Vistula;  the  Pruth  and 
the  Dniester  flow  S.  £.,  the  former  to  the  Dan- 
ube, the  latter,  with  its  affluents  the  Stry, 
Sered,  and  Podhoroe,  to  the  Black  sea.  There 
^re  some  marshes  in  the  N.  E.  part  of  Uie  plain, 


and  numerous  mountain  lakes,  called  '*  eyes  of 
the  sea,*^  in  the  Carpathians,  some  at  heights 
of  8,000  to  4,000  ft.  The  climate  is  healthy  but 
cold,  the  country  being  exposed  to  the  winds 
from  the  east  and  north,  and  closed  against 
those  from  the  south;  the  winters  are  long. 
The  soil  is  varied,  only  the  lower  region,  where 
loam  and  sand  prevail,  being  productive,  and 
in  some  places  fertile ;  the  mountains  are  rocky 
and  sterile,  or  wooded.  Tobacco  and  all  the 
common  grains,  fruits,  and  vegetables  are 
raised.  There  are  few  vineyards,  and  these 
yield  no  wine.  The  pine  prevails  in  the  for- 
ests, but  the  oak  and  beech  also  grow  to  an 
imposing  size.  Honey  and  wax,  potash  and 
tar,  are  made  in  large  quantities.  The  rivers 
are  rich  in  various  kinds  of  fish.  The  chief 
mineral  productions  are  iron,  which  is  found 
along  the  whole  line  of  the  Carpathians ;  salt, 
mostly  from  the  celebrated  rock  salt  mines  of 
Wieliczka  and  Bochnia  in  the  vicinity  of  Cra- 
cow, and  partly  from  saline  springs  in  the 
eastern  parts  of  the  country;  sulphur,  pro- 
duced chiefly  at  Swosowice ;  coal,  in  the  terri- 
tory of  Cracow ;  and  naphtha.  Lead,  copper, 
zinc,  silver,  and  gold  are  also  found.  The  in- 
habitants belong  mostly  to  two  Slavic  tribes, 
the  Poles  and  the  Ruthenians,  the  former  pre- 
dominating in  western  (86  to  4  per  cent.),  the 
latter  in  eastern  Galioia  (67  to  20  per  cent), 
the  remainder  being  Germans  and  Jews.  In 
the  whole  country  the  Poles  are  about  43  and 
the  Ruthenians  45  per  cent  The  nobility  are 
mostly  of  Polish  descent,  vivacious,  wariike, 
and  ardently  attached  to  their  nationality ;  the 
peasants  are  hardy,  rude,  sluggish,  and  slavish ; 
the  Jews,  who  are  very  numerous  in  the  cities, 
of  which  they  often  form  half  the  population, 
are  distinguished  by  a  peculiar  half  oriental 
dress,  and  an  unpleasant  German  jargon.  Edu- 
cation, agriculture,  and  mdustry  are  backward ; 
wealth  is  rare;  excessive  misery,  especially 
among  the  Jews  and  mountaineers,  is  frequent 
Distilleries  abound  in  the  villages,  and  stores 
and  trading  shops  in  the  town  quarters  of  the 
Jews,  who  before  the  revolution  of  1848  were 
excluded  by  the  government  from  both  cities 
proper  and  villages.  Manufactures  are  making 
considerable  progress;  the  chief  articles  pro- 
duced are  linen,  woollens,  paper,  wooden  uten- 
sils, tobacco,  leather,  imitation  jewelry,  sugar, 
potters*  ware,  and  glass.  Commerce  is  limited 
and  carried  on  mostly  by  Jews,  the  chief  com- 
mercial cities  being  Cracow,  Brody,  and  Lem- 
berg,  the  capital.  The  chief  exports  are  cattle 
and  horses,  grain,  salt,  timber,  potash,  skins 
and  hides,  and  wool.  Brody  is  an  emporium 
for  the  transit  trade  with  Russia.  The  Koman 
Catholics,  about  2,600,000,  have  bishops  at 
Przemysl,  Tamow,  and  Cracow,  and  an  arch- 
bishop at  Lemberg;  the  members  of  the 
Greek  united  church,  about  2,850,000,  mostly 
Ruthenians,  have  an  archbishop  at  Lemberg  and 
a  bishop  at  Przemysl ;  the  non-united  Greeks, 
about  1,400,  mostly  Moldavians,  belong  to  the 
bishopric  of  Czemowitz  in  Bukowina;  the 


GALIOIA 


566 


united  ArmenianB)  2,100,  have  an  archbishop 
atLemberg;  the  Protestants  (84,000  Lutherans, 
5,800  Reformed)  have  a  superintendent  in  the 
same  city;  the  Jews,  abont  680,000,  have  no 
hierarchical  centralization.  Only  80  per  cent, 
of  the  children  of  school  age  attend  any  school. 
There  are  two  nniyersities,  at  Lemberg  and 
Cracow.  The  Polish  students  (554  in  Lemberg 
and  682  in  Oracow)  number  nearly  three  times 
as  many  as  the  Ruthenian  (480  in  Lemberg  and 
14  in  Oracow).  The  number  of  literary  pro- 
ductions has  of  late  largely  increased,  and  the 
Rathenians  are  making  great  e£fbrts  to  dis- 
lodge the  Polish  as  the  literary  language  in 
their  districts,  but  as  yet  with  very  little  suc- 
cess. (See  POLA.ND,  Lanouaob  and  Liter a- 
TITB8  OF,  and  RcTHENiANs.)  At  the  head  of 
the  administration  is  a  stadtholder  or  gov- 
ernor, to  whom  are  subordinate  the  political 
magistracies  of  Lemberg  and  Oracow  and  74 
Be^i$Aauptinanntcha/%m,  There  are  su- 
preme courts  of  justice  at  Lemberg  and  Oracow. 
The  diet  consists  of  the  provincial  marshal, 
the  8  archbishops  and  the  8  Catholic  bishops 
(the  see  of  Oracow  has  long  been  vacant),  the 
rectors  of  the  universities  of  Lemberg  and 
Cracow,  44  deputies  of  large  landed  estates,  4 
of  the  capital,  8  of  the  chambers  of  commerce 
and  industry  (Lemberg,  Oracow,  and  Brody),  16 
of  the  towns  and  industrial  places,  and  74  of  the 
rural  communities.  Oalicia  is  the  only  large 
division  of  the  empire  which  has  no  regukr 
fortress ;  transportation  of  troops,  however,  is 
facilitated  by  good  roads,  as  well  as  by  exten- 
sive railway  lines,  which  connect  Oracow  and 
Lemberg  with  each  other  and  with  all  the 
principal  cities  of  the  empire. — ^The  earliest 
regular  settlement  of  Galicia  was  by  the  Ruthe- 
nians  (Pol.  Bimnt}^  who  now  occupy  the  east- 
em  division,  also  called  Red  Russia.  This  was 
occupied  toward  the  end  of  the  9th  century 
by  the  Magyars,  then  passing  to  Hungary.  Lo- 
domeria,  £.  of  modem  Gralicia,  and  then  con- 
nected with  it,  was  subdued  by  the  Russians  at 
the  beginning  of  the  11th  century.  Various 
principalities,  the  chief  of  which  was  Halicz 
(from  which  the  present  name  of  the  country  is 
derived),  were  subsequently  formed  under  the 
protection  of  the  kings  of  Hungary.  About 
the  middle  of  the  18  th  century  Galicia  was  an- 
nexed to  Lithuania,  in  the  early  part  of  the 
14th  to  Moscow,  and  after  the  death  of  the  last 
prince  of  Halicz  (1840)  to  Poland  under  the 
reign  of  Oasimir  the  Great.  FVom  that  time 
it  shared  the  destinies  of  the  latter  country, 
down  to  the  time  of  the  first  partition  of 
Poland  in  1772,  when  it  was  taken  by  the  em- 
press Maria  Theresa,  on  the  ground  of  the  old 
chums  of  the  crown  of  Hungary.  It  received 
the  title  of  kingdom  of  Galicia  and  Lodomeria, 
though  Lodomeria  was  in  the  possession  of 
Russia.  Bukowina  was  in  1777  united  with  it, 
and  remained  so  until  made  a  separate  crown- 
land  in  1849.  The  last  division  of  Poland 
(1796)  brought  new  fragments  of  that  country 
into  the  possession  of  tiie  Hapsburgs,  and  the 


province  was  divided  into  £.  and  W.  Galicia. 
A  part  was  ceded  in  1809  to  the  duchy  of  War- 
saw, and  was  afterward  annexed  to  Russisfli 
Poland;  another  part  was  converted  by  the 
treaty  of  Vienna  into  the  republic  of  Oracow 
(1815),  and  was  annexed  to  Austria  after  the 
Polish  rising  of  February,  1846,  which  was 
suppressed  in  Galicia  through  a  frightful  slaugh- 
ter of  the  nobility  by  the  peasantry.  Insignifi- 
cant attempts  at  insurrection  were  made  in  the 
spring  of  1848  at  Oracow  and  Lemberg.  The 
constitutional  regime  which  began  in  that  year 
was  short-lived;  several  conspiracies,  aiming 
at  the  restoration  of  Polish  independence,  were 
detected  and  severely  punished.  A  return  to 
a  liberal  policy  took  place  in  1860,  and  Galicia 
received  its  representation  in  the  Vienna  Reichs- 
rath  under  the  constitution  of  1861,  and  again 
under  that  of  1867.  In  this  body,  however, 
the  Polish  representatives  generally  sided  with 
the  Czechs  and  other  federalists,  in  opposition 
to  the  German  m^ority,  which  aimea  at  pre- 
serving the  unity  of  Oisleithan  Austria.  Vari- 
ous attempts  to  conciliate  them  by  special  con- 
cessions proved  futile,  and  the  Reichsrath 
finally  bamed  this  opposition  by  the  electoral 
reform  law  of  1878,  which  substituted  direct 
elections  to  the  Vienna  assembly  by  districts 
for  elections  by  the  provincial  diets.  This  at 
once  divided  the  Galician  representation,  as  in 
the  elections  toward  the  close  of  that  year  the 
Ruthenians  carried  a  number  of  districts  in 
direct  hostility  to  the  Polish  national  interest. 
The  policy  of  abstention,  in  which  the  Poles 
formerly  followed  the  Czechs,  was  abandoned. 
rFor  further  historical  details,  see  Austbia, 
Obaoow,  and  Polakd.) 

GALICII9  an  old  province,  now  a  captaincy 
general,  of  N.  W.  Spain,  comprising  the  modem 
provinces  of  Corunna,  Lugo,  Orense,  and  Ponte- 
vedra,  bounded  N.  and  W.  by  the  Atiantic,  8. 
by  Portugal,  and  £.  by  Asturias  and  Leon; 
area,  11,844  sq.  m. ;  poa  about  2,000,000.  It 
is  intersected  by  numermis  narrow  vaUeys,  and 
is  mostly  mountainous,  as  the  western  continua- 
tion of  the  Cantabrian  range  spreads  over  the 
greatest  part  of  the  province,  and  watered  by 
numerous  torrents,  streams,  and  rivers.  The 
most  remarkable  of  the  latter  are  the  Mifio  or 
Minho,  with  its  affluents  the  Sil  and  the  Tea, 
the  Ulla,  and  the  Tambre,  which  all  become 
navigable  in  their  lower  course  and  empty  into 
the  Atiantic,  forming  there  wide  estuaries,  or 
riM,  and  safe  harbors.  The  coast,  being  rug- 
ged and  more  broken  than^those  of  Asturias 
and  Biscay,  owing  to  the  violent  currents  of 
the  Atlantic  in  these  latitudes,  presents  many 
deep  inlets  and  lofty  promontories.  Among  its 
excellent  harbors  are  those  of  Ferrol,  said  to 
be  the  best  in  Europe,  and  Vigo,  the  principal 
port  on  the  W.  coast,  which  is  connected  by 
rail  with  Comnna.  The  climate  is  cold  in  the 
interior  and  the  more  elevated  regions,  tempe- 
rate in  the  lower  country  and  along  the  coast. 
The  proportion  of  arable  land  is  very  limited. 
The  soil  produces  flax,  maize,  barley,  wheat, 


666 


GALILEE 


GALILEO  GALILEI 


and  an  abundance  of  fruits,  which  constitute 
the  main  food  of  the  population;  the  best 
oranges  and  wine  are  found  in  the  S.  part. 
Fishing  and  navigation  form  a  principal  part 
of  the  industry  of  the  people,  who  also  manu- 
facture linen  for  domestic  use.  The  inhabi- 
tants, called  Gallegos,  are  hardy  and  robust, 
and  speak  a  dialect  greatly  differing  from  the 
common  Spanish.  About  100,000  of  them 
yearly  leave  their  country,  supplying  the  larger 
cities  of  Spain  and  Portugal  with  porters  and 
servants,  and  the  neighboring  provinces  with 
hands  for  the  harvest,  their  wives  performing 
the  work  in  the  house  and  the  labor  in  the 
field  during  their  absence.  The  chief  towns  are 
Gorunna,  the  capital,  Ferrol,  Pontevedra,  Vigo, 
Lugo,  Santiago  de  Compostela  (the  ancient 
capital),  and  Orense. — Galicia  was  in  antiquity 
the  country  of  the  Artabri  and  a  section  of 
Gall89cia.  After  the  invasion  of  Spain  by  the 
barbarians,  in  the  conunencement  of  the  5th 
century,  it  was  successively  conquered  by  the 
Suevi,  Visigoths,  and  Saracens.  Ferdinand  J. 
of  Oastile,  about  the  middle  of  the  11th  century, 
erected  it  into  a  kingdom  for  one  of  his  sons, 
who  was  soon  deprived  of  his  throne  and 
estates  by  his  brother  Alfonso,  king  of  Castile. 
Galicia  was  subsequently  often  held  by  the 
younger  sons  of  the  kings  of  Castile  as  an 
apanage,  became  independent  in  the  course  of 
time,  and  was  finally  annexed  to  his  dominions 
by  Ferdinand  the  Catholic. 

fiALIIJSFn  the  northernmost  of  the  three  west- 
em  main  divisions  of  Palestine  in  the  time  of 
the  Romans,  subdivided  into  Upper  and  Lower 
Galilee.  Upper  Galilee  was  bounded  N.  and  W. 
by  Mt.  Lebanon,  Coele-Syria,  and  Phoenicia,  £. 
by  the  Jordan,  and  S.  by  Lower  Galilee.  This 
division  was  called  Galilee  of  the  nations,  or 
of  the  gentiles,  because  of  the  mixed  nature  of 
its  population.  It  embraced  the  ancient  terri- 
tory of  Naphtali,  and  the  northern  part  of 
Asher.  Lower  Galilee  was  bounded  N.  by 
Upper  Galilee,  W.  by  Phoenicia  and  the  Medi- 
terranean, E.  by  the  lake  of  Tiberias  or  Gen- 
nesaret,  and  S.  by  Samaria.  This  division 
contained  the  ancient  territory  of  Zebulon  and 
parts  of  Issachar  and  Asher.  The  inhabitants 
of  Galilee  spoke  a  rude,  corrupt  dialect,  differ- 
ent from  that  of  the  Jews  in  Samaria  and  Judea, 
and  were  noted  for  their  turbulent  and  rebel- 
lious spirit.  It  contained  most  of  the  places 
noted  in  the  history  of  Christ,  such  as  Naza* 
reth,  Cana,  and  Capernaum.  The  apostles 
were  all  Galileans  by  birth  or  residence.  The 
chief  city  of  Upper  Galilee  was  Casarea  Phi- 
lippi;  of  Lower  Galilee,  Tiberias,  which  after 
the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  the  Romans 
became  the  principal  religious  centre  of  the 
Jews  in  northern  Palestine. 

ftAlilliKE,  flea  et    See  Gknxtbsaret. 

GiULBO  iSAULQ  (GaUleo,  by  which  he  is 
commonly  known,  being  his  Christian  name), 
an  Italian  philosopher  and  mathematician,  bom 
in  Pisa,  Feb.  15,  1664,  died  in  Arcetri,  Jan.  8, 
1642.    He  came  of  a  noble  Florentine  famOy, 


whose  original  name  was  Boniguti,  which  they 
exchanged  for  that  of  Galilei  about  the  middle 
of  the  14th  century.  Vincenzo,  the  father  of 
the  philosopher,  was  a  man  of  learning  and  the 
author  of  a  number  of  treatises  on  music.  He 
was  unable  to  give  his  sons  a  thorough  educa- 
tion, but  Galileo  acquired,  amid  various  dis- 
couragements, a  fair  knowledge  of  the  classics 
and  the  common  branches  of  learning,  and  also 
of  music,  drawing,  and  painting.  The  last 
named  art  he  seems  to  have  resolved  upon  cul- 
tivating as  a  profession,  but  his  father  sent  him 
to  Pisa  to  study  medicine,  where  he  was  ma- 
triculated at  the  university  as  a  scholar  in  arts, 
Nov.  5,  1581,  and  became  a  pupil  of  tlie  cele- 
brated botanist  Cnsalpinus.  He  still  employed 
his  leisure  in  his  favorite  branches  of  the  fine 
arts,  and  his  love  of  drawing  led  him  to  study 
geometry.  After  many  fruitiess  remonstrances 
his  father  left  him  to  the  natural  bent  of  his 
genius.  His  first  disfipvery  was  about  1683,  when 
he  was  led  to  infer  the  isochronism  of  the  vi- 
bration of  the  pendulum  by  noticing  the  regu- 
lar swinging  of  a  lamp  in  the  cathedral  of  Pisa. 
Though  it  was  60  years  before  the  philoso- 
pher applied  his  discovery  to  clockwork,  he  at 
once  perceived  its  importance,  and  caused  it 
to  be  employed  by  physicians  in  counting  the 

Eulses  of  their  patients.  Some  time  afterward, 
aving  read  the  treatise  of  Archimedes  on 
floating  bodies,  he  invented  a  hydrostatic  bal- 
ance, and  wrote  a  description  of  it,  which  in- 
troduced him  to  the  friendship  of  Guide  Ubaldi, 
the  mechanist  and  mathematician.  A  paper  on 
the  centre  of  gravity  was  indirectly  the  means 
of  securing  for  him  at  the  age  of  26  a  professor- 
ship of  mathematics  in  the  university  of  Pisa. 
The  salary  was  but  60  crowns,  and  he  had  to 
look  for  his  support  partiy  to  private  pupils. 
His  sarcastic  attacks  upon  the  notions  of  the 
Aristotelians,  although  his  arguments  were 
fortified  with  carefol  experiments,  raised  up  a 
host  of  enemies,  whose  animosity  pursued  him 
for  the  rest  of  his  life.  He  demonstrated  the 
error  of  suppofdng  that  the  velocity  of  falling 
bodies  is  proportional  to  their  weight,  by  let- 
ting fall  unequal  weights  at  the  same  time  from 
the  top  of  the  leaning  tower  of  Pisa,  explain- 
ing that  the  trifling  difference  of  time  noticed 
in  their  respective  descents  was  owing  solely 
to  the  resistance  of  the  air.  The  death  of  hia 
father  in  1691  imposed  upon  him  the  duty  of 
supporting  the  family.  Soon  after  tliis  the 
interest  of  Ubaldi  procured  him  the  appoint- 
ment of  professor  of  mathematics  for  six  yean 
in  the  university  of  Padua.  This  new  posi- 
tion, upon  which  he  entered  in  September, 
1692,  gave  him  a  salary  of  180  florins,  and 
enabled  him  to  remove  from  a  city  where 
the  hostility  oi  the  Aristotelians  embittered 
his  existence.  He  constructed  several  useful 
machines  for  the  state,  and  composed  trea- 
tises on  gnomonics,  astronomy,  mechanics,  ar- 
chitecture, and  even  fortification,  which  he  de- 
livered in  the  form  of  lectures.  >  In  1597  he 
made  a  kind  of  thermometer  in  which  both  air 


GALILEO  GALILEI 


567 


and  water  were  employed.  Daring  this  period 
he  began  a  friendly  correspondence  with  Xep* 
ler,  which  continued  until  the  deaih  of  the  lat- 
ter ;  and  about  the  same  time -appeared  a  trea- 
tise on  the  sphere  after  the  Ptolemaic  system, 
which  has  been  attributed  to  Galileo  on  ratuer 
insufficient  groimds.  It  was  published  from 
a  MS.  in  the  library  of  Somaschi  at  Venice 
(Rome,  1656).  Probably  between  the  years 
1593  and  1597  Galileo  became  a  convert  to 
the  Oopernican  theory  of  the  revolution  of  the 
earth  about  the  sun ;  but  it  is  impossible  to  fix 
the  date  of  this  Important  event  in  his  life,  for 
he  says  in  a  letter  to  Kepler  (1597),  that  in  def- 
erence to  public  opinion  he  did  not  declare  his 
conviction  of  the  truth  of  the  new  doctrines 
for  some  years  after  he  had  formed  it.  On  the 
expiration  of  the  term  of  his  professorship  the 
Venetian  senate  appointed  him  for  six  years 
more,  and  raised  bis  salary  to  820  florins.  In 
1604,  a  new  star  of  remarkable  brilliancy  hav- 
ing appeared  in  the  constellation  Serpentarius, 
he  attacked  the  popular  notion  that  it  was  a 
meteor,  and  proved  by  the  absence  of  parallax 
that  it  was  far  beyond  the  limits  of  our  system. 
His  appointment  at  the  university  was  again  re- 
newed, with  an  addition  of  200  florins  to  his 
salary.  The  crowds  that  came  to  hear  him 
were  now  so  great  that  he  was  sometimes 
obliged  to  lecture  in  the  open  air.  In  1609  a 
report  reached  him  at  Venice  that  a  Dutchman 
had  constructed  an  instrument  which  had  the 
property  of  making  distant  objects  seem  near. 
On  his  return  to  Padua  the  philosopher  imme- 
diately applied  himself  to  the  solution  of  the 
mystery,  and,  after  trying  several  combinations 
c^  lenses,  succeeded  in  making  an  instrument 
which  magnified  three  times.  It  consisted 
merely  of  a  leaden  organ  pipe,  with  a  plano- 
convex glass  at  ODe  end  and  a  plano-concave 
at  the  other.  This  he  carried  to  Venice,  where 
it  at  once  became  an  object  of  the  intensest 
public  curiosity.  He  presented  it  to  the  sen- 
ate, who  thereupon  confirmed  him  in  his  profes- 
sorship for  life,  and  raised  his  salary  to  1,000 
florins.  Galileo  soon  constructed  another  tele- 
scope which  magnified  eight  times,  and  at 
length  a  third  which  had  a  power  of  30.  The 
wonders  of  the  heavens  now  unfolded  to  him, 
which  no  man  had  ever  seen  before,  filled  him 
with  "  incredible  delight.''  His  earliest  obser- 
vations were  upon  the  moon,  whose  inequali- 
ties of  surface  he  was  the  first  to  trace.  He 
saw  myriads  of  stars  in  the  milky  way,  counted 
40  in  the  Pleiades,  and  at  length,  on  Jan.  13, 
1610,  after  six  nights'  observation,  discovered 
the  revolution  of  four  satellites  around  the 
planet  Jupiter.  He  did  not  publish  this  intel- 
ligence until  by  repeated  examination,  up  to 
liUrch  2^,  he  had  insured  himself  against  the 
danger  of  mistake.  The  account  of  his  dis- 
coveries, which  he  entitled  Sid&reus  NiincitUy 
the  "  Sidereal  Messenger,''  was  received  by  the 
astrcmomers  of  the  old  school  with  insults  and 
incredulity.  Some  exclaimed  against  the  im- 
piety of  scooping  out  valleys  from  the  fair  face 


of  the  moon ;  some  attempted  to  explain  away 
the  satellites  of  Jupiter  as  mere  appearances 
caused  by  reflected  light.  A  professor  in  the 
university  of  Padua  argued  that  as  there  were 
only  seven  metals,  seven  days  in  the  week,  and 
seven  apertures  in  a  man's  head,  so  there  could 
be  but  seven  planets ;  and  when  forced  to  ad- 
mit the  visibility  of  the  satellites  through  the 
telescope,  he  reasoned  that,  being  invisible  to 
the  naked  eye,  they  were  useless,  and  conse- 
quently did  not  exist  Several  persons  claimed 
a  prior  discovery  of  the  "Jovian  planets,"  and 
the  astronomer  Zach,  as  late  as  1788,  claimed 
for  Thomas  Harriot  the  credit  of  having  ob- 
served them  on  Jan.  16,  1610,  some  time  be- 
fore Galileo's  discovery  was  made  known.  Ac- 
cording to  Sir  David  Brewster,  however,  Har- 
riot did  not  see  them  till  Oct.  17.  Viviani,  in 
his  life  of  Galileo,  tells  us  that  the  telescope  led 
him  to  the  construction  of  the  compound  mi- 
croscope, and  that  he  presented  one  to  the 
king  of  Poland.  The  grand  duke  of  Tuscany 
gave  Galileo  1,000  florins,  and  made  him  his 
philosopher  and  mathematician  with  a  libe- 
ral salary  and  nominal  duties.  He  now  re- 
moved to  Florence.  To  guard  against  future 
attempts  to  steal  his  laurels,  he  published  his 
subsequent  discoveries  in  enigmas,  and  thus  in 
the  course  of  the  same  year  he  announced  that 
Saturn  was  "triple,"  an  appearance  which 
Huygens  subsequently  showed  was  caused  by 
that  planet's  rings.  Galileo  was  the  first  to 
notice  that  Venus  exhibits  phases  like  those  of 
the  moon ;  and  if  not  the  first  to  descry  spots 
on  the  sun's  disk,  he  was  at  least  tiie  first  to 
note  their  peculiarities,  and  to  infer  from  them 
the  sun's  rotation.  Some  of  these  observations 
were  made  in  1611  at  Rome,  which  he  then 
visited  for  the  first  time,  where  he  erected  his 
telescope  in  the  Quirinal  garden  belonging  to 
Cardinal  Bandini.  He  was  received  with  the 
highest  honors,  and  became  a  member  of  the 
famous  Lincean  academy.  In  1612  he  com- 
bated in  his  work  on  the  laws  of  floating  bodies 
the  common  opinion  that  the  tendency  of  sub- 
stances to  sink  or  swim  in  water  depends  on 
their  shape.  With  this  period  in  his  life  the 
philosopher  may  be  said  to  have  reached  the 
zenith  of  his  prosperity,  while  at  the  same  time 
the  malice  of  his  enemies  began  to  acquire  a 
dangerous  intensity.  The  Oopernican  system, 
which  he  had  long  taught  in  public,  afforded 
a  good  pretext  for  attacking  him.  The  sun's 
revolution  round  the  earth  was  thought  to  be 
a  truth  of  Scripture.  Certain  Tuscan  ecclesi- 
astics began  to  preach  against  the  wicked- 
ness of  sending  our  world  spinning  through 
space,  and  a  sarcastic  Dominican  hurled  a  ser- 
mon at  Galileo  from  the  text:  Viri  Oalilcnj 
quid  statii  adtpicientea  in  eahim  f  "  Ye  men  of 
Galilee,  why  stand  ye  looking  up  into  heaven  ?  '^ 
In  1618  Galileo  addressed  a  letter  to  his  pupil 
Castelli,  showing  that  the  language  of  the  Bible 
should  be  interpreted  according  to  popular 
ideas,  and  that  the  Ptolemaic  system  is  really 
as  much  at  variance  with  it  as  the  Oopernican. 


668 


GALILEO  GALILEI 


This  was  followed  by  one  to  Gbristina,  grand 
dnchess  dowager  of  Tuscany,  reiterating  his 
views,  and  supporting  them  by  quotations  from 
the  writings  of  the  fathers.  A  Dominican, 
Lorini,  laid  a  copy  of  the  Castelli  letter  before 
the  Roman  inquisition  in  February,  1615,  but 
the  inquisitors  refused  to  act  in  the  matter, 
remarking  that  by  confining  himself  to  the 
system  and  its  demonstration,  and  letting  alone 
the  Scriptures,  Galileo  would  be  secure  from 
molestation.  His  enemies,  however,  continued 
their  intrigues,  and  about  the  end  of  1615  he 
went  to  Rome,  either  to  obtain  a  formal  sanc- 
tion of  his  opinions,  or  in  obedience  to  a  sum- 
mons. His  case  came  again  before  the  holy 
office  in  February,  1616.  He  was  charged  with 
teaching  that  the  sun  is  the  centre  of  the 
planetary  system,  and  interpreting  Scripture  to 
suit  his  own  theory.  The  qualifiers  of  the  in- 
quisition pronounced  the  obnoxious  doctrines 
**  formally  heretical,  because  expressly  contra- 
ry to  Holy  Scriptures."  Galileo^s  letters  to 
Castelli  and  the  grand  duchess,  Oopernicus's 
work  on  the  revolution  of  the  heavenly  bodies, 
and  Kepler^s  epitome  of  the  Copemican  the- 
ory, were  placed  on  the  Ind^  Expurgatorius, 
whence  they  were  not  removed  until  the  time 
of  Benedict  XIV. ;  and  Galileo  himself  was 
forbidden  ever  again  to  teach  the  motion  of  the 
earth  and  the  stability  of  the  sun.  Thence- 
forward he  was  not  permitted  to  express  him- 
self as  though  Oopernicanism  were,  in  the  words 
of  the  Roman  euriay  *^an  actually  grounded 
hypothesis."  But  he  was  permitted  and  en- 
couraged to  use  the  hypothesis  most  actively 
as  his  clue  to  fresh  scientific  results,  and  to 
treat  with  the  most  ample  justice  the  scientific 
arguments  for  dnd  against.  He  was  permit- 
ted to  maintain  that  Oopernicanism  was  scien- 
tifically likely  in  the  highest  possible  degree ; 
but  he  was  not  at  liberty  to  teach  expressly 
that  it  had  received  absolute  and  irrefragable 
proof.  He  had  an  audience  of  the  pope,  how- 
ever, who  assured  him  of  his  protection,  and 
in  1617  he  returned  to  Florence.  Sickness 
prevented  him  from  observing  the  three  comets 
which  appeared  in  1618,  but  he  entered  warmly 
into  discussions  about  them,  and  is  supposed 
to  have  had  the  chief  share  in  a  lecture  de- 
livered by  his  friend  Guiducci  and  printed  in 
1619,  in  which  they  are  held  to  be  only  mete- 
ors. This  discourse  was  attacked  by  the  Jesuit 
Grassi  under  the  pseudonyme  of  Lotario  Sarsi, 
and  defended  by  Galileo  in  his  Saggiatore  (^*Ab- 
sayer  "),  one  of  the  most  beantifally  written  of 
his  works.  On  the  accession  of  his  friend  Car- 
dinal Barberini  to  the  pontificate  under  the  title 
of  Urban  YUL,  he  went  to  Rome  to  offer  his 
congratulations,  arriving  in  the  spring  of  1624, 
and  receiving  during  the  two  months  that  he 
remained  every  mark  of  esteem  and  liberality. 
The  pope  granted  him  a  pension  of  100  crowns, 
and  one  of  60  crowns  to  his  son.  He  now  set 
about  composing  a  work  in  which  he  might 
anm  up  all  the  arguments  for  and  against  his 
favorite  ti^eory.    It  was  written  in  the  form 


of  dialogues,  and  accompanied  by  a  preface  in 
which  he  protested  ironically  against  the  idea 
that  the  decision  of  the  inquisition  in  1616  was 
rendered  through  ignorance  or  passion.  He 
says  that,  on  the  contrary,  its  officers  listened 
with  attention  to  his  statement  of  the  scientific 
arguments  on  which  his  theory  was  based,  and 
maintains  that  the  grounds  upon  which  their 
decision  was  justified  were  entirely  religious. 
The  book  was  published  at  Florence  in  1632 
under  the  title  of  *^  Dialogue  on  the  two  Prin- 
cipal Systems  of  the  World,  the  Ptolemaic  and 
Copernican."  This  being  regarded  as  a  viola- 
tion of  the  injunction,  Galileo  was  ordered  to 
appear  in  person  at  Rome,  where  he  mrrived 
in  February,  1688,  and  took  up  his  quarters 
with  the  Tuscan  ambassador.  His  trial  was 
short.  The  principal  ground  of  complaint  was 
the  disobedience  of  the  command  of  1616,  and 
the  scientific  reasons  which  Galileo  again  urged 
in  support  of  his  theory  were  not  appreciated 
any  better  than  before,  but  were  met  with  re- 
ligious arguments.  The  sentence  was  solemnly 
pronounced  June  22.  It  set  forth  the  off*ence 
of  the  accused  in  teaching  a  condemned  propo- 
sition, violating  his  pledge,  and  obtaining  a 
sanction  for  his  book  by  improper  means,  de- 
clared him  to  be  vehemently  suspected  of  here- 
sy, required  him  to  abjure  Bis  errors  and  all 
other  heresies  against  the  Catholic  church, 
prohibited  his  ^^  Dialogue,*'  and  condemned 
him  to  be  imprisoned  at  the  inquisition  during 
pleasure,  and  to  recite  once  a  week  for  three 
years  the  seven  penitential  psalms.  Galileo 
made  his  abjuration  with  all  the  formality  which 
commonly  attended  such  proceedings.  Clad  in 
sackcloth  and  kneeling,  he  swore  upon  the  Gos- 
pels never  again  to  teach  the  earth's  motion  and 
the  sun's  stability ;  he  declared  his  detestation 
of  the  proscribed  opinions,  and  promised  to  per- 
form the  penance  laid  upon  him.  Then  rising 
from  the  ground,  he  is  said  to  have  exclaimed 
in  an  under  tone :  E  pur  H  muove — ^^  It  does 
move,  for  all  that  I  "  After  four  da^s'  confine- 
ment under  the  eyes  of  the  holy  office,  Galileo 
returned  to  the  Tuscan  ambassador's,  but  for  the 
rest  of  his  life  he  was  kept  under  surveillance. 
He  passed  some  time  in  Siena,  in  the  arch- 
bishop's palace,  and  in  December  reentered 
his  own  house  at  Arcetri,  near  Florence,  where 
he  remained  until  the  close  of  his  life.  The 
death  of  his  favorite  daughter  Maria  so  affected 
his  already  broken  health  that  he  begged  per- 
mission to  visit  Florence  for  medical  assistance. 
It  was  only  after  four  years  (1688)  that  he  ob- 
tained it,  and  then  under  severe  restrictions. 
He  seems  now  to  have  paid  little  attention  to 
astronomy,  but  employed  himself  in  other 
branches  of  natural  philosophy.  In  1688  his 
book  of  **  Dialogues  on  Local  Motion,"  com- 
pleted two  years  before,  which  he  prized  above 
all  his  other  works,  was  printed  at  Amsterdam 
by  Louis  Elzevir.  In  1686  also  he  discovered 
the  moon's  diurnal  libration.  In  1687  a  disease 
which  had  impaired  his  right  eye  for  some 
years  attacked  the  left  also,  and  in  a  few  months 


GALILEO  GALILEI 


GALL 


569 


be  became  totally  blind.  The  severity  of  tbe 
inqaisition  was  somewhat  relaxed  in  his  afflic- 
tion ;  he  was  visited  by  eminent  men  of  his 
own  and  foreign  coantries,  among  whom  were 
Milton,  Qnssendi,  and  Diodati,  and  in  the  last 
years  of  bis  life  his  pnpils  Viviani  and  Torri- 
oeUi  formed  part  of  his  household.  Almost 
complete  deafness  afterward  came  npon  him, 
and  at  last,  while  preparing  for  a  continnation 
of  his  *' Dialogues  on  Motion,"  he  died  of 
fever  and  palpitation  of  the  heart. — ^Galileo 
was  of  middle  size,  well  formed,  with  fair  com- 
plexion and  penetrating  eyes.  He  was  cheer- 
ful, frank,  and  amiable ;  frugal  and  abstemious, 
but  fond  of  gay  company  and  good  wine,  and 
profuse  in  his  hospitality.  He  was  unmar- 
ried, but  left  three  natural  children.  His  tem- 
per was  quick,  but  placable,  and  his  general  ac- 
complishments made  him  a  favorite  in  mixed 
circles.  His  scientific  writings  were  marked 
by  a  clear,  elegant,  and  spirited  style,  which  he 
owed  to  a  careful  study  of  the  literature  of  his 
country.  He  was  a  great  admirer  of  Ariosto, 
whose  Orlando  furioM^  it  is  said,  he  knew  by 
heart,  and  wrote  severe  '*  Considerations  on 
Tasso "  (Venice,  1793),  to  show  that  author's 
imitation  of  his  favorite  poet. — The  following  is 
a  list  of  hb  principal  works  which  were  printed 
separately :  Operazioni  del  compasso  geome- 
trico  e  militare  (Venice,  1606) ;  I)\fem  contra 
alle  ealumnie  ed  imposture  diBalt  Capra  nella 
eoMiderazione  astronomiea  wpra  la  nuova  Stel- 
la del  1604  (1 607) ;  Sideretu  Nuncius  (Florence, 
Venice,  and  Frankfort,  1610) ;  Discorso  intomo 
alle  0096  ehs  etanno  insuP  aeqita  e  che  in  quella 
H  muovono  (Florence,  1612) ;  Epistola  ad  M, 
Velserum  de  Maeulis  Solaribus  (1612) ;  I>e  Ma- 
eulit  Solaribus  et  Stellis  circa  Jof>em  errantibus 
aceuratior  Disquisitio  (Augsburg,  1612) ;  Isto- 
ria  e  dimostreuioni  intorno  alle  maehie  solari 
e  loro  accidenti  (Rome,  1618) ;  Dissertatio  de 
Ccmeta  Anni  1619  (Florence);  11  saggiatore 
(Rome,  1628);  Dialogo  sopra  i  due  massimi 
sistemi  del  mondo^  Tolemaieo  e  Copemicano 
(Florence,  1682;  a  Latin  translation  by  Ber- 
negger,  entitled  Sy sterna  Cosmicum,  &c.,  Stras- 
burg,  1635 ;  an  English  version,  "  The  Systeme 
of  the  World,  in  four  Dialogues,  Inglishedfrom 
the  Original  Italian  Oopy  by  Thomas  SaJus- 
bury,"  London,  1661) ;  Discorsi  e  dimostratsir 
oni  matematiche  attenenti  alia  meeaniea  ed  % 
movimenti  locali  (Leyden,  1688;  an  English 
translation  under  the  title  *•*'  Mathematical  Dis- 
courses of  Mechanics,"  by  Thomas  Weston, 
London,  1780) ;  Epistola  tree  de  Conciliatione 
Saerm  Scriptures  cum  Systemate  Telluris  Mobi- 
lis  (printed  with  Gassendi's  Apologia^  Lyons, 
1649).  Oolleotions  of  Galileo^s  works  were 
published  at  Bologna  by  Manolessi  (2  vols.  4to, 
1656) ;  Florence,  by  Bottari  (3  vols.  4to,  1718) ; 
Padua  (4  vols.  4to,  1744) ;  Milan  (18  vols.  8vo, 
1808-'ll).  Engenio  Alberi  edited  a  complete 
edition,  with  the  life  by  Viviani  (16  vols.,  Flor- 
ence, 1842-'56).— For  lives  of  Galileo  see  Vi- 
viani, Vita  del  GkdHei^  in  the  Fasti  eoneolari 
deW  aeeademia  Fiorentina;  Frisi,  Elogio  del 


Galileo  (I^ghom,  1775) ;  Brenna,  in  Fabroni^s 
Vitcs  Italorum  ;  Nelli,  Vita  e  commercio  lette- 
rario  di  Galileo  Galilei  (2  vols.  4to,  Lausanne, 
1793) ;  Lord  Brougham's  "  Life  of  Galileo  " 
(1829) ;  Libri,  Histoire  de  la  vie  et  des  OBuvres 
de  Galileo  Galilei  (Paris,  1841) ;  Biot,  in  Mi- 
chaud's  Biographic  universelle ;  Drink water- 
Bethune,  "  Life  of  Galileo,"  in  the  "  Library 
of  Useful  Knowledge;"  Sir  David  Brewster, 
in  Lardner's  ^*  Cabinet  OyclopsBdia,"  reprinted 
with  lives  of  Tycho  Brahe  and  Kepler  under 
the  title  *^  Martyrs  of  Science  "  (London,  1841). 
Among  recent  biographies  are  those  of  Phila- 
r^te  Ohasles  (1862),  Madden  (1863),  Trouessard 
a856),  Pauhappe  (1868),  and  "The  Private 
Life  of  Galileo"  (London  and  Boston,  1870); 
also  Botta's  "  Italian  Philosophy,"  in  vol.  ii. 
of  Ueberweg's  "  History  of  Philosophy,"  trans- 
lated by  George  8.  Morris  (New  York,  1874). 

CIALUIARD,  Nlcelag  ligutey  a  French  painter, 
bom  in  Paris,  March  25,  1818.  He  studied 
under  Ingres,  and  exhibited  his  first  works  in 
1835.  "  The  Ode,"  exhibited  in  1846,  was  pur- 
chased for  the  gallery  of  the  Luxembourg.  The 
emperor  Napoleon  bought  in  1857  his  *'*'  Leda," 
to  which  the  committee  of  the  exhibition  of 
1855  had  objected  on  account  of  its  indecency. 
He  has  executed  many  paintings  for  churches, 
and  particularly  excels  in  cartoons  for  church 
windows.  He  has  introduced  among  artists 
the  use  of  paints  with  a  base  of  zinc,  and  has 
written  much  on  art  and  contemporary  artists. 
One  of  his  writings  is  entitled  VArt  des  vitraux, 

GALIN,  Pierre,  a  French  musician,  bom  in 
1786,  died  in  Paris  about  1822.  He  studied 
and  taught  mathemataca  at  Bordeaux,  and  the 
application  of  this  science  to  music  led  him  to 
the  invention  of  a  new  method  of  teaching 
the  latter  art,  mainly  consisting  in  separating 
the  study  of  tone  from  that  of  measure.  He 
called  his  system  le  meloplaste^  and  explained 
it  in  his  Exposition  d^une  nouvelle  mStkode 
pour  Venseignement  de  la  musique  (Bordeaux, 
1818).  He  resided  in  Paris  from  1819  to  the 
time  of  his  premature  death,  engaged  in  teach- 
ing and  lecturing  upon  his  method.  This  has 
been  adopted  to  some  extent  in  Europe  and  in 
the  United  States,  under  the  name  of  that  of 
Galin-Ohev^P&ris.  His  pupils  £douard  Jue, 
Aim6  Lemoine,  M.  de  Geslin,  and  Aim6  P&ris 
successively  published  works  on  the  subject 
(1821-'85). 

GAUTZIN.    See  Galutzin. 

Cillliy  a  saint  of  the  Roman  Catholic  church, 
called  the  apostle  of  Switzerland,  bom  in  Ban- 
gor, Ireland,  about  551,  died  in  St.  Gall,  Oct. 
16,  646.  According  to  some  biographers,  his 
original  name  was  Gallun  or  Gilian,  while 
others  call  him  Gall  of  Hibernia  to  distmguish 
him  from  another  St  Gall,  bishop  of  Clermont- 
Ferrand,  who  died  about  550.  He  was  of  no* 
ble  parentage,  was  educated  under  Columbanus 
in  the  monastery  of  Bangor,  and  followed  him 
to  Gaul.  After  sharing  the  dangers  and  vi- 
cissitudes of  his  master's  life,  he  refused  while 
sick  of  a  fever  to  follow  him  into  Italy.    Co- 


570 


GALL 


GALLAGHEB 


Jumbanus  pnnisbed  the  reftisal  hj  forbidding 
Gall  to  celebrate  mass  daring  the  abbot's  life- 
time. No  sooner  had  Gall  recovered  from  his 
illness  than  he  and  his  monks,  who  with  one 
exception  had  remained  with  him,  left  their 
abode  at  Bregenz,  and  selected  a  site  for  a  new 
monastery  on  the  steep  banks  of  the  Steinach, 
not  far  from  the  southern  shore  of  Lake  Con- 
stance. By  his  eloquence  and  his  command 
of  the  German  tongue  he  was  able  to  spread 
the  knowledge  of  Ohristianity  rapidly  among 
the  Alemanni  and  Helvetii.  Having  cared 
miraculously,  as  it  was  thought,  the  daughter 
of  a  chief  or  duke  of  the  former,  Thierry  XL, 
to  whose  son  she  was  affianced,  bestowed  on 
the  missionary  all  the  land  he  wished  to  occupy 
between  Lake  Constance  and  the  Rhastian  Alps 
(about  612).  Constance  being  created  an  epis- 
copal see,  Gall  was  chosen  as  its  bishop;  but 
he  excused  himself  on  account  of  the  ii^imc- 
tion  of  Columbanus  forbidding  him  to  perform 
sacred  functions.  In  615  the  latter  from  his 
deathbed  sent  his  crozier  as  a  token  of  forgive- 
ness ;  and  ten  years  later  Gall  was  invited  to  as- 
sume the  government  of  the  great  monastery  of 
Luxeuil,  but  alleged  his  obligation  of  evangel- 
izing the  heathen  tribes  of  southern  Germany. 
The  number  of  his  disciples  now  increased 
wonderfully.  Around  the  humble  monastery 
his  converts  came  to  dwell,  until  the  clustering 
huts  grew  in  after  years  to  be  the  city  of  St. 
Gall.  At  his  death  the  territory  occupied  by 
the  Alemanni  was  a  Christian  province.  His 
feast  is  celebrated  on  Oct.  16.  A  discourse 
pronounced  at  the  consecration  of  the  bishops 
of  Constance  is  the  sole  relic  which  has  reached 
us  of  all  his  learning.  The  life  of  St.  Gall  was 
written  in  the  9th  century  by  Walafried  Stra- 
bo,  and  in  Latin  verse  by  the  monk  Notker  in 
the  10th.  See  also  the  Bollandists'  new  Acta 
Sanctorum  for  Oct.  16,  and  Montalem  berths 
Moines  d*  Occident. 

€ALL,  Fraiz  Jesepli,  the  founder  of  phre- 
nology, bom  at  Tiefenbronn,  near  Pforzheim, 
in  Baden,  March  9,  1758,  died  at  Montrouge, 
near  Paris,  Aug.  22, 1828.  After  literary  stud- 
ies at  Baden  and  Bruchsal,  he  devoted  himself 
especially  to  natural  history  and  anatomy  at 
Strasburg  under  Hermann,  and  passed  thence 
in  1785  to  the  medical  school  of  Vienna, 
where  he  attended  the  lectures  of  Van  Swieten 
and  Stoll,  and  in  the  same  year  received  the 
degree  of  doctor.  He  gradually  obtained  suc- 
cess in  his  profession,  with  leisure  for  garden- 
ing and  study.  While  a  boy  he  had  been 
struck  with  the  differences  of  character  and 
talents  displayed  by  his  companions,  and  after 
Bome  time  he  observed,  as  he  thought,  that  those 
students  who  excelled  in  committing  pieces  to 
memory  all  had  large  eyes.  By  degrees  he 
suspected  that  the  external  peculiarities  of  the 
head  corresponded  to  differences  in  the  intel- 
lectual endowments  and  moral  qualities,  and 
disputed  the  theories  of  Aristotle,  Van  Hel- 
mont,  Descartes,  and  Drelinconrt,  who  fixed 
the  soul  respectively  in  the  heart,  the  stomach. 


the  pineal  gland,  and  the  cerebellom.  He 
began  to  examine  the  heads  of  those  who  had 
exhibited  any  striking  mental  peculiarity,  in 
lunatic  asylums,  prisons,  seats  of  learning,  &c. 
He  extended  his  observations  to  animala,  and 
finally  sought  confirmation  in  the  anatomy  of 
the  brain,  of  which  he  was  the  first  to  perceive 
the  true  structure.  After  20  years  he  con- 
ceived that  he  had  determined  the  intellectual 
dispositions  corresponding  to  about  20  organs, 
that  he  had  found  the  seats  of  these  original 
faculties  in  the  bnun,  and  that  they  formed 
prominences  or  protuberances  on  the  sknll  pro- 

Eortionate  to  their  degree  of  activity.  In  1791 
e  published  the  first  volume  of  a  general  medi- 
cal work,  and  in  1796  began  to  lecture  on  bis 
peculiar  theory  in  Vienna,  where  its  novelty 
made  a  great  sensation.  The  first  written  ac- 
count of  it  appeared  in  a  letter  published  in  Der 
deutwhe  Mercur  of  Wieland  in  1798.  About 
this  time  he  gained  his  best  disciple,  Spnrz- 
heim,  who  gave  great  aid  in  the  development 
and  popular  exposition  of  the  doctrine.  Dr. 
Gall  continued  his  lectures  till  in  1802  they 
were  interdicted  by  the  Austrian  government 
as  dangerous  to  religion.  He  quitted  Vienna 
in  1805,  and  in  company  with  Spurzheim,  who 
was  his  associate  till  1818,  travelled  in  central 
and  northern  Europe,  lecturing  in  the  prin- 
cipal, especially  the  university  towns,  and  ar- 
rived in  Paris  in  1807.  He  established  him- 
self there  as  a  medical  practitioner,  and  de- 
livered a  course  of  lectures  before  a  large 
audience.  His  principles,  however,  met  with 
much  opposition.  He  presented  to  the  insti- 
tute in  1808  his  Hecherches  tur  Ic  syit^mc  ner- 
veux  en  gSneral,  et  sur  celui  du  eerveau  en  par- 
ticulicTj  and  published  it  in  the  following  year. 
In  1828  he  made  a  short  visit  to  London,  where 
the  receipts  from  his  lectures  were  less  than 
the  expenses.  The  most  elaborate  of  his  works 
is  the  Anatomic  et  phydoloffic  du  eyethnc  ner- 
Deux  (4  vols.,  Paris,  1810-U9),  a  second  edition 
of  which  was  published  in  6  vols.,  each  bearing 
a  different  title.  An  En^ish  translation  of  the 
whole  work  by  Winslow  J.  Lewis,  jr.,  M.  D., 
was  published  in  Boston  (6  vols.,  1885). 

GALLiGHiai,  WUIboi  D.,  an  American  jour- 
nalist and  poet,  bom  in  Philadelphia  in  Au- 
gust, 1808.  He  went  in  1816  to  Cincinnati, 
where  in  1825  he  entered  the  printing  ofSce 
of  a  newspaper.  He  wrote  oooanonally  for 
the  press,  and  became  editor  successively  of 
the  *^ Backwoodsman'^  at  Xenia,  O.  (1880), 
the  "  Cincinnati  Mirror  "  (1881),  the  "  Western 
Literary  Journal  and  Monthly  Review  "  (1886), 
the  **  Hesperian,  a  Monthly  Miscellany  of  Gen- 
eral Literature"  (1888),  and  in  1889  associate 
editor  of  the  *^  Cincinnati  Gazette,"  in  which 
position  he  remained  till  1850.  He  published 
three  small  volumes  of  poetry  (1885-^7),  each 
entitled  "  Erato,"  the  principal  pieces  in  which 
are  "The  Penitent,"  "The  Conqueror,"  and 
"  Cadwallen."  In  1841  he  published  a  volume 
of  "  Selections  from  the  Poetical  Literature  of 
the  West,"  and  in  1846  a  select  edition  of  his 


GALLAIT 


GALLAS 


571 


poems.  When  Thomas  Gorwin  heoame  secre- 
tary of  the  treasury  in  1850,  Mr.  Gallagher 
aocom|HUiied  him  to  Washington  as  his  con- 
fidential cierk«  In  1858  he  removed  to  Loais- 
ville,  Ey.,  and  hecame  one  of  the  editors  of 
the  "Daily  Oonrier.*'  He  afterward  took  np 
his  residence  on  a  farm  near  the  city,  and  em- 
ployed himself  in  writing  on  agrionlture.  Du- 
ring the  civil  war  he  was  again  in  the  service 
of  the  treasury  department. 

C1ALI1AIT9  LoilSy  a  Belgian  historical  painter, 
bom  in  Tonmay  in  1810.  He  spent  several 
years  in  studying  his  art  in  Paris.  Among  his 
pictures  most  celebrated  and  popular  in  Bel- 
gium are  one  illustrating  the  last  honors  paid  to 
Egmont  and  Horn  after  their  execution,  which 
has  been  purchased  by  his  native  city,  and 
one  representing  the  last  moments  of  Egmont 
(1853).  His  "  Abdication  of  Oharles  V."  is  in 
the  court  of  cassation  of  Brussels,  and  his  "  Mon- 
taigne visiting  Tasso,"  which  established  his 
reputation  in  1838,  is  in  the  possession  of  the 
king  of  Belgium.  His  *^  Temptation  of  St.  An- 
thony" was  presented  by  Leopold  to  Prince 
Albert.  Many  of  his  pictures  nave  been  ex- 
hibited and  admired  in  Paris  and  London.  In 
1870  he  was  made  an  associate  member  of  the 
academy  of  fine  arts  of  Paris. 

GAIliijyD,  AiitolBe,  a  French  antiquary  and 
linguist,  bom  near  Montdidier,  in  Picardy, 
April  4, 1648,  died  in  Paris,  Feb.  17, 1716.  He 
became  attached  to  the  French  embassy  at 
Oonstantinople  in  1670,  visited  Jerusalem,  and 
copied  there  a  great  number  of  inscriptions, 
several  of  which  Montfauoon  published  in  his 
PdUsographia  Ormea.  Returning  to  France  in 
1675,  he  made  two  voyages  to  the  Levant  to 
collect  medals,  coins,  &c.  He  was  afterward 
appointed  antiquary  to  the  king.  In  1709  he 
became  professor  of  Arabic  in  the  royal  college 
of  France.  His  works  are  very  numerous,  but 
the  most  popular  of  them  all  is  his  translation 
into  French  of  the  "  Tales  of  the  Thousand  and 
One  Nights"  (12  vols.,  Paris,  1704r-'17;  best 
ed.  by  Oaussin  de  Perceval,  9  vols.  18mo),  the 
famous  **  Arabian  Nights^  Entertainments," 
which  he  introduced  to  the  knowledge  of  Eu- 
rope. For  some  time  they  were  thought  to 
be  inventions  of  his  own. 

QALLASy  an  African  race,  generally  classed 
with  the  Ethiopic  division  of  the  Semitic  family, 
inhabiting  portions  of  Abyssinia  and  the  re- 
gions S.  of  it  to  thQ  equator.  Their  skin  varies 
between  light  and  dark  brown ;  their  hair  is 
somewhat  frizzled,  but  without  being  wooUy ; 
their  faces  are  round,  their  eyes  small,  and 
their  figures  tall  and  broad.  Many  of  them 
connder  themselves  Mohammedans,  but  have 
no  well  defined  conception  of  the  faith  they 
profess.  Some  have  been  converted  to  Ghris- 
tianity,  and  the  Roman  Gatholic  church  main- 
tains among  them  a  mission  headed  by  a  vicar 
apostolic.  Those  who  have  remained  pagans 
make  pilgrimages  to  sacred  trees  on  the  banks 
of  the  Hawash,  on  the  S.  E.  boundary  of  Shoa, 
and  elsewhere,  but  believe  in  a  future  state  of 


reward  and  punishment.  The  Abyssinians  nar- 
rate that  this  race  descended  from  an  Abyssi- 
nian princess  who  was  given  in  marriage  to  a 
slave,  and  had  seven  sons  who  became  founders 
of  tribes.  They  first  appear  in  history  as  in- 
vaders of  Abyssinia,  where  they  succeeded  in 
establishing  a  permanent  settlement.  They 
are  classed  with  the  Semitic  family  on  account 
of  their  language,  though  its  Semitic  character 
is  not  quite  clearly  defined.  Whether  they 
possess  a  graphic  system  has  not  been  de- 
cided to  a  certainty.  D'Abbadie  sent  a  letter 
to^  Paris  which  he  supposed  to  be  written 
in*  Galla  characters,  but  it  has  not  been  de- 
ciphered. Krapf  has  published  an  outline  of 
the  Galla  language  (London,  1842),  in  whidi 
he  maintiuns  that  it  does  not  contain  a  sound 
which  cannot  be  expressed  in  English  letters, 
even  better  than  in  Ethiopian.  This  assertion 
seems  however  doubtful,  and  Earl  Tutschek 
has  found  it  needfhl  in  his  **  Dictionary  of  the 
Galla  Language  "  (Munich,  1844)  to  use  several 
signs  not  found  in  our  alphabet.  The  Gallas 
have,  for  instance,  an  entirely  unaspirated  t 
which  is  nevertheless  intermediate  between  t 
and  <2,  and  also  a  p  and  an  2  so  peculiar  that 
the  English  can  hardly  pronounce  them. — See 
Brenner^s  description  and  map  in  Petermann's 
Oeographische  Mittheilungen  (Goth a,  1868). 

C1ALLA8,  Matthias  tm,  count,  a  German  sol- 
dier, bom  in  1589,  died  in  Vienna  in  1647. 
He  belonged  to  an  ancient  family  of  the  dis- 
trict of  Trent,  and  acquired  military  experience 
under  Prince  Bauffremont  in  the  war  between 
Spain  and  Savoy  (1616).  After  the  outbreak 
of  the  thirty  years^  war,  he  distinguished  him- 
self in  Bohemia  and  in  Tilly's  campaign  against 
Christian  IV.  of  Denmark  (1626),  and  became 
m^or  general.  Together  with  Altringer  he 
captured  Mantua  in  1629,  and  they  pillaged 
the  city,  most  of  the  booty  remaining  in  the 
possession  of  Gallas,  who  was  made  count  and 
in  1681  field  marshal.  After  having  gained 
the  confidence  of  Wallenstein  and  cooperated 
with  him  against  Gnstavns  Adolphus  near  Nu- 
remberg and  at  Ltltzen,  he  was  said  to  have 
been  the  first  to  disclose  to  the  emperor  his 
chiefs  ambitious  designs.  It  is  certain  that  he 
was  early  aware  of  Wdlenstein's  impending  dis- 
grace, and  was  among  those  who  refused  to  at- 
tend when  he  appealed  to  his  officers  at  Pilsen. 
On  Wallenstein's  removal  Gallas  succeeded 
him,  and  was  made  duke  of  Friedland.  When, 
after  the  assassination  of  Wallenstein  (1^34) 
the  fhture  emperor  Ferdinand  III.  became  his 
father's  generalissimo,  Gallas  commanded  un- 
der him,  with  Piccolomini,  in  the  battle  of 
Ndrdlingen;  and  the  victory  achieved  there 
over  Horn  and  Bemhard  of  Weimar  resulted 
in  the  restoration  of  the  S.  W.  part  of  Ger- 
many to  the  emperor's  dominions.  In  1687 
he  fought  against  Bauer  and  Wrangel  in  Po- 
merania;  but  being  obliged  to  retreat  next 
year,  be  was  removed  from  active  service  till 
1648.  He  was  again  commander-in-chief  for 
a  short  time  in  1645,  but  without  retrieving 


572 


GALLATIN 


his  reputation.  His  male  descendants  became 
extinct  in  the  middle  of  the  18th  century,  and 
Friedland,  to  which  he  had  added  large  do- 
mains, passed  by  inheritance  to  Count  Clam, 
who  took  the  name  of  Clam-Gallas. 

GAIXATlNt  L  A  N.  county  of  Kentucky, 
separated  from  Indiana  by  the  Ohio  river; 
area,  about  150  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  5,074,  of 
whom  600  were  colored.  It  is  diversified  by 
well  wooded  hills,  and  abounds  in  blue  or 
Trenton  limestone.  The  Louisville  and  Cin- 
cinnati railroad  traverses  the  S.  part.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  46,675  bushels 
of  wheat,  277,140  of  Indian  com,  28,890  of 
oats,  82,070  of  potatoes,  and  167,050  lbs.  of  to- 
bacco. There  were  1,754  horses,  968  milch 
cows,  1,871  other  cattle,  8,289  sheep,  and 
8,128  swine;  2  flour  mills,  2  saw  mills,  and  1 
distillery.  Capital,  Warsaw.  11.  A  S.  £. 
county  of  Illinois,  drained  by  Saline  creek, 
separated  from  Kentucky  by  the  Ohio  river 
and  from  Indiana  by  the  Wabash ;  area,  810 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 11,184.  It  consists  mostly 
of  forest  land,  has  a  tortile  soil,  and  contains 
valuable  salt  springs.  The  chief  productions 
in  1870  were  88,098  bushels  of  wheat,  509,491 
of  Indian  com,  27,164  of  oats,  22,657  of  pota- 
toes, 18,051  lbs.  of  wool,  110,925  of  tobacco, 
and  2,252  tons  of  hay.  There  were  8,016 
horses,  2,095  milch  cows,  2,980  other  cattle, 
7,204  sheep,  and  14,985  swine;  8  manufac- 
tories of  carriages  and  wagons,  8  of  saddlery 
and  hamess,  1  of  salt,  4  flour  mills,  2  saw  mills, 
and  1  tannery.  Capital,  Shawneetown.  IIL 
A  S.  county  of  Montana,  bordering  on  Idaho 
and  Wyoming,  and  intersected  by  Yellowstone 
river;  area,  6,800  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  1,578. 
Jeflferson,  Madison,  and  Gallatin  rivers  unite 
in  the  N.  W.  part  and  form  the  Missouri.  It 
contains  the  most  productive  land  in  the  ter- 
ritory. The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
87,676  bushels  of  wheat,  68,520  of  oats,  87,580 
of  barley,  18,888  of  potatoes,  and  2,905  tons  of 
bay.  There  were  481  horses  and  5,214  cattle. 
Capital,  Bozeman. 

GALLATIN,  Albert,  an  American  statesman, 
bom  in  Geneva,  Switzerland,  Jan.  29,  1761, 
died  at  Astoria,  N.  Y.,  Aug.  12, 1849.  His  ori- 
ginal name  was  Abraham  Albert  Alphonse  de 
Gallatin.  His  father  was  a  councillor  of  state, 
and  a  connection  of  the  celebrated  Necker. 
Albert  graduated  at  the  university  of  Geneva 
in  1779,  and  the  next  year  embarked  for  Amer- 
ica. He  landed  at  Cape  Ann  and  went  to  Maine, 
where  he  enlisted  in  the  continental  army,  and 
was  soon  after  placed  in  command  of  the  fort 
at  Passamaquoddy.  In  1788  he  taught  French 
in  Harvard  college,  and  in  1784  he  purchased 
a  large  tract  of  land  in  Virginia  for  the  pur- 
pose of  forming  a  settlement,  but  was  deterred 
from  his  undertaking  by  the  hostilities  of  the 
Indians.  While  surveying  these  lands  he  first 
met  Washington,  who  also  owned  large  estates 
m  that  region.  Washington  was  seated  in  a 
land  agent's  log  cabin,  surrounded  by  a  num- 
ber of  squatters  and  hunters,  whom  he  was 


examining  with  a  view  to  ascertain  the  best 
route  for  a  road  across  the  Alleghanies.  Gal- 
latin stood  in  the  crowd  looking  on  for  some 
time,  while  Washington  put  his  questions  with 
slowness  and  deliberation,  and  carefully  noted 
down  the  answers.  It  was  soon  evident  to  the 
quick-minded  Swiss  that  there  was  but  one 
practicable  pass.  He  grew  impatient  at  Wash- 
ington's slowness  in  coming  to  a  condnsioxi, 
and  suddenly  cried  out :  *^  Oh,  it's  plain  enough 
that  [naming  the  place]  is  the  most  prac^ca- 
ble."  The  bystanders  stared  with  astonish- 
ment, and  Washington,  laying  down  his  pen, 
looked  at  him  in  evident  displeasure,  but  did 
not  speak.  Presently  he  resumed  his  pen,  put 
a  few  more  questions,  then  suddenly  threw 
down  his  pen,  and,  turning  to  Gallatin,  said : 
'*You  are  right,  sir."  After  Gallatin  went 
out  Washington  inquired  about  him,  made  his 
acquaintance,  and  urged  him  to  become  his 
land  agent.  Gallatin  declined  the  situation, 
and  in  1786,  by  the  advice  of  Patrick  Henry, 
he  purchased  land  on  the  banks  of  the  Monon- 
gahela  in  Fayette  co..  Pa.,  settled  there,  be- 
came naturalized,  and  devoted  himself  to  agri- 
culture. In  1789  he  was  a  member  of  the  con- 
vention to  revise  the  constitution  of  the  state, 
and  in  the  two  succeeding  years  was  a  member 
of  the  legislature,  to  which  he  was  chosen  as 
the  candidate  of  the  republican  or  democratic 
party.  In  1798  the  legislature  elected  him 
United  States  senator.  He  took  his  seat,  bnt 
his  right  to  it  was  contested,  and  at  the  end  of 
two  months  he  was  declared  to  have  been  in- 
eligible, on  the  ground  that  he  had  not  been 
a  citizen  of  the  United  States  the  nine  years 
required  by  the  constitution,  as  he  did  not  take 
the  oath  of  allegiance  till  1785.  Opposition 
to  the  excise  laws  having  ripened  in  western 
Pennsylvania  into  the  "  whiskey  insurrection  " 
in  1794,  Gallatin  was  instrumental,  at  con- 
siderable personal  risk,  in  bringing  about  a 
peaceful  accommodation  between  the  govern- 
ment and  the  people.  In  recognition  of  his 
services  he  was  elected  to  the  house  of  repre- 
sentatives as  a  people's  candidate,  and  con- 
tinued a  member  of  that  body  from  1795  to 
1801 .  On  April  26, 1796,  he  delivered  a  speech 
in  which  he  showed  himself  to  be  an  unflinch- 
ing republican.  He  even  went  so  far  as  to 
charge  Washington  and  Jay  with  having  pu- 
sillanimously  surrendered  the  honor  of  their 
country.  As  this  speech  pame  from  a  man 
whose  accent  betrayed  that  he  was  of  foreign 
birth,  and  whose  youth  indicated  that  he  could 
not  have  arrived  in  the  country  much  before 
the  termination  of  the  war,  it  exasperated  the 
federalists,  one  of  whom  remarked  in  reply 
that  "he  could  not  feel  thankful  to  the  gen- 
tleman for  coming  all  the  way  from  Geneva  to 
accuse  Americans  of  pusillanimity."  Mr.  Gal- 
latin participated  in  all  the  important  debates 
in  the  house,  and  soon  became  the  acknowl- 
edged leader  of  his  party.  On  his  motion  the 
committee  of  ways  and  means  was  first  organ- 
ized as  a  standing  committee  of  the  house  in 


GALLATIN 


578 


1795.  He  directed  his  attention  partionlarly 
to  financial  questions,  and  besides  maintaining 
hia  views  in  debate  published  two  pamphlets, 
"A  Sketch  of  Finances"  (1798),  and  "Views 
of  Pablic  Debt,"  &o.  (1800).    He  made  im- 

S^rtant  speeches  on  "Foreign  Intercourse," 
arch  1,  1798;  on  the  "Alien  Law,"  March 
1,  1799;  and  on  the  "Navy  Establishment," 
Feb.  9  and  11,  1799.  On  May  15,  1801,  he 
was  appointed  by  President  Jefferson  secretary 
of  the  treasury,  which  office  he  held  under  him 
and  Madison  till  1813.  He  was  eminently 
successful  in  his  management  of  the  treasury 
department,  and  soon  attained  a  reputation  as 
one  of  the  first  financiers  of  the  age.  His  an- 
nual reports  exhibit  great  ability,  and  had  the 
highest  influence  upon  the  general  legislation 
of  the  republic.  He  opposed  the  increase  of 
the  national  debt,  and  prepared  the  way  for 
its  gradual  extinction.  He  systematized  the 
mode  of  disposing  of  the  public  lands,  and  was 
a  zealous  advocate  of  internal  improvements, 
particularly  the  national  road  and  the  coast 
survey.  He  also  exercised  great  influence  on 
the  other  departments  of  the  government,  and 
on  the  politics  of  the  country.  In  1809  Presi- 
dent Madison  offered  him  the  state  depart- 
ment, which  he  declined.  He  was  opposed  to 
going  to  war  with  Great  Britain  in  1812,  and 
as  a  member  of  the  cabinet  exerted  himself 
strenuously  to  restore  amicable  relations  with 
the  British  government.  An  offer  having 
been  made  by  the  Russian  government  to  me- 
diate between  the  United  States  and  Great 
Britain,  President  Madison,  March  8,  1818, 
nominated  as  ministers  to  negotiate,  Gallatin, 
James  A.  Bayard  of  the  senate,  and  John 
Quincy  Adams,  at  that  time  American  minis- 
ter at  St.  Petersburg.  Gallatin  and  Bayard  in 
May  sailed  for  St.  Petersburg  in  a  private  ship, 
with  a  cartel  from  the  British  admiral,  granted 
at  the  request  of  the  Russian  ambassador  at 
Washington.  The  senate,  on  meeting  in  extra 
session  a  few  weeks  later,  refused  to  confirm 
Gallatin^s  appointment,  because  it  was  incom- 
patible with  his  secretaryship.  The  attempt 
at  mediation  resulted  in  nothing,  but  in  Jan- 
uary, 1814,  an  offer  was  received  from  the 
British  government  proposing  a  direct  negotia- 
tion for  peace.  President  Madison  nominated 
as  commissioners  John  Quincy  Adams,  Henry 
Clay,  Jonathan  Russell,  Bayard,  and  Gallatin. 
Gallatin  was  still  abroad,  and  to  obviate  the 
objection  of  the  senate  on  account  of  his  hold- 
ing the  office  of  secretary  of  the  treasury,  he 
resigned  that  post  definitively.  It  was  finally 
decided  that  the  negotiations  should  be  con- 
ducted at  Ghent.  In  the  discussions  which 
resulted  in  the  treaty  of  peace,  Dec.  24,  1814, 
and  in  the  commercial  convention  with  Great 
Britun  a  short  time  afterward,  Gallatin  had  a 
prominent  and  honorable  share.  In  1815  he 
was  appointed  minister  to  France,  where  he 
remained  till  1828.  During  this  period  he  was 
twice  deputed  on  special  missions  of  impor- 
tance, to  the  Netherlands  in  1817  and  to  Eng- 


land in  1818.  While  in  this  office  he  ren- 
dered some  essential  service  to  Mr.  Alexander 
Baring  in  the  negotiation  of  a  loan  for  the 
French  government.     Mr.  Baring  in  return 

Sressed  him  to  take  a  part  of  the  loan,  offering 
im  such  advantages  in  it  that  without  ad- 
vancing any  funds  he  could  have  realized  a 
fortune.  "I  thank  you,"  was  Gallatin^s  re- 
ply; "I  will  not  accept  your  obliging  offer, 
because  a  man  who  has  had  the  direction  of 
the  finances  of  his  country  as  long  as  I  have 
should  not  die  rich."  On  his  return  from 
France  he  refused  a  seat  in  the  cabinet,  and 
declined  to  be  a  candidate  for  vice  president, 
to  which  he  was  nominated  by  the  democratic 
party.  In  1826  he  was  appointed  by  Presi- 
dent Adams  envoy  extraordinary  to  Great 
Britain.  After  negotiating  several  important 
commercial  conventions,  he  returned  to  tihe 
United  States  in  December,  1827,  and  took  up 
his  residence  in  the  city  of  New  York.  Soon 
after  his  return  he  prepared  the  argument  in 
behalf  of  the  United  States  to  be  laid  before 
the  king  of  the  Netherlands  as  an  umpire  on 
the  Maine  boundary  question.  In  1880  he  was 
chosen  president  of  the  council  of  the  univer- 
sity in  New  York.  In  1881  he  published  "  Con- 
siderations on  the  Currency  and  Banking  Sys- 
tem of  the  United  States,"  in  which  he  advo- 
cated the  advantages  of  a  regular  bank  of  the 
United  States.  He  was  a  member  of  the  free 
trade  convention  at  Philadelphia  in  1881,  and 
prepared  for  that  body  the  memorial  which 
was  submitted  to  congress.  From  1831  to  1889 
he  was  president  of  the  national  bank  in  the 
city  of  New  York,  and  on  resigning  the  office 
was  succeeded  by  his  son  James  Gallatin.  The 
remainder  of  his  life  was  devoted  to  literature, 
and  en>ecially  to  historical  and 'ethnological 
researches.  In  1842  he  was  one  of  the  chief 
founders,  and  was  chosen  first  president,  of 
the  ethnological  society.  He  was  president  of 
the  New  York  historical  society  from  1843  till 
his  death.  During  the  controversy  with  Great 
Britain  on  the  northeastern  boundary,  he  pub- 
lished a  pamphlet  on  the  subject,  which  display- 
ed great  research.  Again,  in  1846,  during  the 
Oregon  difficulties,  he  published  letters  on  the 
"Oregon  Question,"  distinguished  by  impar- 
tiality, moderation,  and  power  of  reasoning.  He 
was  strongly  opposed  to  war,  and  during  the 
war  with  Mexico  he  wrote  a  pamphlet  of  which 
150,000  copies  were  printed,  and  which  had  a 
marked  influence  on  public  opinion.  At  an 
early  period  Mr.  Gallatin  turned  his  attention 
to  the  ethnological  and  philological  character- 
istics of  the  American  Indians.  His  first  essay 
on  this  topic  was  written  in  1828  at  the  request 
of  Humboldt.  He  afterward  published  "  Sy- 
nopsis of  the  Indian  Tribes  within  the  United 
States,  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  in 
the  British  and  Russian  Possessions  in  North 
America,"  forming  vol.  ii.  of  the  Archaologia 
Amsrieana  (American  antiquarian  society, 
Worcester,  1836) ;  and  the  subject  was  one  of 
the  last  that  occupied  him  in  a  work  on  the 


574 


GALLAUDET 


GALL  BLADDER 


"  Semi-Civilized  Nations  of  Mexico,  Yaoatan, 
and  Central  America,  with  Conjectures  on  the 
Origin  of  Semi-CiTilization  in  America,"  pub- 
lished by  the  American  ethnological  society 
(New  York,  1846). 

GALLArDirr.  L  nionas  HopUu,  founder  of  the 
first  institution  in  America  for  instruction  of 
the  deaf  and  dumb,  bom  in  Philadelphia,  Dec. 
10, 1787,  died  in  Hartford,  Conn.,  Sept.  9, 1861. 
He  was  of  Huguenot  descent,  early  removed 
with  his  parents  to  Hartford,  and  graduated  at 
Yale  coUege  in  1806.  He  entered  the  theologi- 
cal seminary  at  Andover  in  1811,  and  was  li- 
censed to  preach  in  1814,  but  soon  became  in- 
terested in  the  instruction  of  deaf  mutes,  and 
was  appointed  to  superintend  the  establish- 
ment of  an  institution  at  Hartford  for  that  pur- 
pose. In  1816  he  visited  London,  Edinburgh, 
and  Paris,  and  returned  in  1816  with  Laurent 
Clero  as  his  assistant.  (See  Clebo.)  The  asy- 
lum went  into  operation  in  1817  witii  a  class  of 
seven  pupils.  Dr.  Gallaudet  resigned  his  con- 
nection with  it  as  principal  on  account  of  im- 
paired health  in  1880,  but  continued  to  be  one 
of  the  directors.  He  afterward  prepared  vari- 
ous works  to  aid  the  education  of  the  young, 
and  in  1888  became  chaplain  of  the  Connecticut 
retreat  for  the  insane,  at  Hartford,  which  office 
he  retained  till  his  death.  He  published  a  vol- 
ume of  "Discourses"  (London,  1818),  preached 
to  an  English  congregation  in  Paris,  a  series  of 
"Bible  Stories  for  the  Young,"  "The  Child's 
Book  of  the  Soul "  (8d  ed.,  1850),  "  The  Youth's 
Book  of  Natural  Theology,"  and  other  similar 
works,  and  edited  6  vols,  of  the  "  Annals  of  the 
Deaf  and  Dumb  "  (Hartford).  His  biography, 
by  Heman  Humphrey,  D.  D.,  was  published  in 
New  York  in  1858.  !!•  ThMUU,  an  American 
clergyman,  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Hart- 
ford, Conn.,  June  8, 1822.  He  was  a  professor 
in  the  New  York  institution  for  deaf  mutes 
from  1848  to  1868.  In  1860  he  received  orders 
in  the  Episcopal  church,  and  in  1862  founded 
St.  Ann's  church  for  deaf  mutes  and  their 
friends,  for  which.a  church  edifice  and  rectory, 
in  18th  street,  near  Fifth  avenue,  were  pur- 
chased in  1869.  Through  his  efibrts  and  ex- 
ample church  services  for  deaf  mutes  have  also 
been  established  in  Philadelphia,  Baltimore, 
Albany,  Boston,  and  other  places.  Dr.  Gallau- 
det is  a  frequent  contributor  to  the  "American 
Annals  of  the  Deaf  and  Dumb"  and  other 
periodicals.  Ill*  Edwaid  IDbct,  LL.  D.,  a  deaf- 
mute  instructor,  brother  of  the  preceding,  bom 
in  Hartford,  Feb.  6, 1887.  He  became  a  teacher 
in  the  Hartford  asylum  in  1866,  and  in  1867 
organized  at  Washington,  D.  C^  the  Columbia 
institution  for  the  deaf  and  dumb  and  the  blind. 
This  enterprise  proved  very  successful,  and  in 
1864  he  initiated  measures  for  the  establish- 
ment of  the  national  deaf-mute  college,  of  which 
he  became  president  and  professor  of  moral  and 
political  science.  In  1867  he  visited  the  prin- 
cipal deaf-mute  institutions  of  Europe,  and  on 
his  return  in  1868  published  an  elaborate  re- 
port of  his  investigations. 


ClAUi  BLADDER,  the  pear-shaped  membra- 
nous reservoir,  situated  in  a  slight  depression 
on  the  lower  surface  of  the  right  lobe  of  the 
liver,  which  contains  the  bile  during  the  inter- 
vals of  digestion.  The  larger  extremity  is  di- 
rected forward  and  to  the  right;  the  body  of 
the  organ  is  adherent  above  to  the  substance 
of  the  liver  by  dense  areolar  tissue,  free  below, 
covered  by  the  peritoneum,  and  resting  upon 
the  pylorus,  duodenum,  and  right  arch  of  the 
colon ;  the  neck  is  narrow  and  continuous  with 
the  cystic  duct,  about  an  inch  and  a  half  long, 
which  unites  with  the  hepatic  duct  from  the 
liver,  of  about  the  same  length,  to  form  the 
common  bile  duct  (dtietus  communis  eholedoeu* 
of  anatomists).  It  is  composed  of  an  external 
serous  coat,  a  middle  areolar  contractile  tissue, 
and  an  internal  mucous  membrane ;  the  arteries 
are  derived  from  the  hepatic  branch  of  tho 
ooeliac  axis,  the  nerves  from  the  hepatic  plexne, 
and  the  veins  empty  their  contents  into  the 
vena  portsa.  The  hepatic  duct  is  formed  by 
the  junction  of  the  two  principal  branches 
(one  from  each  lobe),  the  result  of  the  union 
of  the  numerous  ramifications  from  the  interior 
of  the  liver.  During  digestion  the  bile  flows 
without  obstruction  into  the  duodenum,  but  in 
the  intervals  of  this  process,  owing  to  the  par- 
tial constriction  of  the  common  duct,  a  portion 
of  the  bile  flows  by  the  cystic  duct  backward 
into  the  gall  bladder,  whose  office  is  essentifJly 
that  of  a  reservoir,  storing  up  a  supply  of  the 
secretion  in  the  intervals  of  digestion.  The 
common  duct  is  formed  by  the  union  of  the 
hepatic  and  cystic  ducts,  and  is  about  8i  in. 
long,  opening  obliquely  into  the  duodenum  near 
its  last  curve,  by  an  orifice  in  the  middle  of  a 
slight  elevation.  The  stimulus  of  the  food 
opens  the  intestinal  orifice,  and  bile  is  discharg- 
ed both  from  the  liver  and  the  gall  bladder  du- 
ring digestion,  its  passage  being  efifected  by  the 
contraction  of  the  walls  of  the  gall  bladder  and 
the  ducts.  Ordinarily  containing  a  few  ounces, 
the  gall  bladder  may  be  so  distended  as  to  con- 
tain several  pints,  and  it  may  be  so  atrophied 
as  to  be  little  larger  than  a  pea ;  these  cases, 
and  the  fact  of  the  absence  of  the  reservoir  in 
many  animals,  show  that  its  physiological  im- 
portance is  not  great.  It  is  subject  to  ossifica- 
tion, cancer,  and  acute  and  chronic  infiammatioa 
from  the  irritation  of  gall  stones  or  extension 
of  diseases  from  the  intestine ;  its  diseases  may 
end  in  ulceration,  and  obliteration  of  the  ducts. 
From  its  smallness  and  protected  situation  it  is 
rarely  directly  wounded,  though  it  is  sometimes 
ruptured  by  great  external  violence.  The  gall 
bladder  is  absent  in  invertebrates,  in  whidi  the 
bile  ducts  open  directiy  into  the  digestive  cav- 
ity ;  it  is  present  in  most  fishes,  all  reptiles,  and 
most  birds.  There  seems  to  be  no  general  law 
regulating  its  presence  or  absence  in  mammalia ; 
it  is  wanting  in  many  rodents  (as  the  mouseX 
in  the  elephant,  rhinoceros,  tapir,  camd,  pec- 
cary, horse,  stag,  and  dolphin ;  it  is  present  in 
the  monkeys,  bats,  camivora,  almost  all  eden- 
tateS)  and  in  many  ruminants  (as  the  ox,  sheep, 


GALLE 


GALLEY 


575 


goat,  and  antelope).  Li  the  orycteropuB  of 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  an  animal  related  to 
the  ant-eaters,  there  are  two  gall  bladders. 
With  the  exception  of  the  dolphins,  it  seems 
that  all  mammals  in  which  it  is  absent  are 
vegetable  feeders. 

€ALLE,  JekaiB  Girttfiled,  a  German  astrono- 
mer, bom  at  Pabsthaus,  near  Wittenberg  June 
9, 1812.  He  studied  at  Wittenberg  and  Berlin, 
and  bec^ame  a  teacher  and  subseqaentlj  an  as- 
sistant at  the  observatory  in  the  latter  city,  of 
which  Encke  was  director.  In  1839-'40,  for  the 
discovery  of  three  new  comets,  he  received  med- 
als from  the  king  of  Denmark  and  the  Lalande 
prize  from  the  French  academy.  A  doctor's 
diploma  wasj^ven  to  him  after  his  publication 
in  1845  of  'mduum  Roemeri^  relating  to  the 
observations  of  Ole  Rdmer.  In  1846  Le- 
verrier  applied  to  Galle  for  aid  in  searching  for 
the  planet  which  he  supposed  to  exist  beyond 
Uranus.  With  the  assistance  of  a  map  just 
completed  by  Dr.  Bemicker,  Galle  had  the  good 
fortune  to  be  the  first  to  detect  this  Leverrier 
planet,  subsequently  known  as  Neptune,  on  the 
evening  of  the  very  same  day  on  which  he  had 
received  the  French  astronomer's  application 
(Sept.  28).  Encke  declared  that  theoretic  as- 
tronomy had  never  before  achieved  so  great  a 
victory  as  on  this  occasion,  and  Galle  received 
another  Lalande  prize  from  the  French  acad- 
emy. In  1851  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
astronomy  and  director  of  the  observatory  at 
Breslau.  Besides  numerous  contributions  on 
the  subject  of  astronomy  and  meteorology  to 
scientific  periodicals,  he  has  published  Grand' 
9uge  der  iehleauchen  KUmatologie  (Breslau, 
1857),  and  an  extensive  supplement  to  Encke's 
£om€Untafel  (1863). 

6ALLETTI9  JehtiB  (Seorg  iigvst,  a  German 
historian  and  geographer,  bom  in  Altenburg, 
Aug.  19,  1750,  died  in  Gotha,  March  16,  1828. 
He  was  a  professor  at  the  gymnasium  of  Gotha 
from  1783  to  1819,  and  published  several  man- 
uals of  history.  Among  his  larger  works  are 
Kleine  Weltgesehichte  (27  vols.,  Gotha,  1787- 
1819),  and  Allgemeine  Weltkunde  (Leipsic, 
1807;  12th  ed.,  Pesth.  1869-'61). 

GAIXET  (Fr.  gaUre),  a  long,  low,  narrow 
vessel  of  war,  propelled  by  oars  and  sails.  The 
derivation  of  the  word  is  uncertain,  but  it  is 
generally  supposed  to  be  from  gctleci,  a  helmet, 
either  because  it  was  used  sometimes  as  a 
figurehead,  or  because  the  basket-like  construc- 
tion at  the  head  of  the  mast,  for  the  use  of 
archers  and  slingers,  was  shaped  like  a  helmet. 
The  name  was  first  applied  under  the  Byzan- 
tine empire  to  this  class  of  vessels,  which  the 
ancients  designated,  according  to  the  number 
of  banks  of  oars  in  each,  biremes,  triremes, 
quadriremes,  &c.  The  first  galleys  were  mere- 
ly open  boats,  with  a  single  rank  of  rowers  on 
each  side,  and  sometimes  with  a  single  mast 
and  a  square  sail.  The  rowers  were  placed 
amidship  and  the  fighting  men  in  the  bow  and 
stem.  Platforms  for  combatants  were  soon 
built  on  the  forecastle  and  stem,  and  bulwarks 
344  VOL.  VII. — 37 


were  raised  for  the  protection  of  oarsmen ;  but 
it  was  not  until  the  3d  or  4th  century  B.  0. 
that  the  two  platforms  were  connected  so  as  to 
make  a  complete  deck.  The  Egyptian  war 
galleys  of  the  15th  century  B.  0.  difiered  very 
little  in  general  construction  from  the  Mediter- 
ranean galleys  of  the  17th  century  A.  D.  They 
were  from  116  to  120  ft.  long  by  16  ft.  wide, 
were  propelled  by  both  sails  and  oars,  and  were 
armed  with  a  beak.  They  are  represented 
sometimes  with  22  oars  on  a  side,  always  ar- 
ranged in  a  single  bank.  According  to  Pliny, 
the  Erythraans  were  the  inventors  of  the 
bireme,  or  galley  with  two  banks  of  oars; 
Thucydides  ascribes  the  trireme,  with  three 
banks,  to  the  Corinthians;  the  quadnreme, 
with  four  banks,  is  said  by  Pliny  and  Diodorus 
to  have  been  built  first  by  the  Carthaginians ; 
and  Mnesigiton  ascribes  the  quinquereme,  with 
five  banks,  to  the  Salaminians.  In  the  times 
of  Alexander  the  Great  and  the  Ptolendes, 
galleys  of  12, 15,  20,  and  even  40  banks  of  oars 
were  built,  according  to  ancient  writers.  A 
vast  deal  of  learning  has  been  expended  in  at- 
tempts to  explain  the  method  of  arrangement 
of  these  oar  banks,  but  it  is  still  an  unsolved 
problem.  Some  scholars  maintain  that  the 
several  banks  were  actually  placed  one  above 
the  other,  and  others  that  the  benches  were  in 
rising  grades,  like  stairs;  but  those  familiar 
with  naval  construction  reject  these  theories. 
A  more  plausible  one  is  that  of  L'Escalier,  who 
Supposes  that  the  three  banks  of  the  trireme 
were  arranged,  not  one  above  the  other,  but 
all  in  a  line,  one  amidship,  one  abaft  the  main- 
mast, and  one  forward  of  the  foremast;  and 
that  in  the  quinquereme  two  banks,  one  above 
the  other,  were  put  amidship,  two  aft,  and  one 
forward.  The  possibility  of  two  superimposed 
banks  is  generally  admitted,  and  some  writers 
believe  in  three.  On  the  column  of  Trajan  is 
represented  a  trireme  with  three  banks  of  oars 
one  above  another,  but  beyond  this  number  we 
have  no  example.  The  Athenians  used  nothing 
but  triremes  for  a  long  tiif  e,  but  in  the  4th 
century  B.  0.  quadriremes  and  qnin(jueremes 
were  introduced.  In  the  most  flourishmg  state 
of  their  navy  they  seldom  carried  more  than 
10  fighting  men  in  each  galley,  depending  on 
superior  seamanship  and  sinking  an  enemy  by 
piercing  him  with  the  spur,  rather  than  on 
overcoming  him  by  a  hand-to-hand  confiict. 
The  Romans  adopted  a  different  system  when 
they  built  their  nrst  navy  in  the  Punic  wars. 
Of  the  420  men  in  each  quinquereme,  120  were 
combatants ;  and  they  fitted  their  galleys  with 
a  boarding  bridge,  by  means  of  which  an  ene- 
my^s  deck  could  be  reached  easily  when  the 
vessels  were  laid  alongside  of  each  other. 
Quinqueremes  had  usually  two  masts,  each  of 
which  carried  a  square  sail.  These  masts  were 
lowered  previous  to  going  into  action,  and  the 
galleys  were  manoeuvred  by  oars  alone.  In 
time  experience  proved  the  superiority  of  light- 
er vessels,  and  the  trireme  gradually  supplant- 
ed other  forms  and  came  to  be  recognized  as 


576 


GALLEY 


the  best  type  of  the  war  galley.  The  Roman 
trireme  was  about  105  ft.  long  by  11  wide,  and 
was  manned  by  170  rowers.  After  the  time 
of  Julius  CcDsar  the  trireme  was  90  fb.  by  10, 
differing  from  the  Neapolitan  and  Maltese  gal- 
leys, whose  length  seldom  exceeded  seven 
breadths.  When  propelled  by  both  oars  and 
sails  their  speed  was  very  great,  almost  equal- 
liug  at  times  that  of  the  modem  steamboat. 
In  the  ancient  galleys  each  oar  was  pulled  by 
a  single  man.  The  rowers  were  guided  by  the 
word  of  command  or  by  the  sound  of  a  trumpet, 
and  appropriate  cries  were  adapted  to  each 
manoeuvre.  The  Greeks  sometimes  had  mu- 
sicians who  regulated  the  movements  by  sing- 
ing or  by  playing  the  flute  or  harp.  In  place 
of  a  rudder,  galleys  were  furnished  with  a  large 
broad  oar  on  each  side  of  the  stem,  and  some- 
times with  two  on  each  side.  The  galleys 
which  under  the  eastern  empire  took  the  place 
of  the  trireme  were  of  similar  construction, 
but  a  little  lower.  They  had  two  decks  and 
two  banks  of  25  oars  on  each  side,  making  100 
in  all,  were  armed  with  a  beak,  and  fhmished 
with  various  engines  for  throwing  darts  and 
stones,  or  for  dropping  heavy  weights  on  the 
deck  of  an  enemy.  After  the  invention  of 
Greek  fire,  tubes  for  spouting  this  liquid  were 
fitted  to  the  bow,  and  the  bulwarks  and  deck 
were  sometimes  covered  with  raw  hide  to  pro- 
tect them  from  that  thrown  by  an  enemy. 
England  under  Alfred  the  Great  excelled  in 
her  galleys,  which  carried  from  40  to  60  rowers 
on  each  side.  The  forces  of  William  the  Con- 
queror were  transported  across  the  channel  in 
galleys  so  small  that  they  carried  no  more  than 
20  armed  men  besides  the  rowers.  When 
Richard  Ooeur  de  Lion  went  to  the  Holy  Land 
in  1190,  he  had,  besides  other  ships,  88  war 
galleys;  and  the  Saracens  fought  him  with 
similar  vessels.  They  differed  very  little  from 
those  of  the  early  eastern  empire.  Geoffrey 
de  Vinsauf  describes  them  as  long  and  graceful, 
not  high  out  of  water,  with  two  decks  and  two 
banks  of  oars,  and  armed  with  a  wooden  spur 
shod  with  iron.  A  smaller  and  lighter  vessel, 
with  one  bank  of  oars,  used  for  despatch  boats 
and  for  throwing  Greek  fire,  was  called  a  galleon. 
From  this  time  onward  galleys  again  played  an 
important  part  in  the  Mediterranean.  They 
were  much  used  also  in  the  northern  seas.  In 
1295  Eric,  king  of  Norway,  furnished  Philip 
the  Fair  200  galleys  for  use  in  the  war  with 
Edward  I.  of  England.  In  the  14th  century 
and  after  galleys  were  divided  generally  into 
three  classes.  The  largest  were  162  ft.  long 
on  deck  and  188  ft.  on  the  keel,  with  82  ft. 
beam  and  a  stem  post  of  28  ft.  They  had 
three  masts  with  one  large  lateen  siul  on  each, 
and  82  oars  on  a  side,  arranged  in  a  single  tier, 
each  oar  being  pulled  by  six  or  seven  men. 
The  deck  projected  beyond  the  hull,  so  that 
the  rowing  benches  were  on  the  outside,  where 
they  were  protected  by  bulwarks  and  were 
sometimes  housed  over  and  sometimes  covered 
with  an  awning.     The  middle  of  the  vessel 


from  stem  to  stem  was  thus  left  clear.  Gal- 
leys of  the  second  class,  or  derai-galleys,  were 
of  similar  construction,  from  120  to  130  ft.  long, 
18  ft.  beam,  and  from  9  to  10  ft.  hold;  they 
were  furnished  with  two  masts,  and  had  25 
oars  on  each  side.  Quarter  galleys  had  only 
from  12  to  16  oars  on  each  side,  and  were  of 
little  utility  excepting  in  fine  weather.  After 
the  invention  of  gunpowder,  the  sharp  beak 
for  running  down  an  enemy  went  out  of  use, 
and  galleys  were  aimed  with  cannon.  The 
large  vessels  of  the  15th  century  carried  usu- 
ally three  batteries  forward,  in  tiers,  the  lowest 
consisting  of  two  86-pounders,  the  second  of 
two  24-pounders,  and  the  highest  of  two  small 
guns.  Three  18-pounders  were  mounted  also 
on  each  quarter.  Demi-galleys  carried  five 
guns  forward  and  a  number  of  smaller  ones  on 
the  sides  and  stern.  The  Venetian  galeass 
{galeax2a\  one  third  larger  than  the  ordinary 
^ley,  had  a  large  towering  structure  on  the 
stern,  a  castellated  structure  almost  as  massive 
on  the  bow,  and  was  rowed  by  800  galley 
slaves,  whose  oar  benches  were  placed  amid- 
ship.  The  galleon  of  this  period  was  a  sailing 
vessel.  A  small  galley  was  called  a  galiot  or 
galeotte.  In  1540  Gustavus  Yasa  sent  for  Ve- 
netian workmen  to  build  for  him  galeottea, 
galeres,  and  galeasses,  which  Olaus  Ma^^us 
translates  biremes,  triremes,  and  quadriremes. 
Until  near  the  close  of  the  18th  century  galleys 
made  a  part  of  the  fleet  of  all  maritime  nations. 
They  drew  but  little  water,  and  were  conve- 
nient for  coast  service;  and  in  calms  and  light 
winds,  which  often  prevail  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean, they  had  the  advantage  over  a  sailing 
vessel,  being  able  to  keep  on  her  quarter  out 
of  the  range  of  her  giins.  The  advancement 
in  naval  construction  and  in  navigation,  and 
the  improvement  in  guns  and  gunnery,  finally 
put  an  end  to  the  use  of  this  class  of  war  ships, 
which  had  dominated  the  maritime  world  for 
more  than  8,000  years. — ^In  the  most  ancient 
times,  to  row  in  the  galleys  was  considered 
honorable.  Among  the  early  Greeks  oarsmen 
were  generally  voluntary  recruits,  but  at  a  later 
period  prisoners  of  war  were  put  to  this  ser- 
vice. The  Carthaginians  manned  their  galleys 
with  captive  Mauritanians.  The  Roman  oars- 
men were  at  first  citizens  of  the  lower  class, 
but  eventually  prisoners  of  war  and  slaves  were 
also  employed.  A  single  doubtful  passage  in 
Valerius  Maximus.  has  led  to  the  supposition 
that  criminals  were  sometimes  condemned  by 
the  Romans  to  the  galleys,  but  it  is  probable 
that  they  were  first  used  for  that  purpose  un- 
der the  Byzantine  empire.  In  the  middle  ages 
the  galley  rowers  were  convicts  and  infidcd 
prisoners,  who  were  chained  to  the  benches 
on  which  they  sat.  The  Turks  and  Barbary 
corsairs  retaliated,  and  captured  Christians 
were  put  to  the  same  labor.  In  the  16th  and 
17th  centuries  France,  Spain,  and  the  Italian 
republics  made  use  of  galleys  as  places  of  pun- 
ishment for  condemned  criminals,  who  were 
called  by  the  French  gaUrienSy  and  by  the 


GALLIA 


GALLIC  ACID 


577 


English  galley  slaves.  In  France,  Richelieu 
ordered  the  courts  of  justice  to  sentence  crimi- 
nals to  the  galleys  in  preference  to  other  pun- 
ishments, and  even  those  who  had  committed 
capital  crimes  were  thus  utilized.  In  the  reign 
of  Louis  XIV.  nearly  all  convicts  were  con- 
demned to  this  service;  and  in  1676  it  was 
seriously  proposed  that  vagrants  should  be 
thus  disposed  of,  but  Colbert  refused  to  sanc- 
tion the  measure.  At  a  later  date  this  was 
carried  into  effect,  and  confirmed  mendicants, 
poachers,  and  those  convicted  of  the  smallest 
crimes,  were  sent  to  the  galleys.  Even  these 
did  not  suffice  to  man  the  benches,  and  vari- 
ous other  means  were  resorted  to.  Crimi- 
nals were  sometimes  purchased  from  coun- 
tries that  kept  no  galleys,  slaves  were  bought 
from  the  Turks,  and  negroes  were  imported 
from  Guinea.  The  marquis  de  Denonville, 
governor  of  Kew  France,  kidnapped  Iroquois 
Indians  for  this  service.  This  excited  against 
the  French  a  spirit  of  hate  among  the  savages 
which  culminated  in  the  massacre  of  Lachine, 
and  Louis  XIV.  found  it  necessary  to  send  back 
in  1689  all  who  survived.  From  the  beginning 
of  the  17th  century  to  the  early  part  of  the 
18th  heretics  were  particularly  sought  out  and 
condemned  to  the  galleys.  Galley  slaves  were 
subjected  to  the  greatest  cruelties  and  indigni- 
ties. Their  heads  and  faces  were  shaved,  and 
they  rowed  entirely  naked,  wearing  a  uniform 
only  when  in  port.  They  were  seldom  released 
even  when  their  term  of  service  was  accom- 
plished. Henry  IV.  ordered  the  captains  of 
the  galleys  to  retain  prisoners  for  six  years, 
although  condemned  for  a  shorter  time;  and 
under  Louis  XIV.  galley  slaves  sentenced  for 
only  two  or  three  years  were  retained  often 
for  15  or  more.  Criminals  preferred  mutila- 
tion and  even  death  to  labor  in  the  galleys. 
In  the  Italian  republics  many  free  oarsmen 
were  employed,  who  in  their  engagements 
agreed  to  be  chained  like  the  slaves,  but  their 
heads  were  not  shaved  and  they  were  permit- 
ted to  wear  the  moustache.  These  were  mostly 
former  criminals.  This  system  was  not  adopt- 
ed in  France  because  the  bonnevoglieSy  as  they 
were  called,  would  not  consent  to  be  chained. 
In  1748  the  officers  of  the  French  galleys,  who 
had  until  then  formed  a  separate  corps,  were 
merged  in  the  royal  marine.  After  this  time 
convicts  were  employed  at  hard  labor  in  the 
arsenals  and  on  the  public  works,  but  it  was 
not  until  1791  that  the  detested  name  gaUrUn 
went  out  of  use. 

GALLIi,  a  S.  county  of  Ohio,  separated  from 
West  Virginia  by  the  Ohio  river  and  drained 
by  Raccoon  and  Symmes  creeks;  area  about 
420  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  25,545.  It  has  a 
rough  surface,  underljing  which  are  beds  of 
coal  and  iron.  The  soil  is  generally  poor  ex- 
cept in  the  vicinity  of  the  Ohio.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  192,558  bushels  of 
wheat,  626,033  of  Indian  com,  185,688  of  oats, 
132,358  of  potatoes,  438,623  lbs.  of  butter, 
65,293  of  wool,  and  12,297  tons  of  hay.    There 


were  4,889  horses,  4,944  milch  cows,  8,943  other 
cattle,  23,740  sheep,  and  13,698  swine ;  8  manu- 
factories of  woollen  goods,  1  of  sashes,  doors, 
and  blinds,  1  of  machinery,  1  of  furniture,  1 
of  pig  iron,  2  of  iron  castings,  2  tanneries,  2 
currying  establishments,  5  flour  mills,  4  planing 
mills,  and  6  saw  mills.  The  county  was  settled 
by  Frenchmen  in  1790,  whence  its  name. 
Capital,  Gallipohs. 

GALLIC  ACID,  a  product  of  the  decomposition 
of  tannic  acid  or  tannin,  obtained  in  slender, 
silky  needles  or  crystals.  When  pure,  these 
are  colorless,  without  odor,  sour,  and  astringent. 
They  are  soluble  in  100  parts  of  cold  or  3  parts 
of  boiling  water,  very  soluble  in  alcohol,  and 
less  so  in  ether.  Their  solution  decomposes  by 
exposure  to  the  air.  The  decomposition  of  the 
crystals  dried  at  212°  F.  is  supposed  to  be  rep- 
resented by  the  formula  CTHeO*.  Gallic  acid 
is  a  useful  reagent  for  detecting  the  presence 
of  iron  in  solutions.  It  does  not  possess  the 
property  of  the  solution  of  galls  of  precipitating 
gelatine.  The  acid  exists  ready  formed  in  the 
gall  nut,  in  sumach,  in  valonia,  and  in  a  large 
number  of  other  astringent  vegetables,  although 
the  quantity  in  each  is  but  small.  Gallic  acid 
is  tribafflc,  and  it  forms  tiiree  classes  of  saltis ; 
those  of  the  heavy  metals  are  generally  in- 
soluble. Several  methods  are  in  use  for  ob- 
taining it,  either  directly  from  the  galls  or 
from  Uie  solution  of  tannic  acid  first  extracted 
from  them.  The  powdered  galls  are  made  into 
a  paste  with  water,  and  exposed  for  some 
weeks  to  the  air  at  a  temperature  of  70°  to  75° 
F.,  water  being  occasionally  added  to  keep  the 
paste  moist.  The  residue,  after  expressing  the 
paste  to  free  it  from  the  liquid  portion,  is  boiled 
in  pure  water,  and  filtered  while  hot ;  the  crys- 
tals of  gallic  acid  separate  as  the  solution  cools. 
They  should  be  purified  by  redissolving  and 
boiling  with  a  little  animal  charcoal  or  filtering 
through  the  same.  As  the  presence  of  the 
smallest  quantity  of  sesquioxide  of  iron  will  cause 
the  crystals  to  be  colored,  the  charcoal  should 
be  purified,  and  the  filtering  paper  be  washed 
with  dilute  hydrochloric  acid.  Gallic  acid  is 
obtained  from  solution  of  tannic  acid  by  pre- 
cipitation with  sulphuric  acid,  the  mixture 
being  heated  to  the  boiling  point,  and  allowed 
to  stand  a  few  days.  When  gallic  acid  is 
heated  to  410°  F.  it  is  wholly  volatilized  and 
converted  into  pyro-gallic  acid  and  carbonic 
anhydride.  Pyro-gallio  acid  is  used  to  remove 
free  oxygen  from  gaseous  mixtures  and  as  a 
developer  in  photographic  operations. — When 
swallowed,  gallic  acid  is  rapidly  absorbed  from 
the  stomach  into  the  blood,  and  remains  in  the 
blood  unchanged.  When  tannic  acid  is  swal- 
lowed, it  undergoes  the  decomposition  indicated 
above,  either  before  or  after  absorption,  into 
gallic  acid ;  so  that  tannic  acid  becomes  gallic 
acid  in  the  blood.  Hence  gallic  acid  is  used  as 
an  astringent  internally  in  preference  to  tan- 
nic, and  also  because  it  is  less  irritating  to  the 
stomach  and  more  agreeable  to  the  taste.  It 
is  rapidly  eliminated  from  the  system,  chiefly 


578 


GALLIOAN  CHURCH 


by  the  kidneys.  Two  or  three  hours  after  a 
dose  of  it  has  been  taken  the  whole  or  nearly 
the  whole  of  the  amount  has  left  the  system, 
so  that  to  keep  the  patient  steadily  under  its 
influence,  it  should  be  administered  every  three 
or  four  hours.  It  may  be  given  in  large  and 
frequently  repeated  doses,  with  advantage,  to 
check  haemorrhages,  especially  those  from  the 
chest  or  uterus.  It  has  also  been  used  with 
good  results  in  diseases  of  the  kidneys  and 
bladder,  the  organs  that  are  chiefly  concerned 
in  its  elimination.  It  is  of  very  little  value  as 
a  local  astringent  or  in  cases  of  diarrhoea  or 
dysentery.  The  dose  of  it  varies  from  5  to  15 
grs.  five  or  six  times  a  day.  It  is  best  given 
dissolved  in  water.  Those  who  prefer  to  do  so 
may  take  it  dry  on  the  tongue. 

GALLICAN  CHVKCH,  a  name  sometimes  used 
as  merely  signifying  the  Catholic  church  in 
France,  while  more  commonly  it  is  applied 
to  that  church  only  so  far  as  it  holds  to  cer- 
tain national  privileges,  doctrines,  and  usages. 
Those  who  have  advocated  these  distinguish- 
ing peculiarities,  in  opposition  to  Rome,  have 
therefore  generally  been  called  the  Galilean 
party,  while  their  opponents  were  known  as 
the  Roman,  papal,  or,  in  modern  times,  the 
ultramontane  party.  In  the  church  of  France 
there  was  from  the  beginning  a  strong  feeling 
of  nationalism,  the  most  important  manifesta- 
tion of  which  is  found  in  the  pragmatic  sanc- 
tion of  St.  Louis  (Louis  IX.),  issued  in  1269, 
which  forbade  the  levying  of  moneys  for  the 
court  of  Rome  without  the  royal  consent,  and 
fixed,  independently  of  the  pope,  the  cases  in 
which  appeals  were  allowed  from  ecclesiasti- 
cal tribunals  to  the  royal  courts.  The  spirit 
of  independence  was  strengthened  by  the  de- 
crees passed  in  the  fourth  and  fifth  sessions 
of  the  council  of  Constance,  and  those  enacted 
by  the  council  of  Basel  while  in  open  revolt 
against  the  pope.  Although  these  decrees 
were  condemned  by  Roman  pontiffs,  they 
were  adopted  by  France  at  the  assembly  of 
estates  at  Bourges  in  1488,  and  promulgated 
m  the  pragmatic  sanction  of  Charles  YIL,  the 
fundamental  law  of  the  Galilean  church.  This 
placed  the  general  council  above  the  pope,  for- 
bade the  paying  of  taxes  to  the  pope  for  ap- 
pointing bishops  and  prelates,  and  abolished 
the  annates  after  the  death  of  the  then  living 
pope.  This  sanction  was  repealed  by  Louis 
XI.  in  1461,  but  restored  by  Charles  VIII., 
and  by  Louis  XII.  through  the  edict  of  1499. 
Its  most  important  points  were  again  changed 
by  the  concordat  concluded  in  1516  between 
Francis  I.  and  Leo  X.,  which  granted  most  of 
the  demands  of  the  pope,  and,  notwithstanding 
the  protestations  of  the  parliaments  and  pro- 
vincial estates,  remained  valid  until  the  revo- 
lution of  1789.  The  Galilean  church  became 
almost  entirely  dependent  upon  the  kings,  who 
often  found  it  to  their  interest  to  strengthen 
the  Gallican  rather  than  the  Roman  tenden- 
cies. Thus,  some  of  the  decrees  of  the  council 
of  Trent  were  not  received  by  France,  being 


held  to  be  incompatible  with  the  laws  of  the 
kingdom  and  too  favorable  to  the  papal  au- 
thority. The  most  important  event  in  the  his- 
tory of  Gallicanism  is  the  "Declarations  of 
the  French  clergy  "  (Beclarationes  Cleri  Gal- 
licani)^  which  in  1682,  by  order  of  Louis  XIV., 
was  drawn  up  by  Bossuet,  and  defined  the 
liberties  and  doctrines  of  the  Gallican  church 
in  the  foUowing  four  articles:  1,  kings  and 
princes  are  in  temporal  matters  subject  to  no 
spiritual  power,  and  the  latter  ciin  never  ab- 
solve subjects  from  the  oath  of  obedience ;  2, 
the  pope  is  subject  to  the  decisions  of  an  (ecu- 
menical council ;  8,  the  power  of  the  pope  is 
moreover  limited,  as  far  as  France  is  con- 
cerned, by  the  established  prescriptions  and 
usages  of  the  Gallican  church ;  4,  also  in  mat- 
ters of  faith  the  decisions  of  the  pope  are  not 
infallible  when  not  confirmed  by  the  consent 
of  the  whole  church.  These  propositions  were 
proclaimed  by  a  royal  ordinance,  to  which  all 
the  instructions  of  the  theological  schools  were 
to  be  conformed ;  but  in  Rome  they  were 
publicly  burned  by  the  common  executioner. 
Louis  XIV.,  in  order  to  restore  peace  with  the 
head  of  the  church,  soon  revoked  them,  but 
his  revocation  was  not  received  among  the 
laws  of  the  French  state  or  church,  and  the 
articles  therefore  remained  valid,  and  formed 
the  legal  palladium  of  the  Gallican  party.  The 
French  revolution  overthrew  the  whole  Cath- 
olic church  in  France.  Napoleon,  as  first  con- 
sul of  the  republic,  reestablished  it  as  a  state 
church  by  a  concordat  with  Pius  VII.,  in  1801. 
To  the  concordat  he  added,  April  8,  1802,  or- 
ganic articles,  which  enacted  that  the  procla- 
mation  of  papal  decrees  depends  upon  the  dis- 
cretion of  the  government;  that  there  shall 
always  be  an  opportunity  for  an  appeal  to  the 
council  of  state  against  the  abuses  of  ecclesi- 
astical power;  and  that  the  teachers  in  the 
seminaries  shall  be  always  bound  by  the  four 
propositions  of  the  Gallican  clergy.  The  pope 
and  a  majority  of  the  bishops  protested  against 
l^e  validity  of  the  organic  articles,  and  a 
synod  convoked  in  1811  at  Paris  refused  to  de- 
clare the  church  of  France  independent  of  the 
pope.  Louis  XVIII.  concluded,  June  11, 1817, 
a  new  concordat,  by  which  that  of  1801  was 
abolished,  and  that  of  1616  restored.  As, 
however,  the  chamber  of  deputies  refused  to 
ratify  it,  the  new  concordat  never  received 
legal  sanction.  Although  the  clergy  had  no 
opportunity  to  declare  themselves  in  synods 
and  councils  on  the  relation  of  the  Galilean 
church  to  Rome,  it  was  generally  known  that 
a  mtgority  were  in  favor  of  strengthening  the 
union  with  Rome,  and  opposed  to  defending 
anything  in  the  national  church  which  was 
regarded  by  Rome  as  un-Catholic.  The  July 
revolution  of  1880  had  but  little  infiuence  on 
the  inner  development  of  the  Gallican  church. 
Louis  Philippe  made  as  great  concessions  to 
the  hierarchy  as  the  origin  of  his  own  au- 
thority would  allow.  The  bishops  whom  he 
appointed  were  mostly  opposed  to  the  Gallican 


GALLDENUS 


GALLINULE 


579 


tendencies.  An  attempt  in  1881  hj  the  abb6 
Ch&te]  to  establish  a  religious  association  under 
tiie  name  of  the  French  Catholic  church 
{eglue  eatholique  fran^aUe)^  was  at  once  re- 
gaj^ed  by  the  Catholics  as  being  not  a  move- 
ment witiiin  but  a  secession  from  the  national 
churoh.  The  establishment  of  the  republic  in 
1848  gave  the  church  a  liberty  in  ecclesiastical 
and  educational  affairs  which  she  had  not  en- 
joyed for  centuries.  For  the  first  time  within 
more  than  100  years  the  bishops  held  provin- 
cial and  diocesan  councils.  It  appeared  that  a 
difference  of  views  still  existed  between  them 
concerning  the  relation  of  the  French  church 
to  Rome ;  but  it  was  no  longer  the  same  party 
division  as  formerly,  the  Gallican  party  of  old 
being  found  to  be  almost  extinct.  All  the  bish- 
ops agreed  that  it  was  desirable  to  strengthen 
the  union  between  Rome  and  France,  especially 
in  order  to  give  to  the  national  church  greater 
strength  to  resist  the  encroachments  of  the  sec- 
ular power.  One  of  the  clearest  proofs  of  the 
spirit  now  prevailing  is  the  gradual  introduction 
of  the  Roman  liturgy  into  every  French  dio- 
cese. Under  Napoleon  III.  the  bishops  claimed 
the  right  to  meet  without  previous  authoriza- 
tion in  provincial  councils;  and  the  govern- 
ment, in  order  to  avoid  a  conflict,  permitted 
them  to  do  so  without  deciding  the  legal  ques- 
tion. Thiers,  who  as  leader  of  the  dynastic 
opposition  under  Louis  Philippe  had  often  in- 
sisted on  the  maintenance  of  the  Gallican  liber- 
ties, had  as  president  in  1871-*8  political  rea- 
sons to  avoid  all  conflicts  with  the  episcopate, 
which  now  more  than  ever  is  a  unit  in  repu- 
diating the  principles  of  the  old  Gallicanism. 
Only  a  few  prominent  theologians  protested  in 
the  name  of  the  Gallican  church  against  the 
definition  of  the  pope^s  official  infallibility ;  but 
after  the  proclamation  of  the  decrees  of  the 
Vatican  council,  the  dissentient  French  prelates 
gave  in  their  adhesion. — Among  the  most  im- 
portant works  on  the  Galilean  church,  its  histo- 
ry and  liberties,  are :  Count  Joseph  de  Maistre, 
Du  Pape  (Lyons,  1819),  and  Ds  V£glue  galli- 
eane  dans  son  rc^port  avee  le  souverain  pantife 
(Paris,  1821);  Dupin,  Lea  Itbertes  de  Pj^glise 
gallicane  (Paris,  1824);  and  Frayssinous,  Les 
trais  prineipes  de  V£glUe  gallicane. 

CALUGNUS,  PibUis  lidnlis  i^atlis,  a  Roman 
emperor,  son  of  the  emperor  Valerian,  bom 
about  A.  D.  285,  died  in  268.  On  Valerian's 
accession  to  the  throne  in  253  he  immediately 
associated  his  son  with  himself  in  the  govern- 
ment with  the  title  of  CsBsar.  The  old  em- 
peror sent  him,  under  the  care  of  Postumus, 
governor  of  Gaul,  to  repel  the  incursions  of  the 
Franks  and  Alemanni  on  the  upper  Danube 
and  the  Rhine,  where  Gallienus  displayed  con- 
siderable ability  and  bravery.  On  hearing  of 
his  father's  defeat  and  capture  by  Sapor,  king 
of  Persia  (260),  he  made  no  effort  to  obtain  his 
release,  but  succeeded  with  evident  pleasure  to 
his  throne  and  title,  and  gave  himself  up  to 
debauchery,  viewing  with  like  indifference  the 
invasions  of  the  empire  by  the  barbarians  and 


its  dismemberment  by  usurpers.  The  Franks 
overran  Gaul  and  Spain,  and  even  crossed 
over  to  Africa;  the  Alemanni  ravaged  the 
provinces  of  the  upper  Danube;  the  Goths 
pillaged  the  cities  of  Asia  on  the  southern 
shore  of  the  Euxine;  and  the  Persians,  after 
taking  possession  of  Mesopotamia,  passed  over 
to  Syria  and  captured  Antioch.  This  was  fol- 
lowed by  the  plague.  Nearly  80  of  his  armies 
in  different  parts  of  the  empire  each  elected 
their  general  to  be  emperor,  and  the  military 
anarchy  which  succeeded  has  been  called  the 
age  of  the  80  tyrants.  When  the  legions  of 
Illyria  in  268  proclaimed  Aureolus  emperor,  he 
immediately  marched  on  Rome.  Gallienus, 
awakening  from  his  apathy,  marched  against 
the  usurper,  defeated  him  in  a  battle  near  the 
Adda,  and  then  besieged  him  in  Milan,  but 
was  murdered  by  conspirators.  Gallienus  was 
a  poet  and  rhetorician. 

GALL  INSECTS.    See  Galls. 

GALLUfriiEi  a  wading  bird,  of  the  suborder 
gralloj  family  rallida^  and  subfamily  gallinu- 
lina;  comprising  the  gQuera porphyria  (Brisa,), 
tribonyx  (Dubuis.)  from  Australia,  gallinula 
(Briss.),  and  fulioa  (Linn.) ;  the  last  has  been 
described  in  the  article  Coot.  In  the  genus 
parphyrio  (Briss.),  or  porphyrula  (Blyth),  the 
bill  is  short,  thick,  and  strong,  with  the  culmen 
much  elevated  at  the  base,  and  dilated  on  the 
for^ead,  with  a  large  frontal  plate  and  com- 
pressed sides;  nostrils  nearly  circular;  the 
wings  and  tail  are  short  and  rounded,  the  sec- 
ond, third,  and  fourth  quills  nearly  equal  and 
longest ;  the  tarsi  long  and  slender,  with  broad 
transverse  scales ;  the  toes  very  long  and  free 
at  the  base,  claws  long  and  somewhat  curved. 
More  than  a  dozen  species  are  described,  richly 
colored,  inhabiting  warm  and  temperate  re- 
gions in  pairs  or  small  flocks,  on  the  borders 
of  lakes,  rivers,  and  marshes ;  they  prefer  land 
to  water,  walk  in  a  dignified  manner,  run  lightiy 
and  quickly,  and  from  the  length  of  the  toes 
are  able  to  glide  over  the  surface  of  floating 
water  plants;  their  food  consists  chiefly  of 
fruit,  seeds,  aquatic  roota,  and  small  fish  and 
moUusks ;  their  nest  is  concealed  in  the  high 
reeds  near  the  water's  edge,  made  of  dry 
grasses,  and  the  usual  number  of  eggs  is  three 
or  four.  The  only  American  species  is  the 
purple  gallinule  (P.  Martinica,  Linn.),  with 
the  head  and  lower  parts  fine  bluish  purple, 
darker  and  often  nearly  black  on  the  abdomen 
and  tibiss ;  the  sides  and  under  wing  coverts 
bluish  green,  and  lower  tail  coverts  white; 
upper  part  of  body  dark  green  shaded  with 
olive,  and  tinged  with  brown  on  the  back  and 
rump ;  quills  and  tail  brownish  black,  with 
green  outer  edging ;  bill  bright  red  with  yellow 
tip,  frontal  plate  blue,  iris  bright  carmine, 
tarsi,  toes,  and  claws  yellow.  The  length  to 
end  of  tail  is  about  18  in.,  extent  of  wings 
211,  tarsus  2^;  weight  about  8  oz.  It  is  dis- 
tributed over  the  southern  states,  and  is  acci- 
dental in  the  middle  and  northern ;  it  is  found 
also  in  South  America.    It  runs,  swims,  dives, 


580 


GALLINDLE 


and  flies  well ;  when  travelliog  far  its  flight  ie 
high,  bat  low  and  short  in  its  feeding  or  breed- 
ing grounds;  it  alights  with  the  wings  spread 
upward  iilie  the  rail;  the  rapid  jerking  mo- 
tions of  the  tail  when  alarmed  are  very  re- 
markahte;  it  sometimeB  alights  on  ehips  200 


FurpLe  GiUlmik  (PorpliyTiD  UuUdIcd). 

or  300  miles  from  land.  Its  flesh  ia  not  gener- 
allybeldin  estimation.  It  breeds  atthesoath, 
very  earlj  in  the  jear;  the  nest  is  huilt  of 
rnshes,  2  or  8  ft.  from  the  ground,  and  is  about 
10  in.  in  diameter  on  the  inside;  the  eggs, 
from  fire  to  seven,  are  of  a  light  grayish  yel- 
low, with  blackish  brown  spots;  the  young, 
At  first  nearly  lilack,  are  fully  fiedged  by  the 
first  of  June.— In  the  genus  gallinula  (BHss.) 
the  bill  is  shorter  and  less  stout,  the  tarsi  are 
stronger,  and  the  toes  are  margined  by  a  slight 
membrane  throughont  their  length,  thongh  In 
no  way  comparable  to  the  pedd  lobes  in  the 
coot.    There  are  about  12  species  in  various 


FloridB  GiMduIo  (GalUnull  gileiU). 

parts  of  the  world,  living  on  the  borders  of 
slow  and  deep  streams  edged  with  reeds; 
they  are  more  aquatic  than  the  preceding  ge- 
nns,  preferring  water  to  land,  swimming  well 
and  striking  Ute  water  with  the  tail;  they  are 
excellent  fliers  and  divers,  and  swim  under 


GALUPOU 

water  by  means  of  their  wings ;  they  also  walk 
well,  flirting  up  their  tails,  and  run  swiftlj 
among  the  reeds  and  throngh  narrow  places; 
they  can  pasB  lightly  over  the  leaves  of  aquatio 
plants;  they  eat  slugs,  worms,  insects,  grains, 
dec. ;  the  nest  resembles  that  oiporphyHo,  the 
number  of  eggs  is  eight  to  ten,  and  the  yonng 
take  to  the  water  as  soon  as  batched.  The 
American  soecies  is  the  Florida  gallinule  {0. 
galeata,  Licnt.),  very  closely  resembling  the  0. 
ehloropvt  (Linn.)  of  Europe ;  the  principal 
differences  seem  to  be  that  in  the  American 
bird  the  frontal  plate  ia  quadrate  instead  of 
acute,  and  the  toes  are  longer.  The  head,  neck, 
and  undtr  parts  are  deep  bluish  gray,  black- 
ish on  the  head  and  neck,  and  lighter  on  the  ab- 
domen; few  feathers  on  the  sides  edged  with 
white;  lower  lid,  lateral  lower  tail  coverts, 
edge  of  wing  at  shoulder,  and  outer  edge  of 
first  primary,  uhite;  hack  and  wings  deep 
olive,  darker  on  the  rump ;  quilla  dark  ttrown ; 
tail  brownish  black ;  frontal  plate  and  bill 
bright  red,  tipped  with  yellow ;  bare  spaf*  oD 
the  tibia  next  to  the  feathers  red ;  rest  of  legs 
yellowish  green.  The  length  to  end  of  tail  i* 
about  13  In.,  extent  of  wings  22;  weight  12 
oz.  The  female  is  like  the  male.  This  species 
is  common  in  the  winter  along  the  rivers, 
ponds,  andlakes,  from  eastern  Florida  to  Texas, 
whence  it  migrates  in  spring  and  summer  to 
the  Carolinas,  and  occasionally  even  to  the 
middle  and  northern  states;  it  is  also  found  in 
South  America.  It  is  both  nocturnal  and  di- 
urnal in  its  habits,  oflen  seeking  for  food  on 
land,  walking  and  nipping  insects  and  gross 
like  the  common  fowl ;  it  is  rarely  seen  on  salt 
water,  but  sometimes  In  the  winter  visits  the 
banks  of  bayous  in  whicli  the  water  is  brackish. 
The  nest  is  generally  a  few  feet  from  the  water, 
among  the  rankest  weeds ;  the  eggs,  about  an 
inch  and  a  half  loog,  are  of  a  dull  dark  cream 
color,  with  reddish  brown  and  umber  spots 
and  dots ;  when  the  female  leaves  her  nest  she 
covers  the  eggs  to  protect  them  from  crows 
and  other  enemies,  and  both  seies  incubate; 
if  not  disturbed,  they  will  hatch  several  broods 

CILUO,  JniK,  a  brother  of  the  philosopher 
Seneca,  adopted  by  the  rhetorician  Junius  G^- 
lio,  whose  name  he  assumed,  died  in  A.  D.  65, 
In  C3  and  64  he  w  as  proconsul  of  Achaia  under 
Claudius,  and  resided  at  Corinth,  where  he  re- 
fused to  listen  to  charges  brought  by  the  Jews 
agtunst  the  apostle  Paul  on  "a  question  of 
words  and  names,  and  of  your  law  "  (Acts 
iviii.  12-17).  According  to  Jerome,  he  com- 
mitted suicide.  From  him  the  name  of  Gal- 
lionism  has  been  applied  to  indifference  to  di- 
versities of  religion. 

GALUPOLl  (anc.  CaltipolU),  a  town  of  Tur- 
key, in  the  vilayet  of  Ediraeh,  1 20  m.  W.  S.  W. 
of  Constantinople ;  pop^  about  50,000.  It  is  on 
a  peninsula  at  the  N.  E.  extremity  of  the  Dar- 
danelles, and  was  formerly  well  fortitied.  Its 
streets  are  narrow,  dirty,  and  ill  built,  bnt  its 
bazaars  are  large  and  abundanUy  supplied  with 


GALLIPOU 

goods.  It  has  many  mosques,  fonntaics,  Bo- 
man  and  Byzantine  rains  and  monumentB,  and 
mano&ctnres  of  cotton,  ulk,  and  fine  morocco 
leather.  It  has  two  harbors,  and  freqaently 
receives  the  imperial  fleets.  It  is  the  seat  of  a 
Greek  bishop.    Gallipoli  was  formerly  of  great 


GALLITZIN 


581 


^y 


importance  as  a  centre  of  commerce  and  as 
the  key  of  the  Dardanelles.  The  commerce  is 
still  considerable  in  grain,  wine,  silk,  and  oil, 
ohiefly  in  the  hands  of  the  Greeks.  Gallipoli 
was  captured  hj  the  Tnrks  in  1S6T. 

GiUIPOU  (anc.  OallipolU  or  Anxa),  a  forti- 
fied seaport  town  of  Italy,  in  the  province  of 
Leooe,  on  an  island  in  the  galf  of  Taranto,  39 
in.  W,  S.  W.  of  Otranto ;  pop,  abont  8,500. 
It  is  connected  with  a  sabarb  on  the  mainland 
by  a  bridge,  is  well  bailt,  and  has  a  oostle,  a 
fine  cathedral,  and  several  couventa.  The  har- 
bor is  good,  but  difBcnlt  of  access,  Gallipoli 
has  maniifiictares  of  woollen  goods,  mnsUn,  and 
cotton  stockings,  and  is  the  great  mart  for  an 
inferior  kind  of  olive  oil  known  as  Gallipoli 
oil,  which  is  collected  in  large  tanks  excavated 
in  the  limestone  rook.  The  town  carries  on  a 
considerable  trade,  and  the  steamers  plying 
between  Ancona  and  Naples  call  here  regu- 
larly. Many  of  the  inhabitants  are  engaj^  in 
the  tnnny  fisheries.  Gallipoli  is  the  seat  of  a 
bishop. 

eiLLIPOUS,  a  city  and  the  capital  of  Gallia 
CO.,  Ohio,  pleasantly  sitnated  on  a  high  blufi* 
on  the  Ohio  river,  83  m.  9.  8.  E.  of  Colnmbus ; 
pop.  in  18T0,  8,711.  It  is  snrrounded  by  a 
fertile  district,  and  contsins  inannfaotorioa  of 
leather,  woollens,  and  flour.  There  are  seve- 
ral handsome  pablio  buijdinga,  a  bank,  an 
academy,  three  weekly  newspapers,  and  17 
public  schools,  including  a  high  school.  It 
was  a  depot  of  snpplies  during  the  civil  war. 

61LLISS0NNI&KE,  Reind  Hlebel  Barrii,  mar- 

Sinis  de  la,  a  French  admiral,  bom  in  Boche- 
ort,  Nov.  11,  1693,  died  at  Nemours,  Oct.  28, 
17G8.  After  rising  throngh  various  grades  in 
the  navy,  he  was  appointed  governor  general  of 
Canada  in  1747,  that  province  being  nnder  the 
management  of  the  navy  department.    He  at 


once  studied  the  resources,  wants,  and  advan- 
tages of  Canada,  and  maintained  its   defence 
till  the  peace  of  Aix-la-Ohapelle.    Uis  precau- 
tions  then   to   secure   all  doubtfid   limits   for 
France  showed  bis  energy.    He  endeavored  in 
vain  to  obtain  from  government  the  establish' 
raent  of  a  printing  press 
in  Oanada.    In  1749  be 
returned  to  France  and 
was  made  commodore. 
'■'^  He   defeated    Byng    at 

Minorca  in  1756.  He 
was  an  able  naval  com- 
mander, a  wise  gover- 
nor, and  a  devoted  stu- 
dent of  science. 

CILUTZIN,  Gstttda,  or 
CsUtili,  a  princely  Bus- 
si  an  family,  nnraerouH 
members  of  which  have 
distineuished  themselves 
as  soldiers,  statesmen,  or 
authors.  Their  ori^n 
is  traced  to  Gedemin, 
prince  of  Lithuania  and 
the  ancestor  of  the  Jagi- 
ellos. — MiKKArL  commanded  in  1614  a  Russian 
army  against  the  Poles  nnder  Prince  Ostrog- 
ski,  was  defeated,  taken,  and  held  in  captivity 
for  88  years,  together  with  his  brother  Dimi- 
tri,  who  died  in  the  last  year  of  their  deten- 
tion. Beleased  by  King  Sigismnnd  Augustus, 
Mikhail  was  received  with  distinction  by  the 
czar,  hot  retired  to  a  convent,  where  he  died. 
^Vasii.i  defended  Novgorod  against  the  first 
psendo- Demetrius,  but  soon  followed  the  ex- 
ample of  Basmanoff  in  espousing  the  cause  of 
the  pretender  (1605);  murdered  the  son  and 
widow  of  Boris  GodunofF,  his  late  master;  was 
rewarded  by  the  usurper,  but  conspired  against 
him,  and  contributed  to  his  fall  and  violent 
death  (see  Dbkbthich)  ;  took  part  also  in  the 
conspiracy  which  overthrew  his  successor,  Ba- 
sil Shaiski,  and  was  a  chief  member  of  the  dep- 
utation which  offered  the  throne  of  Moscow 
to  Ladislas,  the  son  of  Sigismundlll.  of  Poland. 
Offended  by  the  conditions  of  the  offer,  the 
Polish  king  held  the  Bnssian  envoys  in  arrest 
at  Kiev,  where  Vasili  died  before  the  termina- 
tion of  the  war  between  the  two  states, — Va- 
sili, sumamed  the  Great,  bom  in  1683,  re- 
ceived a  classical  education,  fought  against  the 
Tnrks,  Crimean  Tartars,  and  Cossacks,  and  was 
made  attaman  of  the  latter ;  was  active  in 
bringing  about  the  great  reforms  of  Czar  Feodor 
Alexeyevitch ;  was  treated  after  the  death  of 
tliat  czar  with  particular  distinction  by  his  sister, 
the  princess  regent  Sophia;  concluded  in  1686 
a  favorable  treaty  with  Poland ;  commanded 
in  a  new  expedition  aKainst  the  Tartars  of  the 
Crimea;  promote<l  the  ambitious  designs  of 
.  Sophia  against  her  brotiier  Peter  tbe  Great, 
I  and  fell  with  her.  He  was  banished  first  to 
I  Yarensk  in  the  government  of  Vologda,  and 
I  then  to  a  dreary  district  in  the  government  of 
I  Archangel,  where  he  died. — Mierail,  bom  in 


582 


GALLITZIN 


16Y4,  served  in  the  guards  of  Peter  the  Great, 
and  accompanied  that  monarch  on  his  various 
campaigns ;  distinguished  himself  at  the  taking 
of  Schltlsselburg;  won  a  victory  over  the  Swedes 
at  Dobry  in  Lithuania  (1708) ;  defeated  the  re- 
enforcements  of  Charles  XII.  under  Gen.  L6- 
wenhaupt  at  Liesna ;  fought  in  the  battle  of 
Poltava  (1709),  and  a  few  days  after  compelled 
the  remnants  of  the  Swedish  army  to  Surren- 
der ;  accompanied  the  czar  on  his  disastrous  ex- 
pedition to  the  Pruth  (1711) ;  and  was  sent  as 
commander  general  to  Finland,  where  he  was 
victorious  on  land  and  sea,  and  remained  till 
the  peace  of  Nystadt  (1721).  He  was  made 
field  marshal  by  Catharine  L,  was  also  distin- 
guished during  the  reign  of  Peter  II.,  and  died 
in  Moscow  in  December,  1730. — Alexandeb, 
son  of  the  preceding,  bom  in  November,  1718, 
served  under  Prince  Eugene  on  the  Rhin  e  (1 788), 
fought  in  the  seven  years^  war,  commanded  a 
Russian  army  on  the  Dniester  in  1768,  took 
Khotin,  and  died  in  1788. — ^Dimitki,  bom  in 
1721,  was  ambassador  to  the  court  of  Vienna, 
became  by  his  will  the  founder  of  a  magnificent 
hospital  in  Moscow,  and  died  in  1793. — Dimitbt, 
born  about  1786,  was  sent  as  ambassador  to 
France  in  1768,  and  in  1773  to  the  Hague; 
wrote  on  natural  sciences,  and  died  in  1808. 
Among  his  works  are  a  Description  de  la  Tau- 
ride  (1788),  and  a  Traite  de  la  mineralogie 
(1792). — Amalia,  wife  of  the  preceding,  bom 
in  Berlin,  Aug.  28,  1748,  lived  for  a  time  in 
separation  from  her  husband  near  the  Hague, 
and  subsequently  at  Monster  in  Westphalia, 
where  she  became  the  centre  of  a  circle  of 
pietistic  writers,  being  herself  remarkable  for 
literary  accomplishments  as  well  as  personal 
attractions.  She  contributed  not  only  to  the 
peculiar  religious  development  of  her  son  De- 
metrius (see  Galutzin,  Demetbius  Augus- 
tine), but  also  to  the  conversion  of  Count 
Friedrich  von  Stolberg  to  Catholicism.  She 
died  Aug.  24,  1806. — Sergei  fought  against 
the  Turks,  under  Potemkin,  against  the  Poles 
in  1794,  and  against  the  Austrians  in  Galicia 
in  1809,  commanding  the  troops  which  as- 
sisted the  Poles  to  drive  back  the  archduke 
Ferdinand,  when  he  died. — Emanuil,  born  in 
Paris  in  1804,  entered  the  Russian  army,  dis- 
tinguished himself  at  the  taking  of  Varaa,  re- 
turned to  France,  travelled  through  Russia  and 
other  countries,  wrote,  translated,  and  edited 
in  French  a  number  of  works  on  Russia  and 
its  literature,  especially  descriptions  of  travels, 
aad  died  at  Paris  in  1853. 

6ALLITZIN.  I.  Denetrios  AngBstlne,  a  Russian 
missionary  priest,  son  of  Prince  Dimitri  Alexe- 
yevitch  Gallitzin  and  Amalia  von  Schmettau, 
bom  at  the  Hague,  Dec.  22,  1770,  died  at  Lo- 
retto.  Pa.,  May  6, 1 840.  He  and  his  sister  Mari- 
anna  were  brought  up  by  their  mother,  who 
when  they  were  still  very  young  was  allowed 
by  her  husband  to  maintain  a  separate  estab- 
lishment in  order  to  devote  her  whole  time  to 
their  education  and  to  indulge  in  her  taste  for 
metaphysical  studies.    As  both  parents  pro- 


fessed their  unbelief  in  revelation,  their  B<m 
was  at  first  reared  in  systematic  ignorance  of 
all  religion.  In  1788  a  dangerous  illness  led  the 
princess  to  examine  the  claims  of  Christianity, 
and  in  1784  she  was  received  into  the  Roman 
Catholic  church  by  Dr.  Overberg  of  Mdnster. 
In  1787  Demetrius  also  became  a  Catholic,  and 
was  first  moved  to  be  a  priest  by  his  intercourse 
with  his  young  friends  Caspar  Maximilian  and 
Clement  August  von  Droste- Vischering.  W hile 
yet  a  child  he  had  been  commissioned  by  Cath- 
arine II.  as  an  oflScer  of  the  imperial  Russian 
guard,  and  all  pains  were  taken  to  prepare 
him  for  the  military  profession.  In  1792  he 
was  sent  to  the  United  States  both  for  the  pur- 
pose of  giving  him  a  practical  knowledge  of 
free  institutions,  and  with  the  hope  of  curing 
a  natural  timidity  and  nervousness  amounting 
to  disease.  Accompanied  by  a  former  tutor  in 
the  Droste-Yischenng  family,  Felix  Brosins, 
he  arrived  in  Baltimore  Oct.  18,  under  the  as- 
sumed name  of  Schmet  or  Smith.  He  was  wel- 
comed by  Bishop  Carroll,  to  whom  he  soon 
declared  his  determination  to  embrace  the 
clerical  profession  for  the  benefit  of  the  Amer- 
ican mission.  While  awaiting  the  decision  of 
his  parents,  he  travelled  through  the  conntry, 
visited  the  most  distinguished  American  soci- 
ety, and  applied  himself  to  the  careful  stndy  of 
the  constitution,  laws,  manners,  and  geogra- 
phy of  the  United  States.  The  opposition  of 
both  his  parents  did  not  alter  his  resolution ; 
and  after  preparatory  studies  he  was  admitted 
a  member  of  the  congregation  of  St.  Sulpicins 
in  Baltimore  in  1795,  and  in  March,  1796,  or- 
dained priest.  He  exercised  his  priestly  fdnc- 
tions  at  Baltimore  and  at  Conewago,  Pa.,  till 
1799,  when  he  was  sent  at  his  own  request  to 
McGuire^s  settlement  or  Clearfield,  in  Cambria 
CO.,  Pa.  This  settlement,  then  composed  of  a 
few  Catholic  families,  was  situated  five  miles 
from  Summit,  on  the  highest  crest  of  the  Alle- 
ghanies,  and  200  miles  from  Philadelphia.  On 
a  plot  of  land  given  him  by  Capt.  McGuire,  an 
old  revolutionary  soldier,  a  substantial  church 
arose,  and  by  its  side  was  built  a  log  cabin  for  the 
missionary.  He  purchased  in  the  immediate 
vicinity  a  large  tract  of  land,  destined  to  become 
the  centre  of  a  Catholic  colony ;  it  was  divided 
into  small  farms  and  given  to  settlers  at  a  nomi- 
nal price.  Thither  he  invited,  in  his  own  words, 
"  families  from  Germany,  Switzerland,  Ireland, 
and  different  parts  of  America,"  and  incurred 
great  expense  in  establishing  the  most  neces- 
sary trades.  But  at  the  death  of  his  father 
the  Russian  court  declared  him  disqualified  to 
inherit  the  family  estates;  the  remittances 
generously  forwarded  by  his  mother  often  mis- 
carried, and  the  legacies  she  bequeathed  to 
him  in  1807  never  reached  him;  while  after 
the  marriage  of  his  sister  in  1817  the  large 
amounts  justly  due  to  him  were  appropriated 
by  her  husband.  In  spite  of  incredible  diffi- 
culties he  retained  possession  of  his  large  prop- 
erty, on  which  he  expended  before  his  death 
$160,000.    To  his  pecuniary  embarrassments 


GALLON 

were  added  bitter  persecntions  from  a  portion 
of  his  flock ;  but  he  Btill  labored  QDweoriedlj 
for  their  temporal  and  spiritual  welfare.  He 
was  repeatedly  designated  for  the  epignopal 
ofSce,  but  declined  in  order  to  perfect  hi.i  cher- 
islied  work.  la  1802  be  became  a  DBturalized 
citizen  of  the  United  States,  under  tlie  name 
of  Smith ;  but  in  1B09  an  act  of  the  Pennsjl- 
Tunia  i^pslatare  authorized  him  to  resume  bis 
original  name  of  Gsliitzin.  In  1803  he  be- 
stowed OD  the  hamlet  springing  Dp  around  his 
churcli  the  name  of  Ixiretto.  Cambriacountj, 
which  be  had  found  a  wilderness  in  1799,  he 
left  at  his  death  studded  with  thrift?  settle- 
ments, one  of  which  baa  since  been  named  af- 
ter bim.  In  18S0  his  remrdns  were  placed  in 
a  vault  in  front  of  the  oharch,  and  a  monu- 
ment was  erected  over  them ;  and  in  1878 
measares  were  in  progress  to  replace  it  with 
one  niore  suitable.  Controveraiol  letters  pab- 
lished  by  him  oocasionallj  in  the  local  papers 
have  been  several  times  reprinted  in  pamphlets 
entitled  "  Defence  of  Catholic  Principles," 
"  Letter  to  n  Protestant  Friend,"  and  "  Appeal 
to  the  Protestant  Public."  His  life  has  been 
written  in  German  by  his  assistant  Henry 
Lemke,  and  in  English  by  Sarah  M.  Brown- 
son  (New  York,  1878),  His  mother's  life  was 
written  by  Katercamp.  IL  Bliaketh,  a  cousin 
of  the  preceding,  bom  in  1760,  died  in  St. 
James  parish,  La.,  Dec.  8, 1843.  After  becom- 
ing a  member  of  the  Boman  Catholic  chnrch, 
she  joined  the  society  of  the  Sacred  Heart  in 
Rome,  and  in  1840  came  to  America  to  visit 
tlie  honses  of  the  order.  In  the  same  year  she 
founded  the  first  school  of  the  Sacred  Heart 
in  Houston  street.  New  York,  and  afterward 
a  boarding  school  and  novitiate  at  McSherry- 
town.  Pa.,  and  a  house  at  Pottawattamie  vil- 
lage, in  the  far  west. 

GUiiOK,  an  old  English  measure  of  capacity, 
subdivided  into  4  qnarta,  or  8  pints,  or  83  gills. 
Formerly  there  were  gallons  of  different  ca- 
pacities, one  for  wine,  another  for  ale  or  beer, 
and  a  third  for  grain  and  dry  articles.  The  wine 
gallon,  called  also  the  standard  gallon,  con- 
tained 231  cubic  inciies,  the  ale  gallon  283  cubic 
inches,  and  the  com  gallon  26S'8  cnbio  inches. 
In  1824  the  imperial  gallon  was  established 
by  the  British  parliament,  by  a  statute  which 
came  into  operation  Jan.  1,  J826 ;  its  capacity 
was  10  lbs.  avoirdupois  of  distilled  water, 
that  weighed  252'4G8  grains  to  the  cubic  inch, 
thna  making  its  contents  27T'274  cubic  inches 
=4-S4S4a  Utres.  The  gallon  of  the  United 
States  is  the  standard  English  wine  gallon  of 
231  cubic  inches,  and  contains  8-3883822  avoir- 
dnpois  lbs.  or  68,372-1754  troy  grains  of  dis- 
tilled water  at  39'83°  F.,  the  barometer  beinfc  at 
SO  inches.  It  is  equal  to  3-T8S2U7  litres.  The 
gallon  of  the  state  of  New  York  was  formerly 
of  the  capacity  of  8  lbs,  of  pure  water  at  its 
maximum  density,  or  221-184  cubic  inches;  but 
it  is  now  the  some  as  the  United  States  gdlon. 

CALLOWAT,  JiMpk,  an  American  luyalist, 
bom  in  Maryland  about  1780,  died  in  England, 


GALLS  588 

Aug.  29,  I80S.  He  was  educated  for  the  bar, 
and  practised  law  saccessfully  at  Philadelphia. 
In  1764  he  became  a  member  of  the  Pennsyl- 
vania assembly,  and  Joined  Dr.  Franklin  in 

advocating  the  adoption  of  a  royal  government 
for  the  colony.  In  1774  he  was  a  delegate  to 
the  first  congress,  and  proposed  to  settle  tUe 
difflonlties  between  the  colonies  and  the  mother 
country  by  vestiug  the  government  in  a  presi- 
dent general  of  the  colonies,  to  be  appointed  by 
the  king,  and  a  council  to  be  chosen  by  the  seve- 
ral colonial  assemblies ;  the  British  parliament 
to  have  the  power  of  revising  the  acta  of  the  lat- 
ter body,  wnich  in  its  turn  was  to  have  a  neg- 
ative on  Briti-sh  statutes  relating  to  the  colonies. 
He  abandoned  the  whigs  after  the  question  of 
independence  had  begun  to  be  agitated,  and 
tbenceforth  was  known  as  a  zealous  tory.  He 
remained  with  the  British  army  in  Philadel- 
phia and  New  Jeraey  till  1779,  when  he  went 
with  his  daughter  to  England,  where  he  passed 
the  remainder  of  his  life.  Summoned  in  1779 
before  a  committee  of  the  hoose  of  commons 
to  testify  on  American  affidrs,  he  animadverted 
severely  on  the  course  of  Gen.  Howe  and  other 
British  officers.  A  new  edition  of  this  "Ex- 
amination "  was  published  in  Philadelphia  in 
1856  by  the  "Council  of  the  Saventy-Sii  So- 
ciety." Ilia  literary  remains  comprise  a  "Speech 
in  answer  to  John  Dickinson "  (London  and 
Philadelphia,  1764);  "Oandid  Examination  of 
the  Mutual  Claims  of  Great  Britain  and  the 
Colonies"  (New  York,  1775);  "Letters  to  a 
Nobleman"  (I77B);  "Reply  to  Sir  WUliatn 
Howe  "(1780),  Ac. 

filLLS,  or  Hitgilta,  excrescences  growing  on  a 
species  of  small  oak,  ou«reu«t>i/iKf(>ria,  inhabit- 
ing Asia  Minor  and  the  middle  latitude  of  Asia. 
They  originate  from  the  puncture  of  a  fly, 


Oidla  OD  the  Qatmit  lulkctorlt. 

which  deposits  its  egg  in  the  young  houghs, 
the  egg  and  afterward  tlie  fiv  being  enclosed  in 
the  centre  of  the  gall.  The'galls  collected  be- 
fore the  egg  is  hatched  are  called  blue,  green, 
or  black,  and  are  the  most  valuable.  The 
white  gails,  which  are  collected  later,  are  in- 


584 


GALL  STONES 


GALT 


jored  by  the  iDsect.  Galls  reach  the  United 
States  from  Mediterranean  ports  and  from  Oal- 
cutta.  They  are  nearly  round,  from  the  size 
of  a  pea  to  that  of  a  very  large  cherry,  with  a 
surface  usually  studded  with  small  tuberosities. 
The  best  are  dark  blue  or  green  externally, 
lighter  internally,  hard  and  brittle,  with  a  small 
cavity  in  the  centre.  Those  of  inferior  quality 
are  lighter  in  color,  less  hard,  and  contain  a 
larger  cavity  communicating  externally  by  a 
round  hole  through  which  the  developed  insect 
has  escaped.  Most  if  not  all  oaks  contain  a 
considerable  amount  of  tannic  acid,  of  that  va- 
riety which  precipitates  the  persalts  of  iron, 
blue-black.  This  acid  seems  to  be  concentrated 
in  these  pathological  formations,  constituting 
more  than  one  half  of  their  weight,  and  they 
are  accordingly  the  source  whence  gallo-  or 
'  querco-tannic  acid  is  most  conveniently  ob- 
tained. Galls  have  also  been  thought  to  con- 
tain smaller  quantities  of  other  allied  acids, 
but  it  is  probable  that  these  are  formed  after 
the  tannin  and  at  its  expense.  All  the  soluble 
matter  of  galls  is  taken  up  by  40  times  their 
weight  of  boiling  water.  Alcohol  dissolves 
seven  parts  in  ten,  ether  five.  Galls  are  pow- 
erfully astringent,  and  may  be  used  in  medicine 
in  the  form  of  tincture  or  ointment,  or  in  sub- 
stance. For  internal  use,  tannic  or  gallic  acid 
is  generally  considered  more  convenient.  The 
incompatibles  of  galls  are  very  numerous,  since 
the  tannates  of  nearly  all  metallic  oxides,  al- 
kalies, alkaline  earths,  and  alkaloids  are  only 
slightly  soluble  in  water.  Nutgall  ointment  may 
be  applied  with  advantage  to  haemorrhoids, 
but  should  not  be  used  when  the  latter  are  in- 
flamed. The  dry  substance  is  sometimes  sprin- 
kled over  the  surface  of  indolent  ulcers  or  sores, 
to  induce  a  healthy  action  in  them. 

GALL  STONES.    See  Galouli. 

GALLUP,  JMeph  Adam,  an  American  physician 
and  author,  bom  in  Stonington,  Conn.,  March 
80,  1769,  died  in  Woodstock,  Vt.,  Oct.  12, 
1849.  He  received  a  good  education,  and  in 
1798  graduated  in  medicine  at  Dartmouth  col- 
lege. He  practised  a  few  years  in  Hartland 
and  Bethel,  Vt.,  whence  he  removed  to  Wood- 
stock in  January,  1800.  His  first  writings  ap- 
peared in  1802  in  the  "Vermont  Gazette," 
published  at  Windsor,  and  attracted  much  at- 
tention. From  1820  to  1823  he  was  president 
of  the  Castleton  medical  academy,  and  was  also 
for  several  years  a  lecturer  in  the  medical  de- 
partment of  the  university  of  Vermont.  He 
established  the  clinical  school  of  medicine  at 
Woodstock,  and  delivered  his  first  course  of 
lectures  there  in  the  spring  of  1827.  This 
school  afterward  became  the  Vermont  medical 
college,  and  was  incorporated  in  1885.  In 
1815  he  published  "  Sketches  of  Epidemic  Dis- 
eases in  the  State  of  Vermont,"  to  which  are 
added  "  Remarks  on  Pulmonary  Consumption," 
which  was  republished  in  England.  He  pub- 
lished in  1822  '*  Pathological  Reflections  on 
the  Supertonic  State  of  Disease,"  besides  other 
pamphlets,  and  in  1889  his  more  considerable 


work  in  2  vols.,  entitled  "  Outlines  of  the  In- 
stitutes of  Medicine." 

CiALT,  a  town  of  Waterloo  co.,  Ontario,  Can- 
ada, situated  on  both  sides  of  Grand  river, 
near  the  mouth  of  Mill  creek,  and  on  tlie  Gait 
and  Guelph  branch  of  the  Great  Western  rail- 
way, 64  m.  W.  S.  W.  of  Toronto;  pop.  in  1871, 
8,827-  It  is  situated  in  a  rich  agriciUtural  dis- 
trict, and  contains  many  handsome  buildings. 
The  water  power  is  extensive,  and  there  are 
several  large  flouring  and  saw  mills,  iron  foun- 
deries  and  machine  shops,  and  manufactories 
of  agricultural  implements,  leather,  paper  col- 
lars, hardware,  woollens,  &c. 

CrALT.  L  JoliB,  a  Scottish  author,  bom  in  Ir- 
vine, Ayrshire,  May  2, 1779,  died  in  Greenock, 
April  11,  1889.  After  spending  some  years  in 
mercantile  life  he  began  to  study  law,  but  in 
1809  set  out  on  a  tour  of  nearly  three  years  in 
southern  Europe  and  the  Mediterranean,  pub- 
lishing the  results  of  his  observations  on  his  re- 
turn in  "Voyages  and  Travels"  and  "Letters 
from  the  Levant."  He  sailed  from  Gibraltar 
to  Malta  with  Lord  Byron  and  Mr.  Hobbouse. 
Soon  after  his  return  he  married  Elizabeth, 
daughter  of  Dr.  Tilloch,  editor  of  the  "  Philoso- 
phical Magazine,"  and  proprietor  of  the  "  Star  ^' 
newspaper,  on  which  Gait  was  for  some  time 
employed.  He  had  contributed  in  1808-^4  to 
"  The  Scots^  Magazine"  portions  of  an  ambitions 
composition  in  octosyllabic  verse.  He  next 
produced  a  volume  of  dramatie  pieces,  which 
Scott  called  "  the  worst  tragedies  ever  seen,^' 
and  this  was  followed  by  lives  of  Cardinal 
Wolsey  and  Benjamin  West,  "  Reflections  on 
Political  and  Commercial  Subjects,"  a  tragedy 
entitled  "  The  Appeal,"  acted  in  Edinburgh  for 
a  few  nights,  and  "  The  Earthquake,"  a  novel. 
These  works  made  no  impression  upon  the  pub- 
lic, but  his  "Ayrshire  Legatees,"  which  ap- 
peared in  "Blackwood^s  Magazine"  in  1820- 
'21 ,  turned  tl»e  popular  tide  in  his  favor.  Witii- 
in  the  next  three  years  appeared  "  Annals  of 
the  Parish,"  generally  esteemed  his  best  work, 
"  The  Provost,"  which  he  himself  preferred, 
"The  Steamboat,"  "Sir  Andrew  Wylie,"  "The 
Gathering  of  the  West,"  "The  Entoil,"  "  Rin- 
ghan  Gilhaize,"  "  The  Spae wife,"  "  Rothelan,»' 
"  The  Omen,"  and  "  The  Last  of  the  Lairda," 
all  novels  of  Scottish  life,  and  all  successful. 
In  1826  he  visited  Canada  as  the  agent  of  the 
Canada  company,  a  large  landholding  corpora- 
tion ;  he  founded  the  town  of  Guelph,  but  a 
difference  with  his  employers  having  (»st  him 
adrift  again,  he  returned  to  England  in  1829, 
resumed  his  literary  labors,  and  produced  a 
number  of  novels  and  a  variety  of  miscellanies, 
including  a  "  Life  of  I>ord  Byron,"  the  "Auto- 
biography of  John  Gait"  (2  vols.,  1888),  and 
"  Literary  Life  and  Miscellanies  of  John  Gait" 
(8  vols.,  1884).  His  novel  "Lawrie  Todd" 
(1880),  relating  some  of  his  experiences  in  the 
new  world,  is  considered  in  his  best  vein.  It 
was  followed  by  " Southennan,"  "Bogle  Cor- 
bet," "Stanlev  Buxton,"  "The  Member," 
"The  Radical,"  "Eben  Erskme,"  and  "The 


GALTON 


GALVANISM 


585 


Lost  Child."  He  died  after  14  strokes  of  paral- 
ysis, having  jlictated  compositions  long  after 
losing  the  use  of  every  limb.  His  works  are  of 
very  unequal  merit,  but  are  usually  marked  by 
an  original  quaintness  and  vigor  and  by  defects 
of  taste.  11*  Sir  Aleiaidcr  TUItchy  a  Canadian 
financier,  son  of  the  preceding,  bom  in  Chel- 
sea, £ngland,  Sept.  6,  1817.  At  the  age  of  16 
he  entered  as  a  junior  clerk  the  service  of  the 
British  American  land  company,  of  whose  es- 
tates he  was  sole  manager  from  1844  to  1856, 
raising  the  company  from  a  condition  of  insol- 
vency to  one  of  prosperity.  In  conjunction 
with  the  Hon.  A.  N.  Morin  he  established  the 
Montreal  and  Portland  railway,  and  was  one 
of  its  chief  managers  until  its  union  with  the 
Grand  Trunk  railway.  He  has  represented 
the  city  of  Sherbrooke  in  the  Canadian  parlia- 
ment since  1853.  From  the  beginning  of  his 
politicd  career  he  advocated  the  confederation 
of  the  British  North  American  provinces  and 
the  establishment  of  an  intercolonial  railway. 
He  entered  the  Cartier  cabinet  as  minister  of 
finance  in  1858,  after  having  declined  the  pre- 
miership, established  a  tarift  which  raised  the 
provuicial  credit,  negotiated  in  England  the 
Canadian  loan,  and  consolidated  the  debt  In 
1860  he  advocated  the  establishment  of  a  bank 
of  issue,  but  afterward  withdrew  his  scheme, 
and  succeeded  in  opening  free  ports  at  Gasp^ 
and  Sanlt  Ste.  Marie.  He  resigned  with  the 
Cartier  ministry  in  1862,  returned  to  office  with 
them  in  1864,  and  retired  in  1866.  He  was  one 
of  the  commissioners  sent  to  London  to  pro- 
mote the  confederation  of  the  provinces,  and 
was  created  in  1869  a  knight  commander  of 
the  order  of  Sts.  Michael  and  George. 

fiALTON,  Francis,  an  English  traveller  and  au- 
thor, bom  at  Dudderton,  near  Birmingham,  in 
1822.  He  studied  medicine  at  Birmingham, 
and  afterward  at  King's  college,  London,  and 
graduated  at  Trinity  college,  Cambridge,  in 
1844.  In  1846  he  travelled  in  north  Africa 
and  on  the  White  Nile,  and  subsequently  made 
a  journey  of  exploration  from  Walfish  bay 
through  the  western  regions  of  south  Africa. 
For  his  account  of  this  journey  he  received  the 
gold  medal  of  the  royal  geographical  society  in 
1852,  and  subsequently  became  secretary  and 
later  vice  president  of  that  society.  From  1863 
to  1868  he  was  general  secretary  of  the  Brit- 
ish association,  and  he  is  now  (1874)  one  of 
the  managing  committee  of  the  meteorological 
office.  He  has  published  "  Travels  in  Tropi- 
cal South  Africa"  (1863);  ^* Meteorographica, 
or  Methods  of  Mapping  the  Weather"  (1863) ; 
^^  Art  of  Travel,  or  Shifts  and  Contrivances 
available  in  Wild  Countries  "  (1867) ;  and  *'  He- 
reditary Genius,  its  Laws  and  Consequences  " 
(1869).  He  has  also  edited  ''  Vacation  Tour- 
ists and  Notes  of  Travel  in  1860-'68  "  (3  vols., 
Cambridge,  1861-^4). 

CALUPPl,  Baidanare,  an  Italian  musician,  sur- 
named  Bubaneilo,  bom  on  the  island  of  Bu- 
rano,  near  Venice,  in  1703,  died  there  in  Janu- 
ary, 1785.    He  received  instruction  from  his 


father  and  from  the  composer  Lotti,  became 
chapelmaster  of  the  church  of  St.  Mark  and 
president  of  the  conservatory  of  the  iTicurabilit 
and  spent  some  time  in  St.  Petersburg.  He 
produced  his  first  comic  opera  in  1721  without 
success,  but  applied  himself  with  greater  zeal 
to  composition,  and  his  opera  Lafede  nelV  in- 
c(mstansay  performed  in  1729,  made  him  famous. 
He  composed  more  than  70  operas,  and  has 
been  called  the  father  of  Italian  comic  opera ; 
he  also  composed  many  masses,  oratorios,  &c. 

GAUJPPI,  or  GaUipiil,  Pisqaale,  an  Italian 
philosopher,  born  at  Tropea,  Calabria,  April 
2,  1770,  died  in  Naples,  Deo.  13,  1846.  He 
studied  at  the  university  of  Naples,  and  was 
professor  of  philosophy  there  for  many  years. 
He  was  a  spiritualist  in  psychology,  and  was 
the  first  among  the  modem  philosophers  of 
Italy  to  coincide  with  Kant  in  coosidering  the 
promptings  of  the  moral  law  as  paramount  in 
ethical  psychology.  He  rejected  the  doctrine 
of  Helv6tius,  which  bases  morality  on  the  de- 
sire for  pleasure,  and  the  theories  of  Wolf  and 
Romagnosi,  who  find  the  essence  of  it  in  the 
yearning  after  perfection.  His  principal  works 
are :  Saggio  Hlosojieo  $ulla  eritiea  della  cono- 
seenza  (Naples,  1819-*32) ;  Letters  Jilosqfiehs 
aulle  vicends  della  filoiojia  intomo  aiprineipii 
della  eonoscema  umana  da  Carteeiofina  a  Kant 
(1827 ;  2d  ed.,  1838) ;  Elementi  di  filoaqfia  (4th 
ed.,  5  vols.,  1836-^42) ;  Lexioni  di  logtea  e  di 
metqfisiea  (5  vols.,  1832-'6;  new  ed.,  1842); 
Oimsiderazioni  eulV  tdealismo  traecendentale  e 
sul  rationalismo  auoluto  (1841) ;  and  Elementi 
di  teologia  naturale  (4th  ed.,  1844). 

GALVANIy  Alalsla  or  Lilgi,  an  Italian  physician, 
bom  in  Bologna,  Sept.  0,  1737,  died  there, 
Dec.  4, 1798.  He  was  educated  for  the  priest- 
hood ;  but  his  tastes  inclined  toward  the  natu- 
ral sciences,  and  abaodoning  theology  he  took 
the  degree  of  M.  D.  at  the  university  of  Bolo- 
gna in  1762.  Soon  afterward  he  was  appointed 
medical  lecturer  at  the  institute  of  Bologna, 
and  published  treatises  on  the  urinary  organs 
and  the  organs  of  hearing  in  birds.  In  1786 
Accident  led  him  to  his  great  discovery  in  phy- 
sical science  (see  AinacAL  Eleotsioitt,  and 
Galvanism),  and  in  1791  he  published  Be  Viri- 
bus  Eleetrieitatis  in  Motu  Mtueulari  Commen- 
tariuB.  Having  refused  to  swear  allegiance  to 
the  Cis^ine  republic  in  1797,  he  was  deprived 
of  his  offices,  and  his  health  began  to  decline. 
The  death  of  his  wife  also  afiSicted  him  greatly. 
Under  ^e  weight  of  these  misfortunes  he  sank 
rapidly,  and  although  his  offices  were  subse- 
quently restored  to  him,  he  died  before  resu- 
ming their  duties. 

CALVANISM,  or  Vtltaic  Electricity  (so  named 
from  its  discoverers,  Galvani  of  Bologna  and 
Volta  of  Pavia),  that  form  of  dynamical  electri- 
city which  is  developed  by  chemical  action.  An 
account  of  the  discovery  of  Galvani  is  given 
under  Animal  Eleotbicitt,  and  also  a  notice 
of  the  controversy  which  was  carried  on  be- 
tween these  philosophers,  Galvani  maintaining 
that  the  peculiar  phenomena  which  he  produced 


586 


GALVANISM 


were  owing  to  electricity  developed  in  the  ani- 
mals on  which  he  experimented,  and  Yolta 
contending  that  thej  were  due  to  the  contact 
of  dissimilar  metals.  Galvani  may  therefore  be 
regarded  bb  more  particularly  the  discoverer 
of  animal  electricity,  while  Volta,  who  did  not 
invent  the  celebrated  pile  which  bears  his  name 
till  1799,  the  year  after  the  death  of  Galvani, 
is  entitled  to  most  of  the  credit  of  the  discovery 
of  chemical  or  galvanic  electricity.  The  term 
dynamical  electricity  is  often  applied  to  gal- 
vanism, bat  it  has  a  wider  meaning,  and  em- 
braces the  phenomena  of  all  electrical  currents, 
irrespective  of  their  origin.  Volta's  theory 
that  the  galvanic  current  was  produced  by  the 
contact  of  two  dissimilar  metals  is  not  held  by 
the  minority  of  the  scientific  world  at  the  pres- 
ent day.  The  earlier  experiments  which  seemed 
to  support  that  doctrine  were  imperfectly  per- 
formed, and  when  chemical  action  or  other 
external  force  is  strictly  excluded,  no  electrical 
effects  can  be  produced.  Fabroni  of  Florence 
is  said  to  have  been  the  first  to  suggest  chemi- 
cal action  as  a  principal  cause  of  the  phenom- 
ena, an  opinion  formed  from  observing  the 
rapid  oxidation  which  took  place  in  the  zinc 
plates  of  the  voltaic  pile.  This  opinion  was 
supported  by  Sir  Humphry  Davy  in  England, 
who  soon  after  the  publication  of  a  letter  of 
Yolta  to  Sir  Joseph  Banks  in  1800,  giving  an 
account  of  his  battery,  made  numerous  inter- 
esting experiments.  Wollaston  advocated  the 
chemical  theory,  and  also  showed  the  identity 
of  the  electricity  of  the  pile  and  that  of  the 
frictional  machine  by  reducing  the  electrodes 
of  the  latter  to  small  points,  and  causing  the 
current  which  passed  through  them  from  a 
large  machine  to  produce  chemical  decomposi- 
tion and  other  similar  effects.  In  1807  Davy 
obtained  the  metals  potassium  and  sodium  by 
electrolysis,  and  in  1809  Deluo  made  dry  piles 
of  gold  and  silver  paper,  which  were  afterward 
improved  by  Zamboni.  In  1819  Oersted  dis- 
covered the  deflection  of  the  magnetic  needle 
by  the  galvanic  current,  and  soon  afterward 
Ampere  announced  a  theory  which  explained 
its  action.  (See  Electro-Magnetism.)  In 
1827  Ohm  of  Munich  enunciated  the  celebrated 
law  which  bears  his  name,  and  developed  a 
strictly  mathematical  theory.  Faraday  in  1881 
discovered  the  induction  of  galvanic  currents 
by  means  of  magnetism,  and  continued  his  in- 
vestigations till  near  the  close  of  his  life,  ma- 
king many  remarkable  discoveries,  among  them 
the  law  of  definite  electro-chemical  decom- 
position. From  1886  to  the  present  time 
many  improved  modifications  of  galvanic  bat- 
teries have  been  devised  by  Daniell,  Grove, 
Bunsen,  and  others,  which,  although  of  minor 
importance  when  compared  with  discoveries 
and  developments  of  great  principles,  have 
been  of  much  advantage  in  the  prosecution  of 
various  branches  of  scientific  research  and  in 
the  arts. — The  ordinary  phenomena  of  galvan- 
ism may  be  observed  by  the  following  simple 
experiments :  If  a  plate  of  commercial  zinc  is 


Fxo.  1. 


placed  in  a  glass  vessel  containing  dilute  hy- 
drochloric acid,  chemical  action  will  take  place, 
accompanied  with  the  evolution  of  bubbles  of 
hydrogen  gas  upon  the  surface  of  the  plate, 
which  successively  form  and  rise  to  the  surface 
of  the  liquid,  and  upon  -examination  chloride 
of  zinc  will  be  found  in  solution.  If  a  plate 
of  copper  is  placed  in  the  liquid  near  the  zino 
and  brought  into  contact  or  connected  by  a 
wire  with  it,  as  shown  in  fig.  1,  the  evolution 

of  hydrogen  upon  the  surface 

^  ^ ^       of  the  zino  plate  will  mostly 

^  -f*  *-  ^     cease  and  be  transferred  to 

^*^A-    ^ ^     the  surface  of  the  copper ;  but 

^..'— fl Tr*-v     chlorine  will  continue  to  unite 

with  the  zinc,  which  metal, 
if  weighed,  will  be  found  to 
have  lost  weight,  while  the 
copper  will  neither  have  lost 
nor  gdned.  If,  in  the  first 
place,  when  the  zinc  plate 
alone  was  immersed  in  the 
acid,  pure  metal  had  been 
used,  there  would  not  have 
been  so  much  chemical  action ;  but  upon  the 
introduction  and  connection  of  the  plate  of 
copper  there  would  have  been  more,  and 
the  evolution  of  hydrogen  gas  would  have 
been  entirely  confined  to  the  surface  of  the 
copper.  If  a  plate  of  iron  is  placed  in  di- 
lute hydrochloric  acid,  it  will  dissolve  with 
evolution  of  hydrogen  and  the  formation  of 
chloride  of  iron,  the  action  being  the  same  as 
with  the  employment  of  zinc ;  and  if  a  copper 
plate  is  connected  with  it,  the  action  will  still 
be  similar  to  that  which  is  obtained  between 
the  zinc  and  copper ;  but  if  a  zinc  instead  of  a 
copper  plate  is  placed  near  the  iron  and  con- 
nected with  it,  the  action  upon  the  respective 
plates  will  be  reversed.  The  hyd  rogen  will  con  - 
tinue  to  be  evolved  at  the  surface  of  the  iron, 
but  this  metal  will  cease  to  combine  with 
chlorine,  the  chemical  action  being  transferred 
to  the  zinc  plate.  In  either  of  these  experi- 
ments, when  chemical  action  takes  place  wholly 
or  principally  upon  one  metal,  if  a  magnetic 
needle  is  brought  near  the  connecting  wire  it 
will  be  observed  that  a  peculiar  force  is  ex- 
erted upon  it,  tending  to  make  it  take  a  por- 
tion at  right  angles  to  the  wire,  turning  one 
way  or  the  other,  according  to  the  position  of 
the  latter,  and  the  relative  connections  of  the 
copper  and  zinc  plates.  If  a  very  fine  plati- 
num wire  forms  a  part  of  the  connection,  its 
temperature  will  be  raised ;  and  if  the  appa- 
ratus works  energetically,  it  may  become  in- 
candescent, or  even  fused.  If  contact  is  bro- 
ken in  any  part  of  the  connecting  wire,  a  mi- 
nute spark,  especially  if  the  room  is  darken- 
ed, may  be  observed  at  the  point  of  separa- 
tion, which  resembles  the  spark  of  the  ordi- 
nary frictional  electrical  machine,  and  may 
be  shown  to  have  similar  properties.  After 
separation  the  plates  will  not  present  the  same 
appearance  as  during  connection ;  but  the  evo- 
lution of  hydrogen  gas  on  the  surface  of  the 


GALVANISM 


587 


copper  will  cease,  and  if  the  ends  of  the  wires 
are  examined  with  a  delicate  galvanoscope  or 
electroscope,  tbej  will  be  found  to  contain  a 
small  charge  of  statical  electricity,  the  one 
connected  with  the  copper  plate  being  in  a  pos- 
itive, and  the  one  connected  with  t^e  zinc  plate 
in  a  negative  condition.  If  the  disconnected 
ends  of  the  wires  are  dipped  near  to  each 
other  in  a  small  cnp  containing  a  solution  of 
iodide  of  potassium,  the  salt  will  be  decom- 
posed; a  fact  which  offers  strong  evidence 
against  the  contact  theory.  If,  in  the  above 
experiments,  sulphuric  instead  of  hydrochloric 
acid  is  used,  the  same  phenomena  will  appear ; 
but  instead  of  chloride,  sulphate  of  zinc  will 
be  found  in  solution.  A  system  consisting  of 
two  metals  immersed  in  a  fluid  which  chemi- 
cally acts  upon  one  of  them,  is  called  a  simple 
galvanic  or  voltfdc  couple,  or  element.  When 
the  plates  are  disconnected  the  couple  is  said 
to  be  open,  and  when  connected  by  a  conduc- 
tor it  is  said  to  be  closed,  forming  a  circuit, 
which  is  also  spoken  of  as  open  or  closed. 
When  the  circuit  is  closed  it  is  assumed  that  a 
current  of  positive  electricity  passes  through 
it  from  the  zinc  to  the  copper  in  the  liquid, 
and  from  the  copper  to  the  zinc  out  of  the 
liquid.  It  is  assumed  that  the  current  passes 
in  this  direction  because  when  the  end  of  the 
wire  which  is  connected  with  the  copper  plate 
is  examined  with  the  electroscope,  positive 
electricity  is  found  upon  it ;  and  also  from  the 
fact  that  the  needle  of  a  galvanometer,  when 
one  of  the  electrodes  of  the  instrument  is  con- 
nected with  the  copper  and  the  other  with  the 
zinc  plate,  is  deflected  in  the  same  direction 
as  when  they  are  respectively  connected  with 
the  prime  conductor  and  rubber  plate  of  an 
ordinary  glass-plate  electrical  machine.  It 
may  be  assumed,  moreover,  that  a  current  of 
negative  electricity  passes  at  the  same  time  in 
the  opposite  direction ;  but  for  convenience  of 
explanation  this  assumed  action  is  not  taken 
into  consideration.  The  use  of  the  word  cur* 
rent  has  its  advantages,  and  helps  to  convey 
ideas  which  are  in  accordance  with  observed 
effects;  but  the  actual  passage  of  a  fluid  in 
either  direction  is  a  matter  of  doubt,  and  in 
the  opinion  of  Faraday  does  not  take  place, 
he  believing  that  the  resulting  phenomena  are 
caused  by  a  polarization  of  the  molecules  of 
the  medium.  The  action  which  is  called  a 
voltaic  current  does  not  require  that  one  of 
the  metalJic  elements  shall  not  be  at  all  acted 
upon  by  the  liquid,  but  only  that  the  action 
shall  be  greater  upon  one  than  upon  the  other; 
the  metal  most  acted  upon  being  the  positive 
or  generating  plate.  Generally  the  polariza- 
tion which  results  from  the  connection  of  two 
metals  when  immersed  in  a  dilute  acid  or  sa- 
line solution,  although  either  might  be  acted 
upon  by  it  separately,  causes  one  to  become 
more  and  tjie  other  less  positive,  or  in  other 
words,  more  negative,  so  that  it  becomes  pro- 
tected. On  this  principle  iron  is  often  protect- 
ed from  corrosive  action  by  coating  it  with 


zinc,  and  the  copper  bottoms  of  ships  have 
been  in  a  similar  manner  protected  from  the 
action  of  sea  water  by  attaching  to  them  a 
more  positive  metal  The  force  which  results 
from  a  difference  in  chemical  action  of  a  liquid 
on  two  metals  is  called  the  electromotive  force, 
and  its  quantity  depends  not  only  upon  the 
relative  attraction  of  the  metals  for  constitu- 
ents of  the  liquid,  but  also  upon  the  distance 
of  the  plates  from  eacl^  other.  That  metal 
which  has  the  strongest  affinity  for  oxygen  is 
usually  the  most  electro-positive,  and  one  met- 
al may  therefore  bear  an  electro-positive  rela- 
tion to  a  second,  while  it  is  electro-negative 
when  compared  to  a  third.  Potassium  is  the 
most  electro-positive  of  all  bodies,  but  its  at- 
traction for  oxygen  is  so  violent  as  to  make  it 
practically  useless  as  an  element  in  the  galvanic 
circuit  Among  those  which  can  be  usefully 
employed  as  electro-positive  elements^  zinc 
ranks  first,  while  platinum  is  the  most  nighljr 
electro-negative  metal.  But  the  relative  elec- 
trical condition  of  several  of  the  metals  changes 
when  immersed  in  different  liquids ;  thus  if  an 
iron  and  a  copper  plate  be  connected  with  the 
electrodes  of  a  galvanometer  and  immersed  in 
dilute  sulphuric  acid,  the  needle  will  be  deflect- 
ed in  one  direction ;  while  if  the  plates  are  im- 
mersed in  a  solution  of  sulphide  of  potassium, 
the  deflection  will  be  in  the  opposite  direction. 
The  following  table  shows  a  few  of  the  results 
obtained  by  Faraday : 

COMPARISON  OF  DIFFERENT  METALS  IN  THE 
PSESENCE   OF  DIFFERENT  LIQUIDS. 


Diluta 
nIpb.acU. 

Hydrochloric 
•dd. 

Sol.  of  potuh. 

Sol.  mdpliido 
of  potuh. 

Silver. 

Copper. 

Antunony. 

Bismuth. 

Nickel. 

Iron. 

Lead. 

Tin. 

Oidmlam. 

Zinc 

Antimony. 

Silver. 

Nickel. 

Bismuth. 

Copper. 

Iron. 

Lend. 

Tin. 

Gsdmiun. 

Zinc 

Silver. 

Nickel. 

Copper. 

Iron. 

Bismuth. 

Lead. 

Antimony. 

Cadmium. 

Tin. 

Zinc 

Iron. 

NickeL 

Bismuth. 

Lead. 

SUver. 

Antimony-. 

Tin. 

Copper. 

Zinc 

Cadoiium. 

The  order  in  each  column  places  the  most  posi- 
tive metal  in  regard  to  the  fluid  at  the  bottom, 
and  the  most  electro-negative  at  the  top.  It 
has  been  demonstrated  by  Poggendorff  that  the 
electromotive  force  between  any  two  metals  is 
equal  to  the  sum  of  the  electromotive  forces 
between  all  the  intervening  metals. — ^The  the- 
ory of  the  production  of  the  galvanic  current 
is  as  follows :  When  a  zinc  and  a  copper  plate 
are  immersed  in  dilute  acid,  they  immediately 
become  polarized,  assuming  opposite  electrical 
states,  that  end  of  the  wire,  as  has  been  ob- 
served, connected  with  the  copper  plate  show- 
ing positive,  and  that  in  connection  with  the 
zinc  negative  electricity,  while  those  portions 
of  the  copper  and  zinc  plates  which  are  in  the 
liquid  are  respectively  in  a  negative  and  a  posi- 
tive state.  The  compound  molecules  of  the 
liquid  are  also  supposed  to  assume  a  highly  po- 
larized condition;  one  constituent  becoming 


5S8 


OALVANISU 


negative  and  attracted  b;  tlie  lino,  and  th« 
other  poaitice  and  attracted  bj  the  copper 
plftte.    Let  as  snppoBe  the  liquid  to  be  hydro- 

chlorio  acid ;  the  electrical  cundition  and 
chemical  action  which  take  jilace  may  be  rep- 
resented 6S  follow  B : 

[•[>».  In    a  H    GtH  a  H  Cllplata. 

The  polarization  of  the  moleoales  of  the  acid 
beooaies  intensified  by  the  presence  of  the  two 
oppositely  electrified  metala ;  and  ooovereely, 
tiie  two  metals  have  the  difference  in  their 
electrioal  states  intensified  by  the  action  of  the 
acid  moleealea.  When  tlie  copper  and  zino 
plates  are  connected  bya  wire  ont  of  the  flnid, 
tbeir  polarity  becotnea  so  iatensified  that  the 
oonatitaents  of  the  molecnles  of  hydrocblorio 
acid  are  drawn  asunder,  the  negative  chlorine 
^ing  attracted  by  the  poeitive  zinc,  and  the 
poaitJTS  hydrogen  by  the  negative  copper  plate. 
Union  takes  place  between  the  chlorine  and 
zino,  forming  chloride  of  zinc,  which  dissolves 
in  the  water;  bnt  the  hydrogen  which  is  at- 
tracted by  the  copper  plate  does  not  unite 
with  it,  but  rises  in  bubbles  along  its  eorface 
to  the  top  of  the  liquid.  This  evolution  of  the 
hydrogen  at  the  oo;)per  plate,  and  not  at  the 
point  where  the  chlorine  leaves  the  acid  and 
nnites  with  the  zinc,  can  only  be  explained  by 
supposing  that  when  this  action  takes  place 
there  is  at  the  same  time  an  intercban)^  of 
constituents  in  the  intervening  chain  of  mole- 
cules lying  between  the  two  plates,  such  as  is 
represented  in  the  diagram  above.  When  the 
eicitinK  liquid  is  dilute  sulphuric  acid,  it  was 
formerly  supposed  that  water  was  the  electro- 
lyte or  body  decomposed,  its  oiygen  uniting 
with  the  zinc  to  form  oxide  of  zinc,  which 
gubseqneutty  united  with  sulphnrio  acid  to  form 
sulphate  of  zinc,  while  the  hydrogen  of  the 
water  escaped  at  the  surface  of  the  copper 
plate;  thus: 

^uTltl,    OH,    O  H,    o  n,   OH,   olpUto. 

But  it  is  now  believed  that  it  is  the  sulphnrio 
acid,  now  written  H,SO.,  which  is  the  subject 
of  decomposition,  the  action  being  as  follows; 


"Srj 


H,   SO,  H, 


Modem  theory  regnrds  the  zinc  as  combining 
directly  with  the  body  SO.  or  oxyaulphion, 
without  preliminary  oxidation.  In  electrolysis 
where  the  two  plates  form  the  electrodes  of  a 
battery,  and  are  corn  iiosed  of  metals  neither  of 
which  combines  with  the  liquid,  the  case  is  dif- 
ferent, and  both  water  and  snlphnric  acid  are 
decomposed,  as  will  be  subsequently  shown.^ 
Voltaic  BatUriet.  A  batt«ry  consists  of  a  com- 
bination of  two  or  more  couples  for  the  pur- 
pose  of  increasing  the  electromotive  force,  each 


additional  couple  adding  its  force  to  that  of 
the  battery.     This  idea  presented  itself  to 
Volta  when  he  invented  the  pile  which  bears 
his  name.     It  may  be 
constructed    by    laying 
npon  a  bottom  piece  of 
wood  a  disk  of  copper, 
und  upon  this  a  disk  of 
cloth  moistened  with  di- 
lute acid  or   a  solution 
of  some  salt,  and  upon 
this  a  disk  of  zinc,  and 
repeating  this  order  to 
an  indefinite  extent,  one 
end  of  tlie  battery  ter- 
minaUng   in  a    copper 
and  the  other  in  a  zina 
disk;  the  order  of  the 
elements  being  copper, 
fluid,  zinc,  copper,  liuid, 
zino,  in  oae  direction, 
and  zinc,  flnid,  copper, 
zinc,   finid,   copper,    in 
the  other;  so  that  it  is 
immaterial  whether  the 
pile  is  commenced  with 
copper  or  with  zinc,  the 
posidve  current,  when 
the  tennbal  plates  are 
connected    by   a    wire, 
Fio.  1— ToKiio  Pilt      always    flowing     from 
the  copper  to  the  zinc 
throngh  the  wire,  and  from  the  uno  to  the 
copper  through  the  layer  of  cloth.    The  cop- 
per and  zinc  plates  should  be  soldered  to- 
gether around  the  edges,  to  prevent  the  acid 
or  exciting  liquid  from  gettiug  between  them 
except  where  they  are  separated  by  the  oloth, 
because  the  chemical  action  which  would  en- 
sue would  tend  to  urge  a  current  in  tlie  op- 
posite direction.     Boon  after  constmctiug  the 
Sile  Yolta  made  a  different  arrangement,  which 
e  called  the  eovronne  de  tatte*,  or  crown  of 
cnps.    This  was  formed  of  a  number  of  caps. 
each  containing  dilate  acid  or  a  solution  of 
salt,  and  a  plate  of  copper  and  one  of  nnc.  k 
short  distance  apart;  the  copper  in  one  cnp 
being  connected  oy  a  wire  with  the  sine  plat« 
in  the  next,  instead  of  lying  directly  upon  or 
against  it.    This  mode  of  connection  answered 
the  same  purpose,  allowing  electrical  polarity 
to  be  induced  with  equal  facility  when  the  con- 
necting wires  were  of  sufficient  sectional  area. 
When  the  number  of  cups,  which  was  indefi- 
nite, was  completed,  the  circuit  was  closed,  as 
was  the  pile,  by  oonneclJDg  the  terminal  plates 
with  a  wire.    The  cups  were  joined  together 
in  the  following  manner :  Commencing  at  the 
positive  ))ole  or  electrode  of  the  battery,  there 
would  be  a  plate  of  copper  in  tlie  first  cup, 
bearing  a  binding  screw  at  its  top,  by  which  it 
could  be  connected  with  a  wire ;  then  oppodte 
it,  in  the  same  cup,  a  plate  of  zinc,  connected 
by  a  wire  or  strip  of  copper  widi  the  copper 
plate  in  the  next  cup,  and  so  on;  the  last  plate 
in  the  last  cup  being  zinc,  connected  with  a 


GALVANISM 


wire,  which  latter,  when  joined  to  the  wire 

connected  with  tbe  copper  plate  in  the  first 

cnp,  dosed  the  circuit.      In  Volta's  cap  bat- 

ter;,  as  well  as  in  the  pile,  the  terminal  plates 

were  connected  with  plates  of  the   opposite 

metal,  a  method  adopted  in  accordance  with 

the  contact  theory;  but  these  additional  plates 

have  been  discarded  as  oseieBa.    Omikahank  in 

1602  nn)di£ed  the  form  of  the  pile  bj  asing  a 

trough  and  omitting  the  separating  pieces  of 

cloth,  which  then  became  nnnecesBar;.    In  this 

batterf,  which   is 

represented  in  fig. 

S,  a  plate  of  zin< 

and  one  of  coppei 

are  placed  t^^thei 

in  pairs  and  held  in      Fio.  S. — Crolkiliaiik'i  Bittny. 

vertical  grooves,  all 

the  zinc  plates  facing  in  one  and  all  the  copper 

Elates  in  the  other  direction.  The  oonnectiou 
etween  the  pairs  of  ntates  should  be  imper- 
vious to  the  fluid  in  tne  trongh,  for  the  same 
reason  that  a  similar  condition  Tnust  be  ob- 
aerved  in  the  ooDstmotion  of  the  pile.  It  is 
pMnlj  observable  that  Cmikebank's  batterf  is 
only  a  horizontal  volt^o  pile,  possessing  bnt 
little  originality,  and  not  the  novelty  or  con- 
venience of  Volta's  crown  of  cnpa.  Useful 
modifications  of  it,  however,  have  been  made. 
A  common  form,  sometimes  still  employed, 
consists  of  a  wooden  trongh  divided  into  setv- 
arate  compartments  conttuning  the  exciting 
fluid,  into  each  of  which  are  snspended  a  zinc 
and  a  copper  or  a  zinc  and  a  platinum  plate, 
from  a  horizontal  wooden  beam,  the  opposite 
elements  in  each  compartment  being  connected 
together.  The  beam  slides  in  vertical  grooves 
in  posts  at  the  end  of  the  trongh  ;  by  which 
means  the  plates  may  be  raised  oat  of  or  low- 
ered into  the  liqnid.    (See  fig.  4.)    They  may 


Fui.  l.—IlDdeni  Trough  Bittny. 

also  be  easily  removed  from  the  beam  and 
cleaned  or  amalgamated  with  mercury,  an  op- 
eration which  it  is  essential  to  perform  with 
zinc  plates  which  are  not  of  pure  met^l ;  and  it 
not  being  practical  to  procure  this,  tlie  opera- 
tion of  amalgamation  is  therefore  universal.  It 
consists  in  applying  metallic  mercury  to  the 
cleared  enrface  of  the  zinc  plates,  by  which  the 
pare  zinc  becomes  dissolved  and  hronght  to 
the  sur&ce  where  the  action  of  the  acid  is  con- 
fined. In  impure  nnamalgamated  zinc,  local 
polarization  takes  places,  forming  local  cur- 
rents which  greatly  diminish  or  annni  the  elec- 


tromotive force.    A  modification  devised  by 

Wollaston  consisted  in  having  a  sheet  of  copper 
hronght  aroand  one  end  of  a  zinc  plate  and 
separated  from  it  by  pieces  of  cork.    Any  nnm- 
ber  of  couples  can  he  united  by  using  a  trough 
divided  into  compartments,  or  by  employing  a 
nnmber  of  glass  or  earthen  cnps  sncli  as  are 
represented    in    fig.    6. 
Smee's  battery  is  formed 
of  oonples  which  are  the 
reverse    of  Wollaaton's, 
there  being  amiddle  plate 
of  platinum,  or  silver  cov- 
ered with  finely  divided 
platinnm  (the  latter  form 
increa^g  the  suribce  and 
giving    an    element    of 
stret^th),  with  a  plate  of 
zinc  on  each  side,  not 
bent,   however,    around 
the  end  of  the  middle 

Elate  as  in  Wollaaton's. 
t  is  found  that  this  ar- 
rangement is  better  than 
to  have  the  positive  ele- 
ment in  the  middle.    A 
powerfhl  form  of  batte 
for  heating  pnrposes, 
consequence  of  the  immense  quantity  of  elec- 
tricity it  generates,  was  constructed  by  Prof. 
Hare  of  Philadelphia,  and  consists  of  one,  or 
only  a  few  simple  couples,  having  a  great  me- 
tallic surface.    A  large  sheet  of  zinc,  of  seve- 
ral hundred  square  feet  of  surface,  and  a  simi- 
lar one  of  copper,  are  separated  by  a  piece  of 
felt  or.  cloth  saturated  with  acidulated  water 
and  tlien  rolled  together  in  the  form  of  a  cylin' 
der.    (See  fig.  6.)    On  account  of  ite  extra- 
ordinary heating  power,  it  is  called  Hare's 
calorimotor  or  de- 
flagrator.  Allthese 
forms  of  batteries, 
which  employ  two 
metallic    elements 
andone  fluid,  when 
used  for  any  con- 
siderable length  of 
time,  are  found  to 
be  defective  on  ac- 
count of  the  enfee- 
blement  of  the  cur- 
rent, which  is  duo 
to  several  causes, 
the    principal    be- 
ing: 1,  decrease  in 
chemical  action  in 
consequence  of  the 

gradual  separatioD       fm.  i-Hu»'.  CrimimoiM-. 
of  the  acid  by  the 

zinc  or  positive  element,  and  the  accumulation 
of  the  salt  which  is  thereby  formed ;  2,  the 
formation  of  local  ourrentsin  the  positive  plat^ 
in  consequence  of  impurities  contained  in  it, 
and  interfering  with  the  general  current;  8, 
the  production  of  secondary  ourrents  which 
flow  in  a  contrary  direction  to  the  general 


GALVANISM 


omrent,  and  which  after  a  lengtii  of  time  be- 
came cqtial  to  it,  rendering  its  action  nail. 
The  nascent  hjdrogen  nhicli  is  erolved  on  tlie 
Burfucti  of  the  negative  plate  lias  a  remarkable 
iwwer,  under  the  circomstiinceB,  of  (Jecouipo- 
Bing  tlie  udt  in  the  fluid.  When  copper  and 
zinc  plates  and  dilut«  sulphnric  acid  ore  used, 
for  instance,  after  a  time  sulphat«  of  zinc, 
ZnSOs  accumnlates,  and  the  hydrogen  tends 
to  deprire  the  o:(;su]pliion,  BOi,  of  a  part 
of  ita  oxygen,  thns  loosening  ita  hold  upon 
the  zinc  constituent,  whicli  heing  attracted 
by  tiie  copper  plate  U  depoBit«d  in  a  metallic 
state  upon  it;  and  this  action  may  continne 
until  the  surface  of  the  copper  is  coTered, 
when  of  conrsB  there  will  be,  in  place  of  the 
original  arrangement  of  two  opposite  metala 
immersed  in  an  exciting  liquid,  two  platCB  of 
the  same  kind,  and  having  therefore  little  or  no 
electromotive  force.  Electricians  have  there- 
fore devised  several  different  forms  of  batteries 
with  the  intention  of  obviating  these  difficul- 
ties, which,  because  of  their  more  conttnaons 
and  equable  action,  have  Iteen  called  constant 
batteries.  The  first  of  these  was  constructed 
by  Beoquerel,  and  consisted  of  a  Bheet  of  cop- 
per in  the  form  of  a  cylinder  enveloped  in  a 
bladder  containing  a  saturated  solution  of  snl- 
phate  of  copper.  The  bladder  is  surrounded 
by  a  cylindncal  sheet  of  zinc,  and  the  whole  is 
placed  in  a  vessel  containing  dilute  eulphurio 
acid  or  common  salt  The  liatterj  of  Daniell, 
constructed  in  1S36,  is  a  modification  of  Beo- 
querel's  in  which  a  porous  earthenware  cup  is 
substituted  for  the  animal  membrane.  Itisetill 
regarded  oa  the  most  constant  of  batteries,  al- 
though it  is  not  the  most  powerful.  Fig.  7 
represents  one  cell  of  a  Danlell's  battery.  A 
glass  jar  contains  dilute 
sulphoric  acid,  in  which  , 
is  placed  a  zinc  plate  r 
cast  in  the  form  of  a  cyl-  f  i 

inder;   within  this  is  a  '  ' 

[lorons  earthenware   cj- 
indriculcup;  and  within 
this,  again,  a  copper  plate 
in  tlie  form  also  of  a  cylin- 
der.   The  porous  cell  con- 
tains a  saturnted  solution 
of  sulphate  of  copper,  and 
crystals  of  this  salt  are 
placed  in  the  liquid  upou 
shelves,  or  in  a  copper- 
wire  bosket.     Sulphuric 
ocid   permeates    all    the 
cells,  bat  the  porous  par-  i 
tition  ofiera  a  great  hin- 
drance to  the  transfusion 
of   the  saline  solutions.   ^'  '-£114  ^"""^ 
The    nascent    hjdrogen 
which  is  evolved  at  the  surface  of  the  copper 
plate  decomposes  the  sulphate  of  copper  in  the 
same  way  that  it  does  the  sulplinte  of  zinc  in 
the  ordinary  zinc  and  copper  couple.     The  ac- 
tion of  a  Daniell's  battery  may  be  explained 
as  follows :  In  the  diagram  a  zino  and  a  copper 


plate  are  represented,  having  a  porous  eartJien- 
ware  portiUon  between  them  ;  solution  of  sul- 
phate of  copper  (CuiSOi)  being  the  active  iluid 
m  the  presence  of  the  copper^  and  sidpboric 
acid  (HiSOt)  the  active  fluid  m  the  presence 
of  the  zinc  plate.  The  polarization  of  themole- 
colesin  botii  fluids  ivhicb  is  effected  by  connect- 
ing the  terminal  plate  with  a  wire  is  represent- 
ed in  the  following  diagram; 


'X^\ 


ima  putlUon.  — 

Cn  I  BO,  CD    BO,  I H,    BO,  H,    80,lpl»t«. 


An  interchange  of  particles  follows  this  polari- 
zation, the  terminsl  negative  constituent,  60,, 
going  to  the  positive  or  zinc  plate  and  com- 
bining with  it,  and  tlie  terminal  positive  con- 
stituent (its  electrical  state  heightened  by  in- 
duction) going  to  the  negative  or  copper  plate, 
and  being  deposited  upon  it.  It  will  be  ob- 
served that  the  action  here  is  somewhat  differ- 
ent from  that  which  obtains  in  a  simple  cell 
containing  dilute  sulphuric  acid  as  the  exciting 
liquid.  In  that  case  hydrogen  is  liberated  at 
the  surface  of  the  copper  plate,  while  in  the 
Daniell's  cell  it  is  substituted  by  metallic  cop- 
per. The  hydrogen  constituent  of  sulphuric 
acid  is  separated  from  it  at  the  porous  cell,  but 
is  immediately  reunited  to  the  salt  radical, 
oiysuiphion,  SO,,  the  electro-negative  constitu- 
ent of  the  sulphate  of  copper.  An  interchange 
of  molecules  is  thus  effected  throughout  the 
whole  chain  of  particles  of  sulphate  of  copper 
and  of  snlphurio  acid  lying  between  the  copper 
and  zino  plates ;  a  copper  molecule,  charged 
with  positive  electricity,  being  at  one  end  de- 
posited upon  the  copper  plate,  which  within 
the  fluid  IS  charged  with  negative  electricity, 
and  a  molecule  of  the  salt  radical,  SO,,  charged 
witli  negative  electricity,  uniting  at  the  other  end 
with  the  zinc  plat«,  which  within  the  fluid  is 
charged  with  positive  electricity.  If  the  mole- 
cules of  copper  after  they  are  deposited  could  re- 
tfun  their  electro-positive  condition,  a  state  of 
polarization  of  the  plate  would  result  similar  to 
that  which  takes  place  from  the  deposition  of 
a  Sim  of  hydrogen  in  the  ordinary  sulphuric 
acid  battery,  and  having  the  effect  of  a  deposit 
of  metallic  zinc;  but  as  soon  as  the  deposition 
takes  place  the  polarity  of  the  deposit^  mole- 
cule changes  from  positive  to  negative,  a  ne- 
cessary result  of  its  becoming  a  part  of  the 
copper  plate.  When  the  solution  of  sulphate 
of  copper  becomes  dilute,  hydrogen  is  liberated 
upon  the  surface  of  the  copper  plate,  from  de- 
composition of  water  or  of  sulphuric  acid,  it 
has  not  been  determined  which.  To  preserve 
the  constancy  of  the  buttery,  it  is  therefore 
necessary  to  keep  the  eolation  of  sulphate  of 
copper  saturated.  The  sulphuric  acid  result- 
ing from  the  decomposition  of  the  sulphate  of 
copper  tends  to  replenish  the  loss  sustained  by 
the  formation  of  sulphate  of  zinc,  but  the  accu- 
mulation of  the  latter  salt  weakens  its  action, 
so  that  it  Is  ne4»asary  from  tuna  to  time  to  add 


GALVANISM 


591 


fi-esh  qnaQtitieB  of  aoid.  Two  wa;s  have  been 
deviaed  to  ramedj  thU  difficaltj,  one  of  which 
ia  aHiag  a  siphon  connwited  witJi  the  bottom 
of  the  oell,  oj  which  the  BtroDg  solution  of 
flolphate  of  zinc  which  aettlea  mAf  be  dis- 
obsrged  when  treeh  quantities  of  Bulphnrio  acid 


to.  B.-CeU  of  Orart'i  BtUtf. 

are  ponred  in.  The  other  method,  devised  by 
Ba^  ootudeits  in  an  srrangemont  bj*  which  the 
zinc  plate  u  gradually  made  to  sink  in  the 
fluid  &t  A  rata  suffioient  to  coonterbolance  the 
losa  snstained  by  diminished  chemical  action. 
Grove's  batter;  is  a  modification  of  Danioll's, 
in  which  nitric  acid  takes  the  place  of  siilphate 
of  copper,  and  a  plate  of  platinnm  that  or  cop- 
per. Fig.  8  represents  S  oeli  of  Grove's  bat- 
tery. A  glass  or  earthen  vessel,  A,  containing 
dilute  sniphnrio  acid,  reaeiTes  a  cylinder  of 
zinc,  within  which  is  a  poroos  eartheaware  cup, 
V,  containing  strong  nitric  acid,  and  in  which 
there  is  immersed  a  platinum  plate,  P.  A  cover 
attached  to  it  confines  the  fames  of  hjponi- 
trio  acid,  N]Ot,  which  ore  liberated  by  the  de- 
composing nitric  acid,  NiOt.  The  chemical  ao- 
tion  is  shown  in  the  following  diagram: 

+  ForoDi  puUtkia.  — 

FhttninDl  I  tZhni 

pbte.  IX,0,0II,O,OlR,B0,B^.I[ikt& 

Bnnsen's  battery  is  a  modification  of  Grove's, 
which  woadevisedbjBnnsen,  then  professor  of 
cliemietry  at  Harburg,  in  1843.  The  platinnm 
element  is  replaced  by  carbon,  which  ia  an  ex- 
cellent conductor,  and  more  electro-negative 
than  platinum.  The  graphite  carbon  taken 
from  the  retorts  of  gas  works  is  often  nsed ;  or 
a  cake  may  be  formed  by  calcining  in  an  iron 
moald  a  mixture  of  coke  and  bltnminous  cool. 
The  electrolytic  fluids  may  be  the  same  as  in 
Grove's ;  bat  others  are  of1»n  used,  as  bichro- 
mate of  potash,  sulphuric  acid,  and  comm 
salt.  A  battery  may  be  charged  with  tbi 
fluids  in  the  following  manner :  Two  oances  ot 
bichromate  of  potash  are  dissolved  in  20  ounces 
of  hot  water,  and  when  cold  10  onnces  of  sul- 

Ehuric  acid  are  added,     ^hen  the  heat  caused 
y  the  addition  of  the  acid  has  subsided,  the 
solution  is  placed  within  the  porous  onp,  and  a 
84S  VOL.  Tii.— 38 


saturated  solution  of  common  salt  ponred  into 
the  outer  compartment,  which  is  oocnpied  by 
the  zinc  plate.  The  chemical  action  when 
these  solutions  are  used  is  rather  more  com- 
plex than  Chat  which  has  been  given  for  other 
fluids.  The  action  of  the  sulphuric  acid  on  the 
bichromate  of  potash  produces  sulphate  of  pot- 
ash and  chromic  acid.  Hydrogen  is  evolved, 
and  acting  npon  the  chromic  acid  redaces  it  to 
chromic  oxide,  water  bein^  at  the  same  time 
formed,  while  the  chromic  oxide  combines 
with  Bulpburic  acid,  forming  sulphate  of  chro- 
minm.  The  electromotive  force  resulting  from 
these  reactions  is  very  great,  and  the  batteries  in 
which  these  fluids  ore  nsed  are  now  generally 
preferred  where  compactness  is  desired.  La- 
clanche's  battery  consista  of  a  carbon  electrode 
packed  is  a  mixture  of  peroxide  of  manganese 
and  carbon  or  coke  in  coarse  powder  in  a  po- 
rous cell,  and  outside  of  this  a  cup  oontunmg 
a  zinc  electrode  immersed  in  a  solution  of  sol 
ammoniao.  Its  electromotive  force  is  about 
nine  tenths  of  that  of  Daniell'e.  The  compara- 
tire  values  of  the  electromotive  forces  of  seve- 
ral forms  of  batteries  are  as  follows :  Bnnsen's, 
8S0 ;  Grove's,  829 ;  Daniell's,  4T0 ;  Smee's,  310 ; 
Wollaston's,  208.— £leotrudt]/  dmeloptd  by  the 
Action  qf  Solution*  upon  »ne  another.  If  two 
vessels,  one  containing  a  solution  of  potash 
and  the  other  of  nitric  acid,  are  connected 
by  a  bundle  of  asbestus,  as  represented  in  fig. 
S,  and  two  platinum 
plates  are  connected 
with  the  wires  of  a 
galvanometer,  a  gal- 
vanic current  will 
pass  through  the  lat- 
ter instrument  from 

the  add  to  the  alkali.  Davy  snjjposed  that  this 
effect  was  due  to  the  difierence  in  action  of  the 
two  liquids  upon  the  platinum  ;  bnt  if  two 
cups,  each  containing  a  solution  of  the  same 
salt,  as  nitre,  arc  placed  one  on  either  side  of 
the  first  named  cup,  and  connected  with  them 
by  bundles  of  asbestus,  and  the  platinnm  slips 
connected  with  the  ^vanometer  are  placed 
in  the  solution  of  nitre,  a  current  will  be  pro- 
duced flowing  in  the  same  direction  as  in  the 
first  instance,  bat  it  will  be  weaker,  becanse 
of  the  increased  resistance  offered  by  the  addi- 
tional Uqnid.  The  action  of  one  aoid  upon 
another  will  also  generate  galvanic  currents. 
X^et  strong  nitric  acid  be  placed  in  one  branch 
of  a  TJ  tube,  and  strong  sulphuric  acid  he  care- 
fully introduced  into  the  other  so  as  not  to  mix 
(for  which  purpose  a  dividing  membrane  may 
be  used),  and  platinum  strips  connected  with 
the  wires  of  a  galvanometer  be  placed  one  in 
either  branch ;  a  current  will  thus  be  gene- 
rated, passing  from  the  sulphuric  acid  through 
the  galvanometer  to  the  nitric  acid.  Fig.  10 
represents  a  galvanic  couple  composed  of  two 
hquids  and  one  metal,  devised  by  Becquerel, 
and  called  an  oxygen  drcnit.  A  bottle,  d, 
contains  nitric  acid,  aad  into  ita  mouth  is  in- 
•ert«d  a  tnbe  containing  a  solution  of  caustic 


592  GALV 

potash,  and  haTing  a  cork  in  the  top  throngh 
which  passes  a  wire.  The  bottom  of  the  tabe 
U  8top|>ed  bj  a  piece  of  linen  cloth,  which  is 
covered  with  claj,  and  this 
with  cotton  wool,  to  prevent 
the  claj  from  laising  with 
the  liquid.  The  wire  con- 
nects two  plates  of  platinum, 
a  and  p,  and  the  connection 
uiar  be  made  through  the 
coil  of  a  galvanometer  if  it 
is  desired  to  meaanre  the 
strength  of  the  cnrrent.  The 
two  liquids  meet  each  other 
in  the  clay,  and  a  current  of 
coDsiderable  strength  is  gen- 
erated, which  passes  through 
the  wire  from  the  acid  to  the 
potash  solution,  and  through 
the  clay  from  the  potash  eolo- 
tion  to  the  acid ;  the  latter 
answering  to  the  copper,  sod 
Fra.  10.  the  potash  solution  to  the  zino 

oJSS'cSii.     Ell""  »' "?  •^'"•■7  '"r]'- 

The  water  in  the  potasJi  wln- 
tion  is  decomposed,  its  oxygen  escaping  in  bob- 
bles, and  its  hydrogen  going  to  the  nitric  acid, 
which  it  reduces  to  nitrous  acid.  The  current 
which  is  generated  is  of  constant  strength,  aud 
the  platesdo  not  become  polarized.  Tlic  power 
is  increased  by  making  the  plate  in  the  pot- 
ash solntion  of  amalgamated  zinc,  which  being 
attacked  h;  the  nascent  oxygen  produces  po- 
larization in  the  direction  of  the  current.  A 
ntnple  conple  of  this  kind  is  sufficient  to  effect 
the  electrolysis  of  water,  and  several  couples 
form  apowerful  battery. ^i>ry  i*»i«s.  A  modi- 
floation  of  the  voltaic  pile  was  made  by  Delac 
in  1809,  and  improved  by  Zamboni  in  1812, 
which  is  remarkable  for  generating  electricity 
of  very  high  tension,  approaching  in  character 
that  of  the  frictional  machine.  The  dry  pile 
of  Zamboni  is  made  by  covering  a  sheet  of 
porous  paper  on  one  side  with  tin  foil,  and  on 
the  other  with  a  paste  made  of  powdered  per- 
oxide of  manganese  mixed  with  moistened  gela- 
tine, starch,  or  British  gum.  Wlien  the  paste 
is  dry  the  paper  is  cat  into  circolar  disks  about 
an  inch  in  diameter.  These  are  placed  one 
above  the  other  in  a  glass  tobe,  the  tin-foil 
faces  all  turned  one  way,  and  the  peroxide  of 
manganese  ones  the  other,  so  that  one  end 
terminates  in  tin  foil  and  tlie  other  in  manga- 
nese. Several  hundred  or  thonsond  of  these 
couplea  may  be  formed  into  a  pile.  They 
should  be  sufficiently  pressed  together  to  effect 
good  contact,  each  end  being  fastened  by  a 
metallic  cap,  and  one  end  provided  with  a 
knob,  the  other  standing  upon  a  metallic  plate. 
The  peroxide  of  manganese  end  shows  positive, 
and  the  tin  end  negative  electricity.  Within 
the  pile,  therefore,  tin  corresponds  to  zinc, 
and  peroxide  of  manganese  to  copper,  in  the 
ordinary  pile  or  battery.  It  must  not  be  sop- 
posed  that  the  pile  will  act  if  it  is  perfectly 
dry;   it  reqaires,  and  under  ordinary  circum- 


stances possesses,  a  certain  degree  of  moStture. 
It  does  not  produce  a  continuous  current,  hot 
after  being  discharged  requires  a  certain  time 
for  the  electricity  to  acquire  sufficient  tension 
to  pass  ttirough  the  paper  from  the  tin  to  the 
peroxide  of  manganese.  A  pile  of  several 
thousand  disks  causes  strong  divergence  of  the 
leaves  of  the  electroscope  and  will  decompose 
water.  Its  principal  use  is  in  the  constmction 
of  Bohnenberger'a  electroscope,  represented  in 
fig.  11.    Two  piles  stand  with  .    _ 

their  opponte  poles  upon  a 
metal  plate,  and  from  the  top 
of  a  bell  glass  wljich  covers 
the  piles  a  strip  of  gold  leaf  is 
^euspended  from  a  conductor 
which  passes  through  the  top 
and  terminates  in  a  knob. 
The  gold  leaf  bangs  between 
the  two  knobs  of  the  piles, 
and  the  instrument  is  so  deli- 
cate that  whenever  a  body 
only  slightly  electrified  is 
brooght  within  a  few  feet  of 
it,  the  gold  leaf  will  move  to- 
ward one  or  the  other  of  the 
piles.  A  pith  ball  suspended 
by  a  silk  thread  between  them  will  oscillate 
as  long  as  the  chemical  action  of  the  pile  con- 
tinues, which  may  be  for  two  or  three  years. 
—  Oalvanomet&n.  It  has  been  stated  that  if  a 
magnetic  needle  is  brought  near  a  wire  through 
which  a  galvanic  current  is  passing,  it  will  be 
deflected  i  the  direction  depending  upon  the 
relative  position  of  the  wire  to  the  needle,  and 
upon  the  direction  of  the  ourrenL  Upon  this 
peculiar  action  depends  the  construction  of  nn 
inetrument  which  is  used  for  measuring  the 
strength  of  a  galvanic 
K  current,  called  a  gal- 
— »-  ^f^        vanometer.    If  the  wire 

^^iJ^A"^  is  held  above  the  mag- 

g"^  j  netic  needle,  and  paral- 

I  lei  to  it,  and  a  current 

1^^^^  is  passed  in  the  direc- 

^^S^^  tion   of  its  north   end, 

>-ia.  li,  that  end  will  be  deflect- 

ed to  the  left,  as  repre- 
sented in  fig.  12,  when  the  observer  is  look- 
ing downward  and  to  the  north.  If  the  wire 
is  held  under  the  needle,  and  the  current 
passed  in  the  some  di- 
rection, the  north  end 
will  be  deflected  to  the 
right;  but  if  the  cur- 
rent is  passed  from 
north  to  south,  the  nee- 
dle will  be  deflected  in 
tha  same  direction  as 
when  the  current  passed 
above  it  from  south  to  p,g,  ij, 

north.    If,  therefore,  the 
wire  is  turned  upon  itself,  as  represented  in 
fig.  13,  two  forces  will  act  upon  the  needle. 
tending  to  deflect  it  in  the  same  direclJon ;  and 
if  the  wire  is  formed  into  a  flat  coil,  the  deflect- 


GALVANISM 


Ipg  fbrc«  exerted  upon  the  needle  will  be  mnl- 
tiplied  ne&rlj  as  manj  times  tia  the  wire  passes 
backward  and  forward.     Schweigger's  multi- 


plier, coDstructed  in  this 


shoirn 
14.  The  senBitive- 
□ess  of  the  instrument 
is  increased  hy  naing 
what  is  called  an  asta- 
tic needle,  which  is 
constructed  hj  placing 
two  magnetic  needles 
npon  the  same  aiis, 
but  with  their  north 
and  south  ends  in  op- 
poMte  directions,  and 
suspending  them  hori- 
zontallf  bf  a  delicate  fibre  of  silb.  If  their 
asea  are  perfectly  parallel,  and  thej  have  pre- 
deely  the  same  magnetic  force,  they  will  form 
a  system  which  is  astatic ;  that  is,  they  will 
when  acted  upon  only  by  the  earth's  magnet- 
iam  point  indifferently  in  any  direction.  It  is 
however  inipee»ble  to  place  them  perfectly 


parallel,  and  it  tJierefore  follows  that  when 
they  have  equal  magnetic  force  they  will  only 
come  to  rest  when  at  right  angles  to  the  plane 
of  the  magnetic  meridian.  It  is  usual,  how- 
ever, except  in  the  moat  delicate  tests,  to  have 
one  of  the  needles  slightly  stronger  than  the 
other,  so  that  there  shall  be  a  slight  directive 
tendency  north  and  south  to  the  system.  If  a 
wire  carrying  a  current  is  held  between  the 
two  needles,  they  will  both  be  deflected  in  the 
same  direction ;  and  if  the  wire  is  formed  into 
a  coil,  the  force  will  be  mnitiplied.  An  astatic 
galvanometer  is  represented  in  fig.  16, — ReHit- 
nneeto  Current.  Every  galvanic  circuit  offers 
a  certain  resiatauce  to  the  passage  of  a  current, 
both  in  tbe  wires  connecting  the  terminal  plates, 
and  in  the  fluids  in  tbe  oells.  From  Ohm's 
law  there  may  be  deduced  many  of  the  oon- 
ditiona  upon  which  the  strength  of  the  galvanic 
i^nrrent  and  the  resistance  offered  to  it  depend. 
The  primary  force  by  which  a  galv&nio  cur- 


rent is  set  in  motion  is  called  the  electromotive 

force,  and  this,  upon  tbe  chemical  theory,  re- 
sides principally  at  the  surface  of  the  positive 
metal,  and  is  generated  by  the  chemical  com- 
bination which  takes  place  there.  The  quan- 
tity of  carrent  which  is  developed  in  a  voltaic 
circuit  depends  upon  the  electromotive  force 
and  the  resistance  which  it  has  to  overcome  in 
passing  through  the  conductors,  both  solid  and 
liquid,  which  are  contained  in  the  circuit. 
Ohm's  law  may  be  stated  as  follows :  The 
strength  of  a  ^vanio  current  is  e<]ual  to  the 
aieotromotive  tbrce  divided  by  the  resistance, 
and  is  expressed  by  the  equation  C  =  ^,  where 
C  represents  the  strength  of  the  current,  E  the 
electromotive  force,  and  R  the  resistance.  In 
an  ordinary  couple  there  are  two  resistances 
offered  to  tbe  current:  1,  that  of  the  liquid 
conductor  between  the  plates,  called  the  in- 
ternal or  essential  resistance ;  and  2,  that  of- 
fered by  the  conductor  connecting  tbe  two 
plates  outside  of  tbe  liquid.  This  conductor 
■may  consist  of  one  or  of  several  materials ;  as  a 
wire,  or  two  or  more  wires  having  their  ends 
placed  in  one  or  more  liquids.  The  resistance 
offered  by  such  external  conductors  is  called 
the  external  or  non-essential  resistance.  The 
strength  of  the  current  produced  by  increomog 
the  mze  and  number  of  the  plates  of  a  battery 
may  be  found  by  using  tbe  equation  given  above. 
Let  the  internal  resistance  be  represented  by 
»,  and  the  external  resistanoe  by  t;  then  in  one 
couple  C  =  — -j .  Let  n  represent  tl 
ofoonplea  in  a  battery;  then  0  =  -^ 


which  expression,  if  t  is  very  small,  as  when 
the  conneotJOQ  between  the  terminal  plates  is 
made  by  a  ^ort,  thick  copper  wire,  has  very 
nearly  the  same  value  as  — -;  that  is,  the 

strength  of  tbe  current  is  not  sensibly  increased 
by  increasing  the  number  of  couples  when  the 
circuit  is  closed  by  a  good  conductor.  But 
if  the  external  resistance  is  very  great,  as 
when  the  carrent  passes  through  a  long  tele- 
graph wire,  or  through  a  liquid,  its  strength 
will  be  increased  by  increasing  the  number  of 
couples.  If  tbe  size  of  the  plates  ia  increased, 
then,  according  to  the  chemical  theory,  the 
electromotive  force  will  be  increased,  and 
therefore  the  strength  of  tlie  current,  provided 
the  conductors  do  not  oppose  too  much  resist- 
ance. According  to  tbe  contact  theory,  in- 
creasing the  size  of  the  plates,  and  therefore 
the  section  of  the  liquid  conductor  between 
them,  proportdonately  diminishes  the  internal 
rc«st«nce.    If^  therefore,  the  size  of  the  plates 


I  number 


9  increased  m  Umes,  C  = 


•HE 


If 


le  valne  of  t  Is  very  smtdl,  the  latter  eipres- 

nn  hu  nmrlv  tKe  naniA  vnlnn  hh  IzB.  .  or  tha 


6U 


GALVANISM 


itreDgth  of  the  onireut  then  increases  Very 
Dear);  in  proportion  to  the  increase  in  the  rize 
of  the  plates;  bat  if  tbe  external  resinance  is 

great,  the  strength  of  the  onrreDt  will  not  be 
increased  in  proportion  to  tbe  increase  in  the 
rize  of  the  platea.  Hence,  in  magnetizing  soft 
iron  by  passing  a  cnrrent  aroand  it  through  a 
coil  of  Htout  wire,  it  will  he  of  advantage  to 
nae  a  small  nnmber  of  large  conplea ;  but  in 


FiH.  IS.— CoDpUng  tor  IntioiUj. 

pasmng  a  current  through  a  long  wire  or  an 
electr^;te,  or  anj  poor  conductor,  a  large 
number  of  couples  is  to  be  preferred.  The 
coopling  to  overcome  external  reristance  is 
represented  in  fig.  IS,  which  is  tbe  arrange- 
ment adopted  in  telegraph  batteries  and  in 
galvanoplastic  operations,  and  is  called  coupling 
in  series.  Coupling  for  quantity,  or,  as  it  is 
sometunes  called,  coupling  in  multiple  arc,  is 
represented  inflg.  IT,  where  plates  of  the  same 
metal  are  grouped  together.  It  has  tbe  same 
effeot  as  the  employment  of  one  pair  of  plates 
having  an  equal  area  of  snrface ;  increasing  the 
sectional  area  of  the  internal  or  fiaid  conduc- 
tor, and  correspondingly  diminishing  the  inter- 
nal resistance ;  also  increasing  the  quantity  of 
current  through  the  eitemal  oondactors  when 
they  are  of  sufficient  capacity,  or  when  they 
offer  enough  resistance,  of  generating  an  equiva- 
lent quantity  of  heat.  The  tension  of  galvanic 
is  far  iest  than  that  of  frictional  electricity, 
but  by  greatly  multiplying  tbe  number  of  pairs 
in  a  battery  tbe  tension  of  frictional  electricity 


Fia.  IT.— CoDpttns  Ibr  Qnutltr. 

may  b«  approached.  Thus,  a  battery  con- 
structed by  Mr.  Oassiot  of  8,5S0  innc  and  cop- 
per pairs,  having  electrodes  ji^  of  an  inch  apart, 
gave  a  series  of  sparks  across  tbe  interval  wliicb 
lasted  for  several  months.  It  is  usual  to  say 
that  the  quantity  of  frictional  electricity  is  small 
and  its  tension  great,  while  the  quantity  of  a 
galvanic  pair  is  great  in  proportion  to  its  ten- 
sion.    An  experiment  of  Faraday's  showed 


that  two  wires,  one  of  line  and  one  of  pUti- 
Dam,  «ach  ^  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  im- 
mersed in  acidulated  water  ^  of  a  secMkd, 
had  a  greater  effeot  on  a  magnetic  needle  ttun 
that  of  23  turns  of  tbe  large 
electrical  machine  of  the  royat 
institution.  The  pbysioli^- 
cal  effects  of  galvanic  elec- , 
trioity  vary  with  intensity 
and  quantity ;  they  are  treat- 
ed in  the  article  Hisioai. 
ELBOTBianr.  The  astatic  gal- 
vanometer cannot  be  used  to 
measure  currents  of  much 
strength,  on  account  of  ila 
too  great  delicacy.  For  this 
purpose  the  tangent  galvan- 
ometer and  the  sine  galvan- 
ometer are  employed.  The 
tangent  galvanometer  con- 
sists of  a  vertical  circle  made 
of  a  band  of  cop|>er  the  two  „„,„™„.^, 
ends  of  which  are  connected 
with  the  poles  of  a  battery.  In  tbe  centre  of 
this  vertical  circle  a  sroali  magnetic  needle  is 
placed,  in  le^th  about  -fj  of  tbe  diameter  of 
the  circle.  When  the  needle  is  no  longer  than 
this,  the  tangent  of  the  angle  of  deflection  will 
be  proportional  to  the  strength  of  the  cun-enL 
In  using  the  instrument  tbe  plane  of  the  verti- 


cal circle  is  placed  in  the  plane  of  the  tnagnrt- 
io  meridian.  Tbe  sine  galvanometer,  invented 
by  Pouillet,  is  represented  in  fig.  10.  A  lon^r 
magnetic  needle  may  be  employed  in  this  rn- 


GALVANISM 


69S 


itrument;  becaoM  it  is  kept  at  right  angles  to 
the  ixia  of  the  coil  tbrongh  which  the  carreiit 
posses.  A  homuntol,  graduated  circle,  contain' 
ing  a  declinatioD  needle,  is  fixed  within  a  vertical 
circle,  the  two  turning  on  a  vertical  axis  which 
passes  through  the  centre  of  a  lower  station- 
ary, horizonUl,  gradnat«d  circle,  sn  index  bdng 
used  to  measnre  the  arc  of  revolntion.  A  stout 
copper  wire,  covered  with  silk,  is  paaaed  one  or 
more  times  aroond  the  rim  of  the  vertical  cir- 
cle, according  to  the  strength  of  the  oorrent 
which  ia  to  be  measured.  For  weaker  onrrents 
the  coils  are  increased.  In  using  the  instrn- 
ment  the  plane  of  the  vertical  circle  is  placed 
in  the  plane  of  the  magnetic  meridian.  The 
needle  and  index  will  then  each  stand  at  0, 
respeotivelj  on  the  apper  and  lower  horizontal 
circles.  If  a  current  is  now  sent  throngh  the 
wire,  the  needle  will  be  defiected ;  and  if  the 
vertical  circle  is  rotated  till  the  needle  liee  in 
its  plane,  and  therefore  again  points  to  0,  the 
deflection  will  be  marked  bj  the  index  on  the 
lower  circle.  The  deflecting  force  of  a  current 
acting  at  right  angles  t«  the  axis  of  the  needle 


eiactij  balances  the  magnetic  force  of  tlie 

earth,  which  is  proportional  to  the  sine  of  the 
angle  which  the  needle  makes  with  the  mag- 
netic meridian.  An  icstrument  called  a  differ- 
ential galvanometer  is  sometimes  used  to  mea- 
sure at  the  same  time  the  difference  in  strength 
of  two  cnrrenta.  For  this  pnrpose  two  sepa- 
rata coils  of  the  same  nzed  wire  are  passed  an 
equal  nnmber  of  times  oronnd  the  same  needle. 
When  two  cnrrenta  are  sent  in  contrary  direc- 
tions through  the  coils,  the  amount  of  deflection 
produced  will  indicate  the  difference  in  strength 
between  them.  Bir  William  Thomson's  mirror 
galvanometer  (fig.  20)  measures  a  delicate  gal- 
vanic CDirent  with  more  precision  than  anjr 
other  instrument  that  has  been  invented.  A 
magnetissuspendedwithinacoiiof  wire  which 
varies  in  size  and  length  according  to  the  size 
and  length  of  the  conductor  through  which 
the  current  has  already  passed.  If  it  has 
passed  through  long  circuits  containing  bad 
conductors,  the  coil  should  be  long  and  of  fina 
wire,  because  the  current  will  have  been  so 
much  weakened  that  a  fine  long  wire  is  now 


Fu.  10— etr  WUtUm  TbamMn'i 


snfficient  to  conduct  it,  and  therefore  it  may  be 
used  to  induce  a  considerable  mognetio  force. 
The  coil  is  placed  within  the  cylinder  mounted 
upon  the  rectangular  box  shown  in  the  flgnre, 
and  to  one  dde  of  the  magnet  snspended  within 
it  there  is  attached  a  mirror  which  reflects  a  raj 
of  light  upon  a  horizontal  graduated  screen  in 
front  of  it,  and  behind  which  there  is  placed  a 
lamp  which  sends  B  ray  tif  light  through  an 
orifice.  A  slight  deflection  of  the  magnet, 
which  together  with  the  mirror  weighs  only 
a  few  grains,  gives  the  reflected  ray  a  wide 
range  over  the  graduated  screen.  A  bar  mag- 
net, S,  placed  in  the  magnetic  meridian,  is  used 
to  counteract  the  earth's  magnetism  and  there- 
by increase  the  delicacy  of  the  instrumenL 
Another  bar  magnet,  T,  perpendicular  to  the 
magnetic  meridian,  is  used  to  adjust  the  instra- 
ment  to  zero  when  no  current  is  passing.  An 
instrument  called  a  rheostat,  invented  by 
Wheatstone  for  the  purpose  of  comparing  re- 
is  represented  in  fig.  SI.    Twooylin- 


metal,  and  the  other,  B,  of  some  non-condno- 
tor,  as  TQlcanit«  or  baked  wood.  There  is  a 
spiral  groove  in  the  non-conducting  cylinder 
in  which  a  wire,  connected  with  the  binding 
■crew  0,  is  wound  for  on  indefinite  distance, 


and  then  transferred  to  the  other  cylinder  and 
wound  upon  it  to  its  farther  end.  By  turning 
the  crank  connected  with  one  of  the  cylinders 
the  wire  may  be  all  transferred  from  one  to 


GALVANISM 


the  other.  A  binding  screw  coimectg  with  the 
metal  cjlinder,  and  when  this  and  the  other 
bioding  screw  are  connected  with  the  elec- 
trodes of  a  battcrj  a  galvanic  current  will  pass 
through  the  wire  which  ia  wound  npon  the 
non -con doctor,  and  also  through  the  metal  cyl- 
inder, BO  that  it  will  be  easy  to  interpose  in  the 
circuit  any  desired  lengtli  of  wire  having  any 
desired  area  of  cross  section.  Establishing  a 
certain  length  of  a  certain  sized  wire  tm  a  nnit 
of  measure,  a  comparison  may  be  made  between 
the  resistances  of  various  media.  To  measure 
the  resistance  of  any  con  doctor,  the  rheostat  and 
sine  galvanometer  may  be  used  in  the  following 
manner :  In  fig.  23,  let  m  be  a  conductor  whose 
resistance  is  to  bemeasared  or  compared.  One 
end  of  it  is  dipped  in  a  cup  of  mercorj,  b,  which 
is  ftUo  connected  with  one  pole  uf  a  battery, 
T.  The  other  end  of  m  dips  into  a  second  cup 
of  mercury,  a,  which  is  connectod  with  one  of 
the  binding  screws  of  the  rheostat.  A  wire 
attached  to  the  otlier  binding  screw  is  connect- 
ed with  one  end  of  the  wire  which  passes 
around  the  vertical  circle  of  the  galvanometer, 
the  other  end  of  which  connects  with  the  other 
pole  of  the  battery.  The  rheostat  wire  is  all 
wonnd  on  the  metal  cylinder,  and  the  circuit 
being  closed,  the  deflection  of  the  galvanometer 


may  be  noted.  Then  the  conductor  m  is 
moved  from  the  circuit,  and  the  two  wires 
a  and  b  are  joined.  Enoogh  of  the  rheostat 
wire  is  now  wound  on  the  non-conducting  cyl- 
inder to  caose  the  same  defiection  in  the  needle 
as  before.  That  portion  of  the  rheostat  wire 
through  which  the  current  passes  will  have  tlio 
satne  resistance  as  that  of  the  conductor  m, 
whose  amount  is  therefore  found  by  compari- 
son. The  results  obtained  fVom  numeroos  ex- 
periments upon  the  conductivities  of  various 
metals  show  that  sliver,  gold,  and  copper  are  the 
three  l>est  conductors,  and  that  impurities  great- 
ly increase  resistance,  as  will  also  an  increase 
of  temperature.  It  has  been  shown  by  Forbes 
that  metals  have  proportional  conductivities 
for  heat  and  for  electricity,  and  that  impurities 
also  proportionately  increase  the  resistance  for 
each.  The  following  table  gives  £.  Becquerel's 
determinations  of  specific  electrical  resistances 
at  IB"  0.,  regarding  that  of  silver  at  0°  as  100 ; 
BIIht loiinn IM 

Conner. 11^    Iron ./............    ^SA 

OoH IM    L«d ISIS 


t}  comparing  this  table  with  that  of  the  heat- 
conducting  powers  of  the  same  metala  in  the 
article  Heat,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  numberH 
which  here  indicate  electrical  r 


tivities.  The  resistance  of- 
fered by  liquids  to  the  paa- 
sage  of  a  galvanic  current 
can  be  determined  with  the 
rhcostatand  galvanometer  in 
a  manner  similar  to  that  for 
solid  conductors.  Plates  of 
metal  at  A  and  B,  fig.  S3,  ar» 
pluced  one  above  another  in 
a  vortical  cylindrical  vesael 
and  connected  by  wires,  one 
with  a  pole  of  a  battery,  and 
the  other  with  the  rheostat, 
the  galvanometer  being  in- 
troduced as  before.  The  ter- 
minal plates  must  be  of  met4il 
whose  relations  to  the  flnid 
Fia.  as.  will  not  excite  any  electro- 

motiveforce.  Thebcatliqnid 
conductors  oicept  mercury  offer  vastly  greater 
resistance  than  metals.  The  resistance  offered 
by  dilute  sulphuric  acid  is  about  1,000,000 
times  that  of  silver,  and  that  of  water  many 
times  greater.  If  the  strength  of  a  series  of 
currents  passing  through  a  wire,  as  measured 
by  the  tangent  or  the  sine  galvanometer,  is 
represented  hj  the  namhers  1,  fi,  S,  the  quan- 
tity of  heat  developed  in  the  same  time  will 
be  expressed  by  the  numbers  1,  4, 9 ;  therefore 
the  heat  generated  by  a  galvanic  current  is 
proportional  to  the  square  of  the  strength  of 
the  current.  With  an  equal  strength  of  eorrenl 
the  heat  generated  is  in  proportion  to  the  ei- 
ternal  resistance.  If  currents  of  equal  strength 
are  passed  through  silver  and  platinum  wires 
of  the  some  length  and  thickness,  the  latter 
will  be  heated  ten  times  as  much  as  the  former, 
because  the  resistance  offered  by  platinum  is 
ten  times  as  great  aa  that  offered  by  silver;  bat 
it  will  require  more  electromotive  force  to 
send  the  current  through  the  platinum. — Elfc- 
trolyiii.  The  decomposition  of  substances  bj 
the  galvanic  current  when  there  is  no  con- 
sumption of  either  electrode,  as  in  the  cases 
we  have  been  considering,  is  called  electroljrna, 
although  it  differs  but  little  from  the  decom- 
position which  takes  place  in  the  cell  of  a  bat- 
tery couple,  the  decomposed  fluid  in  either  case 
being,  strictly  speaking,  an  electrolyte.  The 
first  decomposition  of  substances  by  passing 
through  them  currents  from  the  electnMes  of 
a  battery  was  effected  by  Nicholson  and  Gar- 
lisle,  who  decomposed  water  in  the  year  1800, 
soon  after  the  construction  of  the  voltaic  pile. 
The  electrolysis  of  water  is  commonly  per- 
formed with  Faraday's  voltameter,  a  modiflca- 
tionof  which  is  ahowninflg.  24.  Two  platinum 
electrodes,;)  and  n,  pass  through  Aealed  orifices 
in  the  bottom  of  a  shallow  vessel,  end  over 
them  are  placed  inverted  te^it  tubes,  O  and  H, 


GALVANISM 


which  are  filled  with  wator  acidoUted  with 

sulphuric  acid,  the  same  fluid  being  coottuoed 
ia  tbe  shallow  veBsel.  Tha  electrodes  iire 
placed  as  near  together  as  practicable,  in  order 
to  reduce  tbe  resistance.    The  clectrolysia  of 


.Q  ri 


pure  water  is  difficult,  and  it  is  doubtful  if  it 

occDra  in  the  presence  of  sulphuric  acid,  ex- 
cept at  the  surface  of  tbe  positive  electrode,  it 
being  more  probable  Ihst  the  chain  of  mole- 
cules of  Bulpburio  acid  l^ing  between  tbe  elec- 
trodes have  their  elements  displaced  ami  re- 
joined in  the  following  manner : 


J»: 


;■]- 


,J8 


L 


Other  binary  compounds  are  very  readily  de- 
composed by  eiectrol;sis,  aa  for  instance  iodide 
of  potassium,  Kl,  in  this  manner, 

the  negative  element  of  the  compound  mole- 
cule, iodine,  going  to  the  positive,  and  tbe 
positive  element,  potassium,  going  to  the  nega- 
tive electrode.  By  means  of  a  battery  of  250 
couples  Sir  Humphry  Davy  decomposed  the 
alkalies  potash  and  soda,  showing  tbem  to  be 
oxides  of  two  hitherto  nniinown  metals,  potas- 
Slum  and  sodium.  The  electrolysis  of  potash 
may  be  accomplished  by  placing  a  globule  of 
,  mercury  in  a  cavity  made  m  a  piece  of  ca'ustic 
potash,  which  being  moistened  lies  upon  a  piece 
of  platinmn  full.  The  latter  is  connected  with 
the  positive  electrode  of  a  Grove's  or  Bunsen's 
battery  of  six  or  seven  colls,  and  the  point  of  a 
wire,  connected  with  the  negative  electrode,  is 
placed  in  the  mercury  globule,  which  then  at- 
tracts tbe  positive  element,  metallic  potassium, 
of  the  caustic  potash,  while  the  negative  ele- 


with  the  mercury  an  amalgam,  which  on  being 
subjected  to  distillation  yields  metallic  potas- 
sium. Any  substance  which  is  separated  into 
component  parts  by  electrolysis  is  called  an 
electrolyte,  and  must  be  in  a  fluid  condition  so 
as  to  admit  of  displacement  of  the  molecules. 
Althongb  it  is  believed  at  tbe  present  time  that 
tbe  molecules  of  solid  bodies  do  not  touch  each 
other,  still  it  must  of  necessity  be  a  condition 


fi97 


that  they  are  held  by  their  polarity  i 

tiled  relations  that  no  external  force  it 
flcient  to  release  them  until  the  attraction  ia 
diminished  by  beat  or  by  some  solvent.  From 
the  nature  of  molecular  combination,  one  cqd- 
stitnont  of  a  molecule  is  eleetro-powtive,  and 
the  otbor  electro-negative;  therefore,  when 
subjected  to  tbe  influence  of  electrical  attrac- 
tion, one  of  the  constituents  will  be  drawn  to 
the  positive  and  the  other  to  tbe  negative  elec- 
trode of  the  battery.  The  positive  electrode 
of  a  battery  was  named  by  Faraday  the  anode, 
and  the  negative  the  cathode,  the  former  re- 
ferring to  tbe  upward  and  tlie  latter  to  the 
downward  direction  of  the  current.  The  ele- 
ments or  constituents  of  tbe  electrolyte  be 
called  ions,  the  one  going  to  the  anode  the 
anion,  and  the  one  going  to  tlie  cathode  the 
cation.  Potassium,  which  is  the  most  electro- 
positive of  all  bodies,  ia  therefore  always  a 
cation,  and  oxygen,  the  most  electro-negative 
body,  is  always  an  anion.  As  a  general  rule, 
the  metals,  or  those  constituents  which  contain 
them,  are  cations,  while  the  non-metallic  con- 
stituents are  anions ;  but  some  elements  may 
be  sometimes  cations  and  sometimes  anions. 
In  chloride  of  sodium,  NaOl,  for  instance, 
chlorine  is  an  anion,  while  in  chloric  acid, 
CliOt,  it  becomes  a  cation,  or  electro-positive 
element.  lu  the  electrolysis  of  ternary  salts, 
which  were  formerly  supposed  to  be  consti- 
tuted by  the  union  of  an  acid  with  an  oxide 
of  a  metal,  it  was  held  that  there  was  a 
separation  of  this  oxide  from  the  acid,  and 
then  a  aubsequent  separation  of  the  oxygen 
and  the  metal,  and  their  appearance  respec- 
tively at  the  positive  and  negative  electrodes; 
but  this  theory  was  only  adapted  to  the  one 
entertained  with  regard  to  the  constitution 
of  a  salt.  It  is  now  held  that  ternary  salts 
have  in  reality  a  binary  constitution,  the  metal 
forming  tbe  electro-positive,  and  the  salt  raiH- 
cal  the  electro-negative  constituent.  Tbe  elec- 
trolysis of  a  salt  may  be  shown  by  nsing  a 
U-sbaped  tube  as  represented  in  fig.  S6.  A 
solution  of  the  salt  colored  with  sirup  of  vio- 
lets is  introduced  into  the  tube,  and  the  plati- 


num electrodes  of  a  battery  are  placed  one  in 
each  leg.  After  the  current  has  passed  for  a 
time  the  fluid,  will  have  a  red  color  about  the 
positive,  and  a  green  color  about  the  negative 
electrode,  the  red  being  caused  by  the  action 


598 


GALVANISM 


of  the  aoid,  and  the  green  by  that  of  the  alkali, 
these  bodies  being  formed  subsequently  to  the 
electrolytic  decomposition  of  the  salt  by  the 
union  of  the  metal  with  the  oxygen  of  the  wa- 
ter, and  the  nnion  of  the  body  SO4  with  the  hy- 
drogen. It  was  the  appearance  of  these  acids 
and  bases  at  the  electrodes  which  led  to  the 
old  theory  of  saline  compounds.  In  electroly- 
sis there  is  not  merely  a  separation  and  recom- 
bination of  constituents  in  the  chain  of  mole- 
cules between  the  electrodes,  but  there  is  an 
actual  passage  of  one  to  the  positive  and  of 
the  other  to  the  negative  electrode.  This  ac- 
tion was  demonstrated  by  Davy  in  the  follow- 
ing manner:  A  solution  of  sulphate  of  soda 
was  placed  in  two  vessels  and  connected  by  a 
bundle  of  asbestus  moistened  with  the  same 
solution.  The  electrodes  of  a  battery  being 
placed  in  the  cups,  it  was  after  a  time  found 
that  the  cup  connected  with  the  positive  elec- 
trode contained  all  the  sulphuric  acid,  while 
the  soda  was  all  found  in  the  other.  If  one 
of  the  cups  contains  a  solution  of  sulphate  of 
soda,  and  the  other  a  solution  of  chloride  of  so- 
dium or  of  potassium,  both  metallic  bases  will 
after  a  time  be  found  in  the  cup  connected 
with  the  negative  electrode,  and  the  acid 
radicals  in  the  other ;  and  this  transference  of 
molecules  will  take  place  with  any  number 
of  solutions,  and  through  any  number  of  cups 
which  will  not  offer  too  great  resistance  to  the 
passage  of  the  current,  provided  that  all  the 
compounds  which  are  formed  by  the  inter- 
change of  molecules  are  soluble.  If,  however, 
an  insoluble  compound  is  formed  by  the  union 
of  any  of  the  constituents  in  any  of  the  ves- 
sels, it  will  be  precipitated  and  thus  finally 

eliminated  from  the 
solution.  Thus  if  a 
solution  of  sulphate 
of  potash  is  placed 
in  A,  IRg.  26,  con- 
nected with  the  neg- 
ative electrode  of 
a  battery,  distilled  water  in  0,  connected  with 
the  positive  electrode,  and  a  solution  of  caustic 
baryta  in  6,  all  being  connected  by  threads  of 
moistened  asbestos,  the  passage  of  a  current 
will  effect  no  transference  of  sulphuric  acid  to 
the  positive  electrode,  but  a  precipitate  of  sul- 
phate of  baryta  will  be  formed  in  the  cup  6. 
The  researches  of  Faraday  have  established 
the  following  laws  of  electrolysis :  1.  Electro- 
lysis cannot  take  place  unless  the  electrolyte 
is  a  conductor.  Water  cannot  be  decompo9ed 
when  in  a  state  of  ice,  and  other  substances, 
as  oxide  of  lead  and  chloride  of  silver,  require 
for  electrolysis  to  be  fused  to  give  them  con- 
ducting power.  2.  The  energy  of  electro- 
lytic action  is  the  same  in  all  parts  of  the  cur- 
rent. 8.  The  same  quantity  of  electricity  de- 
composes chemically  equivalent  quantities  of 
all  the  electrolytic  constituents  through  which 
it  passes.  That  is  to  say,  the  same  current  will 
in  the  same  time  decompose  165  parts  of  iodide 
of  potassium,  101  of  nitrate  of  potash,  69  of 


Fxo.  26. 


chloride  of  sodium,  and  9  of  water.  The  de- 
composition which  takes  place  in  electrolysid 
creates  a  reedstance  to  the  current,  and  tends 
to  generate  a  current  in  an  opposite  direction, 
the  action  being  similar  to  what  would  be  the 
case  if  one  of  the  cells  of  the  battery  were  to 
be  reversed,  so  that  the  current  would  be 
forced  to  pass  through  the  liquid  from  the 
copper  to  the  zinc.  This  is  in  agreement 
with  the  doctrine  of  conservation  of  forces. 
A  certain  amount  of  the  power  generated  by 
the  consumption  of  the  positive  element  of 
the  battery,  that  is  to  say,  by  the  combina- 
tion of  the  acid  with  the  zinc,  may  be  expend- 
ed in  one  way  or  another  in  the  conductors 
which  are  traversed  by  the  current.  A  cer- 
tain amount  of  decomposition  or  electrolysis 
may  be  effected  in  one  part,  a  certain  amount 
of  heat  in  another,  and  a  certain  quantity  of 
mechanical  power  in  another;  the  sum  of  all 
the  forces  expended  being  precisely  equal  to 
the  original  electromotive  force. — Polaritation 
of  Electrodes.  After  protracted  electrolyns, 
if  the  electrodes  are  disconnected  from  the 
battery  and  placed  in  a  conducting  liquid  and 
connected  externally  by  a  wire,  a  current  will 
flow  in  a  direction  opposite  to  that  which  was 
generated  by  the  battery.   Suppose,  for  instance. 


^ 


m  W  W 


t 


^ 


"-^-k' 


I 


F16.  27. 


Fio.  2». 


that  in  fig.  27  a  battery  decomposes  sulphate 
of  soda  by  a  current  passing  in  the  liquid  from 
A  to  B.  If  after  a  time  the  battery  is  removed 
and  the  wires  attached  to  the  electrodes  are 
connected  and  coiled  around  a  magnetic  needle 
as  shown  in  fig.  28,  it  will  be  found  that  the 
current  is  now  flowing  in  the  liquid  from  B  to 
A,  or  in  a  direction  opposite  to  that  uiiged  by 
the  battery.  The  action  may  be  explained 
as  follows  :  During  electrolysis  potash  collects 
on  the  electrode  6,  and  sulphuric  acid  on  A. 
The  battery  being  removed  and  a  connecting 
wire  substituted,  the  acid  and  alkali  tend  to 
unite  and  produce  an  electromotive  force  in 
an  opposite  direction.  In  the  electrolysis  of 
water,  or  any  body  which  causes  oxygen  to  be 
evolved  at  one  electrode  and  hydrogen  at  the 
other,  a  thin  film  of  gas  becomes  attached  to 
either  plate,  having  sufficient  electromotive 
force  to  send  a  current  in  the  contrary  direc- 
tion when  the  battery  is  removed  and  a  con- 
necting wire  introduced.  Such  currents,  pro- 
duced by  polarized  plates,  are  called  secondary 
currents ;  and  upon  this  principle  Prof.  Grove 
constructed  a  gas  battery  which  is  capable  of 
producing  a  continuous  current.  Two  glass 
tubes  (fig.  29),  closed  at  the  top  and  each  con- 
taining a  strip  of  platinum  of  the  length  of  the 
tube  having  a  sur&ce  of  finely  divided  plati- 


GALVANISM 


599 


nam,  which  is  suspended  by  a  platinum  wire 
passing  thi'ongh  the  top  of  the  tube,  which 
is  closely  sealed,  are  filled  with  dilate  sal- 
phnrio  acid,  and  their  lower  ends,  which  are 

open,  are  placed  in  the  same 
1  iqnid  in  the  vessel  a  a.  The 
platinum  strips  are  then  con- 
nected with  the  poles  of  a 
battery,  and  by  electrolysis 
hydrogen  is  collected  in  one 
tube  and  oxygen  in  the  other. 
Upon  removing  the  battery 
and  connecting  the  plati- 
num strips  either  through  a 
galvanometer  or  an  easily 
decomposed  electrolyte,  as 
iodide  of  potassium,  a  cur- 
rent will  flow  from  the  oxy- 
gen to  the  hydrogen  tube, 
and  in  the  opposite  direc- 
tion to  that  produced  by  the 
Fio.».-Ga8  Battery,   battery  used  in  evolving  the 

gases,  while  daring  the  ac- 
tion the  gases  in  the  tubes  will  gradually 
disappear,  the  hydrogen  twice  as  fast  as  tlie 
oxygen.  Ritter's  secondary  pile  is  constructed 
upon  the  same  principle.  A  number  of  disks 
of  the  same  metal  are  separated  by  pieces  of 
moistened  cloth .  After  passing  for  a  time  a  gal- 
vanic cnrrent  through  the  system,  on  removing 
the  battery  and  connecting  the  ends  of  the  pile 
a  cnrrent  will  be  found  passing  in  the  opposite 
direction  to  the  battery  current. — Prof.  Olau- 
sias  proposes  a  ^^  molecular  theory  of  electroly- 
sis," which  may  be  briefly  stated  as  follows. 
An  electromotive  force  urges  the  constituents 
of  the  compound  molecules  of  an  electrolyte 
in  opposite  directions.  The  components  being 
join^  together  in  pairs  by  chemical  force,  an 
electrolytic  force  sufficient  to  tear  them  asun- 
der is  hardly  conceivable,  and  therefore  an  ad- 
ditional power  is  sought  for.  The  molecules 
of  an  electrolyte,  as  of  all  bodies,  are  constantly 
in  a  state  of  more  or  less  intense  vibration. 
In  electrolytes,  which  are  fluids,  the  molecules, 
which  exist  in  pairs,  are  constantly  striking 
agunst  each  other.  Sometimes  the  compO'- 
nents  of  a  pair  are  separated,  and  it  is  at  this 
time,  according  to  Clausius,  that  the  electro- 
motive force  causes  the  molecules  of  one 
kind  to  move  in  one,  and  those  of  the  other 
kind  in  the  opposite  direction. — The  identity 
of  frictional  electricity  and  galvanism  is  re- 
garded as  established,  but  the  expression  is 
rather  indefinite  when  it  is  considered  that  at 
the  same  time  a  wide  difference  in  the  phenom- 
ena is  recognized.  That  the  particles  of  pon- 
derable matter,  or  of  ether,  whichever  may  be 
the  media  of  electrical  action,  assume  motions 
of  an  entirely  different  character,  and  which 
may  also  be  transformed  one  into  another  in 
accordance  with  the  influence  of  other  forces 
and  conditions,  is  not  only  probable,  but  is  a 
view  whose  acceptance  can  scarcely  be  resisted. 
Moreover,  having  accepted  the  doctrine  that 
ethereal  beat  vibrations  are  communicated  to 


ponderable  matter,  and  from  ponderable  mat- 
ter again  to  the  ether,  it  is  natural  to  believe 
that  electrical  motion  in  ether  may  prop- 
agate or  generate  motion  in  ponderable  mat- 
ter, which  we  recognize  as  another  form  of 
electricity.  The  production  of  light  by  the 
passage  of  the  electric  current  through  a  re- 
sisting conductor,  as  a  fine  metallic  wire,  is 
caused,  as  is  generally  believed,  by  a  correla- 
tion of  forces,  that  is,  by  the  electric  force  gen- 
erating heat  vibrations  in  the  conductor,  which 
in  turn  propagate  themselves  in  the  ethereal 
medium,  and  increasing  in  rapidity  finally  pro- 
duce the  phenomenon  of  light.  Although  the 
passage  of  a  galvanic  current  through  a  resist- 
ing conductor  generates  heat,  the  two  phenom- 
ena differ  decidedly  in  character.  The  electri- 
cal condition  is  not  retained  by  the  wire  when 
it  is  disconnected  with  the  battery,  but  Jibe 
heat  which  is  developed  continues  for  a  con- 
siderable time.  Again,  statical  electricity  re- 
sides upon  the  surfaces  of  bodies,  whereas  heat 
is  contained  within  them  and  has  a  tendency 
to  diffuse  itself  equally.  If  a  hollow  vessel  is 
electrified,  its  interior  will  exhibit  no  signs  of 
electrical  excitement,  but  heat  will  pass  with 
equal  facility  to  the  interior  or  to  the  exterior. 
— Electrical  Potential,  The  doctrine  of  elec- 
trical potential  has  not  been  discussed  here  or 
in  the  article  Eleotrioitt,  because  for  its  ex- 
planation and  application  more  space  would  be 
required  than  the  limits  of  the  articles  would 
allow.  It  was  introduced  by  Green,  and  has 
been  recently  generally  adopted  in  the  applica- 
tion of  mathematical  methods  of  the  discussion 
of  electrical  phenomena.  The  definition  given 
by  Jenkin  affords,  perhaps,  as  clear  an  idea  of 
the  meaning  of  the  term  as  may  be  communi- 
cated in  a  few  words :  *'*'  Difference  of  potentials 
is  a  difference  of  electrical  condition  in  virtue 
of  which  work  is  done  by  positive  electricity 
in  moving  from  a  point  at  a  higher  potential 
to  that  of  a  lower  potential,  and  it  is  measured 
by  the  amount  of  work  done  by  the  unit  quan- 
tity of  positive  electricity  when  thus  trans- 
ferred." Electrical  potential  is,  therefore,  a 
relative  quantity,  and  relates'  to  the  difference 
in  electric  quantity  or  electric  force  between 
two  points  or  two  surfaces.  If  it  has  any  posi- 
tive value,  it  is  that  given  by  a  difference  in 
electric  condition  between  a  given  body  and 
the  earth,  whose  potential  is  usually  regarded 
as  constant.  This  is,  however,  not  strictly  so, 
as  must  be  evident  from  the  fact  that  earth 
currents  of  different  intensities  must  produce 
different  potentials.  For  an  explanation  of 
the  doctrine  of  electrical  potential  the  reader 
is  referred  to  special  treatises  on  electricity 
and  magnetism,  such  as  those  of  Clerk  Max- 
well and  Fleeming  Jenkin. — Galvanoplabtt, 
or  Eleotbo-metallurot,  is  the  art  of  separa- 
ting metals  from  their  chemical  compounds 
and  causing  them  to  be  deposited  in  their 
elementary  condition  upon  surfaces  in  vari- 
ous forms  by  the  agency  of  dynamical  elec- 
tricity.   Its  principal  divisions  are  electropla- 


600 


GALVANISM 


ting  and  gilding,  and  electrotTping.    In  electro- 
plating and  gilding  the  deposited  metal  is  usually 
retained  upon  the  surface  it  is  deposited  upon, 
while  in  electrotyping  it  is  subsequently  re- 
moved from  such  sni%ace,  which  is  used  as  a 
mould  of  which  the  deposit  forms  a  reverse 
copy. — Electroplating  and  Gilding.    Gilding 
was  formerly  done  by  covering  the  metal  to  be 
gilt  with  an  amaJgam  of  gold  and  mercury 
and  volatilizing  the  latter  metal,  and  the  same 
process  was  employed  in  silvering.    Brugna- 
telli,  a  pupil  of  Yolta,  is  said  to  have  been 
the  first,  in  1803,  to  gild  the  baser  metals  by 
means  of  the  galvanic  current ;  but  De  la  Rive 
was  the  first  to  make  the  process  successful. 
Its  present  state  of  perfection,  however,  is 
due  to  Elkington,  Ruolz,  and  others.    The  pro- 
cesses of  electroplating  and  electrogilding  are 
almost  identical,  and  depend  upon  the  power 
of  inducing  an  electro-negative  condition  upon 
a  surface,  usually  metallic,  which  causes  it  to 
attract  the  electro-positive  or  metallio  con- 
stituent of  a  salt;   and  also  of  inducing  an 
electro-positive  condition  in  a  neighboring  sur- 
face, causing  it  to  attract  the  electro-nega- 
tive or  non-metallic  constituent.    The  positive 
plate  in  a  battery,  or  the  one  upon  which  the 
chemical  action  takes  place,  and  which  is  con- 
nected with  the  negative  electrode,  must  there- 
fore be  joined  by  the  latter  to  the  plate  upon 
which  it  is  desired  to  deposit  the  metal,  the 
other  or  negative  battery  plate  being  connected 
with  the  plate  in  the  bath  upon  which  an  elec- 
trorpositive  condition  is  to  be  induced.    The 
tendency  in  the  bath,  as  the  liquid  is  called 
which  contains  the  metallic  salt  from  which  by 
electrolysis  the  metal  is  deposited,  is  usually  to 
create  an  electromotive  force  acting  in  a  di- 
rection contrary  to  the  battery  current ;  there- 
fore the  electromotive  force  of  the  latter  must 
be  sufficient  to  overcome  the  former,  and  also 
to  effect  decomposition.     In  choosing  a  bath 
solution,  therefore,  it  is  desirable  to  take  one 
the  tendency  of  whose  action  is  to  create  as 
little  opposing  electromotive  force  as  possible, 
and  this  is  usually  done  by  choosing  an  alka- 
line instead  of  an  acid  solution.    It  requires  a 
powerful  battery  to  cause  a  deposit  of  metallic 
gold  to  be  formed  from  a  solution  of  the  chlo- 
ride upon  the  perfect  metallic  surface  of  an  iron 
plate ;  but  by  employing  a  cyanide  of  the  metal 
dissolved  in  cyanide  of  potassium,  the  deposition 
is  practicable  with  the  use  of  a  small  battery 
or  a  single  couple.    If  a  clean  piece  of  iron  is 
dipped  in  a  solution  of  sulphate  of  copper,  it 
becomes  coated  with  a  film  of  the  latter  metal; 
but  this  is  not  an  example  of  true  electropla- 
ting, the  copper  not  being  deposited  upon  the 
clean  metallio  surface  of  the  iron,  but  upon  a 
film  of  the  oxide  or  of  the  sulphate  of  that  metal 
which  is  formed  by  the  action  of  the  sulphuric 
acid  contained  in  the  sulphate  of  copper.    No 
chemical  action  must  be  suffered  to  take  place 
upon  the  iron  plate ;  but  while  in  a  clean  con- 
dition it  must  have  negative  electricity  induced 
upon  it  sufficient  to  cause  it,  instead  of  attract- 


ing the  acid,  to  attract  the  metallic  constituent 
of  the  solution.  It  is  usual  in  practice,  in 
electro-silvering  or  gilding  iron,  to  first  deposit 
a  thin  coating  of  copper,  which  is  more  easily 
attached  to  the  iron  than  the  more  precious 
metals,  and  forms  a  better  surface  for  their 
deposition.  An  article  of  copper,  which  may 
be  a  cast  of  some  object,  or  a  piece  of  iron  or 
one  of  the  baser  metals,  after  having  been  first 
electroplated  with  copper  from  a  solution  of 
the  sulphate  or  of  the  cyanide,  is  plated  with 
silver  in  the  following  manner:  Cyanide  of 
potassium  being  carefully  added  to  a  solution 
of  nitrate  of  silver,  a  precipitate  of  cyanide  of 
silver,  AgCy,  is  formed,  which,  being  washed 
in  distilled  water,  is  dissolved  in  a  solution  of 
cyanide  of  potassium,  by  which  there  is  formed 
a  double  salt  of  cyanide  of  silver  and  potas- 
sium, AgKCya;  or  lime  water  may  be  added 
to  the  solution  of  nitrate  to  precipitate  oxide 
of  silver,  which  may  then  be  dissolved  in  cya^ 
nide  of  potassium.  Another  mode  of  forming 
the  solution  is  to  add  a  solution  of  common  salt 
to  that  of  nitrate  of  silver,  and  dissolve  the 
chloride  in  cyanide  of  potassium.  In  either 
case  AgECys  is  formed.      The  object  to  be 


Fig.  80.--Simpl6  Bath. 

plated  is  connected  with  the  negative  elec- 
trode of  a  battery  or  a  magneto-electric  ma- 
chine and  suspended  in  a  hot  solution  of  the 
cyanide,  and  a  plate  of  silver  connected  with 
the  positive  electrode  is  suspended  near  it,  as 
represented  in  fig.  30.  The  object  to  be  plated, 
now  forming  the  negative  electrode  of  the 
electrolyte  cell,  attracts  the  metallic  silver  of 
the  cyanide ;  the  potassium,  the  most  electro- 
positive of  the  three  bodies,  remaining  com- 
bined with  the  cyanogen,  the  two  forming  the 
electro-negative  constituent  of  the  compound 
AgKCys.  The  reactions  which  take  place  may 
be  represented  in  the  following  diagram : 

—  + 

Copper  or  I  Ag  I  ECr,  Ag   KCy,  Ag  lECya  I  BllTer 
iron  platel  -f  |    —      +       —      +  I    —   I  plMe. 

The  body  KCya,  which  is  liberated  upon  the 
surface  of  the  silver  plate,  immediately  com- 
bines with  that  metal,  and  thus  the  solution  is 
continually  replenished  with  the  double  cya- 
nide. For  gilding,  a  solution  of  auro-cyanide 
of  gold,  AuKOyi,  corresponding  to  the  silver 
salt,  may  be  formed  in  a  similar  manner.  A 
plate  of  gold  forms  the  positive,  and  the  object 
which  is  to  be  coated  the  negative  electrode. 


GALVANISM 

A  QDinber  of  objects  mar  ^  SDspended  upon  one 
rod,  the  positiTe  electrode  beio);  enlarged  so 
ta  to  oSer  a  safflcient  surface  for  tlie  action  of 
the  cjanide  of  potasBiDm ;  or  the  compoond 
cell  ajatem  may  be  adopted,  as  represented  in 
fig.  31,  where  the  bath  is  divided  into  separate 


ris.  81.— dSDpiHlIlll  B4th. 

cells,  like  those  of  a  troDfth  battery,  the  cioga- 
live  plate  in  one  cell  being  conneoted  with  the 
positive  plate  in  the  next.  This  arrangement 
requires  the  addition  of  electromotive  force  to 
the  batter7,  and  is  moreover  found  not  to  be 
so  managoable  or  ecooomioal  as  the  simple 
cell  sjstem.  Electroplating  in  nickel  has  re- 
ceDtlj'  been  introdoced  b;  Dr.  Isaac  Adams  of 
Boston.  The  foUuwing  bath  has  been  fonnd 
to  work  well :  Add  one  part  of  a  solntion  of 
neutral  tartrate  of  ammonia  to  20  parts  of  a 
solntion  of  the  dooble  salpbate  of  nickel  and 
ammonia,  both  solutions  being  in  water  and 
standing  at  70°  Baarn^.  After  mixing  and 
standing  a  few  boors,  the  bath  is  readj  for 
nse.  A  plate  of  nickel  forms  the  positive  elec- 
trode. Several  appUcatioos  of  nickel-plating 
have  been  patented ;  as  to  gas  burners  to  pro- 
tect the  tips  from  oxidation;  to  culinary  uten-< 
sils  for  the  same  purpose ;  to  facing  printing 
type,  to  harden  the  surface  and  prevent  the 
action  of  colored  inks;  and  for  covering  por- 
tions of  firearms.  It  is  also  used  in  plating 
surgical  instruments.  Electroplating  is  not 
confined  to  the  deposition  of  one  metal  upon 
another,  but  alloys  may  be  coated  with  one 
metal,  or  a  single  metal  may  be  coated  with  an 
alloy.  Brass  and  bronze,  with  careful  man- 
agement, and  by  the  nse  of  positive  electrodes 
of  the  alloy,  may  be  successfally  deposited 
upon  copper  plaXee.—Eleetroti/pmff,  which  con- 
sists in  making  a  cast  of  a  metal  opon  a  mould 
by  galvanic  action,  is  performed  as  follows : 
The  "  form  "  containing  the  type,  woodcnt,  or 
other  engraving  which  is  to  be  electrotyped,  is 
cleaned  and  slightly  dasted  with  finely  pow- 
dered black  lead.  It  is  then  laid  face  npward 
on  a  bed  plate  of  a  hydraulic  or  toggle-joint 
press  of  great  power.  A  brass  case  in  the  form 
of  a  shallow  pan,  and  rather  larger  than  the 
form,  has  turned  into  it  aboot  a  half  inch  thick- 
ness of  melted  beeswax,  which  after  cooling  is 
placed  over  the  form,  and  the  two  are  pow- 
erfully pressed  together.  This  forms  a  wax 
moald,  which  after  being  separated  from  the 
form  is  bnilt  up,  in  places  which  are  to  be 
blanka,  by  ronning  on  more  wax  with  a  bnild- 


GALVANIZED  IRON 


601 


ing  iron ;  an  elevation  npon  the  mould,  of 
course,  forming  a  depression  in  the  electrotype 
plate.  The  surface  of  the  moald  is  now  coated 
over  with  fine  black  lead  powder,  to  give  it  a 
conducting  surface  for  the  galvanic  current, 
which  operation  is  performed  with  a  kind  of 
stippling  bmsh  of  badger's  huir,  moved  by  ma- 
chinery in  a  box  containing  black  lead  dust. 
When  a  good  surface  has  been  formed  the 
loose  particles  are  blown  ofi*,  and  it  is  washed 
with  a  weak  solution  of  sulphate  of  copper, 
after  which  it  is  dusted  with  fine  iron  filings, 
by  which  means  a  film  of  metallic  copper  is 
depofflted  over  the  black  lead  surface,  which 
increases  its  compactness  and  condncting 
power.  It  is  then  suspended  in  a  bath  com- 
posed of  sulphate  of  copper  and  sulphnrio  acid, 
in  the  proportion  of  two  of  the  salt  to  one 
of  the  acid,  in  enough  water  to  stand  at  about 
14°  Baum^  and  is  connected  with  the  negative 
electrode  of  a  battery  or  of  a  magneto-elec- 
tric machine.  Opposite  the  face  of  the  mould 
there  is  sDspended  a  sheet  of  copper,  connected 
with  the  positive  electrode.  From  its  greater 
constancy  Danicll's  battery  is  usually  preferred, 
bnt  others  may  be  used,  and  where  great  ra- 
pidity is  required  powerfol  magneto-eleotrio 
machines  like  that  of  Wilde  (see  Maoneto- 
Elbotbiottt)  are  employed,  A  series  of  moulds 
may  be  saspended  back  to  hack,  the  copper 
sheet  being  placed  between  opposite  pairs. 
When  the  circuit  is  closed  the  snlphate  of  cop- 
per is  decomposed,  the  metallic  copper,  the 
positive  ooDstitaent,  going  to  the  negative 
plate,  which  is  the  plnmbago  snrfacc  of  the 
mould,  while  the  body  SO,  unites  with  the 
copper  plate,  forming  sulphate  of  copper.  The 
arrangement  of  bath  and  battery  is  umilar  to 
that  i^own  in  lig.  80.  The  moulds  may  be 
made  of  gntta  percha  instead  of  wax.  The 
time  required  to  form  the  electrotype  plate  de- 
pends npon  the  strength  of  the  solntion  and  the 
electromotive  force  of  the  battery  or  magneto- 
electric  machine.  With  a  saturated  solution  of 
salpbate  of  copper,  and  a  machine  requiring 
a  six-horse  power  to  drive  it,  several  large 
plates  may  be  made  in  less  than  one  hour. 
After  the  shell,  as  the  deposit  is  called,  ia 
taken  off  the  mould,  it  is  placed  in  water  to 
protect  it  from  oxidation  nntil  the  workmen 
are  ready  to  perform  the  operation  of  backing. 
A  shell  is  laid  upon  its  face  in  a  shallow  vessel 
having  a  plane  bottom,  and  its  book  is  washed 
with  a  solution  of  chloride  of  tin,  called  solder- 
ing flnid.  A  sheet  of  tin  foil  is  then  laid  over 
it,  and  heat  applied  to  the  bottom  of  the  pan 
until  the  foil  melts  and  spreads  over  the  sur- 
face. A  fusible  alloy  of  tin  and  zinc  or  typo 
metal  is  then  melted  and  turned  upon  the  back 
to  the  thickness  of  about  an  eighth  of  an  inch. 
After  cooling  the  plate  is  taken  out,  cleaned, 
and  polished  with  marble  dnst  and  benzine,  or 
with  clay  and  soft  soap ;  and  it  may  be  faced 
witli  nickel  if  desired. 

fiALTinZED  IBOIT,  a  name  given  to  iron 
coated  with  zinc,  or  zinc  and  tin.    The  pro- 


602 


GALVESTON 


cess  is  a  French  invention,  and  was  not  intro- 
duced into  England  till  1887,  when  a  patent 
was  obtained  by  Mr.  Orawfurd.  The  opera- 
tion is  not  performed  with  a  galvanic  battery, 
as  is  often  supposed,  but  by  immersion  in  the 
melted  metal.  By  Mallet^s  process  the  sheets 
are  first  cleansed  by  immersion  in  a  warm 
bath  of  equal  parts  of  sulphuric  or  hydrochloric 
acid  and  water,  followed  by  scrubbing  with 
emery  and  sand.  They  are  then  placed  in  a 
]>reparing  bath  of  a  saturated  solution  of  hy- 
drochlorate  of  zinc  and  sulphate  of  ammonia ; 
and  from  this  they  are  removed  to  a  metallic 
bath  composed  of  202  parts  by  weight  of  mer- 
cury and  1,292  parts  of  zinc.  To  every  ton 
weight  of  the  amalgam  one  pound  of  potas- 
sium, or  better  of  sodium,  is  added.  At  the 
temperature  of  680°  F.  the  compound  fuses, 
and  the  zinc  is  deposited  upon  the  iron  sheets ; 
the  iron  at  the  same  time  is  attacked  so  strong- 
ly, that  in  a  few  seconds  a  plate  an  eighth  of 
an  inch  thick  would  be  dissolved  if  allowed 
to  remain.  SmaU  articles  are  most  advan- 
tageously treated  after  the  strength  of  the 
mixture  has  been  somewhat  spent  upon  larger 
ones.  Crawfurd's  method  was  to  plunge  &e 
cleansed  sheets  of  iron  into  a  bath  of  melted 
zinc  covered  with  sal  ammoniac,  and  stir  them 
about  for  some  time.  Undiluted  commercial 
acids  are  also  used  for  cleaning  the  surface  of 
the  iron,  in  which  case  some  bits  of  zinc  are 
immediately  added,  which  dissolves  and  is 
directlyprecipitated,  forming  a  film  upon  the 
iron,  when  coated  the  articles  may  be  ap- 
plied to  use,  or  they  may  be  made  still  more 
effectually  to  resist  the  action  of  oxidizing 
agents  by  next  dipping  them  in  a  bath  of  melt- 
ed tin.  This  metal  then  forms  the  exterior 
coat,  and  adheres  much  more  firmly  than  if  it 
had  been  applied  directly  to  the  iron. 

ClALTE^rOlC.  I.  A  S.  E.  county  of  Texas, 
including  the  island  of  the  same  name ;  area, 
680  sq.  m.,  of  which  274  sq.  m.  are  water;  pop. 
in  1870,  15,290,  of  whom  8,236  were  colored. 
The  main  portion  of  the  county  occupies  the 
AV.  shore  of  Galveston  bay,  and  is  separated 
from  the  island,  lying  in  the  gulf  of  Mexico, 
by  West  bay.  N.  E.  of  the  island,  and  sepa- 
rated from  it  by  a  channel  1  or  2  m.  wide,  is 
Bolivar  peninsula,  forming  a  part  of  the  county, 
and  lying  between  the  gulf  and  East  bay,  an 
arm  of  Galveston  bay.  The  surface  is  gener- 
ally level  and  the  soil  sandy.  The  chief  pro- 
ductions in  1870  were  2,905  bushels  of  Indian 
corn,  16,205  of  sweet  potatoes,  and  213  tons 
of  hay.  There  were  890  horses,  717  milch 
cows,  6,140  other  cattle,  586  sheep,  and  719 
swine  on  farms.  The  number  of  manufactu- 
ring establishments  was  91,  employing  588 
hands;  capital  mvested,  $710,950;  value  of 
products,  $1,214,814.  IL  A  port  of  entry,  seat 
of  justice  of  the  above  county,  and  the  chief  city 
of  Texas  in  point  of  population  and  commerce, 
situated  at  the  N.  £.  extremity  of  Galveston 
island,  at  the  month  of  the  bay  of  the  same 
name,  the  entrance  to  which  is  through  the 


channel  between  the  city  and  the  S.  W.  point 
of  the  peninsula  of  Bolivar,  where  a  light- 
house has  been  erected,  180  m.  E.  S.  £.  of 
Austin,  and  290  m.  W.  by  S.  of  New  Orleans; 
lat.  29°  19' N.,  Ion.  94°  46'  W.;  pop.  in  1850, 
4,177;  in  1860,  7,307 ;  in  1870, 18,818,  of  whom 
8,007  were  colored  and  3,614  foreigners.  The 
population  at  the  beginning  of  1874  was  esti- 
mated by  the  local  authorities  at  from  25,000 
to  30,000.  The  city  is  laid  out  with  wide  and 
straight  streets,  bordered  by  numerous  flower 
gardens.  Besides  the  churches,  the  public 
buildings  include  the  custom  house,  post  office. 
United  States  court  house,  county  court  house, 
city  and  county  prison,  city  hall,  opera  house, 
2  theatres,  8  concert  halls,  4  other  public  halls, 
13  hotels,  and  8  market  houses.  Oleander  park 
occupies  80  acres,  and  the  city  park  25  acrea. 
There  are  6  public  squares,  an  esplanade  2  m. 
long,  and  8  public  gardens.  Magnolia  Grove 
cemetery  comprises  100  acres,  and  the  city 
cemetery  10  acres.  There  are  9  m.  of  street 
railroad  in  operation.  The  island  is  about  28 
m.  long  and  from  1^  to  8i  m.  wide,  intersected 
by  many  small  bayous,  diversified  by  several 
fresh-water  ponds,  and  bordered  through  its 
whole  length  by  a  smooth  hard  beach,  which 
forms  a  pleasant  drive  and  promenade.  The 
bay  is  an  irregular  indentation,  branching  out 
into  various  arms,  and  receiving  Trinity  and 
San  Jacinto  rivers  and  Buffalo  bayou.  It  ex- 
tends 36  m.  N.  from  the  city  to  the  mouth  of 
IVinity  river,  and  has  a  breadth  of  from  12  to 
18  m.  The  harbor  is  the  best  in  the  state,  and 
has  18  ft.  of  water  over  the  bar  at  low  tide. 
The  city  is  provided  with  good  wharves,  and 
large  storehouses  adjoining  them.  The  chief 
loudness  is  the  shipping  of  cotton.  The  south- 
em  cotton  press  company  owns  14  brick  ware- 
houses, each-  occupying  2^  acres,  and  the  Texas 
cotton  press  company  8  more  brick  warehouses 
covering  7^  acres.  The  receipts  and  shipments 
in  bales  since  1868,  for  each  year  ending  Sept. 
1,  have  been  as  follows: 


YEARS. 

lUeeipto. 

SUp- 
msnti. 

TEARS. 

Rccdpte. 

Bblp- 

1808 

18(» 

1870 

•8,682 
188,406 

229,808 

101,749 
188,480 
226,215 

1871 

1872 

1878 

204,n8 
188,078 
828,618 

289,028 
191,869 
828,618 

In  1878  170,711  bales  were  shipped  to  Great 
Britain,  6,100  to  France,  82,584  to  other  Euro- 
pean countries,  18,680  to  New  Orleans,  67,088 
to  New  York,  18,756  to  Boston,  and  14,794  to 
other  coastwise  ports.  The  receipts  of  hides 
were  460,854 ;  shipments,  459,582 ;  receipts  of 
wool,  3,873  bags;  shipments,  8,760  bags.  The 
value  of  pine  lumber  received  was  $624,000 ; 
cypress,  $480,000 ;  total,  $1,104,000 ;  head  of 
cattle  shipped,  50,699.  The  total  value  of  ship- 
ments was  $85,888,747,  including  cotton  to  the 
value  of  $82,428,806 ;  of  receipts,  $29,811,881. 
The  number  of  immigrants  during  the  year  was 
44, 614.  The  value  of  imports  from  and  exports 
to  foreign  countries  since  1870,  with  the  amount 


GALVESTON 


GALWAY 


603 


of  duties  collected,  for  each  jear  ending  Jaly 
81,  is  shown  in  the  following  tahle : 


YEARS. 


1370 
1871 
1872 
1878 


Impottt. 

Ecpoita. 

$516,284 
1,858,208 
1,680,522 
2,460,610 

$16,474,629 
14,275,621 
11,065,681 
17,82f),208 

'Dutlw. 

$277,760 
688,218 
671,582 
492,429 


Of  the  exports  in  1873,  $17,iS49,096  were  the 
yalae  of  cotton.  The  entrances  and  clearances 
for  the  year  ending  June  80,  1878,  were  as 
follows : 


FORBIOX  00MMI80B. 

OOAtrWUS  TKAOB. 

Vet-eK 

Toot. 

VmmIi. 

Toei. 

Entered :    84  Ameiioaa. . . 

118  foreign 

Claered:     61  American.... 

118  foreign 

16,421 
67,694 
81y849 
68,409 

446  eteemerB. 
187  setting... 
258  Bteemen. 
169aeUlng.... 

ilfi 

The  nnmher  of  yessels  helonging  to  the  port 
was  2d7,  with  an  aggregate  tonnage  of  28,462, 
indnding  198  sailing  yessels  of  18,818  tons,  85 
steamers  of  6,709  tons,  and  24  harges  of  2,940 
tons ;  built  daring  the  year,  10  sailing  yessels 
of  165  tons,  and  1  barge  of  57  tons.  There  is 
a  daily  line  of  steamers  to  New  Orleans  and 
another  to  Indianola  and  Oorpns  Ohristi;  a 
weekly  line  to  Havana,  and  another  to  New 
York;  and  a  semi-monthly  line  to  Liyerpool. 
The  Galveston,  Hoaston,  and  Henderson  rail- 
road connects  the  city  with  Houston  and  the 
diverging  railroads,  crossing  West  bay  on  a 
bridge  nearly  2  m.  long.  The  depot  and  ware- 
houses cover  20  acres.  The  Galveston  Wharf 
railroad  enables  the  company  to  load  its  oars 
directly  from  the  vessels.  A  canal,  10  m.  long, 
opens  an  avenue  for  commerce  to  the  Brazos 
river.  The  chief  manufactories  are  two  iron 
founderies,  six  machine  shops,  and  the  gas 
works.  The  New  York  and  Texas  beef-pre- 
serving company  kill  and  can  48  cattle  per  day. 
There  are  two  national  banks,  with  an  aggre- 
gate capital  of  $800,000 ;  a  savings  bank,  with 
$175,000  capital ;  two  banking  and  insurance 
companies,  and  four  insurance  companies,  in- 
clnding  a  life  insurance  company.  The  whole 
number  of  Joint-stock  companies  is  28,  having 
an  aggregate  capital  of  $12,211,000.  The  city 
is  divided  into  rour  wards,  and  is  governed  by 
a  mayor  and  a  board  of  12  aldermen.  Water 
works  are  in  process  of  construction,  and  there 
is  an  efficient  health  department.  Of  streets 
17  m.  have  been  shelled,  and  26  m.  filled  and 
graded.  The  assessed  value  of  property  for 
the  year  endins  Feb.  28,  1878,  was  $16,600,- 
000;  bonded  debt,  $880,700;  estimated  re- 
ceipts for  the  year  ending  Feb.  28, 1874,  $282,- 
986;  estimated  expenditures,  $278,763.  The 
principal  charitable  institutions  are  the  house 
of  refuge,  having  grounds  88  acres  in  extent, 
an  orphan  asylum,  and  three  hospitals,  one  of 
which  is  supported  by  the  city.  The  Roman 
Catholic  university  of  8t.  Mary  was  founded 
in  1854,  and  in  1872  had  8  professors  and  35 


collegiate  and  116  preparatory  students.  The 
Galveston  medical  college,  founded  in  1864,  has 
six  professors.  The  Ursuline  convent,  contain- 
ing 25  nuns,  has  a  female  academy  connected 
with  it,  and  120  pupils.  There  are  two  other 
female  seminaries,  with  about  860  pupils.  The 
six  public  schools  in  1872  had  16  teachers  and 
700  pupils.  The  whole  number  of  pupils  in 
public  and  private  schools,  dec.,  is  about  8,500. 
The  mercantile  library  contains  about  9,000 
volumes,  and  has  a  reading  room.  There  are 
15  churches,  and  5  daily  (1  German),  2  tri- 
weekly, 1  semi- weekly,  and  6  weekly  (1  Ger- 
man) newspapers. — ^The  island  of  Galveston 
was  occupied  by  the  pirate  Lafitte  in  1817,  and 
continued  to  be  his  headquarters  until  his 
settlement  was  broken  up  in  1821 .  The  growth 
of  tiie  city  dates  from  1887.  During  the  civil 
war  it  was  occupied  by  the  federal  forces,  Oct. 
8,  1862,  but  was  retaken  by  the  confederates, 
Jan.  1, 1868. 

fiALYEZy  Benarii,  count  de,  a  Spanish  soldier 
and  statesman,  bom  in  Malaga  in  1756,  died  in 
Mexico,  Nov.  80, 1786.  He  was  the  son  of  Don 
Matias  de  Gal vez,  his  predecessor  as  viceroy,  and 
nephew  of  Jos6  de  Galvez,  marquis  of  Sonora, 
visitor  of  Mexico  from  1761  to  1769,  and  sub- 
sequently minister  general  of  the  Indies.  He 
served  in  France  and  in  the  Algerine  expedi- 
tion, rose  to  the  rank  of  colonel,  and  was  made 
governor  of  Louisiana  July  10,  1776.  During 
the  American  revolution  he  gave  the  Americans 
aid  for  operations  at  a  distance  from  Louisiana, 
xm  the  frontiers  of  Virginia  and  Pennsylvania 
and  on  the  northwest,  but  did  not  permit  them 
to  operate  against  any  English  posts  near  him. 
When  Spain  joined  in  the  war,  Galvez  in  1779 
raised  an  army  and  took  firom  the  English  Fort 
Manchac,  Baton  Rouge,  and -Fort  Panmure  at 
Natchez.  In  March,  1780,  he  took  Mobile, 
and  on  March  9,  1781,  he  appeared  before 
Pensacola  with  Solano's  fleet,  bearing  an  army 
of  5,000  men,  and  on  May  10  compelled  Gen. 
Gampbell  to  surrender.  He  was  created  a 
count,  and  in  1784  appointed  captain  general 
of  Ouba,  Louisiana,  and  the  two  Floridas ;  but 
as  his  father's  death  in  1784  left  his  post  va- 
cant, he  was  made  viceroy  of  Mexico,  retaining 
the  captain-generaloy  of  Louisiana  and  Florida. 
He  was  so  regardless  of  stiff  official  Spanish 
dignity  that  he  gave  offence  in  Spain,  and  his 
erection  of  the  palace  of  Chapultepec  excited 
suspicion,  and  led  to  such  vexations  and  an- 
noyances that  he  fell  sick  and  died  of  chagrin 
after  a  brief  administration. 

€rALWAT.  I«  A  maritime  county  of  Oon- 
naught,  Ireland,  bordering  on  the  Atlantic  and 
Galway  bay,  and  on  the  counties  of  Mayo,  Ros- 
common, Kings,  Tipperary,  and  Glare;  area, 
2,842  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  248,257.  It  is  sep- 
arated by  Lough  Corrib  into  two  divisions,  dif- 
fering in  geological  formation  and  physical  ap- 
pearance. The  eastern  division  rests  on  a  lime- 
Nstone  basis,  and  is  in  general  level  and  fertile, 
except  the  central  parts,  which  contain  large 
quantities  of  wet  bog,  nearly  unproductive. 


604 


GAMA 


The  western  part,  comprising  the  district  of 
Oonnemara,  rests  npon  granite,  and  is  barren, 
rugged,  and  mountainous,  but  contains  valuable 
mines  of  copper,  lead,  and  manganese,  and.  quar- 
ries of  marble  and  other  stones.  Agriculture 
is  in  a  very  backward  state.  The  southern  parts 
produce  some  fine  wheat,  but  oats  and  barley 
are  the  principal  products  elsewhere.  Flax  is 
also  cultivated,  but  less  extensively  than  for- 
merly. Grazing  is  much  attended  to.  The 
coast  fisheries  have  diminished  in  importance ; 
but  a  company  has  recently  been  formed  for 
carrying  on  deep-sea  fisheries.  There  are  some 
manufactures,  among  which  are  woollen  ho- 
siery, coarse  linens  and  friezes,  and  felt  hats. 
The  production  of  kelp  was  formerly  one  of  the 
great  sources  of  profit  on  the  western  shores,  and 
is  still  carried  on  to  some  extent  Oeltic  crom- 
lechs and  Anglo-Norman  castles  are  frequently 
to  be  met  with.  The  chief  towns  are  Galway, 
Tuam,  Loughrea,  and  Ballinasloe.  II.  A  town, 
seaport,  and  parliamentary  borough,  and  capi- 
tal of  the  county,  near  the  head  of  Galway 
bay,  117  ra.  W.  of  Dublin,  with  which  it  is  con- 
nected by  railway ;  pop.  in  1871,  13,184.  The 
greater  portion  of  the  town  is  built  upon  a 
tongue  of  land,  bounded  £.  by  Lough  Atiialia, 
an  arm  of  the  sea,  and  W.  by  the  Oorrib  river. 
The  other  and  smaller  part  is  on  the  opposite 
bank  of  the  river,  and  is  connected  with  the  for- 
mer by  one  wooden  and  two  stone  bridges.  In 
the  old  town  the  streets  are  narrow,  irregular, 
and  dirty,  but  in  the  modem  part  they  are  in  gen- 
eral spacious,  handsome,  and  cleanly.  The  chief 
public  edifices  are  the  Queen's  college,  the  col- 
locate church  of  St.  Nicholas,  the  Franciscan 
convent,  and  two  handsome  court  houses. 
Galway  was  formerly  the  principal  emporium 
of  Ireland,  and  for  several  centuries  enjoyed 
the  monopoly  of  the  trade  with  Spain.  It  was 
then  surrounded  by  walls,  of  which  only  a 
few  fragments  now  exist.  The  principal  ex- 
ports are  com,  fiour,  kelp,  marble,  wool,  and 
provisions.  The  chief  imports  are  timber, 
wme,  salt,  coal,  hemp,  tallow,  and  iron.  The 
harbor  has  an  extensive  line  of  quays,  and  is 
connected  with  Lough  Oorrib  by  a  canal.  It 
has  a  fioating  dock,  which  admits  vessels  of  14 
ft.  draught.  On  Mutton  island,  in  front  of 
the  harbor,  is  a  lighthouse  88  ft.  above  high 
wat6r. 

CiAIIA,  Jm6  Buill*  da,  a  Brazilian  poet,  bom 
in  1740,  died  in  Lisbon,  July  81,  1795.  He 
was  brought  up  as  a  member  of  the  society  of 
Jesus,  but  left  it,  and  went  to  Lisbon  and  to 
Rome,  where  he  was  for  a  time  professor  in 
a  seminary.  Owing  to  his  former  affiliation 
with  the  Jesuits,  he  was  banished  after  his  re- 
turn to  Brazil.  At  Lisbon  he  found  a  protec- 
tor in  Pombal,  who  after  the  publication  of  his 
poem  U  Uruguay,  describing  the  overthrow  of 
the  Jesuit  missions  (1769),  gave  him  a  place  in 
the  state  department,  and  in  1771  he  was  raised 
to  the  nobility.  He  translated  parts  of  Metas- 
tasio  and  Goldoni,  published  poems,  and  be- 
came a  member  of  the  academy  of  Lisbon. 


GAJIU9  TiMO  da,  a  Portuguese  navigator,  bom 
at  Sines,  died  in  Oochin,  India,  Dec.  26,  1524. 
Bartholomew  Dias,  a  Portuguese  explorer,  hav- 
ing visited  the  cape  which  he  called  Cabo  Tor- 
meiitoso,  or  Stormy  cape,  brought  back  such 
interesting  accounts  of  his  discoveries  that  the 
Portuguese  sovereign  Emanuel  determined  to 
urge  discovery  beyond  the  point  where  Dias 
left  it,  and  if  possible  to  reach  by  sea  the 
countries  of  the  Indies.  Accordingly  an  ex- 
pedition was  placed  under  the  command  of 
Vasco  da  Gama,  a  gentleman  of  the  king^s 
household,  and  a  skilful  and  experienced  mari- 
ner. The  fleet  consisted  of  the  Sao  Gabriel, 
flag  ship,  of  120  tons,  the  Sao  Rafael  of  about 
100  tons,  a  caravel  of  50  tons,  and  a  store  ship, 
with  a  total  force  of  160  men.  On  July  8, 
1497,  Uie  expedition  departed  from  Lisbon  for 
the  Gape  Yerd  islands,  whence  it  set  sail  on 
Aug.  8  southward  along  the  African  coast. 
Delayed  by  storms,  it  was  not  till  Nov.  7  that 
they  reached  the  bay  of  St.  Helena,  near  the 
cape.  Departing  on  the  16th,  they  encoun- 
tered a  succession  of  tempests  such  as  had 
gained  for  the  southern  promontory  of  Africa 
the  name  of  the  cape  of  Storms.  The  courage 
of  Gama^s  companions  failed,  and  they  besought 
him  to  put  back,  which  he  not  only  refused 
to  do,  but  put  the  ringleaders  of  the  movement 
in  irons,  and  held  on  his  course  into  the  stormy 
sea.  When  they  were  beating  abont  off  the 
promontory,  Gama  fancied  that  he  saw  the 
spirit  of  the  cape.  Oamo^ns  has  sung  this  in- 
cident as  a  fact,  while  modems,  less  poetical, 
say  that  the  apparition  could  have  been  noth- 
ing more  than  that  peculiar  cloud  whose  sud- 
den envelopment  of  the  cape  is  the  forerunner 
of  a  storm.  On  Nov.  20  (according  to  Barros, 
but  more  probably  on  the  22d)  they  doubled 
the  cape  of  Storms,  or,  as  Emanuel  himself  bad 
named  it  ere  the  expedition  set  out,  the  cape 
of  Good  Hope.  Proceeding  along  the  coast, 
they  touched  at  various  points,  among  others 
at  Natal.  Further  N.  they  discovered  Mozam- 
bique, and  came  upon  a  country  which  exhib- 
ited a  high  stage  of  commercial  advancement, 
the  inhabitants  having  regularly  built  ports^ 
with  mosques.  The  natives  were  Mohamme- 
dans, carrying  on  a  trade  in  pearls,  rubies,  sil- 
ver, linen,  and  spices  with  Arabia  and  India. 
Gama  took  with  him  a  pilot  from  this  place. 
On  April  1,  1498,  the  explorers -discovered  the 
island  of  Acoutado,  so  named  by  Gama  from 
a  flogging  he  gave  his  pilot  there;  and  on  the 
7th  the  island  of  Mombassa,  where  the  inhabi- 
tants were  bravely  apparelled  in  silken  stnfifs 
and  jewelry.  As  these  men  tried  to  cut  bia 
cable,  Gama  seized  a  boat  containing  17  of 
them,  and  carried  them  off  to  Melinda,  8^  S. 
of  the  equator,  where  the  king  of  the  place 
entered  into  friendly  relations  witii  the  Portu- 
guese, and  gave  them  a  pilot  to  conduct  them 
across  the  Indian  gulf.  Melinda  was  described 
as  a  regularly  built  city,  with  wide  streets,  and 
houses  of  more  than  one  story.  The  Melindese 
pilot  is  supposed  to  have  been  acquainted  with 


GAMA 


GAMBETTA 


605 


the  astrolabe,  compass,  and  quadrant.  Under 
his  guidance  the  voyagers  steered  750  leases 
across  the  open  sea.  In  23  days  they  arrived 
off  the  Malabar  coast,  and  on  May  20,  1498, 
they  reached  Calicut,  the  object  of  their  search. 
Their  mission  was  thus  accomplished,  and  a 
new  route  to  the  East  establishe4.  Gama  met 
with  a  cordial  reception  at  the  court  of  Samou- 
dri  Rajah  (abbreviated  to  Zamorin);  but  the 
Arabs  at  that  place,  foreseeing  that  the  Portn- 
(^nese  would  eventually  take  the  trade  with 
the  East  out  of  their  hands,  instigated  Zamorin 
a:.^inst  them,  and  Gama  narrowly  escaped, 
lie  unmediately  set  sail  on  his  homeward  voy- 
age, calling  at  Melinda  on  the  way  to  take  on 
board  an  ambassador  to  EmanueVs  court,  and 
arriving  in  the  Tagus  on  Aug.  29,  1499,  after 
an  absence  of  26  months.  He  brought  back 
only  55  men  and  one  ship,  a  caravel  which  he 
had  chartered  at  Cape  Yerd.  The  San  Rafael 
had  been  lost  on  the  coast  of  Africa,  the  store 
ship  bnrned  according  to  Gama's  instructions, 
the  Sao  Grabriel  condemned  at  Cape  Yerd,  and 
Nicolao  Coelho  had  slipped  away  with  the  re- 
maining vessel,  in  order  to  be  the  first  to  tell 
the  great  news  in  Portagal.  The  king  received 
Gama  splendidly,  and  permitted  him  to  bear 
the  title  of  **  lord  of  the  conquest  of  Ethiopia, 
Arabia,  Persia,  and  India.'*  Emanuel  imme- 
diately fitted  out  a  second  fleet  of  18  ships, 
with  1,200  men,  under  the  command  of  Pedro 
Alvarez  Cabral,  to  establish  trading  posts.  The 
most  remarkable  incident  of  the  voyage  was 
the  accidental  discovery  of  Brazil.  From  there 
Cabral  got  to  India,  and  established  a  factory  at 
Calicut ;  but  on  the  departure  of  the  fleet  the 
inhabitants  massacred  all  the  Portuguese  who 
had  been  left  behind.  The  Portuguese  govern- 
ment now  sent  out  a  fleet  of  20  ships  under 
command  of  Gama,  which  sailed  early  in  1502. 
On  reaching  the  Indian  seas  Gama  made  a 
treaty  with  the  kings  of  Sofala  and  Quiloa,  the 
latter  agreeing  to  pay  tribute  to  Portugal. 
Determined  now  to  strike  terror  into  the  hos- 
tile kings  of  the  Indian  coast,  he  seized  a  large 
ship  containing  800  male  and  female  pilgrims 
of  the  highest  rank  and  of  various  nationalities 
on  their  way  to  Mecca,  and  killed  them  all,  ex- 
cepting 20  children,  whom  he  saved  to  bring 
up  in  the  Christian  faith,  as  an  atonement  for 
one  of  the  Portuguese  who  had  apostatized  to 
Mohammedanism.  This  affair  at  once  opened 
to  him  the  port  of  Cananore,  whence  he  sailed 
to  Calicut,  seizing  on  the  way  50  of  the  natives. 
Here  he  demanded  the  right  to  trade,  with  im- 
mediate reparation  for  past  indignities,  and,  not 
receiving  it  promptly,  he  hung  his  50  prisoners 
at  the  yard  arm  and  burned  the  town.  Thence 
he  proceeded  to  Cochin,  where  he  entered  into 
friendly  relations  with  the  king,  and  presented 
him  a  golden  crown  from  the  king  of  rortugal. 
The  Calicut  Zamorin,  however,  made  war  on 
Cochin  for  his  alliance  with  the  strangers. 
Gama,  leaving  five  ships  to  cruise  on  the  coast, 
returned  home  with  18  ships,  having  a  battle 
on  the  way  with  the  Calicut  fleet,  which  he 


utterly  routed.  On  his  return  the  king  created 
him  admiral  of  the  Indian  ocean  and  count  of 
Yidigueira,  For  the  next  21  years  Gama  lived 
in  retirement.  In  1524,  the  Portuguese  do- 
minion having  largely  expanded  in  the  East, 
John  III.  appointed  bun  viceroy  of  the  Indies. 
He  proceeded  to  his  seat  of  government,  but 
died  at  the  close  of  the  year.  In  1528  his  body 
was  brought  to  Portugal  and  interred  with 
honor.  Barros  has  published  an  account  of 
his  voyages,  and  CamoSns  celebrates  them  in 
his  **  Lusiad." 

fiAMALIEL,  a  Jewish  doctor  of  the  law,  mem- 
ber of  the  sanhedrim,  and  teacher  of  Saul,  the 
future  apostle  Paul,  died  about  A.  D.  52.  In 
the  Talmud  he  is  sumamed  Hazzaken,  **the. 
Elder,*'  to  distinguish  him  from  his  grandson, 
who  after  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  presided 
over  the  sanhedrim  at  Jamnia.  He  was  grand- 
son of  Hillel,  the  renowned  teacher  of  the 
Mishnah.  He  held  a  seat,  and  probably  the 
presidency,  in  the  sanhedrim  during  the  reigns 
of  Tiberius,  Caligula,  and  Claudius,  being  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son  Simeon.  When  Peter  and 
the  other  apostles  were  brought  before  the 
council  in  Jerusalem  (Acts  v.),  he  recommend- 
ed to  *  Met  them  alone,  for  if  this  counsel  or  this 
work  be  of  men,  it  wiU  come  to  nought ;  but 
if  it  be  of  God,  ye  cannot  overthrow  it ;  lest 
haply  ye  be  found  even  to  flght  against  God." 
He  was  the  author  of  many  religious  and  civil 
reforms,  and  remarkable  for  humanity,  charity, 
and  tolerance.  He  was  the  flrst  to  be  distin- 
guished by  the  title  rahban  (our  master).  The 
respect  with  which  his  opinions  are  always 
quoted  by  the  rabbis  is  irreconcilable  witli  the 
tradition  that  he  was  converted  to  Christianity. 

GAMBETTA,  I/od,  a  French  statesman,  of 
Genoese-Jewish  descent,  bom  in  Cahors,  Oct 
80, 1838.  He  studied  law,  and  became  a  mem> 
her  of  the  Paris  bar  in  1859.  In  1868  he  ac- 
quired eminence  as  an  ultra  liberal,  in  1868 
became  still  more  famous  by  his  denunciations 
of  the  arbitrary  meac^es  of  Louis  Napoleon, 
and  in  1869  he  was  elected  deputy  by  the  so- 
called  party  of  "  irreconcilables "  for  Paris 
and  Marseilles.  He  meant  to  take  his  seat  for 
Marseilles,  but  was  prevented  by  illness  until 
the  beginning  of  1870,  when  he  protested  in 
the  corps  l^gislatif  against  the  imprisonment 
of  his  friend  and  colleague  Rochefort  (Feb.  7), 
and  shortly  after  against  Louis  Napoleon ^s  new 
plebiscite,  which  he  declared  to  be  a  violation 
of  the  constitution.  On  the  news  of  the  sur- 
render of  Louis  Napoleon  at  Sedan  he  pro- 
posed to  depose  the  imperial  dynasty,  and  was 
among  the  first  to  proclaim  the  republic,  Sept. 
4 ;  and  on  the  5th  he  became  minister  of  the 
interior  in  the  provisional  government  of  na- 
tional defence.  He  took  measures  for  convo' 
king  the  electoral  colleges;  but  Paris  being 
invested  by  the  Germans,  no  election  could 
take  place.  Early  in  October  he  escaped  in  a 
balloon  to  join  his  colleagues  at  Tours.  Here, 
and  afterward  at  Bordeaux,  he  assumed  the 
general  'direction  of  movementfi  outside  the 


606 


GAMBIA 


GAMBIER 


capital,  taking  charge  of  the  interior,  war,  and 
finance  departments.  He  made  desperate  ef- 
forts to  organize  new  armies,  issuing  nnfoonded 
reports  of  victories,  and  understating  the  im- 
portance of  the  defeats,  which  he  generally 
ascribed  to  treason,  especially  the  surrender 
of  Metz  by  Bazaine.  When  all  his  efforts  to 
raise  the  siege  of  Paris  had  failed,  and  his  col- 
leagues in  that  capital  had  concluded  the  ar- 
mistice, and  convoked  all  electors  without  re- 
gard to  political  parties  to  elect  a  constituent 
assembly,  he  issued  a  decree  at  Bordeaux,  Jan. 
81,  1871,  disfranchising  all  functionaries  and 
official  candidates  of  the  second  empire,  and  all 
members  of  royal  dynasties,  and  announced  his 
determination  to  continue  the  war  to  the  last. 
Though  his  decree  was  declared  null  and  void 
by  his  colleagues  in  Paris,  of  whom  Jules  Simon 
went  to  Bordeaux  to  put  an  end  to  his  ar- 
bitrary proceedings,  he  persevered  in  active 
opposition,  but  finally  tendered  his  resigna- 
tion, which  only  increased  his  popularity  with 
the  masses  of  the  people.  On  Feb.  8  he  was 
elected  to  the  national  assembly  by  ten  de- 
partments, including  those  destined  to  be 
partly  annexed  to  Germany.  He  gave  the 
preference  to  that  of  Bas-Rhin,  though  it  was 
certain  that  he  would  lose  his  seat  by  the 
detachment  of  Alsace  from  France.  On  July 
2  he  was  reelected  in  the  departments  of 
the  Seine,  Var,  and  Bouches-du-Rh6ne,  and 
took  his  seat  for  the  last  named  department, 
which  he  had  formerly  represented.  In  No- 
vember, 1871,  the  RepvhUqne  Franpaise  ap- 
peared as  his  special  organ  in  the  press,  and  he 
was  generally  recognized  as  the  leader  of  the 
radicals.  During  the  political  excitement  in 
the  early  part  of  1872  he  visited  southern 
France,  stirring  up  the  populace  everywhere, 
and  his  appearance  at  Marseilles  was  the  occa- 
sion of  disturbances  which  were  put  down  by 
the  police.  In  the  latter  part  of  the  year  he 
agitated  the  public  mind  in  S.  £.  France,  espe- 
cially by  his  speech  at  Grenoble  (Sept.  26), 
in  which  he  attacked  Thiers,  and  denounc€Ki 
the  Bonapartists  and  the  national  assembly, 
and  insisted  upon  the  removal  of  the  govern- 
ment from  Versailles  to  Paris.  A  number  of 
officers  who  had  attended  the  banquet  at  Gre- 
noble in  honor  of  Gambetta  were  sentenced  to 
60  days*  arrest,  and  then  transferred  to  another 
regiment.  In  1878  he  promoted  the  election 
of  Barodet  and  Banc  to  the  national  assembly, 
in  opposition  to  the  candidates  supported  by 
Thiers,  whom  he  afterward  vainly  strove  to 
uphold  in  his  presidency,  when  the  m^ority 
in  the  assembly  had  determined  on  his  over- 
throw. His  opposition  to  the  prolongation  of 
the  powers  of  Marshal  MacMahon,  the  new 
president,  proved  equally  futile. 

GAMBIA,  a  British  colony  of  W.  Africa,  occu- 
pying both  banks  of  the  river  whence  it  derives 
its  name,  and  consisting  of  the  island  of  St. 
Mary,  the  ceded  mile  on  the  Barra  Shere,  and 
McCarthy's  island,  180  m.  up  the  river ;  area, 
21  sq.  m.;  pop.  in  1871,  14,190,  of  whom  66 


were  white,  186  colored,  and  the  remainder 
black.  The  chief  settlements  are.  Bathorst, 
Fort  James,  and  Fort  George.  Bathnrst  and 
Fort  James  are  situated  in  St.  Mary's  island ; 
Fort  George  on  McCarthy's  island.  The  cli- 
mate is  generally  considered  unhealthy.  In 
summer  the  Jieat  is  excessive,  the  thermometer 
frequently  rismg  to  106°  and  108°  in  the  shade. 
The  soil  is  rich  and  aUuvial,  and  liable  to  peri- 
odical inundation.  The  principal  exports  are 
beeswax,  ground  nuts,  and  hides,  ana  the  im- 
ports cotton  goods,  tobacco,  amber,  rum,  &c. 
The  revenue  of  the  colony  in  1870  was  j£18,- 
969,  and  the  expenditures  £21,987.  The  value 
of  imports  was  £91,997,  of  exports  £142,618. 
The  total  tonnage  of  vessels  entered  and  cleared 
in  1870  was  113,914. 

GAMBIA,  a  large  river  of  W.  Africa,  rising  in 
the  interior  of  the  continent,  and,  after  a  course 
of  more  than  600  m.,  discharging  itself  into 
the  Atlantic  ocean  at  Bathurst,  in  lat  18°  8CK 
K,  Ion.  16°  40'  W.  It  is  9  m.  broad  at  its 
mouth,  and  is  navigable  for  vessels  of  800  tons 
for  90  m.  inland. 

CAMiiiia^  a  village  of  Enox  co.,  Ohio,  on  the 
Cleveland,  Mt.  Yemon,  and  Columbus  nulroad, 
60  m.  N.£.  of  Columbus;  pop.  in  1870, 681.  It 
occupies  a  beautiful  site  on  a  high  ridge  nearly 
surrounded  by  Kokosing  river,  and  is  the  seat  of 
two  Episcopid  institutions,  Kenyon  college  and 
the  theological  seminary  of  the  diocese  of 
Ohio.  They  were  established  in  1826,  under 
the  auspices  of  Bishop  Chase,  with  funds  ool- 
leoted  in  England,  and  are  richly  endowed. 
The  largest  contributor  was  Loid  Gambier, 
from  whom  tiie  village  is  named.  The  cor- 
poration owns  14  bnUdings.  On  the  college 
grounds  are  Ascension  hall  and  Rosse  hall,  of 
stone,  the  church,  a  fine  piece  of  architecture, 
and  six  dwellings ;  about  a  mile  N.  of  the  col- 
lege is  Bexley  hall,  in  th^  Elizabethsn  style, 
occupied  by  the  theological  seminary;  and  in 
other  parts  of  the  village,  Milnor  hall,  for  the 
preparatory  school,  and  three  reddenoes  for 
the  professors.  The  college  has  a  preparatory 
and  a  collegiate  department.  The  course  in  the 
theological  seminary  is  three  years.  The  nnm- 
ber  of  volumes  in  the  libraries  is  about  18,800, 
viz. :  theological,  7,000;  college,  2,800;  college 
societies,  9,600.  In  1871  there  were  6  gradu- 
ates in  the  theological  seminary  and  10  in  the 
college.  In  1871-^2  the  number  of  theological 
students  was  9;  collegiate,  60;  preparatory, 
82 ;  professors  in  the  Geological  seminary,  6^ 
in  the  college,  10. 

CiAMBIEIi,  Jaacs,  baron,  a  British  admiral, 
born  in  the  Bahama  islands,  Oct  18, 1766,  died 
at  Iver,  near  Uxbridge,  April  19, 1838.  He  was 
of  a  French  Protestant  family,  expatriated  by 
the  revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes.  Early 
entering  the  naval  service,  he  obtained  in  1778 
the  rank  of  post  captain,  and  as  commander 
of  the  frigate  Raleign  was  engaged  in  the  re- 
duction of  Charleston  in  1780,  and  in  repel- 
ling the  French  attempt  upon  Jersey  in  1781. 
In  1793  he  was  appointea  to  the  command 


GAMBIK 

of  the  Defence,  of  74  gaaa,  nDder  E&rl  Howe, 
and  ID  the  engagement  with  the  French  fleet 
onder  Villaret  de  Jojense  (June  1,  17W)  hiB 
ship  was  the  flrst  to  breah  throngh  the  enemj'a 
line.  Advanced  to  the  rank  of  rear  admiral 
in  1795,  and  of  viae  admiral  in  1799,  he  be- 
came third  in  oranmand  of  the  channel  fleet 
in  ISOl,  and  in  the  following  year  wae  inCrnat- 
ed  with  the  goreroment  and  defence  of  New- 
foundland. In  1807  he  commanded  the  fleet 
1  the  expedition  against  Oopeohagen,  bom- 


uitj  of  haron,  and  with  the  offer  of  a  pension, 
which  be  declined.  In  1808  he  vas  appoint- 
ed to  the  ooramand  of  the  ohaonel  fleet,  drew 
up  a  code  of  signals  and  the  general  disci- 
plinary iustractioDS  for  the  navy,  and  in  April, 
1806,  attached  the  French  sqiiadron  in  the 
Aiz  roads  and  bnrned  Are  of  tlie  ships.  Lord 
CoohrBDe  had  command  of  tlie  Britiah  fire 
■hips  (oatamarans),  and  in  oonseqaenoe  of  a 
diwgreement  between  him  and  Lord  Gam- 
bier,  the  latter  requested  a  court  martial,  hj 
which  he  was  honorably  acqnitted.  In  1614 
he  was  appointed  at  tjie  head  of  the  oommie- 
woners  to  conclnde  a  peace  with  the  United 
States,  and  the  treatj  was  signed  at  Oh«it  on 
Deo.  !4.  Re  afterward  lived  in  retirement, 
and  was  made  admiral  of  the  fleet  on  the  ao- 
oessioa  of  William  IV. 

GAMBIB,  or  BuMtr^  one  of  several  astrin- 
gent vegetable  extraela,  mnch  used  in  tanoiog, 
dyeing,  d».  Libe  the  allied  oateohn  and  ontch, 
it  connsts  largely  of  a  modification  of  taunio 
acid,  and  is  similar  to  them  in  properties  and 
tues;  indeed,  the  three  names  are  often  ap- 
plied to  the  same  article,  and  when  used  dis- 
tinctively are  not  always  given  to  the  same 
Srodact  by  different  dealers  and  writers.  When 
rst  introdnoed  its  origin  was  onknown,  and 
being  sappoeed  to  be  a  kind  of  earth  it  was 
called  t^-ra  Japtntiea  or  Japan  earth,  a  name 
which  it  ia  a  measure  retains  in  the  arts. 
Gambir  is  the  prodnot  of  a  tree  formerly  called 
unearia  gambir,  but  wliiata  is  now  placed  in 
the  genas  tuMtcUa,  of  the  family  ruhiaaeat,  to 
whica  the  Peruvian  bark  trees  belong;  it  is  a 
native  of  the  East  Indian  archipelago,  and  is 
largely  cultivated,  especially  in  tlie  island  of 
Bintaag ;  in  its  wild  state  it  is  a  strong  climber, 
but  in  cultivation  it  is  praned  to  form  a  hnshy 
shmb  seven  or  eight  feet  high ;  its  leaves  are 
ovate-lanoeo1at«  and  smooth  on  both  sides,  and 
its  green  and  pink  flowers  are  borne  in  globular 
heads  in  the  aiila  of  the  upper  leaves ;  the 
flower  stalks  at  the  lower  leaves  arc  abortive, 
bearing  no  flowers,  bnt  are  converted  into 
hooked  spines.  Gambir  is  obtained  by  boiling 
the  bruised  leaves  and  yonng  shoots  of  the 
tree  in  water  and  evaporating  the  decoction 
to  a  thick  extract,  which  is  poured  into  oblong 
moulds ;  the  masses  thus  formed  are  out  into 
squares,  and  the  drying  is  completed  in  the 
BUD.  During  evaporataon  starchy  matters,  and 
probably  other  adulterwita,  are  eoraetimcs  in- 
846  VOL.  Tii.— 89 


GAUBOGE 


COT 


troduoed.    It  is  imported  in  cane  baskets  lined 

with  palm  leaves.  The  best  qualities  are  so 
light  as  to  float  upon  water,  and  when  broken 
present  a  dull  porous  surface  of  alight  yellow- 
ish brown  color. 

61MB0G&,  or  GsMkage,  a  gnm  resin  of  Biam 
and  Cochin  China,  and  produced  also  in  Cey- 
lon. The  tree  from  which  it  is  obtained  is  the 
hebradtndron  eamboffiaidei  of  Dr.  Graham  of 
Edinburgh.  The  gam  was  first  carried  to  Eu- 
rope by  the  Dntch  in  1608.  It  is  imported 
into  the  United  States  only  from  Canton  and 
Oaloutla.  The  manner  of  collecting  it  in  Slam 
is  to  catch  in  leaves  or  cocoanut  shells  the  yel- 
low milky  Juice  which  exudes  from  the  frac- 
tured shoots  and  leaves  of  the  tree,  and,  trans- 
ferring this  to  earthen  vessels,  leave  it  to 
thicken.  It  is  ponred  when  semi-fluid  into  the 
hollow  joints  of  the  bamboo,  and  thus  receives 
the  cylindrical  form  and  the  shape  of  pipes  or 
hollow  cylinders  by  contraction  in  soUdifying. 
It  is  also  made  into  lumps  or  cakes  of  several 


^ 


Gunbog*  Trm  (IbtndeDdnHi  ounbagiakla). 


purities.  Fariuaoeons  matters  are  also  em- 
ployed to  adulterate  it,  their  presenoe  bemg 
detected  by  the  green  color  oammnnicated  to 
the  decoction  by  adding  iodine.  The  inferior 
kinds  are  known  in  commerce  as  coarse  gam- 
boge, lliose  of  finer  quality  are  brittle,  ^ith 
conchoidal  fracture,  of  reddish  orange  color  in 
the  mass,  but  bright  yellow  in  powder,  or  when 
rubbed  with  water.  It  is  without  odor,  and  its 
taste,  very  alight  at  first,  is  soon  followed  by 
an  acrid  sensation  in  the  throat  Its  emulsion 
with  much  water  affords  flims,  which  are  good 
mioroeoopic  objects  for  the  observation  of  active 
molecules.  It  ia  wholly  taken  up  by  alkaline 
solutions  and  by  strong  acids.  Its  rerinoup 
portion  is  dissolved  by  sulphuric  ether;  the 
whole  by  the  sueceaaive  action  of  ether  and 
water.  Dr.  Ohristison  pves  the  following 
analyses  of  the  different  qualities  of  gamboge : 


608 


GAME  LAWS 


GAMING 


CJONBTITUKXTS. 


B«Bill 

Soluble  ffum 
Woody  nbr^ 

Fecula 

Hoiature . . . 

Total..., 


SXAM  OAXBOOI. 

Pip*. 

CUe«r 
lamp. 

OoaiM. 

72-5 

22-7 

trace. 

•  *  •  ■ 

4-8 

64-7 

ao-8 

5-8 
5-6 
4-1 

48-2 
15-2 
18-8 
14-5 

8-8 

1000 

100-0 

1000 

OETLON 
OAlCBOOa. 


71-2 

19-9 

5-7 

•  •  •  ■ 

8-2 


100.0 


The  resinous  portion  is  obtained  by  evapo- 
rating the  ethereal  tincture.  It  has  a  deep 
orange  color,  and  gives  a  jellow  tint  to  10,000 
times  its  weight  of  alcohol.  It  is  entirely  insol- 
uble in  water.  Johnston  named  it  gambogic 
acid,  and  gave  its  composition  0«eHss08.  This 
is  said  to  be  an  active  purgative  in  the  dose  of 
6  grains,  without  the  drastic  and  nauseating 
character  of  the  gom  resin.  Gamboge  is  em- 
ployed as  a  water  color,  and  also  as  a  medi- 
cine. In  large  doses  it  is  an  acrid  poison,  a 
single  drachm  having  produced  death.  It  is 
best  used  in  combination  with  other  and  mild- 
er cathartics,  and  is  then  found  an  excellent 
remedy  for  obstinate  constipation.  It  is  also 
employed  in  the  treatment  of  apoplexy  and 
dropsy.  It  is  so  rarely  used  except  in  combi- 
nations that  its  medicinal  action  is  practically 
confined  to  these  combinations. 

CiAME  LAWS,  statutes  which  declare  what 
birds  and  beasts  are  to  be  considered  game, 
and  impose  penalties  on  those  who  unlawfully 
kill  or  destroy  them.  The  game  laws  of  Eng- 
land had  their  origin  in  the  ancient  forest  laws, 
under  which  the  killing  of  one  of  the  king's 
deer  was  equally  penal  with  murdering  one  of 
his  subjects.  From  the  Norman  conquest  to 
the  present  day  game  has  constantly  been  a 
subject  of  legislation  in  England.  In  1389  the 
possession  of  property  was  made  a  specific 
qualification  for  the  privilege  of  killing  game, 
and  it  was  enacted  that  '*  no  manner  of  arti- 
ficer, laborer,  nor  any  other  layman  who  hath 
not  lands  and  tenements  to  the  value  of  40 
shillings  by  the  year,  nor  any  priest  nor  other 
clerk  if  he  be  not  advanced  to  the  value  of  10 
pounds  by  the  year,"  should  keep  hunting  dogs, 
or  use  other  methods  of  killing  game,  upon 
pain  of  one  year's  imprisonment.  In  1605  the 
qualification  to  kill  game  was  increased  to  £40 
a  year  in  land  and  £200  in  personal  property. 
In  1670  the  qualification  was  limited  to  persons 
who  had  a  freehold  estate  of  £100  per  annum, 
or  a  leasehold  for  99  years  of  £150  annual 
value.  Persons  who  had  not  these  qualifica- 
tions were  not  allowed  to  have  or  keep  game 
dogs.  In  1785  an  act  was  passed  requiring 
persons  qualified  to  kill  game  to  take  out  a 
certificate  to  that  eflfect  The  property  quali- 
fication was  abolished  in  1881,  and  the  certifi- 
cate itself,  which  cost  £8  18«.  6(2.  annually, 
was  made  a  qualification.  By  statute  28  and 
24  Victoria  (1860-'61),  c.  90,  the  certificate 
is  abolished,  aod  an  excise  tax  substituted, 
which  is  £8  or  £2,  according  to  the  portion  of 


the  year  for  which  the  privilege  is  deared« 
There  are  many  restrictions  upon  the  right 
which  the  payment  of  the  tax  gives  to  kill 
game.  It  must  not  be  killed  on  Sunday,  nor 
on  Christmas,  nor  at  the  season  of  the  year 
when  the  pursuit  of  each  kind  is  prohibited. 
Poachers  and  unauthorized  persons  who  de- 
stroy game  by  night  are  severely  punished. 
No  one  may  trespass  on  the  land  of  another  in 
pursuit  of  game,  and  the  unlawful  pursuit  and 
killing  or  wounding  of  deer  kept  in  enclosed 
land  is  felony,  punishable  with  two  years^  im- 
prisonment. Lords  of  manors  are  authorized 
ta  appoint  gamekeepers  to  preserve  or  kill 
game  within  the  manors.  Gamekeepers  are 
authorized  to  arrest  poachers,  apd  to  seize  all 
dogs,  nets,  and  other  implements  used  for  kill- 
ing game  by  unlicensed  persons.  The  sale  of 
game  in  England  is  also  subject  to  strict  regu- 
lations.— In  the  United  States,  laws  have  been 
enacted  by  several  of  the  states  to  protect 
game  from  pursuit  during  certain  seasons  in 
order  to  prevent  its  entire  destruction.  But 
apart  from  these  restrictions,  any  person  who 
cnooses  is  at  liberty  to  kill  or  capture  as  best 
he  can  any  wild  animal,  bird,  or  fish,  anywhere 
in  the  United  States,  subject  to  the  usual  law 
against  trespassing  on  the  grounds  of  others. 

GllUirOy  the  playing  together  of  two  or 
more  persons  at  some  game,  whereby  one  shall 
lose  and  the  other  win  money  or  other  property 
staked  upon  the  issue.  The  game  may  be  one 
of  chance,  as  that  of  faro  or  a  game  with  dice, 
or  one  of  skill  only,  as  chess,  or  of  skill  and 
chance  together,  as  whist  or  backgammon. 
There  is  nothing  immoral  in  playing  for  mere 
amusement;  but  if  money  be  staked,  it  be- 
comes easily,  and  perhaps  necessarily,  a  sport 
carried  on  for  the  sake  of  the  money  in  a 
greater  or  less  degree,  and  then  most  moral- 
ists have  agreed  that  it  deserves  reprobation. 
When  this  is  carried  to  an  extreme  degree,  and 
important  sums  are  played  for,  it  is  obviously 
wrong,  and  deemed  so  to  be  universally.  But 
the  common  law  never  interfered  with  gaming, 
by  any  kind  of  prohibition  or  restraint,  so  long 
as  there  was  no  fraud.  If  there  was  fraud,  it 
operated  here  as  it  does  elsewhere  in  law ;  it 
avoided  all  contracts,  and  money  paid  in  fraud 
could  be  recovered  back,  because  no  titie  passed 
to  the  payee.  And  if  one  cheated  at  gaming, 
as  by  fcdse  cards,  dice,  or  other  implements,  or 
indeed  in  any  way,  he  might  be  indicted  as  a 
cheat  at  common  law.  Both  in  England  and 
in  the  various  states  of  the  Union,  statutes 
have  been  passed  for  the  prohibition  or  re- 
straining of  gaming,  or,  as  it  is  as  commonly 
called,  gambling.  Here,  all  gambling,  that  is, 
all  playing  for  money,  is  prohibited,  and  there- 
fore it  is  held  that  one  cannot  recover  back 
money  lost  at  play,  because  the  playing  Itself 
is  illegal ;  and  it  makes  no  difference  whether 
the  playing  was  honest  or  cheating.  But  a 
loser  may  recover  his  money  frt>m  a  stake- 
holder, by  demanding  it  from  him  before  he 
pays  it  over  to  the  winner.    It  has  been  held  in 


GAMMELL 


GANGES 


609 


Indiana  that  wiDomg  any  sum  of  monej,  how- 
ever small,  at  cards,  is  an  indictable  offence ; 
and  in  Tennessee  the  common  form  of  lottery 
called  "gift  enterprises,"  in  which  the  pur- 
chaser of  an  article  is  entitled  to  the  chance  of 
winning  a  prize,  has  been  held  to  be  gaming 
and  indictable.  Bat  it  has  been  said  in  New 
York,  that  playing  to  see  who  shall  pay  for  the 
use  of  the  implements,  as  a  billiara  table,  is 
not  gambling. 

GAMMELL,  WIBIaM,  an  American  author,  horn 
in  Medileld,  Mass.,  Feb.  10,  1812.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Brown  university  in  1881,  and  soon 
afterward  was  appointed  a  tutor  in  the  univer- 
sity ;  in  1885  he  was  chosen  assistant,  and  in 
1836  full  professor  of  rhetoric.  In  1850  he 
was  transferred  to  the  professorship  of  history 
and  political  economy,  which  chair  he  resigned 
in  1864.  In  1859  he  received  the  degree  of 
LL.  D.  from  the  university  of  Rochester,  and 
in  1870  was  made  one  of  the  fellows  of  the 
corporation  of  Brown  university.  He  has  pub- 
lished yarious  orations  and  discourses  on  lit- 
erary and  historical  subjects;  also  numerous 
articles  in  reviews  and  magazines,  especially 
in  the  "  Christian  Review,"  of  which  for  sev- 
eral years  he  was  one  of  the  editors.  He  has 
written  a  life  of  Roger  Williams,  and  one  of 
Governor  Samuel  Ward,  for  Sparks's  "  Ameri- 
can Biography ;"  and  a  **  History  of  American 
Baptist  Missions,"  at  the  request  of  the  board 
of  the  American  Baptist  missionary  union. 

GANDO*  !•  A  kingdom  in  Africa,  lying  on 
both  sides  of  the  principal  branch  of  the  Niger. 
It  consists  of  several  rich  provinces,  comprising 
the  western  half  of  Kebbi,  Mauri  or  Arewa, 
Zaberma,  Dendina,  a  great  part  of  Goorma,  a 
small  portion  of  Borgoo,  a  large  portion  of 
Yoruba,  Yauri,  and  Nufi.  Much  of  the  terri- 
tory is  well  inhabited,  and  presents  a  luxuriant 
vegetation,  embracing  the  yam,  the  date,  and 
the  banana.  The  inhabitants  are  of  the  Foolah 
race,  and  most  of  them  Mohammedans.  King 
Khaliloo,  whom  Barth  visited  in  1858,  lived  in 
almost  monastic  seclusion,  leaving  the  admin- 
istration in  the  hands  of  one  of  his  brothers, 
in  consequence  of  which  the  provinces  were 
plunged  into  anarchy  and  mutual  hostilities. 
IL  A  town,  the  residence  of  the  king,  in  a 
narrow  valley  surrounded  by  hilly  chains,  in 
lat.  12**  20'  N.,  Ion.  4°  60'  E.,  615  m.  N.  E.  of 
Gape  Coast  Castle.  It  is  intersected  from  N. 
to  6.  by  the  broad  and  shallow  bed  of  a  tor- 
rent, the  borders  of  which  are  covered  with 
luxuriant  vegetation,  and  is  adorned  with  trees, 
among  which  the  banana  is  prominent.  The 
onion  of  Gando  is  superior  in  size  and  quality 
to  any  produced  in  the  neighboring  districts. 
The  inhabitants  prepare  cotton  cloth  of  excel- 
lent quality,  but  their  dyeing  is  inferior. 

GANGES  (Hind.  Gangd^  stream),  one  of  the 
great  rivers  of  British  India,  rising  on  the  8. 
slope  of  the  Himalaya  mountains,  and  flowing 
southerly  and  easterly  into  the  northern  portion 
of  the  bay  of  Bengal.  The  river  Bhagirathi, 
usually  regarded  as  its  true  source,  has  its  origin 


in  the  territory  of  Gurhwal,  10  m.  from  the 
temple  of  Gungootree,  a  favorite  resort  of  Hin- 
doo pilgrims.  It  flows  from  a  cave  in  a  per- 
pendicular ice  wall  at  the  extremity  of  a  glacier, 
as  a  torrent  about  40  yards  wide,  not  far  from 
lat.  80**  54'  N.,  Ion.  79°  7'  E.,  at  an  elevation 
of  18,800  ft.  above  the  sea.  The  surrounding 
mountains  are  upward  of  20,000  ft.  in  height. 
It  is  not  until  the  Bhagirathi  is  joined  by  the 
Aluknunda,  120  m.  from  its  source,  tliat  the 
stream  is  called  the  Ganges.  At  Hurdwar,  47 
m.  further  down,  the  river  reaches  the  great 
plain  of  India,  here  1,024  ft.  above  the  ocean 
level.  Thence  to  Allahabad,  where  it  joins 
the  Jumna,  a  distance  of  488  m.,  the  course  of 
the  Ganges  is  S.  S.  E.,  with  an  average  fall  of 
22  in.  to  the  mile.  Its  most  important  affluent 
between  these  two  cities  is  the  Ramganga,  an 
eastern  tributary.  From  its  confluence  with 
the  Jumna,  the  Ganges  pursues  a  winding 
course  eastward,  663  m.,  to  the  head  of  the 
delta.  In  this  portion  of  the  river  the  fall  is 
about  6  in.  to  the  mile.  Among  the  important 
tributary  streams  are  the  Goomtee,  on  which 
Luoknow  is  situated,  the  Gogra  from  the  north- 
west the  Gunduk  flowing  from  the  west  and 
the  Ooosy  or  Oosi  from  the  east  of  Katmandu, 
the  distant  capital  of  Nepaul,  and  the  Sone 
from  central  India.  The  head  of  the  delta  of 
the  Ganges  is  about  80  m.  below  R^mahal,  and 
216  m.  in  a  straight  line  from  the  bay  of  Bengal. 
At  this  point  the  first  arm  is  given  off;  it  flows 
southward,  and  is  known  as  the  Bhagrutti. 
Further  to  the  southeast  the  main  stream 
throws  off  another  branch  to  the  south  called 
the  Jellinghi,  and  still  anotlier  called  the  Mata- 
bunga.  These  three  western  offshoots  unite 
to  form  the  Hoogly,  the  great  branch  of  the 
Ganges,  on  which  Calcutta  is  situated  at  a  dis- 
tance of  about  100  m.  from  the  sea.  The  em- 
bouchure of  the  Hoogly  is  in  lat.  21°  40'  N., 
Ion.  88°  E.  The  principal  stream,  still  retam- 
ing  the  name  of  Ganges,  continues  to  flow  in 
a  southeasterly  direction,  sending  out  other 
branches  southward,  which  combine  and  form 
the  Hauringotta.arm  of  the  delta.  Finally,  it 
partly  intermingles  its  waters  with  those  of  the 
bri^mapootra,  and  falls  into  the  bay  of  Ben- 
gal near  that  river,  but  by  a  separate  mouth. 
The  average  descent  of  the  Ganges  from  the 
head  of  the  delta  is  8  in.  per  mile. — The  entire 
length  of  the  Ganges  is  between  1,500  and 
1,600  m.  Its  depth  and  width  and  the  rapidi- 
ty of  its  flow  vary  greatly  at  different  seasons. 
There  is  an  annual  rise  of  its  waters,  generally 
beginning  at  the  end  pf  May  and  attaining  its 
height  in  September.  The  rise  is  7  ft.  at  Cal- 
cutta, without  taking  into  account  the  tide, 
and  from  29  to  45  ft.  at  Allahabad.  The  ave- 
rage width  of  the  Ganges  on  its  whole  course 
is  estimated  at  1  ro.  in  the  dry  season.  The 
section  between  Hurdwar  and  Allahabad 
abounds  in  shallows  and  rapids,  but  is  navi- 
gable by  small  boats  throughout  its  whole  ex- 
tent, and  by  steamers  for  passenger  traffic  over 
the  lower  four  fifths  of  its  length.    At  AUaha- 


610  GAI 

bad  it  ia  a  mile  wide,  while  the  width  of  the 

Jumna  is  but  1,400  jaide.  From  thia  oit7 
down  to  the  head  of  the  delta  the  river  is  navi- 
gable throughout  the  year  for  vesselB  drawing 
18  in.  of  water.  The  greatest  breadth  ordi- 
narilj  attained  at  Benares,  76  m.  below  Allaha- 
bad, is  1,000  yards  and  the  maximum  depth 
78  ^. ;  in  the  dry  season  these  fignres  are  re- 
daced  to  1,400  ft.  and  86  ft.  reapectively.  The 
courae  and  current  of  the  river,  especially 
in  ita  lower  portion,  are  extremely  subject  to 
change.  Old  channels  are  filled  np  and  aban- 
doned for  new  ones  which  the  action  of  the 
water  has  excavated ;  new  islands  are  formed 
sronnd  sand  bars  or  Honken  objects  which  serve 
as  nuclei  for  mud  deposits;  and  at  the  aame 
time  old  iHlande  are  being  swept  away.  The 
Hoogly  is  the  only  arm  which  can  be  ascended 
by  large  shipa  for  any  considerable  distance. 
Opposite  Calcntta  it  b  about  1  m.  wide  at  high 


wat«r. — The  coast  region  of  the  delta  of  the 
combined  rivers  Ganges  and  Brahmapootra  con- 
sists principally  of  a  vast  labyrinthine  network 
of  salt-water  streams  and  creeks,  Fresh-wBt«r 
channels,  however,  communicating  with  the 
Hoogly,  intersect  the  extensive  wudemees  of 
wooded  islands  along  the  coast,  known  as  the 
Sunderbunds,  This  pestilential  tract  has  an 
area  of  more  than  7,000  sq.  m.,  and  is  hannted 
by  innnmerable  crocodiles,  tigers,  and  other 
wild  animals.  In  the  Snnderbnnds  the  ordi- 
nary rise  and  fall  of  the  tide  is  between  7  and 
8  ft.  When  the  Ganges  is  low,  the  tidal  cur- 
rent extends  as  far  inland  as  the  bead  of  tho 
deita,  but  in  the  flood  aeason  it  is  overcome  by 
the  increased  volnme  and  velocity  of  the  river, 
and  is  imperceptible  except  near  the  coast 
The  whole  delta  district  is  subject  to  inundation 
during  the  annual  rise  of  the  river.  A  tract 
of  the  Lower  Provinces  100  m.  in  width  is 


The  Bciurce  of  Ui«  Quign. 


then  completelj  covered  with  water,  which  re- 
cedes in  October,  when  the  rice  crop  is  plant- 
ed. These  inundations  become  very  destruc- 
tive if  the  descending  current  of  the  river  Hood 
happens  to  be  checked  by  high  tides  and  strong 
gales  in  the  bay  of  Bengal  The  (jnaotity  of 
flne  mud  and  sand  brought  down  by  the  Ganges 
and  Jirahniapootra  is  so  large  that  it  discolors 
the  sea  to  a  distance  of  from  60  to  100  m.  from 
the  delta.  At  Ghazepoor,  600  m,  trom  the  sea, 
C00,000  cubic  feet  of  water  per  second  flow 
down  the  Ganges  dnring  the  four  months  of 
the  flood  season,  and  abont  100,000  cubic  feet 
per  second  during  the  rest  of  the  year.  In 
1831-'2  the  total  amount  of  solid  matter  sus- 
pended in  the  water  thus  flowing  down  was 
estimated  to  be  8,868,077,440  cubic  feet  in  a 
year,  Lyell's  estimate  of  the  entire  quantity 
of  mud  borne  down  to  the  bay  of  Bengal  in  one 


year  by  the  Ganges  and  Brahmapootra  is  40,- 

000  millions  of  cubic  feet  In  this  calculation 
be  assnmes  that  the  annnal  water  dischoi^  of 
the  latter  river  is  equal  to  that  of  the  Ganges. 
and  that  the  pronoriion  of  sediment  in  both 
rivers  is  about  a  tliird  less  than  the  Ghazepoor 
estimate.  Geological  borings  at  Calcntta  indi- 
cate that  a  general  aubsidence  of  the  delta  baa 
taken  place.  To  this  subsidence  is  attribnted 
the  fact  that  the  Huviatile  mud  which  is  de- 
posited by  successive  inundations  dues  not  in- 
crease the  elevation  of  the  plains  of  Bengal. — 
Three  well  marked  species  of  crocodile  infest 
the  Ganges  in  great  numl)ers.  The  gavial, 
which  ia  the  characteristic  Gangetic  crocodile, 
lives  only  in  fresh  water  and  feeds  exclusively 
on  flsh.  Its  range  extends  from  the  delta  to  the 
northern  bi-anches  of  the  river,  1,000  m.  from 
Calcntta.     The  other  kinds,  known  as  tlis 


GANGLION 


611 


koomiah  and  the  mnggar,  inhabit  both  fresh 
and  salt  water,  and  prey  with  great  boldness 
upon  men,  and  npon  animals  wild  and  domestic. 
— ^The  Ganges  is  the  main  artery  of  an  ezten- 
QivQ  and  intricate  natural  system  of  Himalay- 
an drainage.  Of  the  19  or  20  affluents  which 
it  receives  after  leaving  the  mountains,  12  are 
said  to  be  larger  than  the  Rhine.  Oonsidered 
as  a  whole,  the  Gangetic  plain  is  one  of  the 
finest  and  most  fertile  countries  in  the  world. 
It  is  the  most  populous  portion  of  India,  and 
that  in  which  agriculture  is  most  flourishing. 
The  rainfall  of  the  Ganges  basin  above  Allaha- 
bad, however,  being  but  little  more  than  80 
in.,  the  agricultural  interests  of  that  region 
required  a  permanent  system  of  irrigation,  to 
supply  which  the  Ganges  canal  was  construct- 
ed. It  was  commenced  in  1848,  opened  in 
1854^  and  is  the  greatest  work  of  irrigation 
ever  completed.  It  extends  in  a  southeasterly 
direction  from  Hurdwar  to  Oawnpore,  travers- 
ing the  country  between  the  Ganges  and  the 
Jumna,  with  numerous  offshoots  which,  like 
the  main  channel,  are  adapted  for  internal  navi- 
gation as  well  as  for  irrigation.  The  length  of 
the  main  channel  is  848  m.,  and  the  branches 
are  806  m.  long.  The  distributaries  have  an 
aggregate  length  of  8,078  m.,  and  water  767,- 
000  acres  in  5,061  villages.  In  1871-'2  the 
profits  of  the  Ganges  canaJ  were  £66,284,  being 
2*78  per  cent,  on  the  capital. — The  Ganges  oc- 
cupies a  prominent  place  in  Hindoo  mythology. 
It  is  revered  as  the  most  sacred  of  rivers  by 
the  Hindoos,  who  convey  its  sanctified  waters 
to  all  parts  of  India  for  use  in  ceremonial  ablu- 
tions. There  are  particular  places  along  the 
banks  whence  it  is  regarded  as  most  desirable 
to  obtain  the  water,  but  that  from  Benares  is 
reverenced  as  the  holiest  of  all.  Here  and 
elsewhere  numerous  and  handsome  flights  of 
stone  steps,  called  ghauts,  render  access  to  the 
river  easy. — ^The  principal  cities  and  towns  on 
the  banks  of  the  Ganges  are  Furruokabad, 
Gawnpore,  Allahabad,  Benares,  Ghazepoor,  and 
Patna ;  and  on  the  Hoogly  branch,  Calcutta. 

GAMC^UOII  (Gr.  ydyyXiavy  a  little  swelling),  in 
anatomy,  a  small  rounded  or  elongated  ner- 
vous mass,  of  a  reddish  gmy  color,  situated  in 
the  course  of  the  nerves.  There  are  two 
kinds  of  nervous  ganglia,  one  forming  part  of 
the  cranial  system  of  nerves,  the  other  part 
of  the  sympathetic  system ;  the  first  kind  are 
situated  near  the  origins  of  many  of  the  cra- 
nial and  of  all  the  vertebral  nerves,  and  on  the 
posterior  or  sensory  root  of  the  latter;  the 
second  are  generally  placed  along  the  sides 
of  the  anterior  surface  of  the  spinal  column, 
from  the  head  to  the  coccyx,  the  two  great 
semilunar  and  cardiac  ganglia  coming  near  the 
median  line.  They  are  composed  of  two  sub- 
stances, one  white  like  the  medullary  substance 
of  the  brain,  the  other  reddish  gray,  somewhat 
resembling  the  cerebral  cortical  substance; 
the  internal  medullary  filaments  are  the  con- 
tinuation of  the  nerve  upon  which  the  ganglion 
is  situated.    The  sympathetic  system  of  gan- 


glia is  considered  by  some  as  a  series  of  more 
or  less  independent  centres,  giving  off  nerves 
to  the  organs  of  nutrition  or  communicating 
branches  to  the  cerebro-spinal  system ;  accord- 
ing to  others,  these  ganglia  and  their  associated 
nerves  form  a  special  system  with  numerous 
ramifications,  the  sympathetic  system  presiding 
over  the  involuntary  contractions  of  the  heart 
and  digestive  apparatus,  and  all  the  processes 
concerned  in  secretion,  nutrition,  and  exhala- 
tion, and  in  disease  conveying  different  sympa- 
thetic phenomena  from  one  part  of  the  organ- 
ism to  another.  Strictly  speaking,  all  the  ner- 
vous centres  in  the  highest  vertebrates  may  be 
called  ganglia;  even  the  hemispheres  of  the 
human  brain  may  properly  be  styled  cerebral 
ganglia.  The  principal  ganglia  of  the  head  are 
the  ophthalmic,  which  sends  branches  to  the 
iris  and  the  vascular  apparatus  of  the  eyeball ; 
the  otic,  intimately  connected  with  the  organ 
of  hearing ;  Meckel's  or  the  spheno-palatine, 
ministering  to  the  senses  of  smell  and  taste ; 
the  submaxillary,  whose  branches  proceed  al- 
most entirely  to  the  gland  of  that  name ;  the 
Gasserian,  of  the  fifth  pair  of  nerves ;  and  those 
near  the  roots  of  the  pneumogastric  and  glos- 
sopharyngeal. In  the  neck  are  the  superior, 
middle,  and  inferior  ganglia  of  the  sympathetic, 
and  the  origins  of  the  cardiac  plexus  which 
supplies  the  heart;  in  the  chest,  the  12  tho- 
racic ganglia  on  each  side,  firom  which  originate 
the  splanchnic  nerves  which  go  to  Join  the 
semilunar  ganglia  and  the  solar  plexus ;  in  the 
abdomen,  the  latter  sends  branches  which  ac- 
company all  the  divisions  of  the  aorta.  There 
are  besides  these  the  lumbar  and  sacral  ganglia 
on  each  side  of  the  spine,  distributing  their 
branches  to  the  organs  in  tiie  pelvis.  The  so- 
caUed  lymphatic  ganglia  are  glandular,  and  not 
nervous  masses.  In  the  invertebrata  ganglia 
are  the  highest  form  of  nervous  centres,  and 
occur  either  isolated  or  connected  together  by 
single  or  double  longitudinal  cords ;  they  per- 
form the  functions  both  of  the  cerebral  and 
spinal  centres  of  the  higher  animals. — ^In  sur- 
gery, a  ganglion  is  a  small  indolent  fluctuating 
tumor,  developed  in  the  course  of  the  tendons, 
containing  a  semi-fluid  secretion  enclosed  m  a 
cyst,  generally  communicating  with  the  tendi- 
nous sheath.  It  is  a  dropsy  of  the  synovial 
sheath,  caused  by  friction,  some  wrench  or  ten- 
sion of  the  tendon,  or  the  sequence  of  some 
rheumatic  or  gouty  disease ;  the  light  of  a  can- 
dle may  be  seen  through  it.  The  most  com- 
mon situation  is  about  the  wrist  and  fingers, 
though  it  may  occur  in  the  course  of  any  ten- 
don. When  there  is  no  inflammation,  the  best 
treatment  is  to  puncture  the  tumor  by  the  sub- 
cutaneous method,  in  order  that  the  contained 
fluid  may  escape  into  the  surrounding  areolar 
tissue  and  be  absorbed ;  pressure  and  cold  ap- 
plications should  then  be  applied.  If  this  fail, 
stimulating  liniments  and  even  blisters  may  be 
tried,  to  induce  absorption.  When  unconnect- 
ed with  a  tendinous  sheath,  the  tumor  may  be 
dissected  out,  punctured  like  an  abscess,  or 


612 


GANGRENE 


GAI^AL 


transfixed  with  a  seton ;  the  subsequent  thick- 
ness may  be  removed  bj  the  vapor  or  steam 
bath  and  douche ;  any  rheumatic  taint  requires 
to  be  corrected  by  appropriate  remedies.  A 
popular  way  of  treating  these  tumors  is  to 
rupture  them  by  a  strong  and  sudden  blow ; 
those  on  the  back  of  the  wrist  and  hand  may 
thus  be  scattered  without  danger. 

GANGRENE  (Gr.  ydyypaiva),  the  loss  of  life  in 
any  of  the  soft  parts  of  the  body,  without  ex- 
tinction of  the  vital  powers  in  the  rest  of  the 
organism.  The  term  tphaeelris  has  been  ap- 
plied to  the*condition  in  which  gangrene  may 
terminate,  the  utter  and  irrecoverable  death 
of  a  part,  while  in  some  stages  of  gangrene  the 
circulation  may  not  be  completely  arrested,  the 
sensibility  of  the  nerves  not  entirely  gone,  and 
recovery  of  the  local  loss  of  action  not  impos- 
sible. The  death  of  the  bony  tissue  is  called 
necrosis.  When  gangrene  is  the  consequence 
of  violent  inflammation  or  of  the  obstructed 
return  of  venous  blood,  the  affected  parts  are 
gorged  with  fluid,  constituting  humid  gan- 
grene; while  dry  gangrene  generally  arises 
from  a  deficient  supply  of  arterial  blood  or 
from  constitutional  causes,  accompanied  by 
very  slight  or  by  no  inflammation,  the  mortified 
part  becoming  dry  and  hard ;  the  gangrenous 
portion  in  the  former  case  is  called  a  slough, 
m  the  latter  an  eschar.  The  local  predisposing 
causes  are  congestion  and  deficient  circulation ; 
the  constitutional  are  weakness  from  disease, 
old  age,  or  privation.  The  exciting  causes  are 
mechanical  and  chemical  injuries,  especially 
gun-shot,  lacerated,  and  poisoned  wounds ;  in- 
sufficient supply  of  arterial  or  obstructed  re- 
turn of  venous  blood,  as  in  the  gangrene  from 
ossified  arteries  in  the  first  case  and  that  from 
heart  disease  and  varicose  veins  in  the  second; 
and  injury  or  division  of  nerves.  The  areolar 
tissue  is  most  subject  to  gangrene ;  after  this 
come  tendons  and  ligaments,  denuded  bone, 
the  skin,  and  the  muscles,  in  the  order  of  enu- 
meration. Gangrene  spreads  slowly  or  rapidly, 
according  to  the  accompanying  inflammation 
or  the  energy  of  the  vital  processes.  When 
inflammation  is  about  to  end  in  gangrene,  the 
redness  becomes  livid,  with  diminution  of  pain 
and  sensibility,  though  the  swelling  may  be  in- 
creased ;  the  parts  become  soft  and  cold,  and 
emit  an  odor  of  decomposition ;  the  livid  color, 
when  the  disease  is  spreading,  is  gradually  lost 
in  the  surrounding  skin,  but  when  the  dead 
portion  is  to  be  cast  off,  a  bright  red  line  sepa- 
rates the  healthy  from  the  gangrenous  tissue, 
called  the  *4ine  of  demarcation  ;^'  in  a  healthy 
person  there  may  be  high  accompanying  fever, 
but  in  a  debilitated  constitution  the  symptoms 
will  be  those  of  prostration  and  typhoid.  The 
indications  of  treatment  are  to  diminish  the 
inflammation  by  general  and  local  means;  to 
support  the  strength  by  tonics  and  stimulants, 
when  the  gangrene  is  extensive  or  the  system 
debilitated;  to  quiet  restles^ess  and  nervous 
irritability  by  opinm ;  and  to  facilitate  the  sep- 
aration of  the  dead  parts  by  warm  and  stimu- 


lating  applications,  and  by  incisions  to  permit 
the  free  escape  of  fluids  whose  ab8oq)tion 
might  propagate  the  disease  to  internal  vital 
organs.  Amputation  of  a  limb  is  sometimes 
the  only  way  of  arresting  the  spread  of  gan- 
grene. Surgery  often  has  occasion  to  produce 
gangrene  as  a  remedial  measure,  in  the  remo- 
val of  tumors  and  diseased  growths ;  hffimor- 
rhoidal  swellings,  nasal  and  uterine  polypi,  erec- 
tile tumors,  cancerous  growths,  &c.,  are  effec- 
tually and  safely  removed  by  cutting  off  tbdr 
supply  of  blood  by  ligature  of  the  principal 
vessels.  Gangrene  is  always  a  dangerous 
symptom,  especially  in  very  young  or  very  old 
persons,  and  in  weakened  constitutions;  and 
when  terminating  favorably,  it  may  leave  be- 
hind it  tedious  suppurations,  fistulous  ulcers, 
and  various  deformities.  Hospital  gangrene, 
or  sloughing  phagedena,  a  putrid  disease 
caused  by  crowding  sick  and  wounded  men 
into  ill- ventilated  and  dirty  rooms,  is  one  of  the 
most  terrible  accompaniments  of  war,  often  de- 
stroying more  than  the  bullet  and  the  sword ; 
and  the  army  surgeon  generally  finds  his  best 
directed  efforts  set  at  defiance  by  the  force 
of  surrounding  and  insurmountable  obstacles. 
The  principles  of  treatment  are  the  same  as  in 
ordinary  gangrene. 

GAlf  JAM,  a  town  of  India,  in  the  district  of 
the  same  name,  presidency  of  Madras,  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  river  Roeikoila,  just  above  its 
entrance  into  the  bay  of  Bengal,  168  m.  N.  £. 
of  Yizagapatam.  It  was  formerly  the  capital 
of  the  district,  had  harbor  fortifications,  and 
was  noted  for  its  fine  public  buildings,  houses, 
and  gardens ;  but  in  1836  it  was  desolated  by 
a  fever,  and  since  then  it  has  been  almost  de- 
serted and  falling  to  decay.  Still  it  has  several 
cotton  factories  and  carries  on  a  considerable 
trade. — ^The  district,  one  of  the  five  fonnerly 
called  the  Northern  Circars,  has  an  area  of 
6,400  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  1,487,227.  The 
coast  is  bold  and  rocky,  with  no  large  harbors, 
succeeded  by  a  wide  sandy  plain  extending 
to  a  range  of  hills.  The  rivers  are  all  dry  in 
the  summer,  and  the  district  is  sometimes 
visited  by  severe  drought  and  famine ;  in  1866 
nearly  half  the  population  was  lost  from  tills 
cause.  The  staple  productions  are  rice,  maize, 
sugar  cane,  millet,  pulse,  oil  seeds,  wax,  lac, 
gums,  dyestuffs,  arrowroot,  and  cotton. 

GAUfNAL,  Jean  Nicolas,  a  French  chemist,  bom 
in  Saarlouis,  July  28,  1791,  died  in  Paris  in 
January,  1852.  After  being  employed  in  a 
drug  shop,  he  was  in  1808  attached  as  an 
apothecary  to  the  medical  department  of  the 
French  army,  and  in  1816  he  was  the  chemical 
assistant  of  Th6nard  in  his  lectures  at  the  Sor- 
bonne.  He  afterward  devoted  himself  to  use- 
ful inventions  and  to  industrial  enterprises  con- 
nected with  them.  He  invented  a  new  kind 
of  chimney,  the  first  elastic  rollers  for  tlie 
printing  press,  the  refining  of  borax,  a  new 
method  for  melting  and  haj^ening  tallow  em- 
ployed in  making  candles,  &c.  In  1827  he  re- 
ceived the  Montyon  prize  from  the  institute 


GANNET 

for  his  ajBtem  of  cblorio  inbalation  for  cfttarrh. 
He  in  beat  known,  bowever,  bj  bis  orocesB  for 
enibalmiiig,  for  which  he  received  the  some 
prize.  It  consists  in  iqjecting  a  Bolntion  of  sul- 
phate of  &laminani  ioto  the  c&rotid  artery. 

GlMnrr,  &  web-footed  bird,  of  the  familj 
tulida  and  genas  tula  (Briss.).  The  genas  is 
cbAracterized  b;  a  bill  longer  than  the  head, 
strong,  straight,  and  broad  at  the  base;  the 
sides  oompressed  and  grooved  toward  the  tip, 
which  is  slightly  curved,  with  the  lateral  mar- 
gina  obliquely  and  unequally  serrated ;  the  nos- 
trils basal,  linear,  in  a  lateral  groove,  and  al- 
most invisible ;  the  wings  long  and  pointed,  the 
firat  and  second  quills  longest ;  the  tail  long  and 
grsdnated ;  the  tarsi  abort  and  stoat,  ronDded 
Id  front  and  keeled  behind ;  the  toes  long,  all 
four  connected  by  a  full  membrane;  the  daws 
moderate  and  rather  flat,  the  middle  one  serra- 
ted, vid  the  hind  one  mdimentary;  beneath 
the  lower  mandible  is  a  naked  sac,  capable  of 
moderate  distention.  There  are  about  ten 
species  described,  in  various  parts  of  the  world, 
of  which  two  are  natives  of  the  western  hemi- 
sphero,  the  booby  (3.  JSier,  Linn.),  treated 
nnder  its  own  title,  and  the  gannet,  or  solan 
goose  (8,  hoMana,  Briss.).  Tbe  ganuets  are 
nsually  foand  in  immense  nnmbers  on  desert 
and  rockyislandB  near  the  mainland,  migrating 
sonthwanl  in  smaU  parties  on  the  approach  of 
cold  weather;  they  Bometimes  float  lightly  on 
the  sea,  but  are  generally  seen  on  the  wing; 
their  flight  is  powerful,  rapid,  buoyant,  and 
long  snstained;  their  food  consists  of  fiBbes 
which  BWim  near  the  surface,  npon  which  tbey 
dart  headlong  from  a  con»derable  height,  ma- 
king a  great  splash,  and  sometimes  remaining 
nnder  water  a  minnte  or  two;  tbey  swallow 


GANOIDS 


613 


OamiaoD  GmnDt  (Snk  baauiii),  sdult  uid  joMcg. 

the  flsh  head  foremost,  and  their  gullet  is  so 
expansible  as  to  take  in  the  largest  herring. 
The  common  gannet  {S.  iattana)  has  a  close 
dense  plnmage,  of  a  general  whitish  color,  buff 
yellow  on  the  head  and  hind  neck,  and  pri- 
maries brownish  hiack;  the  bill  is  pale  bluish 


gray ;  bare  space  about  the  eye  and  on  the 
neck  blackish  blue;  iris  white.  The  length  to 
end  of  tail  is  40  in.,  to  end  of  wings  S8,  the  ex- 
tent of  wings  about  6  ft.,  and  the  bill  4  in. ; 
the  weight  is  T  lbs.  The  female  is  like  the 
male,  bnt  smaller.  The  young  are  brown  and 
white  above,  and  grayish  white  below.  This 
species  breeds  in  great  numbers  on  the  rocky 
islands  near  the  coast  of  Labrador,  and  after 
the  breeding  season,  in  If  ay  and  June,  is  found 
all  along  the  Atlantic  states  to  the  golf  of  Mex- 
ico; it  is  entirely  maritime,  and  never  seen  in- 
land nnlesB  forced  in  by  violent  gales.  The 
flight,  when  travelling,  is  low,  performed  by 
80  or  40  flaps  of  the  wings,  and  then  by  sailing 
for  an  equal  distance  with  extended  neck ;  tjie 
walk  ia  eiceedbgly  slow  and  awkward.  The 
nest  is  a  bole  in  the  earth  surrounded  by  weeds 
and  sticks  matted  together  for  a  height  of  10 
to  20  in.,  and  only  a  single  pure  white  egg, 
about  8  in,  long,  is  laid  in  it ;  the  young  are 
hatched  in  about  a  month  ;  the  males  assist  in 
incubation.  Tbey  congregate  on  the  same  rock 
in  vast  numbers,  and  are  quarrelsome  during 
incnbation,  being  fond  of  stealing  ft-om  eocu 
other  the  materials  for  the  nests,  which  are 
sometimes  brought  a  distance  of  80  miles,  A 
young  gannet,  with  its  large  head,  dosed  eyes. 
thin  neck,  small  wings,  large  abdomen,  naked 
skin,  and  bluish  black  color,  is  a  most  nnconth 
and  disagreeable  object.  When  shot  at  or 
wounde^  gannets  disgoi^e  their  food  like  vnl- 
tares.  They  have  very  few  enemies  among 
birds  or  beasts ;  the  eggs  and  young  are  some- 
times devonred  by  the  larger  gulls.  According 
to  Aadnbon,  the  feathers  on  the  lower  parts 
are  very  convex  externally,  giving  the  appear- 
ance of  light  shell  work. 

GAHSEIT,  bra  SUIcs,  an  American  clergy- 
man, bom  in  Cambridge,  Mass.,  Hay  4,  IBOI, 
died  from  a  rulroad  accident  at  Revere,  Mass., 
Ang.  26, 1871.  He  studied  at  Phillips  academy, 
Andover,  entered  Harvard  college  in  1S16,  and 
graduated  in  1820 ;  studied  the  three  following 
years  in  the  divinity  school  at  Cambridge ;  re- 
ceived ordination  as  colleague  with  William 
Ellery  Olianning,  June  SO,  1824,  in  the  Federal 
street  church,  Boston ;  and  npon  Dr.  Channing's 
death  in  1812  he  became  sole  pastor.  The  con- 
gregation BQbseqnently  removed  to  Arlington 
street,  and  Dr.  Gannett  continued  to  be  its 
pastor  until  his. death,  a  period  of  47  years, 
with  only  an  intermission  of  two  years,  during 
which  he  rcMded  in  Europe  on  account  of  his 
health.  He  published  many  occasional  sermons 
and  addresses,  and  from  1844  to  1849  was  one 
of  the  editors  of  "  The  Christian  Examiner." 

«1K01D8  (Gr.  y&m,  splendor),  in  HDller's 
claaaification,  an  order  of  fiBhes,  having  either 
enamelled  scales,  bony  plates,  or  a  naked  skin ; 
flus  generally,  but  not  always,  covered  anteri- 
orly by  spiny  plates  (falera) ;  the  internal 
skeleton  sometimes  osseous,  as  in  the  gar  pike, 
or  partly  cartilaginous,  ss  in  the  sturgeons ;  the 
vertebral  column  occasionally  extending  to  the 
end  of  the  upper  caudal  lobe ;  nasal  apertures 


614 


GANOIDS 


double ;  gills  free  and  lying  in  an  operonlated 
cavitj)  with  or  without  an  opercidar  gill,  a  pseu- 
do-branchia,  and  blowing  holes ;  the  arterial 
trunk  always  with  numerous  valves ;  no  decus- 
sation of  the  optic  nerves,  and  the  ventral  fins 
abdominal ;  there  is  always  an  air  bladder,  and 
a  duct  communicating  with  the  <£Sophagus; 
the  eggs  are  conveyed  from  the  abdominal 
cavity  by  tubes;  like  the  shark  family,  they 
have  a  thymus  gland,  and  often  a  spiral  valvu- 
lar fold  in  the  intestine.  MUller  divides  the 
ganoids  into  four  families :  1,  containing  the 
American  gar  fish ;  2,  the  polypterus  of  Afri- 
ca ;  8,  the  amiay  or  mud  fish  of  America ;  and 
4,  the  sturgeons ;  these  will  be  described  under 
the  first,  diird,  and  fourth  titles  respectively. 
Prof.  Agassiz  is  inclined  to  elevate  the  ganoids 
from  an  order  to  a  class,  separate  from  ordinary 
bony  fishes,  and  superior  to  them  in  organiza- 
tion, though  inferior  to  the  selachians  (sharks 
and  rays) ;  he  makes  them  the  third  class  of  the 
branch  vertebrata,  with  the  three  orders  of 
coelacanths,  acipenseroids  (sturgeons),  and  sau- 
roids  (gar  fish),  with  three  additional  doubtful 
orders  of  siluroids,  pleotognaths  (haliateSy  ostra- 
ewTiy  and  porcupine  fishes),  and  lophobranchs 
(kippoeampua^  pipe  fish,  and  pegaaua). — ^The  re- 
mainder of  this  article  will  be  devoted  to  the 
consideration  of  fossil  ganoids,  and  to  the  in- 
teresting questions  connected  with  their  struc- 
ture and  geological  distribution.  Ganoid  fosdl 
scales,  whether  angular,  rhomboidal,  or  many- 
sided,  are  imbricated  like  the  slates  of  a  roof, 
and  formed  of  an  outer  plate  of  enamel,  an  in- 
ner porcelain  layer,  and  an  uitermediate  reticu- 
lated structure  analogous  to  tiiediplod  between 
the  tables  of  the  human  skull.  The  fin  rays  of 
the  ganoids  are  bare  enamelled  bones,  each  con- 
sisting of  a  plate  of  enamel  on  each  side  and  a 
lamina  of  bone  between  them ;  the  necessary 
fiexibility  of  such  rays  is  secured  by  joints  which 
extend  through  the  rigid  enamel,  leaving  the 
central  bony  plate  undivided,  on  the  principle 
of  the  half-sawed  moulding  which  the  carpen- 
ter wishes  to  bend  at  an  angle  or  around  some 
curved  surface.  The  dermid  or  external  skele- 
ton of  the  ganoids  is  so  remarkably  developed, 
that  in  many  instances  it  has  served  to  deter- 
mine the  forms  of  genera  and  species  in  the 
old  red  standstone  and  carboniferous  strata, 
every  other  portion  having  perished,  as  their 
internal  skeletons  were  either  very  slight  or 
entirely  cartilaginous ;  enamelled  plates  repre- 
sent the  head,  enamelled  imbricated  scales  in- 
dicate the  form  and  proportions  of  the  body, 
and  enamelled  rays  show  the  position  and  out- 
line of  the  fins.  The  instances  of  great  devel- 
opment of  the  outer  skeleton  in  higher  animals 
are  few,  being  limited  principally  to  the  arma- 
dillo and  pangolin  among  mammals,  the  tor- 
toises and  crocodiles  among  reptiles,  and  the 
gar  pikes  and  sturgeons  among  fishes.  The 
earliest  fishes,  those  of  the  Silurian  epoch,  seem 
to  have  been  all  placoids ;  in  the  following  age, 
that  of  the  old  red  sandstone,  the  ganoids  ap- 
peared in  great  numbers,  and  with  the  placoids 


formed  the  entire  class  of  fishes  for  unknown 
millions  of  years,  that  is,  through  the  old  red 
sandstone,  carboniferous,  Permian,  triassic,  and 
odlitic  periods,  down  to  the  cretaceous  epoch, 
when  ordinary  bony  fishes  were  brought  into 
existence ;  the  age  of  these  two  orders  corre- 
sponding nearly  to  the  reign  of  the  ferns,  palms, 
coniferous  trees,  and  their  allies  among  planta. 
When  the  bony  fishes  became  the  prevailing 
type,  the  other  orders  diminished  in  proportion^ 
so  that  at  the  present  time  the  gar  pikes  and 
the  sturgeons  are  the  chief  representatives  of 
the  old  powerfiil  and  numerous  ganoids.  In 
the  human  family  we  see  similar  instances  of 
nations  reaching  their  culminating  pointy  and 
then  disappearing  or  lapsing  into  barbarism ; 
the  Aztecs  of  Central  America  and  the  Oopta 
of  Egypt  are  the  remnants  of  the  great  raoes 
Vhich  built  the  mounds  of  the  Mississippi  val- 
ley and  the  Egyptian  temples  and  pyramids.  In 
the  words  of  Hugh  Miller:  "  But  in  the  rivers 
of  these  very  countries,  in  ^epolypterua  of  t^e 
Nile  or  the  lepido9Uu$  of  the  Mississippi,  we 
are  presented  with  the  few  surviving  fragments 
of  a  dynasty  compared  with  which  Uiat  of 
Egypt  or  Central  America  occupied  but  an  ex- 
ceedingly small  portion  of  either  space  or  time. 
The  dynasty  of  the  ganoids  was  at  one  time 
coextensive  with  every  river,  lake,  and  sea, 
and  endured  during  the  unreckoned  eons  which 
extended  from  the  times  of  the  lower  old  red 
sandstone  until  those  of  the  chalk."  Among 
ganoids  are  found  some  of  the  strangest  ichthyic 
forms,  having  a  structure  and  placoid  afiinities 
no  longer  seen  in  nature;  these  gigantic  and 
strange  fishes  were  of  the  first  rai^  in  their 
class,  and,  being  then  the  only  representatives 
of  the  vei'tebrates,  exhibited  characters  belong- 
ing to  the  higher  class  of  reptiles,  of  which 
they  were  the  prophetic  types.  Tliese  reptilian 
fishes  attained  their  greatest  number  and  lar- 
gest size  during  the  carboniferous  period,  and 
were  remarkable  both  for  their  formidable 
ofiensive  weapons  and  their  strong  defensive 
armor.  This  remote  age  was  as  fully  charac- 
terized by  bloodshed  and  destruction  of  animal 
life  as  any  since  the  creation  of  man ;  indeed, 
no  animal  ever  had  more  powerful  teeth  than 
the  ganoid  rhvioduB  of  the  coal  fields,  sharper 
than  and  four  times  as  large  as  the  hugest  liv- 
ing crocodile  possesses ;  the  dorsal  and  caudal 
spines  of  some  of  the  contemporary  placoids 
far  exceeded  in  size  and  destructive  powers 
those  of  any  living  shark  or  ray ;  where  such 
weapons  were  employed,  defensive  armor  was 
necessary ;  hence  the  enamelled  scales  of  the 
ganoids.  In  the  lepidoid  or  acanth  family, 
confined  chiefly  to  the  old  red  sandstone  and 
carboniferous  strata,  the  teeth  are  small,  brush- 
like, and  in  several  rows,  or  obtuse  and  in  a 
single  row;  the  scales  are  flat,  rhomboidal, 
parallel  to  and  wholly  covering  the  body;  all 
those  occurring  in  strata  earlier  than  the  Juras- 
sic have  the  tail  heterocercal  or  with  the  spine 
prolonged  into  its  upper  lobe ;  it  has  no  repre- 
sentative among  living  fishes.    Among  the  most 


interesttiig  genera  la  divtervt,  in  which  P. 
maeraleptdotu*  of  the  old  red  BiudBtOiie  re- 
Mmbles  a  fish  oorred  in  ivorj,  croBted  with 


INpCanu  nucntlepldolJK. 

enamel,  and  thickly  dotted  with  minnte  ponc- 
tarings ;  with  circular  Boales,  tbickir  enam- 
elled fin  rays,  strong  aagnlar  pectoralB,  scale- 


protected  ventrals  like  the 
lohthyosaoraB,  and  a  long  d< 

former  conuating  of  two  | 
pif,  also  British  Devonian, 

has  two  anals  alternating 
with  two  dorsals,  large  ana 
ronnded  pectorals,  small 
ventrals,  large  montli,  and 
scales  of  moderate  size. 
Among  the  genera  most  nn 


fins  and  scales,  a  single  dorsal  opposite  the  space 
between  the  ventrala  and  anal,  and  all  with 
small  rays  at  their  margine — abont  80  species 
in  North  America  and  northern  and  central 
Earope;    eurynotvM,  a  fiattened  and  bream- 


>[DS  615 

no  ventrals,  large  pectorals,  and  very  wide 
montlt,  in  proportions  resembling  the  conger 
eel  or  ling.  Among  those  most  nnmerons  in 
the  Jnrassio  age  are  tetrOfgonolepU,  with  a 
broad  flattened  body,  rapidlj  decroasing  to  the 
tail,  ronnded  head,  moderate  fins,  and  pointed 
teeth — aboat  20  species  in  Enrope ;  lepidotu*, 
with  body  shaped  like  a  carp's,  lai^  rhomboidal 
scale*,  and  caudal  fln  almost  sqcare — abont  80 
species;  and  pholidophonit,  resembling  the 
herring,  bnt  with  rhomboidal  scales,  homocer- 
cal  or  eqoal-lobed  tail,  and  small  teeth — more 
than  30  species. — In  the  family  of  oephalaspids, 
which  contains  the  extreme  scaoth  forms  for  a 
long  time  not  recognized  as  fishes  by  paleon- 
tologists, the  body  and  head  are  covered  with 
B  few  non-imbricated  platca  or  shields;  the 
beteroceroal  tail,  covered  with  imbricated 
scales,  has  no  trne  caodal  fin ;  and  in  place  of 
pectorals  are  two  long  bony  appendages  or  sU- 


shaped  species,  with  large  dorsal,  ventrals,  pec- 
torals, and  head ;  and  anthode»,w\th  lengthened 
body,  very  small  scales,  dorsal  opposite  anal. 


Plartcbtbra  Ulllst 

lets;  thedorsol cordlike thstofthestnrgeoQs; 
they  belong  to  the  oM  red  sandstone  formation, 
and  were  snort-lired  in  compsrison  with  some 
other  ganoids.  The  ^nnspferwA^Aysfwinged 
fish),  discovered  by  Hngh  Miller  in  the  Cro- 
marty sandstone,  first  appears  at  the  base  of  the 
old  red  ssndstone,  and  disappears  with  its  up- 
per bods;  one  of  the  best  known  species,  P. 
Milleri,  is  8  ft.  long;  it  is  as  strange  a  form 
among  fishes  as  the  plesiossnraB  and  pterodac- 
tyl among  reptiles;  in  his  work  on  "Fossil 
Fishes,"  Prof.  Agassiz  says:  "It  is  impossible 
to  find  anything  more  eocentrio  in  the  whole 
creation  than  this  genus."  Hngh  Miller  de- 
scribes it,  when  seen  from  the  under  surface, 
as  resembling  "the  human  figure,  with  the 
arms  expanded  as  in  the  act  of  swimming,  and 
the  legs  transformed,  as  in  the  ordinary  Sga res 
of  the  mermdd,  into  a  tafSering  tail."  There 
is  no  separation  between  the  head  and  trnnk, 
and  the  whole  animal  is  in  a  complete  armor 
of  solid  bone;  the  strong  helmet  of  the  head 
is  perforated  in  front  by  two  cironlar  holes  for 
the  eyes,  the  body  above  and  below  protected 
by  acnriooslyplatedonirass,  andthetailsheath- 
ed  in  a  fiexible  mail  of  bony  scales ;  the  plate- 
covered  arms  are  articulated  by  a  eomplieated 
joint  to  the  lower  part  of  the  head;  the  flat 


616 


GANOIDS 


abdomen  and  ribbed  and  groined  arch  of  the 
back  add  to  the  strength  of  the  armature  with- 
oat  increasing  the  weight — the  creature  re- 
sembling a  "  subaqueous  boat,  mounted  on  two 
oars  and  a  scull  ;^^  and  this  strange  fish  is  a 
characteristic  organism  of  the  old  red  sand- 
stone. The  genus  coceosteu»  has  not  the  pec- 
toral appendages  of  the  preceding  animal,  and 
the  head  and  anterior  part  only  of  the  trunk 
are  covered  with  a  bony  helmet  and  cuirass, 
the  caudal  portion  being  naked;  it  has  one 
dorsal  and  one  anal  fin ;  the  mouth  is  furnished 


'  Coooosteiu. 

with  small,  equal,  conical  teeth.  The  most 
remarkable  peculiarity  in  this  fish,  unique 
among  vertebrated  animals  as  far  as  known,  is 
that  the  jaws  possessed  both  the  usual  vertical 
motion,  and  also  a  horizontal  movement  as  in 
crustaceans,  indicated  by  the  two  sets  of  teeth, 
one  on  the  upper  edge  of  the  jaw  and  the  other 
on  the  line  of  the  symphysis,  the  latter  of 
which,  if  brought  into  action  at  all,  could  only 
be  so  by  the  lateral  movement  of  the  jaws. 
The  jaws  of  eoccosteui  are  .also  interesting,  as 

E resenting  the  most  ancient  internal  bone  which 
as  displayed  its  structure  under  the  micro- 
scope. The  jaw  of  this  ancient  fish  shows  the 
Haversian  cauals,  the  lacuns  and  osseous  cells, 
as  in  the  bones  of  man  at  the  present  time ; 
showing  the  extension  of  the  same  plan  through 
the  most  distant  ages,  and  by  a  fair  inference 
to  the  beginning  of  vertebrate  existence.  The 
genus  cephala^pU^  or  buckler-head,  had  a  thin 
triangular  body,  and  crescent-shaped  head  cov- 
ered with  a  singular  shield-like  plate,  with  later- 
al prolongations  extending  along  the  sides;  body 
covered  by  vertical  rows  of  scales ;  no  ventrals 
nor  pectorals,  and  two  dorsals.  It  lived  at  the 
same  time  with  large  placoids,  armed  with  dor- 
sal spines  (of  which  the  spines  only  remain), 


Cephalaspls. 

and  with  a  gigantic  lobster-like  crustacean  more 
than  4  ft.  long ;  it  belongs  to  the  middle  por- 
tion of  the  old  red  sandstone. — The  family  of 
sauroids,  of  which  the  gar  pike  is  one  of  the 
few  living  representatives,  had  pointed  conical 
teeth  alternating  with  small  brush-like  ones ; 
the  skeleton  bony ;  the  scales  flat,  rhomboidal, 
and  completely  covering  the  body ;  those  living 
before  the  Jurassic  age  had  unequal-lobed  tails, 
while  the  homocercal  genera  flourished  at  a 
more  recent  period.  The  genus  megalickthys 
was  a  formidable  fish  of  large  size ;  the  scales 


of  the  body  and  the  plates  of  the  head  had  such 
a  brilliant  enamelled  surface,  "  that  they  may 
still  be  occasionally  seen  in  the  shale  of  a  coai 
pit,  catching  the  rays  of  the  sun,  and  reflecting 
them  across  the  landscape,  as  is  often  done  by 
bits  of  highly  glazed  earthenware  or  glass." 
The  genus  diphpterus  was  of  smaller  size,  with 
an  elongated  tapering  body,  fiat  head,  rounded 
muzzle,  two  dorsals,  two  anals,  and  the  caudal 
fin  truncated  almost  vertically,  the  lobes  coming 
ofiTlaterally  from  a  prolongation  of  the  vertebrsd 
column ;  their  scales  were  of  great  brUliancj, 
and  must  have  fiashed  brightly  tiirough  the 
woods  of  the  coal  period,  as  they  leap^  into 
the  air  in  sport  or  in  pureuit  of  prey.  The  genns 
pygopterus  had  the  fins  greatly  developed,  and 
a  heterocercal  tail.  A^pidorhynchus  had  a  mnch 
elongated  body,  homocercal  tail,  the  npper  jaw 
prolonged  into  a  beak  and  extending  beyond 
the  lower ;  the  scales  large.  The  former  belongs 
to  the  coal  and  magnesian  limestone  formations, 


Aspidorhynchafl. 

and  the  latter  to  the  Jurassic. — ^The  coelacanth 
family  is  characterized  by  having  all  the  fin 
rays  and  bones  hollow,  a  peculiarity  not 
found  in  other  ganoids ;  and  all  the  fin  rays  are 
stiff,  articulated  only  at  their  bases,  and  sup- 
ported on  interapophysal  small  bones;  they 
occur  in  all  the  ages  from  the  lower  Devonian 
to  the  chalk  formations,  most  numerous  in  the 
red  sandstone  and  coal  strata.  In  the  genus 
asterolepiSy  one  of  the  earliest  and  largest  of 
the  ganoids,  the  bony  plates  of  the  head  are 
ornamented  with  star-like  markings,  and  the 
scales  of  the  body  are  delicately  carved ;  Hugh 
Miller  says  its  cranial  bucklers  have  been  found 
in  the  fiag  stones  of  Caithness,  *^  large  enough 
to  cover  the  front  skull  of  an  elephant,  and 
strong  enough  to  have  sent  back  a  musket  bul- 
let as  if  from  a  strong  wall."  It  must  have 
equalled  in  size  the  largest  alligator,  and  its  teeth 
throughout  the  jaw  had  the  reptilian  peculiari- 
ty of  being  received  into  deep  pits  opposite, 
causing  them  when  the  mouth  is  shut  to  lock 
like  the  serrations  of  a  bear  trap.  The  genus 
holoptyckius  was  of  very  large  size,  with  rough 
scales  several  inches  in  diameter,  the  cranial 
bones  sculptured  like  those  of  the  crocodile, 
and  conical  teeth  larger  than  those  of  any  liv- 
ing reptile.  The  R.  (rhizodus)  Hihherti,  the 
largest  of  about  20  described  species,  was  of 
such  a  giant  size  that  the  words  applied  in  Job 
to  leviathan  might  appropriately  be  given  to 
it ;  this  reptilian  fish  must  have  been  40  ft  in 
length,  with  teeth  three  times  larger  than 
those  of  the  largest  crocodile,  and  covered 
with  an  impenetrable  coat  of  mail.  There 
were  several  smaller  holoptychians  in  the  red 
sandstone,  even  more  stron^y  armed  than  this 
giant  of  the  coal  period.— For  itirther  details 


GANS 


GABAY 


617 


on  fossil  ganoids  of  these  and  other  families, 
see  the  great  work  of  Prof.  Agassiz  on  ^^  Fos- 
sil Fishes  ;*^  and  for  a  popular  description  of 
the  most  interesting  genera,  the  writings  of 
Hugh  Miller,  especiidly  "  The  Testimony  of  the 
Rocks,"  "  Footprints  of  the  Creator,"  "  Old 
Red  Sandstone,"  and  "  Popular  Geology." 

GANS,  Edutfd,  a  German  jurist,  born  of  Jew- 
ish parents  in  Berlin,  March  22,  1798,  died 
there,  May  6,  1839.  He  studied  successively 
at  the  universities  of  Berlin,  Gr6ttingen,  and 
Heidelberg,  and  became  early  associated  with 
Hegel,  whose  philosophical  opinions  he  adopt- 
ed, and  through  whose  influence  he  conceived 
a  strong  antipathy  to  the  historical  school  of 
jurisprudence,  then  supported  by  the  great 
names  of  Savlgny  and  Hugo.  In  1820  he  be- 
came a  doctor  of  law  and  published  his  Scho- 
lien  9um  Gajua.  In  his  great  work  Das  Erb- 
reeht  in  toeltgesehiehtlieher  Entwickelung  ^4 
voIb.,  Stuttgart,  1824-'35),  he  assails  the  sci- 
entific principles  of  the  historical  school  of  ju- 
risprudence, and  aims  at  treating  the  science 
of  law  according  to  the  Hegelian  philosophy. 
He  visited  France  and  England  in  1825,  and  in 
1826,  having  become  nominally  a  convert  to 
Ohristianity,  was  appointed  professor  extraor- 
dinary in  the  university  of  Berlin.  His  dear 
and  vivacious  manner  of  lecturing  was  stri- 
kingly in  contrast  with  the  monotonous  gravity 
usual  in  German  universities,  and  gained  for 
him  crowded  audiences.  He  began  a  course 
in  1885  upon  the  history  of  the  last  60  years, 
but  was  obliged  by  the  government  to  suspend 
it.  He  was  among  the  most  active  of  those 
who  prepared  the  posthumous  edition  of  the 
complete  works  of  Hegel,  of  which  the  Phi- 
loMphie  der  Qetchichte  was  in  great  part  elab- 
orated by  Gans. 

GANSEVOORT,  Peter,  an  American  soldier, 
born  in  Albany,  July  17,  1749,  died  July  2, 
1812.  In  1775  he  received  the  appointment 
of  mi^or  in  the  second  New  York  regiment, 
and  joined  the  army  which  under  Montgomery 
invaded  Canada.  In  March,  1776,  he  was 
made  a  lieutenant  colonel,  and  at  a  later  period 
of  the  same  year  he  was  appointed  to  the  com- 
mand of  Fort  George.  In  1777  he  was  placed 
in  command  of  Fort  Stanwix,  which  he  gal- 
lantly defended  agunst  a  vigorous  siege  of  20 
days  by  British  and  Indians  under  St.  Leger, 
whose  co5peration  with  Burgoyne  he  thereby 
prevented,  and  received  the  thanks  of  congress. 
In  1781  the  state  of  New  York  raised  him  to 
the  rank  of  brigadier  general.  He  was  succes- 
sively commissioner  of  Indian  affairs,  commis- 
sioner for  fortifying  the  frontiers,  and  military 
agent.  In  1809  he  was  appointed  brigadier 
general  in  the  United  States  army. 

GAinrnEDE  (Gr.  Vawn^dm\  a  Trojan  prince, 
son  of  Troa  and  brother  of  Ilus,  was  the  most 
beautiful  of  mortals,  and  was  carried  off,  ac- 
cording to  the  legend,  by  the  eagle  of  Jupiter, 
to  succeed  Hebe  as  cup-bearer  to  the  gods  on 
Olympus.  Astronomers  have  placed  him  among 
tiie  constellations  under  the  name  of  Aquarius, 


or  the  water-bearer.  He  is  represented  in  the 
fine  group  of  statuary  in  the  Pio-Clementine 
museum  at  Rome,  and  in  the  group  of  ^*  Hebe 
and  Ganymede  "  by  Crawford,  in  Boston. 

GAP  (anc.  Vapincum)^  a  town  of  France,  capi- 
tal of  the  department  of  Hautes-Alps,  47  ra.  S. 
£.  of  Grenoble,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Bonne 
and  the  Luye,  affluents  of  the  Durance ;  pop.  in 
1866,  8,219.  It  is  situated  in  a  vaUey  shut  in 
by  mountains,  on  which  the  vine  flourishes  to 
the  height  of  2,000  ft.,  and  is  of  great  strategi- 
cal importance.  It  is  badly  built,  but  contains 
a  handsome  Gothic  cathedral.  It  has  been 
much  improved  within  the  present  century,  and 
among  the  new  public  works  are  an  extensive 
aqueduct  and  reservoir.  It  trades  in  grain^ 
fruits,  cattle,  leather,  and  wool,  and  has  manu- 
factures of  linen,  silk,  and  woollen.  The  town 
is  of  Celtic  origin,  and  was  at  first  called  Yap. 
It  became  a  bishop^s  see  in  the  5th  century. 
In  the  10th  century  the  bishops  received  the 
title  of  prince,  of  which  they  were  deprived 
by  Francis  L 

fiARAKOHrrHIE,  Daalel,  an  Onondaga  chief, 
died  at  Onondaga,  N.  Y.,  in  1675.  For  many 
years  he  exercised  great  influence  over  the 
Five  Nations,  and  was  esteemed  by  the  English 
of  New  York  and  the  French  of  Canada.  He 
was  the  chief  negotiator  of  the  league,  and  en- 
deavored to  keep  the  tribes  at  peace  with  the 
French,  frequently  prevented  the  sending  out 
of  war  parties,  and  delivered  prisoners.  He 
enabled  French  missionaries  to  build  a  chapel 
at  Onondaga  in  1667,  and  after  long  reflection 
embraced  Christianity  and  was  baptized  at 
Quebec  by  Bishop  Laval  in  1670.  Though  ad- 
vanced in  years,  he  attempted  to  learn  to  read 
and  write  French. 

(lABAT,  DMilal^M  JMepb,  a  French  writer 
and  politician,  born  at  XJstaritz,  near  Bayonne, 
Sept.  8,  1749,  died  Dec.  9,  1888.  He  was  a 
contributor  to  the  EneychpSdis  mSthodique 
and  the  Mereure  de  France,  He  published  a 
eulogy  on  UH6pital  in  1778;  was  elected  to 
the  constituent  assembly  in  1789,  and  reported 
the  sittings  of  the  assembly  in  the  Journal  de 
Paris;  succeeded  Danton  as  minister  of  jus- 
tice, and  informed  Louis  XVI.  of  the  sentence 
of  the  convention.  From  the  ministry  of  jus^ 
tice  he  was  transferred  to  the  home  depart- 
ment. He  cooperated  with  the  enemies  of  the 
Girondists,  tried  in  vain  to  save  some  of  the 
latter,  and  left  office  in  August,  1798.  Under 
the  directory  he  was  sent  as  ambassador  to 
Naples,  where  he  was  ill  received.  In  1805  he 
received  a  mission  to  Holland.  On  the  down- 
fall of  Napoleon  he  tried  every  means  of  pro- 
pitiating the  Bourbons,  but  in  1816  was  ex- 
cluded from  his  seat  in  the  institute.  He  now 
wrote  one  of  his  most  interesting  books.  Me- 
moires  historiques  sur  la  me  de  M,  StLo/rd^  and 
not  long  afterward  retired  to  his  native  moun- 
tains, where  he  led  an  obscure  but  religious  life. 

GABAY,  JiiuM.  a  Hungarian  poet,  born  at 
Szeksz&rd,  in  the  county  of  Tolna,  in  1812, 
died  in  Pesth,  Nov.  5, 1858.    His  chief  produo- 


618 


GARCIA 


GAROILASO  DE  LA  VEGA 


tions  are  the  epic  poems  "  Csatdr/*  "  Sophia 
Bosnyak,"  "The  Wife  of  FrangepAn,"  and 
"St.  Ladislas;^'  the  dramas  of  "Arbooz" 
and  "Elizabeth  B4thory;"  "The  Arpads,"  a 
collection  of  ballads  on  the  history  of  that 
Hungarian  dynasty;  and  BalaUmi  hagyUk 
("  Shells  from  the  Balaton  '*).  He  also  wrote 
numerous  other  poems,  sketches  in  prose,  and 
oontribations  to  literary  periodicals.  His  his- 
torical ballads  are  particularly  popular.  His 
poems  have  been  coUected  by  F.  Ney  (6  vols., 
Pesth,  1858).  A  selection  of  them  has  ap- 
peared in  a  German  translation  by  Eertbeny 
(2d  ed.,  Vienna,  1867). 

(lASCIA.  L  HuMl  4e  Pipvto  Tlcoite,  a  Span- 
ish composer,  bom  in  Seville,  Jan.  21,  1775, 
died  in  Paris,  June  9,  1832.  Having  acquired 
celebrity  as  a  tenor  singer  in  Spain,  he  made 
his  d^but  in  Paris  in  1808,  and  for  many  years 
was  a  reigning  fevorite.  He  wrote  a  number 
of  operas,  of  which  "  The  Caliph  of  Bagdad  '^ 
proved  the  most  successful.  In  1825  he  came 
to  the  United  States  with  an  opera  troupe,  in- 
cluding his  wife  and  his  daughter  Maria  Feli- 
cia, afterward  celebrated  as  Mme.  Malibran. 
The  enterprise  proved  so  snccessfbl  that  Garcia 
extended  his  visit  to  Mexico.  On  the  road  be- 
tween Mexico  and  Vera  Cruz  he  was  robbed 
of  all  his  earnings,  and  returned  to  Paris  im- 

Eoverished.  His  voice  having  been  impaired, 
e  established  a  school  of  vocal  instruction. 
He  was  equally  accomplished  as  an  actor  and 
a  vocalist.  IL  Htnml,  a  musician,  son  of  the 
preceding,  bom  in  Madrid  in  1805.  He  ac- 
companied his  family  in  tiieir  travels,  was  a 
teacher  of  music  in  the  Paris  conservatory  from 
1885  to  1850,  and  afterward  in  London,  and  is 
one  of  the  best  teachers  in  Europe.  He  has 
written  Mhnaire  »ur  la  fmx  humaine  (2d  ed., 
1847) ;  MieoU  de  Garcia^  traiti  eomplet  de  Vart 
du  ehant  (8d  ed.,  1851 ;  remodelled  in  1856 
under  the  title  of  Nowceau  traitS,  &c.) ;  and 
Ohaenations  pTiysiologiaues  mir  la  wia  htt- 
maine  (in  French  and  English,  1855).  (See 
Malibban,  and  Viabdot.) 

€ARCIU80  (C!u«lts  Use)  DE  U  ¥EfiA.  I.  A 
Spanish  lyric  and  pastoral  poet,  bom  in  To- 
ledo in  1508,  died  in  Nice  in  November,  1536. 
His  father  was  councillor  of  state  to  Ferdinand 
and  Isabella,  and  his  mother  was  the  daughter 
of  Feraan  Perez  de  Guzman.  At  an  early  age 
Garcilaso  entered  the  service  of  the  emperor 
Charles  V.  He  was  in  the  campaign  in  the 
Milanese  in  1521,  and  distinguished  himself  by 
his  valor  at  the  battle  of  Pavia  in  1525.  In 
1580  he  married  Donna  Helena  de  Zufiiga, 
an  Aragonese  lady ;  and  in  1582  he  followed 
Charles  in  his  Hungarian  campaign  against  the 
Turks.  While  at  Vienna  he  incurred  the  dis- 
pleasure of  the  empress  by  promoting  the  mar- 
riage of  one  of  his  nephews  with  a  lady  of  the 
imperial  household,  and  was  imprisoned  on  an 
island  in  the  Danube,  where  he  wrote  a  poem 
contrasting  his  own  desolate  situation  with  the 
beauty  of  the  surrounding  scenery.  He  was 
soon  released  and  taken  into  greater  favor  than 


ever.  In  1585  he  accompanied  the  emperor  on 
the  expedition  to  Tunis,  in  which  he  was  se- 
verely wounded ;  and  in  the  succeeding  year 
he  followed  him  in  the  disastrous  invasion 
of  the  south  of  France.  In  an  attack  upon  a 
small  castle  on  a  hill  near  Fr^jus,  Garcilaso 
was  strack  on  the  head  by  a  stone  and  fell  into 
the  ditch  beneath.  He  was  carried  to  Nice, 
where  he  died  three  weeks  afterward.  The 
emperor  avenged  the  death  of  hid  favorite  by 
hanging  aU  the  defenders  of  the  castle.  Gar- 
cilaso left  an  only  son,  who  fell  m  battle  against 
the  Dutch  in  1669.  Garcilaso^s  poems  were 
found  by  the  widow  of  bis  friend  the  poet 
Boscan  among  her  husband^s  papers,  and  pub- 
lished with  them.  They  consist  of  37  sonnets, 
5  caneioneB^  2  elegies,  an  epistle  in  9erH  setoUi^ 
and  8  pastorals.  He  is  considered  one  of  the 
finest  poets  of  his  nation,  and  is  often  designa- 
ted as  the  Spanish  Petrarch.  The  best  edition 
of  his  poems  was  published  in  Madrid  in  1765, 
edited  by  Jos6  Nicolas  de  Azara.  The  oldest 
edition  known  is  that  of  Venice,  1558.  There 
is  an  English  translation,  with  a  life  and  an  essay 
on  Spanish  poetry,  by  J.  H.  Wiffen  (London, 
1828).  II.  Setesttan,  a  Spanish  soldier,  one  of 
the  conquerors  of  Peru,  bom  in  Badigoz,  died 
in  Cuzoo  in  1559.  He  was  of  the  same  family 
with  the  preceding,  and  went  to  Mexico  with 
Pedro  de  Alvarado.  After  the  invasion  of  the 
kingdom  of  Quito,  and  Alvarado^s  return  to 
Guatemala,  Garcilaso  remained  in  Peru  and 
attached  himself  to  the  fortunes  of  Francisco 
Pizarro,  and  after  his  death  to  those  of  his 
brother  Gonzalo.  In  the  decisive  battle  of 
Xaquixaguana,  April  9,  1548,  he  rode  over  to 
the  royal  side  at  the  turning  point  of  the  con- 
test, was  received  with  pardon  and  favor  by  the 
viceroy,  and  appointed  ffovemor  of  Cuzco,  an 
office  he  held  till  his  death.  Garcilaso  was 
noted  for  his  humanity  to  the  Indians,  and  for 
the  efforts  he  made  to  ameliorate  their  condi- 
tion. He  married  an  Indian  princess  of  the 
blood  royal,  the  niece  of  Huayna  Capac,  and 
granddaughter  of  the  renowned  Tupac  inca 
Yupanqui.  III.  Sumamed  the  Inca,  a  Spanish 
historian,  son  of  the  preceding,  bom  in  Cuzoo 
about  1540,  died  in  Cordova,  Spain,  about 
1620.  About  1560  he  went  to  Spain,  where  he 
ever  afterward  resided.  He  entered  the  army, 
and  served  as  a  captain  under  Don  John  of 
Austria,  in  the  war  with  the  Moriscoe.  After 
the  war  ended  he  retired  to  Cordova,  and 
devoted  himself  to  literature.  He  began  by 
translating  the  DieUoghi  di  Amore^  by  Leone 
Abravanel.  This  work  was  soon  placed  on 
tiie  Index  Expurgatoritu.  His  La  Florida 
del  Tnca  (Lisbon,  1605)  is  chiefly  devoted  to 
the  adventures  of  Fernando  de  Soto.  In  1609 
he  published  the  first  part  of  his  great  work, 
Oomentarios  realee,  que  tratan  del  origen  de 
las  Tnca  reyee^  que  fueron  del  Peru  (Cordova, 
1617;  corrected  ed.,  17  vols.,  Madrid,  180a-'8), 
relating  the  history  of  Pera  under  the  incas. 
Shortly  before  his  death  he  finished  the  second 
part,  comprising  the  story  of  the  conquest  by 


GAROm  DE  TASSY 


GARDEN 


619 


the  Spaniards.  This  work  gives  bj  far  the 
fallest  aooount  of  Peru  under  its  native  kings, 
and  is  in  fact  the  source  of  almost  all  our 
knowledge  upon  the  subject.  The  author  was 
proud  of  his  descent  from  the  incas,  and  ob- 
tained much  of  the  material  for  his  history 
from  his  mother^s  family.  His  ^*  Commen- 
taries" are  interesting  and  valuable,  though 
thej  contain  much  that  is  mere  gossip  and  not 
a  little  fable.  Thej  have  been  translated  into 
many  languages.  An  English  translation,  in  1 
vol.  fol.,  by  Sir  Paul  Rycaut,  knight,  was  pub- 
lished at  London  in  1688,  which,  though  con- 
taining numerous  errors,  is  still  a  favorite  with 
book  collectors. 

GARCIIV  DE  TiSSTy  JMeph  H^^dm,  a  French 
orientalist,  bom  in  Marseilles,  Jan.  20,  1794. 
He  studied  in  Paris,  and  at  the  recommenda* 
tion  of  his  teacher,  Sylvestre  de  Sacy,  a  new 
chair  was  established  for  him  in  the  school  of 
living  oriental  languages,  which  he  continued 
to  fill  in  1873.  His  principal  work  is  ffUtaire 
de  la  litterature  hindoue  et  hindattstani  (2 
vols.,  1887 ;  new  ed.,  1878).  A  second  edition 
of  lufl  Budimenta  de  la  langue  hindouetam 
appeared  in  1868,  and  a  4th  edition  of  his 
Poeaie  philodophique  et  religietue  chez  Ue  Per- 
sane  in  1864. 

GAUD,  a  S.  E.  department  of  France,  in  Lan- 
guedoc,  bounded  S.  by  the  Mediterranean  and 
£.  by  the  Rh^ne,  and  by  the  departments  of 
H^rault,  Aveyron,  Lozdre,  Arddcbe,  Yauclnse, 
and  Bouches-du-Rh6ne ;  area,  2,256  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1 872, 420, 131.  It  derives  its  name  from 
the  small  river  Gard  or  Gardon,  which  rises  in 
the  C^vennes,  runs  through  its  centre,  and  falls 
into  the  Rh6ne  a  few  miles  N.  of  Beaucaire. 
The  O^vennes  mountains  send  ramifications  to 
its  centre,  while  in  the  southeast  there  is  a 
considerable  extent  of  level  country,  broken 
by  pools  and  m  arshes.  Iron,  argentiferous  lead, 
antimony,  zinc,  and  manganese  are  mined; 
coal  mines  are  also  wrought,  and  there  are 
valuable  salt  marshes  on  the  coast.  The  arable 
lands,  which  comprise  scarcely  one  fourth  of 
the  department,  are  generally  poor,  and  agri- 
culture is  backward.  The  wines  are  highly 
esteemed,  and  olives  are  produced;  but  the 
culture  of  the  mulberry  is  of  paramount  im- 

?ortance.  Other  fine  fruits  are  also  abundant, 
his  department  ranks  among  the  most  indus- 
trious in  France,  and  is  especially  distinguished 
for  its  manufactures  of  silk,  besides  which  it 
has  cotton  and  woollen  mills,  tanneries,  dis- 
tilleries, and  soap-making  establishments.  It 
is  divided  into  the  arrondissements  of  Nhnes, 
Alais,  Uzds,  and  Le  Vigan.    Capital,  Nimes. 

GARDy  Poit  di.   See  Aqubduot,  vol.  i.,  p.  618. 

CrARDA,  Lake  (anc.  Bena,ev>s  La4iua\  the  largest 
of  the  Italian  lakes,  between  the  provinces  of 
Brescia  and  Verona,  and  projecting  at  its  N. 
and  narrowest  part  into  the  Tyrol.  It  is  88 
m.  long  from  N.  to  S.,  from  8  to  11  m.  broad, 
and  226  ft.  above  the  sea;  area  about  150  sq. 
m.  The  Sarca  and  several  smaller  streams  dis- 
charge themselves  into  it  from  the  north ;  the 


Mincio  fiows  from  its  S.  £.  extremity.  The 
lake  is  about  1,000  ft.  deep  in  many  places, 
the  water  is  very  pure,  and  it  is  noted  for  its 
fish,  especially  salmon  trout  and  sardines,  the 
latter  being  an  important  article  of  commerce. 
The  surrounding  hills  are  planted  with  vines, 
olives,  and  fig  trees^  and  several  handsome  vil- 
lages overlook  the  lake,  among  them  Garda, 
Sfdo,  and  Maderno.  The  Tyrolese  town  of 
Riva  is  at  the  N.  W.,  and  the  Italian  fortress 
of  Peschiera  at  the  S.  E.  extremity. 

CIARDAIA,  or  Gbardela,  a  town  of  Algeria,  in 
the  province  of  Algiers,  situated  in  the  oasis  of 
the  Beni  Mzab,  on  the  Wady  Mzab,  in  the  Sa- 
hara, about  lat.  82^  80'  K,  Ion.  4""  E. ;  pop.  about 
60,000.  It  is  well  fortified,  having  a  wall  with 
battlepients  and  nine  large  towers,  each  of 
which  is  capable  of  holding  from  800  to  400 
men.  Ten  gates  give  entrance  to  the  town, 
which  contains  a  mosque  of  vast  size  and  five 
smaller  ones,  besides  a  Jew  ish  synagogue.  The 
chief  administration  rests  with  the  French  hvr- 
reaua  ardbes ;  the  details  of  it  are  left  to  the 
native  chiefs,  who  are  generally  little  more 
than  the  mouthpiece  of  the  high  priest,  whose 
advice  has  all  the  force  of  law.  A  fiourishing 
trade  is  carried  on  with  Tunis,  Algiers,  Bou 
Sada,  ^.,  in  com,  butter,  groceries,  oil,  pot- 
tery, and  negro  slaves.  The  suburbs  of  the 
town  contain  extensive  vineyards  and  orchards. 
Rain  is  almost  unknown,  but  there  are  numer- 
ous wells,  some  of  which  are  900  ft.  deep.  On 
a  neighboring  eminence  are  the  remains  of  a 
large  tower  supposed  to  have  been  built  by  the 
Romans.  The  oasis  in  which  Gardaia  is  situated 
submitted  to  French  rule  in  1853. 

GARDElf.    See  Hobtioultubb. 

GARDEN)  Alexander,  a  British  physician  and 
naturalist,  bom  in  Scotland  in  1728,  died  in 
London  in  1792.  He  studied  philosophy  in 
the  university  of  Aberdeen,  and  medicine  under 
Dr,  John  Gregory,  and  emigrated  to  South  Car- 
olina near  the  middle  of  the  century.  He  ac- 
quired a  fortune  by  the  practice  of  medicine  in 
Charleston,  and  a  high  reputation  by  his  studies 
in  botany  and  other  sciences.  In  1754  he  de- 
clined a  professorship  in  the  college  recently 
established  in  New  York  city.  He  was  a  cor- 
respondent of  LinniBus,  who  gave  the  name  of 
Gardenia  to  one  of  the  most  beautiful  and  fra- 
grant of  flowering  shrubs.  He  published  ac- 
counts of  the  pink  root  (epigelia  Marilandiea)^ 
of  the  helesia^  of  the  cochineal  insect,  of  the 
mud  iguana^  or  siren  of  South  Carolina,  an  am- 
phibious animal,  of  two  new  species  of  tor- 
toises, and  of  the  gymnotue  eleetricue. 

GARDEN,  Alexander,  an  officer  of  the  Ameri- 
can revolution,  in  Le^s  famous  legion,  bom  in 
Charleston,  S.  C,  Dec.  4,  1757,  £ed  there  in 
1 829.  He  was  for  a  time  aide-de-camp  to  Gen. 
Greene.  He  wrote  "  Anecdotes  of  the  Revo- 
lutionary War  in  America,  with  Sketches  of 
Character  of  Persons  the  most  distinguished 
in  the  Southern  States  for  Civil  and  Military 
Services"  (1st  series,  Charleston,  1822;  2d 
series,  1828),  which  is  one  of  the  authorities 


620 


GARDINER 


for  the  history  of  the  period.  It  was  repuh- 
lished  in  2  vols.  4to,  Brooklyn,  1865. 

GIRDINER,  a  oity  of  Kennebec  co.,  Maine, 
on  the  W.  bank  of  the  Kennebec  river,  10  m. 
below  Augusta,  at  the  head  of  summer  navi- 
gation, and  on  both  sides  of  the  Oobbossecon- 
tee;  pop.  in  1870,  4,497.  A  bridge  900  ft. 
long  connects  it  with  Pittston  on  the  opposite 
bank  of  the  Kennebec ;  and  the  Augusta  di- 
vision of  the  Maine  Central  railroad  passes 
through  the  city.  It  is  largely  engaged  in 
manufactures,  for  which  the  falls  of  the  Gob- 
bossecontee  afford  great  advantages,  and  it 
contains  six  saw,  shingle,  lath,  and  clapboard 
mills,  three  large  paper  mills,  a  woollen  fac- 
tory, two  founderies,  three  machine  shops,  a 
tannery,  an  axe  factory,  three  carriage  facto- 
ries, two  manufactories  of  sashes  and  blinds, 
&c.  Considerable  shipping  is  owned  here. 
There  are  two  hotels,  three  national  banks 
with  an  aggregate  capital  of  $250,000,  a  sa- 
vings bank  with  $1,050,000  capital,  two  weekly 
newspapers,  16  school  houses  (including  a  high 
school  building),  an  almshousef  a  mechanics' 
association  witii  a  small  library,  a  public  library, 
and  nine  churches.^-Gardiner  was  settled  in 
1760,  incorporated  as  a  town  in  1803,  and  as  a 
city  in  1850. 

GlRDlBfEKy  Janes,  a  Scottish  soldier,  bom  at 
Carriden,  Linlithgowshire,  Jan.  11, 1688,  killed 
Sept.  21,  1745.  At  the  age  of  14  he  obtained 
a  conunission  in  the  Dutch  service.  He  after- 
ward entered  the  English  army,  and  was  pres- 
ent at  the  battle  of  Ramillies.  In  1780  he  was 
made  lieutenant  colonel,  and  in  1746  com- 
manded a  regiment  at  the  battle  of  Preston- 
pans,  where  he  was  slain.  His  death  is  de- 
scribed in  Scott's  "Waverley."  In  his  youth 
he  led  a  dissipated  and  reckless  life,  but  was, 
as  he  believed,  converted  throagh  a  supernat- 
ural vision,  and  became  an  exemplar  of  Chris- 
tian piety  and  worth.  His  life  was  written  by 
Dr.  Doddridge. 

(SABDIirEll,  Stephea,  an  English  Roman  Cath- 
olic prelate,  bom  at  Bury  St.  Edmund's  in 
1488,  died  Nov.  12, 1555.  He  was  educated  at 
Cambridge,  became  secretary  of  Wolsey,  and 
was  soon  in  high  favor  with  Henry  VIII.  In 
1527  he  was  sent  to  Italy  to  procure  the  pope's 
consent  to  the  divorce  of  Queen  Catharine. 
His  mission  proved  unsuccessful,  but  while  at 
Rome  he  rendered  important  services  to  Wol- 
sey. On  his  return  he  was  intrusted  with  the 
conduct  of  the  divorce  case,  and  successively 
made  secretary  of  state  and  (in  November, 
1581)  bishop  of  Winchester.  He  endeavored 
to  convince  the  king  of  the  impolicy  of  break- 
ing with  the  pope,  and  oi  the  propriety  of  pun- 
ishing those  who  denied  the  bodily  presence 
of  Christ  in  the  eucharist.  The  downfall  of 
Cromwell,  who  had  succeeded  Wolsey  as  favor- 
ite, added  for  a  time  to  the  influence  and  power 
of  Gardiner.  But  the  king  began  at  length 
to  lean  toward  the  reformers,  and  the  refusal 
of  Henry  to  permit  the  arrest  of  Catharine 
Parr  for  religious  contumacy  demonstrated  the 


decline  of  Gardiner's  power.  On  the  acces- 
sion of  Edward  VI.,  Gardiner,  refusing  to  ap- 
prove of  the  articles  and  injunctions  issued  by 
the  new  council,  was  committed  first  to  the 
Fleet  prison,  and  then,  after  a  short  release 
and  new  provocation,  to  the  tower,  where  be 
was  confined  till  the  reign  of  Mary,  when  he  was 
restored  to  liberty  and  raised  to  still  greater 
power  than  ever,  being  made  lord  chancellor. 
The  Protestant  persecution  which  took  place 
during  his  administration  has  been  generally 
ascribed  by  Protestant  writers  to  his  counsel, 
but,  according  to  Lingard,  **  more  from  conjec- 
ture and  prejudice  than  from  real  information." 
He  is  sua  to  have  exclaimed  on  his  deathbed : 
Errati  eum  Petro^  sed  non  fleti  cum  Petto 
("I  have  erred  with  Peter,  but  I  have  not 
wept  with  Peter"). 

CiARDUnBS*  L  Sylvfster,  an  American  phy- 
sician, born  in  Kingston,  R.  I.,  in  1707,  died 
in  Newport,  Aug.  8,  1786.  He  studied  medi- 
cine in  London  and  Paris,  subsequently  prac- 
tised his  profession  in  Boston,  and  opened  there 
a  drug  establishment,  from  which  the  New 
England  colonies  were  chiefiy  supplied.  He 
was  one  of  the  early  promoters  of  inoculation 
for  the  smallpox,  and  a  liberal  contributor  for 
the  erection  of  King's  chapel,  Boston.  He 
became  possessed  of  large  tracts  of  land  in  Ken- 
nebec CO.,  Me.,  and  about  the  middle  of  the 
century  was  instrumental  in  establishing  there 
the  settlement  of  Pittston,  a  portion  of  which 
was  subsequentiy  set  off  into  a  separate  town, 
under  the  name  of  Gardiner,  where  he  built 
and  endowed  Christ  church.  He  retired  from 
Boston  on  its  evacuation  by  the  British  troops, 
but  returned  to  the  United  States  at  the  close 
of  the  revolutionary  war,  and  passed  the  rest 
of  his  life  here.  II*  Johi,  an  American  advo- 
cate, son  of  the  preceding,  bom  in  Boston  in 
1731,  drowned  off  Cape  A^n  in  October,  1793. 
He  studied  law  at  the  Inner  Temple,  London, 
and  was  admitted  to  practise  in  the  courts  at 
Westminster  hall.  He  formed  an  intimacy 
with  Churchill  and  Wilkes,  and  was  junior 
counsel  of  the  latter  at  his  trial  in  1764,  and 
also  appeared  for  Beardmore  and  Meredith, 
who  for  writings  in  support  of  Wilkes  bad  been 
imprisoned  on  a  general  warrant.  In  1766  he 
procured  the  appointment  of  attorney  general 
m  the  island  of  St.  Christopher,  where  he  re- 
mained until  after  the  American  revolution, 
when  he  returned  to  Boston.  After  residing 
there  a  few  years,  he  removed  to  Pownalbor- 
ough.  Me.,  which  place  he  represented  in  the 
Massachusetts  legislature  until  his  death.  As 
a  legislator  he  distinguished  himself  by  his  ef- 
forts in  favor  of  law  reform,  particularly  the 
abolition  of  special  pleading,  and  the  repeal 
of  the  statutes  against  theatrical  entertain- 
meuts.  In  connection  with  the  latter  subject  he 
published  a  *'  Dissertation  on  the  Ancient  Poetry 
of  the  Romans,"  and  an  accompanying  speech. 
The  abolition  of  the  law  of  primogeniture  in 
Massachusetts  was  due  to  his  efforts.  He  was 
one  of  the  most  influential  of  the  early  Unita- 


GARDONI 


GAR  FISH 


621 


rians  of  Boston,  and  participated  in  the  trans- 
formation of  King's  ohapel  from  an  Episcopal 
mto  a  Unitarian  Congregational  church.  Ill* 
J«lui  SylTMtor  John,  an  American  clergyman, 
son  of  the  preceding,  bom  in  Haverford  West) 
Sontii  Wales,  in  June,  1775,  died  in  Harrow- 
gate,  England,  July  29,  1830.  He  accompa- 
nied his  fiftther  to  the  West  Indies,  and  sub- 
sequently studied  in  Boston,  and  in  England 
under  the  celebrated  Dr.  Parr,  with  whom  he 
remained  six  years.  Returning  to  America, 
he  was  in  1787  orddned  by  Bishop  Provoost 
of  New  York.  In  1805  he  became  rector  of 
Trinity  church,  the  chief  Episcopal  parish  in 
Boston.  He  wrote  the  **  Jacobiniad,"  a  satire 
on  the  republican  clubs  of  Boston. 

fiARDOm,  Itale,  an  Italian  vocalist,  bom  in 
1820.  He  first  appeared  at  the  opera  of  Paris 
in  1844  as  Earl  Bothwell  in  Jmria  Stuart^ 
and  was  applauded  as  almost  equal  to  Mario, 
both  in  the  sympathetic  effect  of  his  tenor 
voice  and  in  his  graceful  and  handsome  per- 
son. In  1845  he  won  new  laurels  as  Don 
Sanche  in  Balfe^s  £toUe  de  SSviUe,  and  in  1846 
in  Flotow^s  Ame  en  peine, 

CiABFIELD,  JaoMS  khnm*    See  supplement. 

CIAR  FISH,  or  Gar  Pike  {lepido9teu8\  a  ganoid 
fish,  belonging  to  the  same  order  as  the  polyp- 
terus  of  Africa,  the  mud  fish  (amid)  of  America, 
and  the  sturgeon  family ;  it  is  the  only  genus 
of  its  family,  and  there  are  more  than  20  spe- 
cies, all  American.  As  in  other  ganoids,  the 
body  is  covered  with  smooth  enamelled  scales, 
of  a  rhombic  form,  arranged  in  oblique  rows, 
and  so  hard  that  it  is  impossible  to  pierce  them 
with  a  spear ;  this  enamel  is  like  tnai  of  teeth, 
and  the  scales  contain  the  fluorine  and  lacunas 
of  ordinary  bone  structure.  The  internal  skele- 
ton is  bony ;  the  snout  is  elongated,  varying  in 
width  according  to  the  species ;  both  jaws  and 
nasal  bone  are  covered  with  small  teeth,  with 
long  and  pointed  ones  along  the  edge;  tiie 
teeth  are  in  doable  rows  of  uneaual  size,  the 
larger  resembling  those  of  reptiles,  and  the 
smaller  fish-like,  the  front  ones  of  the  lower 
jaw  being  received  into  sheath-like  cavities  in 
the  upper,  as  in  the  alligators  ;  their  structure 
resembles  that  of  the  labyrinthodont  reptiles, 
having  processes  of  the  pulp  cavity  radiating 
toward  the  circumference;  the  vertebrcs  cJso 
present  a  reptilian  arrangement  in  having  ball- 
and-socket  articulations,  the  anterior  surface 
of  each  bone  being  convex  and  the  posterior 
concave;  this  gives  greater  flexibility  to  the 
spine,  and  enables  t£is  genus  (alone  among 
fishes)  to  move  the  head  independently  of  the 
trunk,  and  also  to  retain  the  posterior  part  of 
the  body  in  a  curved  position.  The  gills  on 
the  four  arches  have  a  perfect  bifoliate  struc- 
ture, and  behind  the  last  and  the  hyoid  bone 
there  is  the  usual  fissure ;  there  is  a  respiratory 
opercular  gill  as  well  as  a  pseudobranchia,  but 
no  blow-hole;  branchiostegal  rays  three,  the 
membrane  passing  from  side  to  side,  undivided. 
The  anterior  edge  of  all  the  fins  is  protected 
by  hard  spiny  scales,  and  all  the  fin  rays  are 


articulated;  the  dorsal  and  anal  fins  are  far 
back,  and  nearly  opposite  one  another;  the 
caudal  fin  is  abruptly  truncated,  and  its  rays 
are  inserted  partly  at  the  end  of  and  partly 
beneath  the  extremity  of  the  spine.  There 
are  the  usual  numerous  valves  in  the  arterial 
bulb,  no  decussation  of  the  optic  nerves,  and 
abdominal  ventral  fins;  the  stomach  is  con- 
tinued without  Cfeca  to  a  slender  twice-folded 
intestine,  which  has  a  slightly  developed  spiral 
vdve,  but  numerous  pancreatic  C89ca;  the  long 
air  or  swim  bladder  is  muscular,  freely  sup- 
plied with  blood  from  the  aorta,  divided  into 
cells  like  the  lung  of  a  reptile  by  muscular 
bundles,  and  opening  into  the  throat  by  a  wide 
duct  and  long  sHt  guarded  by  a  sphincter  mus- 
cle; the  ovaries  are  sacciform,  with  oviducts 
issuing  from  their  middle.  Gar  fish  are  not 
uncommon  in  the  western  rivers  and  northern 
lakes  communicating  with  tiie  gulf  of  Mexico 
and  the  St.  Lawrence,  and  probably  every 
separate  basin  and  waterdied  has  its  peculiar 
species.  They  frequent  shallow,  reedy,  or 
grassy  places,  baskii^  in  the  sun  like  the  pike, 
and  devouring  living  prey  with  great  voracity. 
The  manner  of  seizing  prey  differs  from  that 
usually  observed  in  fishes,  and  resembles  that 
of  reptiles ;  instead  of  taking  their  food  at  once 
with  open  mouth  and  swsJlowing  it  imme- 
diately, they  approach  it  slily  and  sideways, 
and  then,  suddenly  seizing  the  fish  or  other 
animal,  hold  it  until  by  a  series  of  movements 
it  is  placed  in  a  proper  position  for  being  swal- 
lowed, in  the  manner  of  alligators  and  lizards ; 
the  ball  of  food  is  also  seen  to  distend  the 
body  as  it  passes  downward,  as  in  snakes. 
This  reptilian  fish,  like  the  ichthyoid  reptiles, 
is  in  the  habit  of  approaching  the  surface  of 
the  water,  and  of  apparently  swallowing  air ; 
at  any  rate,  a  large  amount  of  air  escapes  from 
the  mouth,  most  of  which  had  probably  been 
previously  swallowed,  and  a  part  of  which 
may  have  been  secreted  by  the  lung-like  air 
bladder.  As  in  the  menoiranchus  and  other 
fish-like  salamanders,  this  air  bladder  doubt- 
less performs  certain  respiratory  ftmctions,  and 
perhaps  more  than  in  the  naked-skinned  rep- 
tiles; at  any  rate  gar  pikes  live  longer  out  of 
water  than  fishes  generally,  and  to  a  degree 
not  explicable  by  any  arrangement  of  the  g^lls. 
The  gar  pike  and  the  African  polypterus  (de- 
scribed below)  are  the  only  two  existing  genera 
of.  a  type  of  sauicoid  fishes  which  were  very 
numerous  in  the  secondary  geological  epoch, 
extending  also  in  diminished  numbers  through 
the  palfldozoic  age  at  a  time  when  reptiles  prop- 
er did  not  exist ;  they  are  found  from  the  low- 
er Silurian  strata  to  the  present  time,  grad- 
ually diminishing  through  the  tertiary  to  the 
two  existing  genera ;  they  present  one  of  the 
first  steps  in  the  geological  succession  of  bony 
fishes,  at  a  time  when  the  ctenoids  and  cycloids 
had  not  appeared ;  after  the  rhizodont  reptiles 
and  the  common  osseous  fishes  were  created, 
the  ganoids  began  to  diminish. — The  common 
gar  fish  (Z.  osseus^  Linn.),  called  also  bony 


622 


GAB  FISH 


GARIBALDI 


?ike  and  Buffalo  fish,  attainB  a  length  of  5  ft. 
he  color  is  umber  brown  on  the  back  and 
head,  the  sides  yellow,  and  the  belly  white ; 
there  are  circular  black  spots  on  the  caudal, 
dorsal,  and  anal  fins.  It  is  found  in  Lakes 
Erie,  Huron,  and  Champlain,  the  Ohio  and  its 


Gar  Flah,  or  Gar  Pike  (LepidoBtens  oesens). 

tributaries,  and  other  western  rivers.  The 
great  length  of  its  jaws  will  distinguish  it  from 
other  species ;  it  is  often  seen  apparently  sleep- 
ing on  the  surface,  and  gently  carried  round  in 
an  eddy  for  an  hour  at  a  time ;  it  leaps  often 
out  of  water  in  pursuit  of  its  prey,  and  is  so 
swift  and  strong  a  swimmer  as  to  stem  the 
most  furious  rapids.  The  alligator  gar  fish  (X. 
ferou^y  Raf.)  has  a  shorter  head,  the  jaws  form- 
ing not  quite  half  the  length,  broad  and  fiat 
above ;  the  skin  is  rough,  the  scales  imbricated 
and  sculptured ;  teeth  numerous,  strong,  and 
prominent ;  the  upper  jaw,  as  in  tne  preceding 
species,  expanding  into  a  knob  at  the  end ;  the 
color  is  yellowish  brown.  It  inhabits  the  Mis- 
sissippi and  Ohio  rivers  and  their  tributaries, 
and  is  usually  from  4  to  6  ft.  long ;  according 
to  Rafinesque,  it  attains  a  length  of  12  ft.,  and 
is  a  match  for  an  alligator ;  its  impervious  coat 
of  mail,  strong  teeth,  size,  strength,  and  agility 
must  make  it  a  very  formidable  fish,  though 
probably  not  superior  to  the  equally  well  armed 
and  powerful  alligator.  It  may  well  be  called 
the  diark  of  fresh  water,  though  not  belonging 
to  the  placoid  group  of  fishes.  There  are  seve- 
ral other  species  described,  more  or  less  re* 
sembling  the  above;  but  these  will  serve  to 
give  an  idea  of  the  general  characters  of  this 
singular  fish,  the  living  type  of  the  dominant 
family  of  its  class  during  the  carboniferous  pe- 
riod.— The  allied  genus  potypterui  (Geoflfr.), 
from  the  ISile,  Senegal,  and  other  African 
rivers,  is  characterized  by  similar  enamelled 
scales,  and  by  a  number  of  finlets  extending 
from  the  middle  of  the  body  to  the  tail ;  the 
throat  is  covered  with  hard,  nearly  immovable 
plates,  which  would  greatly  embarrass  respi- 
ration were  it  not  for  two  openings  on  the  top 
of  the  head,  which  answer  the  purpose  of  blow- 
holes and  allow  the  water  to  pass  through 
them;  the  lobes  of  the  tail  are  of  unequal 
size;  the  abdominal  organs  occupy  a  very 
small  space,  being  packed  close  to  the  spine; 


the  upper  jaw  is  not  in  several  pieces,  but  the 
mandibles  and  skull  are  as  in  osseous  fishes 
generally ;  there  is  no  opercular  gill,  nor  pseudo- 
branchia;  the  nostrils  are  very  complicated, 
with  labyrinthine  gill-like  folds;  the  stomadh 
is  cfBcal,  the  intestine  provided  with  a  well 
marked  spiral  valve,  and  there  is  a  single  pan- 
creatic ceecum ;  the  air  bladder  is  double,  com- 
municating with  the  throat  by  a  dnct  opening 
on  the  ventral  side,  and  its  arteries  are  formed 
by  the  union  of  the  blood  vessels  coming  from 
the  last  gill,  carrying  therefore  oxygenated 
blood. — ^The  l^MatteitB  is  by  far  the  best 
known  and  most  interesting  of  the  sauroid 
fishes,  and  has  been  of  such  value  to  paleon- 
tologists that  it  has  been  well  said  by  Hugh  Mil- 
ler, in  his  '*  Lectures  on  Geology,"  that  *Mt 
would  almost  seem  as  if  the  l^indoitetiM  had 
been  spared,  amid  the  wreck  <^  genera  and 
species,  to  serve  ns  as  a  key  by  which  to  un- 
lock the  marvels  of  the  ichthyology  of  those 
remote  periods  of  geolo^c  history  appropriated 
to  the  dynasty  of  the  fish."    (See  GANome.) 

6ARG1V0)  MMte  (ano.  Garganut  Mons).  See 
Apennines. 

lUKIBAIiM)  Glmppe,  an  Italivi  patriot,  bom 
in  Nice,  July  4,  1807.  His  father  educated 
him  to  his  own  profession,  that  of  a  mariner. 
His  second  voyage  was  to  Rome,  when  the  con- 
dition of  that  city  made  a  deep  impression  on 
his  mind,  and  led  him  into  those  revolutionary 
views  which,  in  February,  18S4,  resulted  in  his 
exile  from  Italy.  He  first  went  to  Marseilles, 
whence  he  made  voyages  to  various  ports. 
He  made  one  to  the  Black  sea,  passing  Oon- 
stantinople,  where  he  had  some  years  before 
spent  a  short  time,  and  another  to  Tunis,  and 
from  there  sailed  for  Rio  de  Janeiro.  At  Rio 
he  met  Rosetti,  with  whom  he  entered  into  an 
unsuccessful  commercial  partnership.  About 
Uiis  time  Zambeccari  arrived  there  from  Rio 
Grande,  which  had  declared  her  independence ; 
becoming  acquainted  with  Garibaldi  and  Ro- 
setti, he  persuaded  them  to  espouse  the  cause 
of  that  republic,  and  Garibaldi,  with  20  com- 
panions under  his  command,  embarked  in  a 
small  craft  which  he  named  the  Mazzini.  In 
an  engagement  with  two  launches,  which  he 
beat  off,  he  received  a  gunshot  wound  in  the 
neck,  which  nearly  proved  fatal.  He  landed 
at  Gualaguay  on  neutral  soil,  where  he  was 
treated  to  a  certain  extent  as  a  prisoner,  being 

Srohibited  from  moving  more  than  a  short 
istance  from  the  town.  He  endeavored  to 
escape,  but  was  retaken,  brought  .back,  and 
tortured  nearly  to  death  with  &e  view  of  ex- 
torting from  him  the  names  of  those  who  had 
favor^  his  fiight.  Two  months  later  he  con- 
trived to  reach  Montevideo,  where  he  found 
Rosetti,  and  the  two  returned  to  Rio  Grande 
and  joined  a  land  expedition,  under  Bento 
Gonzalez,  president  of  the  republic,  against  the 
Brazilians  who  were  infesting  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Piratimin.  Until  the  end  of  the  war 
he  was  employed  in  the  service  of  the  short- 
lived republic,  chiefly  at  sea,  though  sometimes 


GAKIBALDI 


638 


on  land.  Prior  to  the  cessation  of  hostilities 
Garibaldi  married  a  South  American  woman, 
who,  antil  her  death  in  1849,  was  the  com- 
panion of  all  his  dangers  and  privations  by  sea 
and  land.  After  the  war  he  settled  in  Monte- 
video and  taught  mathematics,  till  Rosas,  the 
dictator  of  Buenos  Ajres,  declared  war  against 
Uruguay.  The  commencement  of  the  war  was 
disastrous ;  Montevideo  was  besieged,  and  the 
minister  of  war  Vidal  robbed  the  treasury  and 
fled.  Garibaldi  organized  a  flotilla,  and  rec- 
ommended the  formation  of  an  Italian  legion, 
which,  though  especially  charged  with  the  de- 
fence by  sea,  he  frequently  commanded.  Mon- 
tevideo was  saved.  In  the  spring  of  1848 
Garibaldi  sailed  from  South  America  with  a 
portion  of  the  Italian  legion,  and  on  arriving 
in  Piedmont  placed  himself  at  the  dispose  of 
Charles  Albert,  by  whom  he  was  coldly  re* 
ceived.  The  king  being  defeated  a  few  days 
later.  Garibaldi  with  a  few  resolute  republi- 
cans prolonged  the  resistance  until  forced 
across  the  frontier  by  a  superior  Austrian  de- 
tachment. He  crossed  the  Po,  and  reached 
Ravenna,  but  papal  troops  were  ordered  against 
him.  On  the  flight  of  the  pope  the  new  execu- 
tive gave  Garibaldi  a  command,  sending  him 
to  watch  the  Neapolitan  frontier  near  Kieti, 
where  he  remained  till  the  spring  of  1849,  when 
Avezzana,  the  new  minister  of  war,  called  him 
to  Rome.  The  French  expedition  to  restore 
the  pope  having  appeared  before  Rome  on 
April  80,  Garibaldi  was,  with  1,200  men,  post- 
ed in  some  villas  outside  the  gates.  Notwith- 
standing the  great  disparity  of  numbers,  he 
attacked  the  right  wing  of  the  French,  when 
Avezzana,  who  commanded  in  chief,  seeing 
from  the  city  wall  the  peril  of  the  Italians,  de- 
spatched 1,500  men  to  his  succor.  Garibaldi 
then  charged  the  French,  put  them  to  flight, 
pursued  them  several  miles,  and  returned  with 
800  prisoners.  The  Neapolitans  now  threat- 
ened Rome,  and  were  beaten  by  Garibaldi 
at  Palestrina  and  at  Yelletri.  The  French, 
strongly  reinforced,  having  on  June  80  gained 
a  footing  inside  the  wall,  the  resistance  soon 
became  hopeless,  and  the  republican  trium- 
virate, Mazzini,  Saffi,  and  Armellini,  abdicated. 
Garibaldi,  whose  meo  fought  bravely  to  the 
last,  resolved  to  continue  the  struggle  in  the 
open  country.  He  left  Rome  to  try  to  pene- 
trate to  Venice  with  about  4,000  men,  of  whom 
800  were  mounted,  and  marching  by  Tivoli  to 
Term  met  the  second  Italian  legion,  which  was 
awaiting  him.  The  enemy,  in  immensely  su- 
perior numbers,  never  accepted  a  genercJ  en- 
gagement; Garibaldi  so  adroitly  manoeuvring 
as  to  extricate  himself  and  leave  his  enemy 
behind  him  every  time  he  appeared  to  be 
surrounded.  On  July  80  he  reached  San  Ma- 
rino, his  force  being  reduced  to  1,800  men,  and 
there  he  found  in  his  front  a  fresh  Austrian 
army  in  addition  to  the  18,000  pressing  on  his 
rear.  Terms  were  now  offerea,  to  the  effect 
that  there  should  be  a  general  amnesty  and  all 
should  return  home,  the  arms  being  surrendered 
847  VOL.  VII. — 40 


to  the  republic  of  San  Marino.  Such  conditions 
would  have  been  accepted  had  a  few  French 
belonging  to  the  second  legion  been  permitted 
to  return  to  Switzerland ;  but  as  it  was  insisted 
that  they  should  be  sent  to  Rome,  the  offer  of 
the  Austrians  was  rejected,  and  at  night  about 
half  the  force  (the  rest  chose  to  surrender) 
made  their  way  toward  Cesena;  and  thougb 
vigorously  pursued,  the  remnant,  290  in  num- 
ber, embarked  from  Cesenatico  in  some  fishing 
boats  on  Aug.  2.  Toward  nightfall  they  were 
descried  by  the  Austrian  fleet ;  some  were 
captured,  and  the  rest  scattered.  In  the  boat 
with  Garibaldi  were  his  wife  and  a  few  of  the 
most  compromised ;  these  gained  the  shore 
and  dispersed  in  twos  and  threes.  Two  days 
later  Anna  Garibaldi,  who  had  refused  to  leave 
her  husband,  being  worn  out  by  fatigue,  died. 
Garibaldi  made  his  way  from  the  east  to  the 
west  coast,  while  the  punishment  of  death  was 
decreed  for  whosoever  gave  him  bread,  water, 
or  shelter.  At  Ohiavari  he  was  arrested  and 
conducted  to  Genoa.  Banished  from  Sardinia, 
he  arrived  at  New  York  in  the  summer  of  1860, 
declined  a  public  reception  offered  him,  and 
earned  a  living  by  making  candles  in  a  manu- 
factory on  Staten  Island  till  an  opportunity 
occurred  of  resuming  the  occupation  of  a  mar- 
iner. He  made  some  voyages  in  the  Pacific, 
and  in  about  three  years  returned  to  New  York 
in  command  of  a  Peruvian  bark.  Having  lost 
his  mother,  to  whom  he  had  confided  the  care 
of  his  three  children,  he  accepted  an  invita- 
tion to  return  to  Nice,  where  he  lived  in  re- 
tirement. In  the  beginning  of  1859,  on  the 
breaking  out  of  the  war  with  Austria,  he  was 
invited  by  the  Sardinian  government  to  form 
a  corps,  which  became  celebrated  as  the  **  Hunt- 
ers of  the  Alps  "  {GaccicUori  delle  Alpi).  De- 
tached from  the  rest  of  the  army,  he  crossed 
into  northern  Lombardy  with  a  small  force, 
beat  several  Austrian  detachments,  and  ren- 
dered important  services  to  the  Italian  cause 
throughout  the  war.  In  May,  1860,  with  about 
1,000  volunteers,  he  sailed  from  Genoa  for 
Sicily,  landed  at  Marsala,  took  Palermo  and 
Messina,  and  became  dictator  of  the  island.. 
He  then  crossed  the  strait,  in  September  en- 
tered Naples,  won  a  victory  on  the  Voltumo, 
and  was  joined  by  the  Sardinian  army,  which 
had  advanced  from  the  north,  and  completed 
the  overthrow  of  King  Francis.  The  kingdom 
of  the  Two  Sicilies  was  now  merged  in  that  of 
Italy,  Garibaldi  resigning  the  dictatorship  and 
retiring  to  the  small  island  of  Caprera.  In  1861 
be  was  elected  a  member  of  the  chamber  of  dep- 
uties. In  April,  1862,  he  was  appointed  gen- 
eral-in-chief  of  the  national  guard.  While  he 
was  engaged  in  enlisting  volunteers,  he  pub- 
lished on  July  26  an  appeal  to  the  Hungarians' 
to  rise  against  Austria.  This  brought  him  into 
collision  with  his  own  government ;  several  of 
his  officers  and  men  were  arrested  and  dis- 
armed, and  he  retired  to  Caprera  and  began  to- 
plan  for  an  attack  on  Rome.  Napoleon  HI. 
sent  vessels  to  blockade  the  Sicilian  coast  to^ 


624 


GARIBALDI 


GARUO 


prevent  Garibaldi  from  passing  to  the  mainland. 
He  however  sucoeeded  in  crossiDg  with  a  force 
of  about  2,200  men,  nearly  all  of  whom  were 
captured,  Aug.  28,  near  Aspromonte,  where 
Garibaldi  was  seriouslj  wounded  and  made  a 
prisoner.  He  was.relea8ed  in  October^  and  was 
permitted  to  return  to  his  island.  He  retired 
from  the  chamber  of  deputies  in  January,  1864. 
In  1866  he  commanded  a  corps  of  volunteers 
against  the  Austrians^  and  engaged  in  some 
operations  in  the  Tyrol;  but  the  war  was 
brought  to  a  close  before  he  had  much  oppor- 
tunity to  distinguish  himself,  and  he  returned 
to  Oaprera.  In  1867  he  organized  another 
army  for  the  conquest  of  Rome,  but  the  gov- 
ernment resolving  to  suppress  the  movement. 
Garibaldi  was  arrested,  and,  after  a  short  de- 
tention as  a  prisoner,  was  sent  to  Oaprera, 
where  he  was  watched  by  a  ship  of  war  to  pre- 
vent his  escape  to  the  mainland.  This  watch 
he  evaded,  and  in  October  he  was  again  in 
Florence.  A  week  after  he  joined  the  insur- 
gents on  the  Roman  frontier.  Four  days  la- 
ter (Oct.  26)  he  defeated  the  papal  troops  at 
Monte  Rotondo ;  but  on  Nov.  8  he  was  defeat- 
ed by  the  French  and  papal  forces  at  Montana. 
On  his  way  back  to  Oaprera  he  was  arrested 
and  imprisoned.  His  protest  as  an  Italian 
deputy  and  an  American  citizen  effected  his 
release  after  a  few  weeks.  From  this  time 
for  a  considerable  period  he  lived  in  retire- 
ment in  his  island  home.  In  October,  1870,  on 
the  establishment  of  the  French  republic,  he 
arrived  in  Tours,  and  offered  his  services  to 
the  government  of  the  national  defence.  On 
the  16th  he  was  made  a  general  of  ^vision 
in  the  French  army  and  placed  in  command 
of  the  irregular  forces  in  the  Vosges ;  but  he 
had  little  opportunity  to  distinguish  himself  in 
the  field.  In  February,  1871,  he  was  elected 
for  Paris  and  several  departments  as  deputy 
to  the  national  assembly;  but  at  the  prelimi- 
nary meeting  of  that  body  at  Bordeaux  on  the 
12th,  he  resigned  his  seat  and  his  command  in 
the  army,  and  returned  to  Oaprera.  Garibaldi 
has  appeared  as  a  novelist  in  Ccmtoni  il  volon- 
tario  (1870),  and  in  Clelia^  owero  il  govemo 
mcnaeo:  Eoma  del  secolo  XIX.  (1870).  The 
latter  has  been  translated  into  English,  under 
the  title  *^  Rule  of  the  Monk,  or  Rome  in  the 
19th  Oentnry  "  (1870).  In  1878  he  published  a 
poem,  /  miUe  di  Ma^sala.—See  his  "Auto- 
biography," edited  by  Alexandre  Dumas,  trans- 
lated into  English  by  W.  Robson  (London, 
1860)  ;  "  Life  of  Gen.  Garibaldi,  written  by 
Himself  with  Sketches  of  his  Oompanions  in 
Arms,"  translated  by  Theodore  D wight  ^ew 
York,  1860);  and  "Garibaldi  at  Oaprera,"  by 
Ool.  Vecchi,  with  a  preface  by  Mrs.  Gaskell 
(London,  1862). — ^Mbnotti,  one  of  his  sons, 
took  an  important  part  in  the  Italian  move- 
ments. At  Aspromonte,  Aug.  28,  1862,  he  as 
well  as  his  father  was  wounded,  and  both  were 
carried  as  prisoners  to  Spezia,  but  were  soon 
released.  In  1867,  during  the  march  on  Rome, 
he  commanded  the  Garibaldians  in  the  absence 


of  his  father.  He  went  with  him  to  France  in 
1870,  and  like  him  received  a  French  command ; 
but  his  action  during  the  Franco-German  war 
was  comparatively  unimportant. — Riooiom,  a 
younger  son,  who  had  also  served  under  his 
father  in  Italy,  was  perhaps  more  successful 
than  either  his  father  or  brother  during  the 
war  of  1870-^71.  He  made  a  successful  attack 
on  the  German  garrison  of  Oh&tillon-sur-Seine, 
Nov.  19,  1870,  and,  in  conducting  operations 
under  his  father^s  command,  gave  evidence  of 
considerable  military  talent. 

GARLAIVD,  a  county  of  Arkansas.  See  Hot 
Spbiitos. 

CiAKUC,  the  bulb  of  the  allium  Batimtniy  a 
plant  of  the  same  genus  as  the  onion  (A,  eepa) 
and  the  leek  {A.  porrum).  The  plant  is  peren- 
nial, and  grows  wild  in  the  southern  parts  of 
Europe,  but  its  native  place  is  not  certainly 
known.  In  most  countnes  it  is  cultivated,  and 
has  been  esteemed  from  the  remotest  times  as 
an  article  of  food  or  as  a  condiment.  The 
plant  has  flat  leaves,  somewhat  like  those  of 
the  leek,  and  at  the  base  a  bulb  which  is  made 
up  of  five  or  six  bulblets,  called  "  cloves,"  which 
are  of  an  oblong  shape,  flattened,  and  pointed 
at  the  apex;  they  are  enclosed  in  nnmerous 
layers  of  thin,  papery  skin,  which  is  usually 
white,  but  in  one  of  the  garden  varieties  rose- 
colored.  The  flower  stem  is  about  18  inches 
high,  and  bears  an  nmbel  of  pink  or  purplish 
flowers,  which  are  often  intermixed  with  small 
bulbs.  The  bulbs  are  taken  up  attached  to  the 
stem,  and  when  dried  in  the  sun  are  tied  to- 
gether in  bunches  hke  onions.  Garlic  has  a 
strong  peculiar  odor  called  alliaceous,  and  a 
bitter  and  acrid  taste.  A  highly  viscid  juice 
may  be  expressed  from  it,  so  tenacious  that 
when  dried  it  makes  a  cement  for  porcelain. 
By  distilling  the  bulbs  with  water  a  very  vola- 
tile essential  oil  is  obtained,  which  possesses  in 
a  high  degree  the  peculiar  properties  of  the 
bulbs.  It  is  of  so  acrid  a  nature  that  it  will 
even  raise  blisters  upon  the  skin.  Sulphur  is 
detected  in  this  oil,  combined  with  a  radical 
caUed  allyle,  consisting  of  OeHs.  When  garlic 
is  used  as  food  or  medicine,  and  even  when 
applied  externally,  this  oil  is  rapidly  absorbed, 
and  its  presence  is  soon  perceived  in  the  breath 
and  in  me  secretions  of  the  body.  Its  moder- 
ate use  is  thought  to  be  beneflcial  for  its  stimu- 
lant properties  in  quickening  the  circulation, 
exciting  the  nervous  system,  &c.  As  a  medi- 
cine it  is  most  employed  in  external  implica- 
tions, as  a  sedative  in  fevers,  and  in  nervous 
and  spasmodic  disorders  of  children. — ^A  num- 
ber of  species  of  allium  are  indigenous  to  this 
country,  and  are  known  as  wild  garlic  and  wUd 
leek ;  one  (A.  vine<ile)y  introduced  from  Europe, 
is  now  thoroughly  naturalized  in  the  older 
states,  and  is  a  troublesome  weed.  It  grows 
frequently  in  pastures,  and  imparts  a  most  dis- 
agreeable odor  to  the  milk  and  butter  from  the 
animals  that  eat  it;  when  it  occurs  in  wheat 
fields  it  seriously  i]\jures  the  flour  unless  the 
grain  is  cleaned  with  great  care.     A.  molfj 


GAENEAU 


GARNIER 


625 


called  garden  garlic,  bas  long  been  cnltirated 
as  an  ornamental  plant.  It  bears  an  nmbel  of 
large  golden  yellow  flowers  abont  a  foot  high ; 
its  treatment  is  the  same  as  that  of  tulips  and 
other  spring-flowering  bnlbs. 

GAKHrEAV,  Fm^  XiTler,  a  Canadian  histo- 
rian, bom  in  Qaebeo,  Jane  15,  1809,  died  Feb. 
8,  1866.  He  was  admitted  as  a  notary  in 
1830,  and  became  clerk  of  the  legislative  as- 
sembly, member  of  the  council  of  public  in- 
struction, and  city  clerk  of  Quebec,  holding 
the  last  named  office  from  about  1845  till  his 
death.  His  Hutoire  du  Canada  depuU  m  dS- 
eoueerte  jusqu'd  nosj(mr»  (8  vols.  8vo,  Quebec, 
1845-*6  ;  8d  ed.,  1859)  has  been  translated 
into  English.  He  also  published  a  volume  of 
travels  in  England  and  France. 

GlRNirr,  the  name  of  a  mineral  species,  pre- 
senting many  varieties ;  also  applied  by  Dana 
to  designate  a  section  of  the  silicates ;  and  in 
geology  it  is  the  name  of  a  rock  made  up  of 
some  variety  of  the  mineral.  The  garnet  is 
supposed  to  have  been  sometimes  included  by 
the  ancients  in  their  names  earbuneultta  and 
hyaeinthus.  In  its  more  perfect  forms  it  is  a 
gem,  and  when  cut  and  polished  bears  some 
resemblance  to  the  ruby  in  color,  transparency, 
and  lustre.  Some  of  the  precious  varieties  are 
distinguished  by  the  names  Syrian  and  oriental, 
and  also  almandine,  from  Alabanda,  the  place 
where  in  the  time  of  Pliny  they  were  cut  and 
polished.  These  and  the  black  varieties  also 
have  been  much  used  in  Europe,  strung  to- 
gether like  beads  for  necklaces.  Those  most 
esteemed  in  jewelry  are  obtained  from  Cey- 
lon, Pegu,  ana  Greenland.  A  single  crystal  of 
only  8^  lines  by  6^  has  been  sold  for  about 
$700.  Its  crystals  are  rhomboidal  and  trape- 
zoidal dodecahedrons  and  variously  modified 
forms.  Its  hardness  is  from  6*5  to  7'5 ;  specific 
gravity  8'15  to  4*8.  It  is  met  with  of  various 
colors,  as  red,  brown,  black,  yellow,  white,  and 
green,  and  with  a  vitreous  or  resinous  lustre. 
According  to  its  composition  it  has  been  di- 
vided into  six  sub-species,  all  of  which  pass  into 
one  another  by  insensible  shades  of  difference ; 
they  are  all  silicates  of  difierent  protoxides  or 
peroxides;  as:  1,  the  alumina-lime  garnet,  a 
silicate  of  alumina  and  lime,  of  which  the  cin- 
namon stone  or  essonite  is  an  example ;  2,  the 
alumina-magnesia  garnet;  8,  the  alumina-iron 
garnet,  a  silicate  of  the  protoxide  of  iron  and 
lime,  as  almandine  and  a  variety  of  the  com- 
mon garnet;  4,  alumina-manganese  garnet, 
called  also  manganesian  garnet;  5,  iron-lime 
garnet,  composed  of  silicates  of  the  peroxide  of 
iron  and  of  lime,  as  the  black  garnet  and  a 
variety  of  the  common  garnet ;  6,  lime-chrome 
garnet,  as  the  emerald-green  ouvarouvite  of 
Russia.  The  silicic  acid  in  these  varies  from 
84  to  44  per  cent.  Their  composition  is  repre- 
sented by  the  general  formula  8R0,  RaOs, 
8SiO«,  in  which  RO  represents  either  one  of 
the  protoxides  that  may  be  present,  and  R^Os 
either  the  alumina  (AUOt),  or  the  peroxide  of 
iron  (FetOt),  or  of  chrome  (Cr«Ot).    According 


I  to  Odling,  the  formula  is  R9Y«Si04,  in  which 
R=Ca,  Mg,  Fe,  or  Mn,  and  V=Fe,  Al,  or  Mn. 
Garnets  are  easily  melted  by  the  blowpipe ;  and 
some  varieties,  as  the  melanite  or  black  garnet 
found  in  the  lavas  of  Vesuvius,  appear  to  be  a  di- 
rect product  of  the  ^sion  of  l^eir  ingredients. 
The  iron-lime  garnets,  of  which  this  is  a  variety, 
containing  from  20  to  80  per  cent,  of  peroxide 
of  iron,  and  about  the  same  proportion  of  lime, 
might  be  advantageously  employed  both  as 
iron  ore  and  flux  in  the  manufacture  of  iron, 
mixed  with  other  ores  more  rich  in  iron  and 
deficient  in  silica.  They  fre<)uently  occur  in 
the  vicinity  of  iron  ores,  and  m  beds  of  great 
extent,  forming  a  true  garnet  rook,  and  from 
their  highly  ferruginous  appearance  have  in 
some  instances  been  mistaken  for  iron  ores. — 
Crystals  of  garnet  are  common  in  the  granite 
rocks  and  the  metamorphic  slates  and  lime- 
stones in  almost  all  localities  where  these  are 
found;  but  when  most  abundant  and  large, 
they  are  commonly  rough  and  unsightly.  In 
the  gold  region  they  abound  in  the  eJates,  and 
in  some  instances  where  the  rock  that  con- 
tained them  has  crumbled  away  they  are  left 
loose  upon  the  surface,  so  that  they  might 
easily  be  shovelled  up  by  cart  loads. 

GARITIER,  Adolphe,  a  French  eclectic  philoso- 
pher, bom  in  Paris,  March  27,  1801,  died  in 
May,  1864.  He  aided  Jouflroy  in  translating 
the  works  of  Thomas  Reid,  was  in  1827  ap- 
pointed professor  of  philosophy  in  the  college 
at  Versailles,  and  afterward  promoted  to  a 
chair  in  Paris.  He  meanwhile  published  his 
Precis  de  ptyehologie^  and  a  complete  edition 
of  the  philosophical  writings  of  Descartes.  In 
1888  he  succeeded  Joufi&oy  as  lecturer  on  phi- 
losophy at  the  Sorbonne,  and  in  the  following 
year  produced  his  Oomparaison  de  la  psycholO' 
ffie  et  de  la  phrenologie.  He  published  in  1850 
a  Traite  de  morale  sociale^  and  in  1858  a  Traite 
deB  faeulUe  de  Vdme^  which  won  a  prize  from 
the  French  academy.  His  last  work,  De  la 
morale  dane  PantiquitSy  was  published  in  1865, 
with  an  introduction  by  Pr6vost-Paradol. 

GAKNIER,  Chiries  deoiges  ThMias,  a  French 
author,  bom  in  Auxerre,  Sept.  21,  1746,  died 
there,  Jan.  24,  1795.  He  was  educated  at  the 
college  of  Plessis,  and  became  an  advocate, 
though  the  weakness  of  his  voice  did  not  per- 
mit him  to  speak  in  public.  In  1770  he  began 
to  publish  in  tiie  Mercure  de  France^  under  the 
nam  de  plume  of  "  Mademoiselle  Raigner  de 
Malfontaine,"  dramatic  proverbs,  whose  inge- 
nuity and  sprightliness  attracted  the  attention 
of  the  governess  of  the  young  princess  de 
Cond6,  and  Gamier  was  soon  engaged  to  write 
proverbs  to  be  acted  for  the  special  amusement 
of  the  princess  at  the  abbey  of  Panthemont. 
In  1791  he  was  made  commiseaire  du  roi  at 
Paris,  and  in  1798  was  sent  by  the  revolution- 
ary government  to  his  native  city  as  commis- 
sioner, which  post  he  held  till  his  death. 
Among  his  works  are  Nouteaux  proioerbee  dra- 
matiques  (8vo,  Paris,  1784),  and  various  novels. 
He  fuso  collected  and  edited  the  Cabinet  dee 


626 


GARNIER 


GARRETT 


fie*  (41  vols.  8vo,  Paris,  1785)  and  Voyage* 
inuiginaires,  songes,  vmom  et  romane  merveil- 
leux  (39  vols.  Svo,  Paris,  1787). 

GAUrUSR,  Jean  Loiis  Charles,  a  French  archi- 
tect, born  in  Paris,  Nov.  6,  1825.  He  entered 
the  school  of  fine  arts  in  1842,  and  studied 
under  MM.  L6veil  and  Hippoljte  Lebas.  He 
took  the  grand  prize  in  1848,  and  continued 
his  studies  in  Itidj  and  Greece.  In  1859,  his 
designs  having  been  twice  preferred  in  compe- 
tition with  the  most  distinguished  architects 
in  France,  he  was  appointed  architect  of  the 
new  opera  house  in  Paris.  He  has  published 
a  volume  of  miscellanies  entitled  X  travere  Us 
arU  (1869). 

GARNIEftpPAGiiS,  Lonb  AntslM,  a  French  poli- 
tician, bom  in  Marseilles,  July  18,  1808,  died 
Nov.  1,  1878.  \¥hile  employed  as  a  merchan- 
dise broker  in  Paris  he  attended  the  sittings 
of  the  secret  associations  which  aided  in  the 
revolution  of  July,  1880,  and  in  which  his 
brother  £tienne  Joseph  Louis  (1801-^41)  acted 
an  important  part  In  1842  he  was  elected  to 
the  chamber, of  deputies,  and  became  at  once 
one  of  the  stanohest  members  of  the  opposi- 
tion, and  in  1847  was  one  of  the  most  active 
promoters  of  the  reform  agitation.  He  was 
conspicuous  among  those  who  in  February, 
1848,  appeared  at  the  banquet  of  Paris,  in 
spite  of  the  prohibition  of  the  government. 
(5n  Feb.  24  he  was  appointed  a  member  of  the 
provisional  government,  then  mayor  of  Paris, 
and  on  March  5  he  succeeded  M.  Goudchaux 
as  minister  of  finance.  He  decreed  as  such 
the  unpopular  additional  tax  of  45  centimes, 
which  gI^^atly  contributed  toward  the  over- 
throw of  the  republic.  As  a  member  of  the 
constituent  assembly,  he  submitted  a  remark- 
able report  on  the  financial  situation,  and  in 
May  left  the  finance  department  to  enter  the 
executive  commission  of  five  appointed  by 
the  assembly.  On  the  insurrection  of  June 
this  commission  had  to  resign  its  power  to 
Gen.  Gavaignac ;  and  Gamier-Pag^s,  lUfter  the 
expiration  of  his  term  as  deputy,  rendered 
unpopular  by  the  tax  of  45  centimes,  was  not 
reelected.  The  democratic  party  nominated 
him  again  in  1857,  but  he  was  defeated  by 
£mile  OUivier.  In  1864  he  became  a  member 
of  the  corps  l^gislati^  and  devoted  his  labors 
specially  to  questions  of  finance  and  foreign 
relations.  At  the  downfall  of  the  empire  in 
1870  he  was  one  of  the  deputies  sent  to  the 
h6tel  de  ville,  and  was  installed  a  member  of 
the  government  of  national  defence.  At  the 
elections  of  Feb.  8,  1871,  he  failed  to  gain  a 
aeat,  and  retired  to  private  life.  He  published 
Un  episode  de  la  revolution  de  1846,  VimpSt 
dee  46  eentimee  (1850) ;  Hietoire  de  la  reeolu- 
tion  de  1848  (8  vols.  8vo,  1860-'62) ;  a  contm- 
uation,  entitled  VHietoire  de  la  eommiseion 
exeeuUfDe{FBxiSy  1869);  and  in  December,  1878, 
the  completion  of  the  work. 

GAROHUE  (anc.  Oarumna\  a  river  of  S. 
France,  which  derives  its  name  from  its  two 
head  streams,  the  Gar,  which  rises  in  the 


Spanish  valley  of  Aran,  and  the  Onne,  which 
descends  from  the  glaciers  of  A6  in  the  Pyre- 
nees. Flowing  N.  W.,  it  enters  France  at  a 
place  called  Pont-du-Roi,  in  the  department 
of  Haute-Garonne.  It  runs  thence  N.  £.  to 
Toulouse,  whence  it  flows  generally  N.  W. 
It  passes  the  towns  of  St.  B^at,  Montrejeau, 
St.  Martory,  Gazdres  (where  it  becomes  navi- 
gable), Carbonne,  Muret,  Toulouse,  Verdun, 
Agen,  Marmande,  and  Bordeaux,  a  few  miles 
below  which  it  is  joined  by  the  Dordogne  and 
forms  the  estuary  or  river  knovrn  as  the  Gi- 
ronde.  Its  chief  affluents  on  the  right  bank 
are  the  Ari^ge,  Tarn,  and  Lot;  on  the  left, 
the  Save,  Gimone,  Gers,  Baise,  and  Ciron. 
Its  length,  including  the  Gironde,  is  about  860 
m.,  of  which  260  are  navigable;  but  inclu- 
ding its  feeders,  which  communicate  with  12 
departments,  the  total  river  navigation  of  its 
basin  is  about  1,000  m.  Large  vessels  ascend 
to  Bordeaux,  where  it  forms  a  large  basin. 
At  Toulouse  it  is  joined  by  the  canal  du  Mi- 
di, by  means  of  which  and  by  this  nver  the 
Mediterranean  is  connected  with  the  bay  of 
Biscay.  The  basin  of  the  Garonne  includes 
a  tract  of  country  about  185  m.  in  average 
length  and  breadth.  The  upper  part  of  its 
course  lies  through  narrow  defiles  and  is 
much  obstructed;  from  Toulouse  it  is  broad 
but  shallow,  and  navigation  is  more  or  less 
impeded  by  the  debris  which  it  brings  down 
as  far  as  Marmapde,  about  50  m.  above  Bor- 
deaux.   Its  banks  are  fertile  and  picturesque. 

GAROMEy  Havle.    See  Haute-Garoknb. 

GARIIAIID^  a  central  county  of  Kentucky, 
bounded  N.  by  the  Kentucky  river  and  W.  by 
Dick's  river;  area,  250  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
10,876,  of  whom  3,404  were  colored.  It  has  a 
hilly  or  rolling  surface,  and  a  fertile  soil.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  88,830  bushels 
of  wheat,  25,207  of  rye,  578,887  of  Indian 
com,  84,456  of  oats,  86,842  lbs.  of  butter,  and 
82,115  of  tobacco.  There  were  3,185  horses, 
1,442  mules  and  asses,  7,605  cattle,  4,410  sheep, 
and  16,518  swine;  6  carriage  factories,  and  4 
distilleries.    Capitol,  Lancaster. 

GARRETT,  the  W.  county  of  Maryland,  bor- 
dering on  Pennsylvania  and  West  Virginia, 
from  which  it  is  separated  on  the  S.  by  the 
Potomac  river,  formed  in  1872  from  Allegany 
CO. ;  area,  690  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1872,  10,857. 
It  is  watered  by  the  Youghiogheny  and  afflu- 
ents of  the  Potomac.  Tbe  surface  is  very 
mountainous,  and  is  covered  with  extensive 
forests.  Bituminous  coal,  iron  ore,  limestone 
suitable  for  the  manufacture  of  cement,  and 
fire-brick  clay  abound.  The  high  glade  lands 
are  suitable  for  pasture,  and  are  productive 
of  hay,  grain,  and  potatoes.  The  county  is 
traversed  by  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  railroad. 
Capital,  Oakland. 

GARRETT,  EUiabeth,  an  English  physician, 
bom  in  London  in  1837.  She  began  to  study 
medicine  at  AGddlesex  hospital  in  1860,  and 
after  perfecting  her  knowledge  at  St.  Andrew's, 
Edinburgh,  and  the  London  hospital,  she  re- 


GARRETTSON 


GARRICK 


627 


oeived  the  diploma  of  L.  S.  A.  in  1865,  and 
the  degree  of  M.  D.  was  granted  to  her  in 
1870  hy  the  university  of  Paris.  She  ac- 
quired a  considerable  practice  in  London  as  a 
physician  for  women  and  children,  and  also 
became  known  as  a  writer  on  medical  and  so- 
ci^  questions,  and  as  an  advocate  of  woman^s 
rights.  She  was  general  medical  attendant  of 
St,  Mary's  dispensary  from  1866  to  1870,  when 
she  became  a  visiting  physician  of  the  East 
London  hospital  for  children  and  dispensary 
for  women.  At  the  first  election  of  members 
of  the  metropolitan  school  board  under  the 
new  education  act,  at  the  close  of  1870,  she 
received  in  the  district  of  Marylebone  upward 
of  40,000  votes,  being  20,000  votes  more  than 
any  other  candidate  in  any  other  part  of  London. 
Among  the  other  successful  candidates  were 
Miss  Davies,  Prof.  Huxley,  and  Lord  Lawrence. 
Since  her  marriage  with  Mr.  Anderson  in  1871 
she  has  been  known  as  Dr.  Anderson-Garrett. 

GARRETTSON,  Freeborn,  an  American  clergy- 
man, bom  in  Maryland  in  1752,  died  in  New 
York,  Sept.  26,  1827.  He  entered  the  Meth- 
odist ministry  in  1775,  travelled  extensively  in 
several  of  the  states,  and  in  1784  went  as  a 
missionary  to  Nova  Scotia.  In  1788  he  com- 
menced his  labors  in  the  state  of  New  York. 
In  1791  he  married  Miss  Livingston  of  Rhine- 
beck,  and  confined  his  subsequent  labors  to 
New  York,  where  he  was  eminently  success- 
ful. He  was  a  very  popular  preacher,  and 
emancipated  a  number  of  slaves.  At  his  death 
he  made  provision  in  his  will  for  the  perpetual 
support  of  a  missionary. 

CLARRICK.  Dtvld,  an  English  actor,  born  in 
Hereford,  Feb.  20,  1716,  died  in  London,  Jan. 
20, 1779.  His  grandfather  Garric,  or  Garrique, 
was  a  French  Protestant  who  took  refuge  in 
England  after  the  revocation  of  the  edict  of 
Nantes.  His  father,  a  captain  in  the  English 
army,  settled  at  Lichfield  on  half  pay,  and  with 
difiSculty  maintained  a  family  of  seven  children. 
At  the  age  of  10  David  was  sent  to  a  grammar 
school.  He  was  a  great  mimic,  and  at  11  act- 
ed before  a  select  audience  with  great  applause. 
He  was  manager  of  the  company,  and  applied 
to  Johnson  for  a  prologue,  but  without  success. 
In  1728  or  '29  he  went  to  Lisbon  to  visit  an 
uncle,  a  considerable  wine  merchant,  where  he 
amused  dinner  parties  by  repeating  verses  and 
popular  speeches.  He  returned  the  next  year 
to  England,  and  attended  the  theatres  at  Lon- 
don during  occasional  visits  there.  At  18  he 
was  one  of  the  three  scholars  at  Dr.  Johnson's 
academy.  In  March,  1786,  he  set  out  with  his 
master  for  London.  Johnson  and  Garrick  en- 
tered the  metropolis  with  little  money  and  a 
single  letter  of  introduction.  Garrick  began  to 
study  law,  but  poverty  interrupted  his  course. 
His  uncle  soon  after  died,  leaving  him  £1,000, 
an/1  he  next  commenced  business  as  a  wine 
merchant,  in  connection  with  his  brother,  but 
the  partnership  was  soon  dissolved.  He  was 
now  constant  at  the  theatres,  wrote  theatrical 
criticisms,  practised  declamation,  and  in  the 


summer  of  1741  made  his  first  appearance  as 
an  actor  at  Ipswich,  under  the  assumed  name 
of  Lyddal,  taking  the  part  of  Aboan  in  the  play 
of  "  Oroonoko."  His  face  was  blackened,  and 
he  trembled  with  diffidence ;  but  the  provincial 
audience  was  delighted.  He  soon  tried  comic 
parts,  and  as  Harlequin  his  success  was  com- 
plete. But  when  he  applied  for  employment 
to  the  managers  of  Drury  Lane  ana  Covent 
Garden,  both  r^ected  him.  He  made  his  first 
appearance  in  London  at  a  little  playhouse  in 
Goodman's  fields,  Oct.  19, 1741,  acting  Richard 
III.  with  great  effect.  His  fame  spread  rapid- 
ly ;  the  great  theatres  were  deserted,  and  all 
the  fashion  came  to  Goodman's  fields.  He 
next  made  an  engagement  at  Drury  Lane  for 
£500  a  year.  In  1742  he  went  to  Dublin, 
and  was  received  with  great  enthusiasm.  In 
1748  he  gained  the  friendship  of  Pitt,  afterward 
earl  of  Chatham,  and  of  Lyttelton.  Pitt  wrote 
him  complimentary  verses,  and  Lyttelton 
praised  him  in  his  **  Dialogues  of  the  Dead." 
Garrick  was  now  the  first  of  English  actors ; 
he  excelled  in  comedy,  farce,  tragedy,  and  pan- 
tomime. In  1745  he  again  visited  Dublin,  and 
was  for  a  time  joint  manager  there  with  Sheri- 
dan. In  1747  he  bought  a  half  interest  in 
Drury  Lane  theatre,  and  on  Sept.  20  opened 
his  management  with  the  famous  prologue  writ- 
ten by  Johnson.  He  soon  after  brought  out 
Johnson's  "Irene"  with  considerable  profit  to 
the  author.  In  1749  Garrick  married  the 
German  dancer  Mile.  Yiolette,  who  is  said  to 
Iiave  brought  him  £6,000.  She  was  accom- 
plished, intelligent,  and  a  faithful  wife,  and 
survived  him  till  1822,  when  she  died  suddenly 
at  the  age  of  98.  In  1758  Garrick  brought  out 
"The  Gamester,"  by  Edwin  Moore;  ho  refused 
Home's  "  Douglas  "  in  1756.  He  was  singular- 
ly sensitive,  trembled  before  adverse  criticism, 
and  assiduously  courted  the  critics.  In  Sep- 
tember, 1763,  he  went  to  the  continent,  and 
was  received  everywhere  with  attention  and 
respect.  He  returned  in  1765,  and  in  Novem- 
ber reappeared  in  "  Much  Ado  about  Nothing," 
at  the  command  of  the  king,  amid  unbounded 
applause,  having  opened  the  performance  with 
an  address  to  the  public  which  was  called  for 
on  the  ten  succeeding  nights.  In  September, 
1769,  he  arranged  a  jubilee  in  honor  of  Shake- 
speare at  Stratford -on- A  von,  which  continued 
three  days,  and  which  he  afterward  represent- 
ed for  92  successive  nights  at  Drury  Lane.  In 
1773,  his  partner,  Mr.  Lacy,  having  died,  the 
whole  managemenjb  of  the  theatre  fell  to  his 
charge.  His  health  failing,  he  now  seldom  act- 
ed ;  and  on  June  10,  1776,  after  having  played 
a  round  of  his  old  and  favorite  characters,  he 
took  his  leave  of  the  stage  in  the  part  of  Don 
Felix,  in  the  comedy  of  "  The  Wonder,"  the 
performance  being  for  the  benefit  of  the  fund 
for  the  relief  of  decayed  actors,  which  he  had 
originated.  Having  amassed  a  very  consider- 
able fortune,  he  now  retired  to  e^joy  it.  His 
villa  at  Hampton  was  adorned  with  all  the 
charms  of  luxury  and  taste.     Bishops  and 


628 


GARRISON 


Srinces  visited  the  retired  actor,  and  Hannah 
[ore  here  passed  manj  agreeable  hours.  His 
later  years  were  filled  with  suflfering.  The 
gout  and  gravel,  to  which  he  had  long  been 
subject,  returned  upon  him  with  increasing 
severity.  He  was  buried  on  Feb.  1,  1779,  be- 
neath the  monument  of  Shakespeare.  His 
talents  were  singularly  versatile.  He  wrote 
farces  and  comic  pieces,  conversed  well,  and 
was  a  member  of  the  literary  club.  He  suc- 
ceeded in  every  kind  of  acting.  His  comic  turn 
led  him  to  delight  in  broad  farces,  in  feats  of 
dexterity,  and  ludicrous  transformations.  As 
Hamlet  he  filled  his  audience  with  horror  and 
melancholy ;  as  Lear  he  rose  to  the  height  of 
tragic  power.  He  was  of  middle  size,  delicate 
in  form,  and  quick  in  movement,  wanting  that 
dignity  of  appearance  which  has  distinguished 
80  many  other  actors.  His  memory,  too,  some- 
times failed  him,  and  he  would  repeat  a  line  be- 
fore he  could  recover  himself.  But  his  voice 
was  melodious  and  clear,  his  countenance  ani- 
mated, and  his  sensitive  temperament,  even  in 
his  silence,  governed  the  spectator.  His  thrills 
of  feeling  communicated  themselves  by  look, 
gesture,  and  position.  He  was  somewhat  vain, 
but  good-hamored  and  placable,  and  a  kind 
friend.  In  spite  of  a  certain  want  of  dignity 
in  his  manners,  and  a  constant  afifectation,  he 
was  respected  and  liked. — See  "Life  of  Gar- 
rick,"  by  P.  Fitzgerald  (2  vols.,  London,  1868). 
GilUUSON,  VnObm  Uoyd,  an  American  abo-. 
litionist,  born  in  Newburyport,  Mass.,  Dec.  12, 
1804.  His  parents  were  natives  of  the  prov- 
ince of  New  Brunswick.  His  father,  Ab\jah 
Garrison,  was  master  of  a  vessel  engaged  in 
the  West  India  trade,  and  a  man  of  some  lite- 
rary ability  and  taste ;  but  he  became  intem- 
perate, and  abandoned  his  family  while  his 
children  were  young.  The  mother,  left  in  ut- 
ter poverty,  became  a  professional  nurse,  and 
in  1814  went  to  Lynn.  William  was  at  first 
apprenticed  to  a  shoemaker,  but  afterward 
sent  to  school  at  Newburyport,  partly  sup- 
porting himself  by  aiding  a  wood  sawyer.  In 
1815  he  went  with  his  mother  to  Baltimore, 
where  he  remained  a  year  in  the  capacity  of 
an  errand  boy,  and  then  returned  to  Newbury- 
port In  1818  he  was  indentured  to  Ephraim 
W.  Allen,  editor  of  the  "  Newburyport  Her- 
ald," to  learn  the  art  of  printing,  and  when 
only  16  or  17  years  of  age  began  to  write  up- 
on political  and  other  topics  for  the  "Herald," 
carefully  preserving  his  incognito,  and  once 
received  through  the  post  office  a  letter  of 
thanks  from  his  master,  with  a  request  that 
he  would  continue  to  write.  He  soon  com- 
menced writing  also  for  other  journals,  and  a 
series  of  articles  which  he  wrote  for  the  "  Sa- 
lem Gazette,"  under  the  signature,  of  "  Aristi- 
des,"  attracted  much  attention  in  political  cir- 
cles. In  1826  he  became  the  proprietor  and 
editor  of  a  Journal  in  his  native  town,  called 
the  "  Free  rress,"  which  proved  unsuccessful. 
He  then  worked  for  a  time  as  a  journeyman  in 
Boston.     In  1827  he  became  the  editor  of  the 


"National  Philanthropist"  in  that  citj,  the 
first  journal  ever  established  to  advocate  the 
cause  of  "  total  abstinence ;"  and  in  1826  be 
joined  a  friend  in  Jhe  publication  of  the  "Jour- 
nal of  the  Times"  at  Bennington,  Vt.  This 
journal  supported  John  Quincy  Adams  for  the 
presidency,  and  was  in  part  devoted  to  peace, 
temperance,  anti-slavery,  and  other  reforms; 
but  it  failed  to  receive  an  adequate  support. 
During  his  residence  in  Bennington  he  pro- 
duced considerable  excitement  upon  the  subject 
of  slavery,  not  only  in  that  place  but  through- 
out the  state,  in  consequence  of  which  there 
was  transmitted  to  congress  an  anti-slaverj 
memorial  more  numerously  signed  than  any 
similar  paper  previously  submitted  to  that  body. 
Beigamin  Lundy,  an  advocate  of  the  gradual 
abolition  of  slavery,  was  then  engaged  in  pub- 
lishing the  "  Genius  of  Universal  Emancipa- 
tion "  at  Baltimore.  He  had  met  Mr.  Garrison 
during  the  previous  year  in  Boston,  and  re- 
ceived from  him  timely  assistance  in  bringing 
his  cause  to  the  notice  of  the  people  of  that 
city.  Wishing  for  a  coadjutor,  he  went  to  Ben- 
nington and  engaged  Mr.  Garrison  to  join  him 
in  the  editorship  of  his  journal.  On  July  4, 
1829,  Mr.  Garrison  delivered  in  Park  street 
church,  Boston,  an  address  which  excited  gen- 
eral attention  by  the  boldness  and  vigor  of  its 
assault  upon  slavery.  In  the  autunm  he  b^an 
his  labors  in  Baltimore  as  joint  editor  witb  Mr. 
Lundy  of  the  "  Genius  of  Universal  Emancipa- 
tion," and  in  the  first  number  issued  under  his 
supervision  he  made  a  distinct  avowal  of  the 
doctrine  of  immediate  emancipation  as  the  right 
of  the  slave  and  the  duty  of  the  master.  Mr. 
Lundy  did  not  concur  with  him  in  this  doc- 
trine, but  as  each  of  them  appended  his  initials 
to  his  articles,  the  difference  interposed  no  bar- 
rier to  hearty  cooperation.  The  journal,  by  its 
bold  and  uncompromising  tone,  produced  con- 
siderable excitement  among  the  supporters  of 
slavery,  while  Mr.  Garrison^s  denunciations  of 
the  colonization  society  aroused  the  hostility 
of  some  who,  upon  other  grounds,  were  inclined 
to  sympathize  with  him.  An  event  soon  oc- 
curred which  resulted  in  a  dissolution  of  his 
connection  with  the  paper.  The  ship  Frands, 
owned  by  Francis  Todd  of  Newburyport,  hav- 
ing taken  a  cai^go  of  slaves  from  Baltimore  to 
Louisiana,  Mr.  Garrison  denounced  the  act  aa  a 
"domestic  piracy,"  and  declared  his  purpose 
to  "  cover  with  thick  infamy  "  all  those  impli- 
cated therein.  Baltimore  being  then  the  seat 
of  an  extensive  domestic  trafiic  in  slaves,  his 
denunciation  produced  a  great  deal  of  feejing, 
and  he  was  in  consequence  indicted  and  con- 
victed, in  the  city  court.  May  term,  1830,  for 
"  a  gross  and  malicious  libel "  against  the  own- 
er and  master  of  the  Francis,  and  sentenced  to 
pay  a  fine  of  $50  and  costs  of  court  Being 
unable  to  discharge  the  judgment,  he  was 
committed  to  jail.  Mr.  Todd,  in  a  civil  snit 
for  damages,  subsequently  obtained  a  verdict 
against  him  for  $1,000;  but  the  judgment^ 
probably  on  account  of  his  well  known  pover- 


QARRISOIT 


629 


ty,  was  never  enforced.  His  friend  Lnndj 
and  a  few  other  Quakers  were  the  only  persons 
who  visited  him  in  jail  to  express  their  sympa- 
thy. The  press  at  the  north  generally  con- 
demned his  imprisonment  as  nnjast,  and  his 
letters  to  different  newspapers  excited  a  deep 
interest.  The  manumission  society  of  North 
Oarolina  protested  against  his  imprisonment 
as  an  infraction  of  the  liberty  of  the  press. 
He  remained  in  jail  49  days,  when  Arthar 
Tappan,  a  merchant  of  New  York,  paid  the  fine 
ana  costs,  and  he  was  set  at  liberty.  It  subse- 
quently appeared  that  Mr.  Tappan  had  in  this 
act  anticipated  by  a  few  days  the  generous 
purpose  of  Henry  Olay,  whose  interposition 
bad  been  invoked  by  a  mutual  friend.  His 
next  step  was  to  issue  a  prospectus  for  an  anti- 
slavery  journal,  to  be  published  in  Washing- 
ton ;  and  with  a  view  to  excite  a  deeper  in- 
terest in  his  enterprise,  he  prepared  a  course 
of  lectures  on  slavery,  which  he  subsequently 
delivered  in  Philadelphia,  New  York,  New 
Haven,  Hartford,  and  Boston.  In  Baltimore 
bis  attempts  to  obtain  a  hearing  were  unsuc- 
cessful. Private  efforts  to*  procure  a  suitable 
place  for  the  delivery  of  his  lectures  in  Bos- 
ton having  been  made  in  vain,  he  advertised 
in  one  of  the  daily  journals  that,  if  a  meeting 
boose  or  hall  were  not  offered  before  a  certain 
day,  he  would  address  the  people  on  the  com- 
mon* An  association  of  persons  calling  them- 
selves infidels  thereupon  proffered  him  the 
gratuitous  use  of  a  hall  under  their  control, 
and,  no  other  offer  being  made,  he  delivered 
bis  lectures  in  the  place  thus  opened ;  taking 
care,  at  the  same  time,  to  avow  his  faith  in 
Christianity  as  the  power  which  alone  could 
break  the  bonds  of  the  slaves.  His  lectures 
were  attended  by  large  audiences,  and  awa- 
kened in  some  minds  a  permanent  interest  in 
the  anti-slavery  cause.  His  experiences  as  a 
lecturer,  however,  convinced  him  that  Boston 
rather  than  Washington  was  the  best  location 
for  an  anti-slavery  journal,  and  that  a  revolu- 
tion of  public  sentiment  at  the  north  must  pre- 
cede emancipation  at  the  south.  He  accord- 
ingly issued  the  first  number  of  the  "Libera- 
tor" in  Boston,  Jan.  1,  1881,  taking  for  his 
motto,  "  My  country  is  the  world,  my  country- 
men are  all  mankind;"  and  declaring,  in  the 
face  of  the  almost  universal  apathy  upon  the 
subject  of  slavery :  '^  I  am  in  earnest.  I  will 
not  equivocate,  I  will  not  excuse,  I  will  not 
retreat  a  single  inch,  and  I  will  be  heard." 
Mr.  Isaac  Enapp  was  his  partner  in  the  print- 
ing and  publishing  department.  As  they  were 
without  capital  or  promise  of  support  from 
any  quarter,  they  were  unable  to  open  an  of- 
fice on  their  own  account.  The  foreman  in 
the  office  of  the  "  Christian  Examiner,"  being 
a  warm  personal  friend  of  Mr.  Garrison,  gen- 
erously employed  him  and  his  partner  as  jour- 
neymen, taJdng  their  labor  as  compensation  in 
part  for  the  use  of  his  types.  Mr.  Garrison, 
alter  working  mechanically  in  the  daytime, 
spent  a  large  portion  of  the  night  in  editorial 


labor.  Having  issued  one  number,  they  waited 
anxiously  to  see  whether  they  would  find  en- 
couragement to  proceed.  The  receipt  of  $60 
from  James  Forten,  a  wealthy  colored  citizen 
of  Philadelphia,  with  the  names  of  25  sub- 
scribers, was  tlie  first  cheering  incentive  to 
perseverance,  and  the  journal  was  issued  with- 
out interruption  from  that  day.  At  the  end 
of  three  weeks  they  opened  an  office  for  them- 
selves ;  but  for  nearly  two  years  their  resour- 
ces were  so  restricted  that  they  made  the  office 
their  only  domicile.  The  "  Liberator  "  attract- 
ed general  attention,  not  only  at  the  north,  but 
at  the  south.  The  mayor  of  Boston,  Harrison 
Gray  Otis,  having  been  appealed  to  by  a  south- 
em  magistrate  to  suppress  it  if  possible  by  law, 
wrote  in  reply  that  his  officers  had  **  ferreted 
out  the  paper  and  its  editor,  whose  office  was 
an  obscure  hole,  his  only  visible  auxiliary  a 
negro  boy,  his  supporters  a  very  few  insignifi- 
cant persons  of  all  colors."  Almost  every 
mail,  at  this  period,  brought  letters  threatening 
Mr.  Garrison  with  assassination  if  he  did  not 
discontinue  his  journal;  and  in  December, 
1881,  the  legislature  of  Georgia  passed  an  act, 
offering  a  reward  of  $5,000  to  any  person  who 
should  arrest,  bring  to  trial,  and  prosecute  to 
conviction,  under  the  laws  of  that  state,  the 
editor  or  the  publisher.  On  Jan.  1,  1882,  he 
secured  the  cooperation  of  eleven  other  per- 
sons in  organizing  the  New  England  (afterward 
Massachusetts)  anti-slavery  society,  upon  the 
principle  of  immediate  emancipation.  This 
was  the  parent  of  those  numerous  affiliated 
associations  by  which  the  anti-slavery  agitation 
was  for  many  years  maintained.  In  the  spring 
of  1882  he  published  a  work  entitled  **  Thoughts 
on  African  Oolonization,"  &c.,  in  which  he  set 
forth  at  length  the  grounds  of  his  opposition  to 
that  scheme.  He  went  immediately  afterward 
to  England,  as  an  agent  of  the  New  England 
anti-slavery  society,  to  solicit  the  cooperation 
of  the  people  of  that  country  in  measures  de- 
signed to  promote  emancipation  in  the  United 
States,  and  to  lay  before  them  his  views  of  the 
colonization  project.  He  was  warmly  received 
by  Wilberforce,  Brougham,  and  their  associates. 
In  consequence  of  statements  made  by  Mr.  Gar- 
rison, Wilberforce  and  eleven  of  his  principal 
coadjutors  issued  a  protest  against  the  American 
colonization  society,  pronouncing  its  plans  de- 
lusive, and  its  influence  an  obstruction  to  the 
abolition  of  slavery.  He  also  succeeded  in  in- 
ducing Mr.  George  Thompson,  one  of  the  most 
prominent  champions  of  the  anti-slavery  cause 
in  Great  Britain,  to  come  to  the  United  States 
as  an  anti-slavery  lecturer.  Soon  after  Mr. 
Garrison's  return,  the  American  anti-slavery 
society  was  organized  at  Philadelphia,  upon 
the  principles  of  which  he  was  the  champion. 
The  "  Declaration  of  Sentiments  "  issued  by  the 
association — an  elaborate  paper,  setting  forth 
its  principles,  aims,  and  methods — ^was  pre- 
pared by  him.  The  agitation  previously  ex- 
cited was  now  greatly  intensified,  and  at  length 
awakened  a  resistance  which  manifested  it' 


630 


GARRISON 


GARROTE 


self  in  a  mobocratio  spirit,  iosomach  that  for 
several  years  the  holding  of  an  anti-slavery 
meeting  almost  anywhere  in  the  free  states 
was  a  signal  for  riotous  demonstrations,  im- 
perilling property  and  life.  Mr.  Thompson's 
arrival  from  England  in  1834  inflamed  the 
public  mind  to  such  a  degree  that  at  length, 
by  the  advice  of  his  friends,  he  was  induced 
to  desist  from  his  labors  and  return  to  his  na- 
tive land.  In  October,  1835,  a  meeting  of  the 
female  anti-slavery  society  of  Boston  was  riot- 
ously broken  up  by  a  collection  of  peraons, 
described  in  the  Journals  of  the  day  as  ^^gen- 
tlemen of  property  and  standing."  Mr.  Gar- 
rison, who  went  to  the  meeting  to  deliver  an 
address,  after  attempting  to  conceal  himself 
from  the  fury  of  the  mob  in  a  carpenter's  shop 
in  the  rear  of  the  hall,  was  violently  seized,  let 
down  by  a  rope  from  the  window  to  the  ground, 
and,  partly  denuded  of  his  clothing,  dragged 
through  the  streets  to  the  city  hall ;  whence,  as 
the  only  means  of  saving  his  life,  he  was  taken 
to  jail  by  order  of  the  mayor,  upon  the  nomi- 
nal charge  that  he  was  ^*  a  disturber  of  the 
peace."  He  was  released  on  the  following  day, 
and,  under  protection  of  the  city  authorities, 
escorted  to  a  place  of  safety  in  the  country. 
These  scenes  of  violence  were  followed  by  a 
discussion  of  the  peace  question,  in  which  he 
took  an  earnest  part  as  a  champion  of  non- 
resistance;  and  in  1838  he  led  the  way  in  the 
organization  of  the  New  England  non-resis- 
tance society.  About  this  time  the  question 
of  the  rights  of  women  as  members  of  the 
anti-slavery  societies  began  to  be  mooted,  Mr. 
Garrison  contending  that,  so  far  as  they  wished 
to  do  so,  they  should  be  permitted  to  vote, 
serve  on  committees,  and  take  part  in  discus- 
sion, on  equal  terms  with  men.  Upon  this 
question  there  was  a  division  of  the  Ameri- 
can anti-slavery  society  in  1840;  and  in  the 
**  World's  Anti-Slavery  Convention,"  held  that 
year  in  London,  Mr.  Garrison,  being  a  delegate 
from  that  society,  refased  to  take  a  seat  be- 
cause the  female  delegates  from  the  United 
States  were  excluded.  In  1848  he  was  chosen 
president  of  the  society,  and  continued  to  hold 
the  office  till  1865,  when,  slavery  having  been 
abolished,  he  resigned,  deeming  the  time  had 
come  for  the  dissolution  of  the  society.  In 
1846  he  made  his  third  visit  for  anti-slavery 
purposes  to  Great  Britain.  In  1848  a  small 
volume  of  his  "  Sonnets  and  other  Poems"  was 
published  in  Boston ;  and  in  1852  appeared  a 
volume  of  "Selections"  from  his  writings. 
He  was  ever  earnestly  opposed  to  the  forma- 
tion of  a  political  party  by  the  abolitionists, 
from  a  conviction  that  such  a  measure  would 
inevitably  corrupt  the  purity  of  the  movement 
and  postpone  the  day  when  emancipation  might 
be  secured.  He  never  sought  or  contemplated 
the  abolition  of  slavery  in  the  states  by  con- 
gress or  any  other  branch  of  the  national  gov- 
ernment, his  views  as  to  the  powers  of  that 
government  over  the  subject  being  the  same 
that  were  generally  held  by  statesmen  of  all 


parties  at  the  north,  as  well  as  by  many  at  the 
south.  His  first  idea  was  that  slavery  might 
be  abolished  by  moral  influence,  with  such  in- 
cidental aid  as  the  national  government  could 
constitutionally  afford,  and  without  disturbing 
the  union  of  the  states;  but  upon  this  point 
he  at  length  changed  his  opinions,  his  observa- 
tion of  the  movements  of  political  parties  and 
his  reflections  upon  the  provisions  of  the  con- 
stitution relating  to  the  subject  leading  him  to 
the  settied  conclusion  that  some  of  the  condi- 
tions of  compact  between  the  free  and  the  slave 
states  were  immoral,  and  that  a  dissolution  of 
the  Union  was  necessary  to  the  freedom  of 
the  north  and  the  emancipation  of  the  slaves. 
He  continued  to  urge  this  opinion  until  the 
breaking  out  of  the  civil  war  in  1861  changed 
the  entire  aspect  of  the  slavery  question,  and  he 
saw  clearly  that  the  system  must  inevitably 
be  overthrown  by  the  exercise  of  the  war 
powers  of  the  national  government.  Thence- 
forth he  bent  his  energies  to  the  wprk  of  has- 
tening that  consummation ;  and  in  April,  1865, 
by  invitation  of  the  secretary  of  war,  he 
joined  the  party  of  northerners  who  went  to 
South  Carolina  to  see  the  flag  of  an  emancipated 
Union  raised  upon  the  battlements  of  Fort 
Sumter.  The  nrst  number  of  the  *' Libera- 
tor," issued  in  1881,  found  the  whole  nation 
asleep  over  the  wrongs  and  dangers  of  slavery ; 
the  last  number,  issued  on  the  last  of  December, 
1865,  after  85  years  of  conflict  with  the  slave 
power,  recorded  the  ratification  of  an  amend- 
ment to  the  constitution  of  the  United  States, 
for  ever  prohibiting  the  existence  of  slavery. 
The  paper  was  thus  discontinued  at  the  very 
moment  when  the  object  for  which  it  was  es- 
tablished was  fully  consummated.  Soon  after 
the  close  of  the  war,  a  large  number  of  per- 
sons, including  some  of  the  most  eminent  in 
the  land,  united  in  presenting  to  Mr.  Garrison 
the  sum  of  about  $30,000,  in  token  of  their 
appreciation  of  his  unremitting  labors  for  the 
abolition  of  slavery.  In  1 867  he  once  more  visit- 
ed Great  Britain,  where  the  most  distinguished 
citizens  and  statesmen  united  in  honoring  him 
for  his  devotion  to  the  cause  of  the  oppressed. 
GARROTE,  a  mode  of  execution  practised  in 
Spain  and  the  Spanish  colonies.  Tne  criminal 
is  seated,  and  leans  his  head  back  agunst  a 
support  prepared  for  it.  An  iron  collar  dosdy 
encircles  the  throat,  and  the  executioner  turns 
a  screw,  the  point  of  which  penetrates  the 
spinal  marrow  where  it  unites  with  the  brain, 
and  causes  instantaneous  death.  Formerly  the 
garrote  was  merely  a  cord  put  round  the  neck 
and  suddenly  tightened  by  the  twisting  of  a  stick 
inserted  between  the  cord  and  the  back  of  the 
prisoner's  neck.  Henc^  the  name  of  this  mode 
of  execution,  garrote  in  Spanish  signifying  stick. 
Its  origin  may  probably  be  traced  through  the 
Moors  or  Arabs  to  the  oriental  punishment 
of  the  bowstnng,  which  in  its  primitive  style 
it  exactly  resembled.  Afterward  an  iron  col- 
lar was  used  by  which  the  criminal  was  sud- 
denly strangled.    The  piercing  of  the  spinal 


GAEROW 


1  later  addition. — The  tenn  gar- 
rotiDg  is  also  applied  to  a  mode  of  strangn- 
lalioa  practised  hy  thieves  and  highway  rob- 
bers. An  Englieb  law  of  1861  subjected  gar- 
roters  to  penal  serritade  for  life,  or  for  any 
term  not  leas  than  three  years ;  and  m  1868  it 
was  ordered  that  male  garroters  aboald,  at  the 
discretion  of  tbe  judge,  be  once,  twice,  or  thrice 
privately  whipped. 

CAEBOW  (or  Gar*)  HILLS,  an  elevated  district 
of  British  India,  sitnated  in  the  bend  of  the 
Brahmapootra,  where  that  river  turns  from  its 
westerly  course  southward,  between  laL  26° 
and  26°  N.,  and  ion.  SO"  and  91°  E. ;  area, 
S,860  sq.  m.;  pop.  50,000.  The  district  is  a 
square  tract  of  hilla,  plateaus,  and  monntains, 
rising  from  the  adjacent  lowlands  to  heights 
of  from  B,000  to  4,000  ft.  The  prevailing  ge- 
ological formaticin  is  red  and  white  granite, 
overlaid  with  clay  and  sacd  of  like  colors.  It 
is  separated  from  tbe  Cossya  or  Khosia  hills 
on  the  east  by  a  band  of  wood  and  jungle,  IB 
m.  wide,  ranning  along  the  61st  parallel.  The 
(Harrow  bills  form  a  spar  of  the  Burmese  moun- 
tains overhanging  the  valley  of  the  Brahma- 
pootra, but  reaching  the  river  itself  The  conn- 
try  is  finely  wooded,  well  watered,  and  esceed- 
iQgly  fertile,  principally  yielding  cotton.  The 
climate  is  extremely  unhealthy.  In  respect  to 
its  rainfall  the  Garrow  and  Cosaya  region  is 
one  of  the  most  remarkable  localities  on  the 
globe,  from  500  to  800  in.  of  rain  having  been 
known  to  fall  on  the  8.  slope  of  the  mountains 
in  one  year.  The  name  of  the  district  is  de- 
rived from  the  appellation  of  its  inbabitanta, 
concerning  whom  very  little  is  known.  They 
have  m^Dtiuned  a  aingnlor  isolation  daring  tbe 
whole  period  of  British  supremacy  in  India, 
and  no  eSectnal  jarisdiction  was  exercised  over 
their  territory  till  1S6G,  nor  has  their  conntry 
ever  yet  been  thoroughly  explored.  They  are 
an  active,  dark-skinned  race,  usually  classed 
with  the  aboriginal  anb-Himalayan  tribes ;  eth- 
nologicAlly  they  are  believed  to  be  closely  re- 
lated to  the  Gonds  of  central  India.  They  are 
addicted  to  hereditary  blood  fends.  The  dis- 
trict is  now  under  the  snpervision  of  the  Ben- 
gal government,  being  included  poUtically  in 
the  non-regulation  division  of  Assam.  Ameri- 
can roisaionaries  maintain  eight  schools  in  it. 

GISTES,  Order  ef  the,  the  highest  British  or- 
der of  knighthood,  and  one  of  the  oldest  and 
most  illustrious  of  the  military  orders  of  knight- 
hood in  Europe,  commonly  said  to  have  been 
instituted  by  Edward  III.  of  England,  about 
I860.  The  precise  date  of  its  foundation  has 
been  mnch  dispnted.  In  Hostel's  "  Obronicle  " 
it  is  stated  that  tbe  order  was  devised  in  1192 
by  Kichard  I.,  who  made  36  of  his  knights 
wear  blue  thongs  of  leather  aronnd  their  legs 
in  a  battle  fought  with  the  Saracens  on  Bt. 
Geoi^'s  day.  One  account  says  that  Edward 
in  1846  gave  his  garter  for  the  ngnal  of  a  bat- 
tle (supposed  to  be  that  of  Cr6cy)  which  was 
orowned  with  buccosb  ;  and  being  victorious  on 
land  and  sea,  and  having  as  prisoner  David, 


GARTER 


631 


king  of  Bootland,  he  instituted  this  order,  April 
2S,  1349,  in  memory  of  these  exfiloits.  Ac- 
cording to  Selden,  the  order  was  instituted  April 
28,  1844;  according  to  Nicolas,  in  1347;  ac- 
cording to  Ashmole,  in  1349.  In  Burke's  "Peer- 
age" it  is  said  that  "the  moat  noble  order  of 
the  garter  was  instituted  by  Edward  III.  about 
August,  1848."  In  tbe  accounts  of  the  great 
wardrobe  the  garters  of  the  order  are  first 
mentioned  in  1348.  Most  writers,  however, 
agree  that  its  institution  dates  from  a  tourna- 
ment at  Windsor,  held  April  23, 1344,  to  which 
Edward  invited  the  moat  illuatnoiiH  kuights. 
It  was  founded  in  honor  of  the  Trinity,  the 
Vi^n  Mary,  St.  George,  and  8t.  Edward  the 
Confessor;  and  St.  George,  who  was  already 
the  tutelar  s^t  of  England,  was  considered  its 
especial  patron  and  protector.  An  ancient  tra- 
dition connects  the  emblem  of  the  order  with 
the  story  popularly  told  of  Edward  and  the 
countess  of  Salisbury.    When  she  happened  at 


IiulgDia  et  the  Order  of  tba  Outer. 


a  ball  to  drop  her  garter,  the  king  took  It  np  and 
presented  it  to  her,  at  tlie  same  time  exclaim- 
ing, with  reference  to  those  who  smiled  at  tbe 
action:  ffoni  loit  gtii  fOal  y  perue  ("Evil to 
him  who  evil  thinks").  Edward  added  "that 
shortly  they  should  see  that  garter  advanced 
to  so  high  an  honor  and  renown  as  to  account 
themselves  happy  t^  wear  it." — The  habit  and 
insignia  of  the  order  are:  Tbe  garter,  of  dark 
blue  velvet,  edged  with  gold,  bearing  themotto 
in  golden  letters,  with  buckle  and  pendant  of 
gold,  richly  chased,  worn  on  the  left  leg  below 
the  knee ;  the  mantle,  of  blue  velvet,  lined  with 
white  taffeta,  with  a  star  embroidered  on  the 
left  breast;  the  ^ood,  of  crimson  velvet;  the 
aurcoat,  likewise  of  crimson  velvet,  lined  with 
white  taffeta;  the  hat,  of  black  velvet,  lined 
with  white  teffeta;  a  plume  of  white  ostrich 
feathers,  having  in  the  centre  a  tuft  of  black 
heron's  feathers,  all  fastened  to  the  hat  by  a 
band  of  diamonds;  the  collar,  of  gold,  eon- 


632 


GARTH 


GAS 


sisting  of  26  pieces,  each  in  form  of  a  garter, 
enamelled  azure ;  the  George,  or  figure  of  St. 
George  on  horseback  encountering  the  dragon, 
attached  to  the  collar,  and  the  lesser  George 
pendent  from  a  broad  dark  blue  ribbon  over 
the  left  shoulder;  the  star,  of  eight  points, 
silver,  upon  the  centre  of  which  is  the  cross 
of  St.  George,  gules,  encircled  with  the  gar- 
ter; and  the  ribbon  of  the  order,  garter 
bine.  By  a  statute  passed  Jan.  15,  1805,  the 
order  is  to  consist  of  the  sovereign  and  25 
knights  companions,  together  with  such  lineal 
descendants  of  George  II.  as  may  be  elected, 
always  excepting  the  prince  of  Wales,  who  is 
a  constituent  part  of  the  original  institution. 
Special  statutes  have  since  at  different  times 
been  proclaimed  for  the  admission  of  sovereigns 
and  extra  knights,  the  latter  of  whom  have, 
however,  always  become  part  of  the  25  com- 
panions on  the  occurrence  of  vacancies.  The 
last  sovereign  elected  was  the  sultan  Abdul- 
Aziz,  who  was  invested  by  the  queen  on  board 
of  her  yacht  at  the  naval  review,  July  17, 1867. 
The  knights  are  designated  as  K.  G.,  *^  knights 
of  the  garter;"  their  strict  designation,  how- 
ever, is  equites  aurea  perUeelidU^  ^^  knights  of 
tlie  golden  garter."  At  the  beginning  of  1878 
there  were,  besides  the  queen  and  the  prince  of 
Wales,  47  knights  of  the  garter.  They  were : 
the  duke  of  Edinburgh,  Prince  Arthur,  and 
Prince  Leopold,  sons  of  the  queen;  the  ex- 
king  of  Hanover  and  the  duke  of  Cambridge, 
members  of  the  royal  family ;  the  ex-emperor 
of  the  French,  the  king  of  Italy,  the  emperor 
of  Germany,  the  king  of  Portugal,  the  king  of 
Denmark,  the  king  of  the  Belgians,  the  empe- 
ror of  Austria,  the  emperor  of  Russia,  the  sul- 
tan of  Turkey,  and  the  emperor  of  Brazil ;  the 
crown  prince  of  Germany,  and  7  other  Ger- 
man dukes  and  princes,  and  24  British  peers. 
The  oflScers  of  the  order  were :  the  bishop  of 
Winchester,  prelate ;  the  bishop  of  Oxford, 
chancellor;  the  garter  principal  of  arms,  and 
the  usher  of  the  black  rod. 

GARTH,  Sir  Samvel,  an  English  physician  and 
poet,  bom  in  Yorkshire,  died  in  London,  Jan. 
18,  1719.  He  studied  medicine  at  Cambridge, 
settled  in  London  in  1698,  and  soon  secured 
an  extensive  practice,  and  became  noted  for 
his  classical  taste,  liberality,  and  social  habits. 
A  quarrel  had  existed  for  some  years  between 
the  physicians  who  advocated  and  the  apothe- 
caries who  opposed  the  establishment  of  a  free 
dispensary  for  the  poor.  Garth  sided  with  the 
former,  and  wrote  in  their  support  "  The  Dis- 
pensary," a  satirical  poem  of  2,000  lines  in 
imitation  of  Boileau^s  Lutrin  (1699;  9th  re- 
vised ed.,  1706).  Garth  was  the  leading  whig 
physician  of  the  time,  and  a  member  of  the 
Eit-oat  club.  He  wrote  several  short  poems, 
and  partly  made  a  translation  of  Ovid's  ^*  Met- 
amorphoses" (1717),  to  which  Diyden,  Ad- 
dison, Gay,  and  many  others  contributed.  He 
was,  knighted  by  George  I.  in  1714. 

(i2jtTN£R9  JMcph,  a  German  botanist,  bom 
in  Galw,  WOrtemberg,  March  22,  1782^  died 


July  18, 1791.  He  studied  at  Tftftingen  and 
GOttingen,  travelled  in  Italy,  France,  England, 
and  Holland,  became  professor  of  anatomy  at 
TtLbingen  in  1761,  and  of  botany  at  St.  Peters- 
burg in  1768.  He  returned  to  Calw  after  two 
years,  where  he  devoted  himself  for  the  re- 
mainder of  his  life  to  the  stady  of  botany,  ma- 
king several  long  journeys  for  that  purpose. 
His  labors  are  important  in  the  history  of  this 
science,  since  he  was  the  first  to  observe  that 
plants  are  naturally  divided  into  classes  by 
their  carpological  features.  His  principal  work 
is  De  Fructihu»  et  Seminibui  JPlantarum  {2 
vols.,  Stuttgart,  1789-'91). 

^kAKTE)  Clulstlaii,  a  German  philosopher,  bom 
in  Breslau,  Jan.  7,  1742,  died  there,  Dec.  1, 
1798.  He  succeeded  Gellert  as  professor  of 
philosophy  at  Leipsic  in  1769,  but  ill  health 
compelled  him  to  return  to  Breslau  in  1772. 
Kant  appreciated  his  rare  psychological  genius 
and  his  benevolent  nature.  His  numerous 
writings,  some  of  which  are  in  Latin,  relate 
chiefly  to  the  philosophy  of  history  and  of  life, 
and  to  ethics  and  literature.  He  translated 
works  of  Aristotle,  Paley,  and  Adam  Smith, 
and  Cicero's  De  Officiu^  tiie  last  at  the  sugges- 
tion of  Frederick  the  Great,  of  whom  Garve 
was  an  enthusiastic  admirer,  as  evinced  in  his 
Froffmente  relating  to  that  monarch. 

CAS  (Sax.  gast^  Ger.  Oeut^  Dutch  gee9t^  spirit), 
a  generic  term  used  to  designate  any  a^nform 
fluid  which  is  neither  liquefied  nor  solidified  at 
ordinary  temperatures  and  pressure,  introduced 
by  Van  Hehnont  in  the  early  part  of  the  17th 
century.  Excepting  the  atmosphere,  little  was 
known  of  a&riform  bodies  by  the  ancients ;  but, 
under  the  name  spiritus  or  flatus^  artificial  gas 
had  been  referred  to  by  writers  between  the 
14th  and  17th  centuries.  It  seems,  however, 
to  have  been  generally  believed  that  such  gases 
were  only  impure  atmospheric  air.  ParaocJbns 
noticed  the  evolution  of  gas  by  the  action  of 
oil  of  vitriol  on  iron  as  an  eruption  of  air,  bat 
seems  to  have  attached  no  special  importanoe 
to  it.  Van  Helmont  was  the  first  to  attempt 
any  systematic  examination  of  gases,  and  to 
make  a  distinction  between  them  and  vapors; 
but  his  knowledge  was  necessarily  imperfect, 
as  he  was  not  aware  of  the  fact,  long  afterward 
demonstrated  by  Faraday,  that  most  gases  are 
condensible  as  well  as  vapors.  The  diflTerent 
gases  are  described  under  their  respective  titles. 
Most  of  their  physical  properties,  and  thdr  ab- 
sorption by  liquids  and  solids,  are  treated  of  in 
the  articles  Heat,  Pneumatics,  Atmosphkbb, 
and  Absobption,  together  with  notices  of  the 
principal  discoveries  pertaining  thereto.  The 
laws  of  their  chemical  c<»nbination  are  treat- 
ed in  the  article  Atomic  Thbobt.  In  the 
present  article«will  be  considered  the  general 
management  and  the  diflfusion  of  gases,  and 
illuminating  gas.  I.  Management  of  Gasbs. 
The  collection  and  preservation  of  gases  for 
experiment  and  observation  may  be  effected 
by  one  of  three  methods,  depending  upon  the 
nature  of  the  gas  and  the  mode  of  its  genera- 


tion.     1.  It  ma7  be  reoMved  in  an  eihaoatetl 

Teasel  hy  meuiB  of  a  tube  and  stopeoclc.  Thie 
method  maallj  reqnirea  that  the  vessel  be  sev- 
eral timea  filled  with  tlie  gaa  and  eihaasted,  to 
remove  the  re^daal  nit  which  always  remains 
at  the  first  exhaastioa  In  couseqaence  of  in- 
ability to  produce  a  perfect  vacanm.  Bags, 
which  may  be  very  nearly  emptied  of  their 
eontenla,  are  often  conveniently  employed  in 
this  method  of  coUootion.  2.  BydiBplaoement. 
This  is  done  by  fill- 
ing a  bell  gloBS  with 
water  in  a  pneumatic 
cistern,  piacing  it  on 
the  Hhell^  and  bring- 
ing the  mouth  of  the 
tube  delivering  the 
gas  beneath  it,  as 
represented  in  fig.  1. 

. When  the  gaa  to  be 

collected  is  ea«ly  ab- 
sorbed by  water,  aome  other  liquid  is  chosen, 
nsnally  mercury.  A  modification  of  this  plan, 
often  used  in  collecting  gases  slightly  absorbable 
by  water,  as  hydrogen  and  oxygen,  for  ordinary 
experimental  purposes,  is  to  use  a  gaa-hotder, 
oonusting  of  a  copper  oylindrical  vessel,  A,  fig, 
3,  open  at  the  top,  in 
which  is  received  a 
cylinder,  B,  closed  at 
the  top  and  open  be- 
low, and  counterbal- 
anced by  a  weight 
attached    to  a  cord 

Biwing  over  poUeys. 
y  filling  the  outer 
cylinder  with  water, 
opening  the  stopoock 
e  in  the  upper  one, 
and  depressing  it,  all 
the  air  may  be  forced 
out.  Then,  by  at- 
taching the  deliver- 
ing pipe  to  the  stop- 
cock d  in  the  outer 
cylinder,  the  gsa  will 
ascend  into  the  inner 
one,  which  will  rise 
aa  the  pressure  is  re- 
stored to  its  interior. 
When  a  strong  jet  is  required  for  use,  weights 
may  be  laid  upon  the  inner  cylinder  and  the 
counterbalance  weights  removed.  Another 
form  of  gas-holder  is  represented  in  fig.  S.  A 
drum  of  copper,  A,  has  mounted  upon  it  a 
ahallow  vessel,  B,  commnnioatiug  by  two  tubes 
with  stopcocks,  g  and  A,  one  of  the  tubes 
passing  to  near  the  bottom  of  the  cylinder, 
while  the  other  only  enters  the  top.  A  wator 
gauge,  ef,  shows  the  height  of  water  in  the 
drum;  an  opening  at  t  admits  the  end  of  the 
tube  snpplymg  the  gas,  and  a  stopcock  at  e  is 
for  its  eiiL  To  use  the  apparatus,  open  the 
stopcocks,  close  the  opening  t  with  a  plug,  and 

rur  water  into  the  vessel  B  nntil  the  drum 
filled;  then  close  the  stopooeks  and  remove 


Fie.  S.— au-holdo. 


the  ping  from  the  opening  e.  Atmospheric  pres- 
snre  prevents  the  water  from  fiowing  out  In- 
troduce the  end  of 
the  tube  gnpplying 
gas ;  it  will  ascend 
in  the  drum,  dispia- 
cing  an  equal  volume 
of  water,  whichtlows 
out  at  t.  When  suf- 
ficient gas  has  been 
introduced,  close  the 
opening  t,  and  open 
the  stopcock  g.  The 
gas  in  tlie  drum  wilt 
then  receive  a  hydro- 
static pressure  equal 

to  the  height  of  the  Fn.  s^-Ou-boldar. 

column  of  water  in 

the  tube  and  npper  vessel  above  the  level  of 
water  in  the  drum.  The  stopcock  e  may 
then  be  connected  with  any  apparatus  to 
which  it  may  be  desired  to  deliver  the  gas. 
The  forms  of  apparatus  of  this  kind  may  be 
varied  indefinitely,  but  these  examples  will 
suffice  for  illustration.  When  it  is  desirable  to 
separate  mixed  gases,  which  are  absorbable  in 
different  degrees  by  difierent  liquids,  or  when 
it  is  desired  to  saturate  a  liquid  witli  a  gas, 
on  apparatus  called  Woulfe's  bottles  (fig.  4}  is 
often  used.  The  gas  ia  mode  to  enter  each 
bottle  at  a  and  to  pass  out  at «.  A  safety  and 
supply  tube,  «,  passes  through  a  middle  neck 
to  below  the  surface  of  the  liquid.  A  cup  at 
the  upper  end  ia  for  the  purpose  of  reoeiviug  a 
portion  of  liquid  which  may  be  forced  np  the 
tube  by  any  sudden  expansion.  The  number  of 
bottlee  employed  may  be  varied  according  to 


Fio.  4.— Wonlfc'*  BolUfli. 

the  requiremente  of  the  case.  II.  Ditfubioh 
or  Gabbs.  All  gases,  when  mingled  together 
meohanioally  in  any  proportion,  tend  to  diffiue 
themselves  uniformly,  regardless  of  their  spe- 
(ufio  gravities.  Thus,  if  two  bottles  are  con- 
nected together  by  on  upright  glass  tube  10  or 
13  inches  long  and  about  ^  of  an  inoh  in  cali- 
bre, and  the  upper  bottle  is  filled  with  the 
lightest  of  all  gases,  hydrc^n,  and  the  lower 
one  with  oxygen,  whose  specific  gravity  is  IS 
tomes  that  of  hydrogen,  or  with  carbonic  acid, 
which  is  22  times  as  dense,  after  the  lapse  of 
two  or  three  days  the  two  gases  will  be  found 
Ut  have  the  same  proportion  to  each  other  in 
both  bottles.  This  was  the  original  experiment 
of  Balton,  published  in  vol.  x»v.  of  the  "  Phil- 


634 


GAS 


OBophical  Magazine.^'  The  same  result  was 
obtained  by  BertboUet  with  a  tube  10  inch- 
es long  and  one  fifth  of  an  inch  in  calibre, 
when  the  apparatus  was  placed  in  a  position 
which  secured  a  uniform  temperature,  so  that 
no  motion  could  be  communicated  to  the  gases. 
When  the  upper  vessel  contained  hydrogen, 
the  time  occupied  in  difirision  wajB  about  12 
days;  but  when  it  contained  air,  oxygen,  or 
nitrogen,  several  weeks  were  occupied  in  the 
complete  diffusion.  If  a  cylinder  is  filled  with 
any  gas  and  placed  in  a  horizontal  position, 
and  an  open  tube  bent  at  right  angles  is  in- 
serted at  one  end,  turned  upward  if  the  gas 
is  lighter  than  air,  and  downward  if  heavier, 
after  a  time  the  gas  will  escape  from  the  cylin- 
der and  its  place  be  occupied  by  air.  The  re- 
sults given  in  the  following  table  were  ob- 
tained by  Graham,  and  show  the  proportions 
of  different  gases  which  escaped  from  100  vol- 
umes in  four  and  in  ten  hours : 


NAME  OF  GAS. 

Hvdrogen 

Light  carburetted  hydrogen 

Ammonia 

Oleflantgas 

Carbonic  acid 

Bnlphurous  acid 

Chlorine 


8p.gr. 

In4h. 

1 

61-6 

8 

48*4 

8-6 

41-4 

14 

84-9 

22 

81-6 

82 

27-6 

85-4 

28-7 

In  10  h. 

94-6 
62-7 
60-6 
48-8 
47-0 
46*0 
89-5 


It  is  here  seen  that  the  lighter  gases  are  the 
more  readily  they  escape,  and  that  this  ten- 
dency to  diffusion  is  nearly  in  the  inverse  pro- 
portion of  the  square  root  of  their  densities.  If 
the  cylinder  contains  a  mixture  of  gases,  those 
which  are  the  lightest  and  therefore  the  most 
readily  diffusible  will  escape  with  the  greatest 
rapidity.  Vapors  also  diffuse  themselves  among 
one  another  and  among  the  permanent  gases 
in  accordance  with  the  same  law.  If  the 
mouth  of  the  tube,  in  the  apparatus  mentioned 
above,  is  closed  with  a  porous  substance  like 
plaster  of  Paris  or  wood,  and  the  cylinder  is 
filled  with  hydrogen,  this  gas  will  escape  much 
faster  than  the  air  will  enter.  It  appears, 
therefore,  that  the  smaller  the  calibre  of  the 
orifices  through  which  the  difiusion  takes  place, 
the  greater  will  be  the  proportional  rapidity 

of  the  transfusion  of  the 
lighter  gas ;  a  fact  having  a 
close  relation  to  the  phe- 
nomena of  osmose,  which  it 
greatly  aids  in  explaining. 
Graham  has  made  extensive 
experiments  on  the  diffbsion 
of  gases.  By  using  an  instru- 
ment called  a  dif^sion  tube 
or  diffusiometer,  by  means 
of  which  exact  measurement 
could  be  made  of  the  rate 
at  which  interchange  took 
place,  he  found  that  diffesion 
through  porous  septa  follow- 
ed the  same  law  as  when  the 
communication  was  by  tubes  of  sensible  diam- 
eter; that  is,  that  the  diffhsibility  of  gases  is  in 


ViQ.  5. — Groham^s 
DiffUslometer. 


proportion  to  the  square  root<s  of  their  densities. 
The  diffusiometer  used  by  Graham  (fig.  5)  con- 
sists of  a  glass  tube  of  about  one  inch  calibre 
and  one  foot  in  length,  and  a  vessel  partly 
filled  with  mercury.  One  end  of  the  tube  is 
stopped  with  a  plug  of  plaster  of  Paris,  one 
fifth  of  an  inch  thick,  which  is  formed  by  mix- 
ing the  plaster  into  a  paste  with  water,  intro- 
ducing it  while  in  a  plastic  state,  and  allowing 
it  to  set  and  dry.  When  the  tube  is  filled 
with  hydrogen  and  ils  open  end  placed  in 
the  vessel  of  mercury,  diffusion  takes  place 
through  the  porous  plaster  plug,  the  atmospher- 
ic air  passing  in  and  the  hydrogen  passing  out; 
but  the  latter  action  is  so  much  the  more  rapid 
that  in  three  minutes  the  mercury  will  rise  in 
the  tube  three  inches  above  its  level  in  the 
outer  vessel,  and  in  20  minutes  all  the  hydro- 
gen will  escape.  Graham  afterward  used  com- 
pressed graphite,  such  as  is  used  in  making 
writing  pencils,  in  place  of  the  plaster  of  Paris, 
and  considered  it  superior;  but  the  results 
which  he  obtained  with  it  did  not  alter  the 
conclusions  arrived  at  in  the  first  series  of  ex- 
periments;— Atmolyns,  or  the  Separation  of 
Gasea  by  Diffusion,  When  a  mixture  of  gases 
passes  tiirough  a  graphite  plate  into  a  vacuum, 
a  rapid  separation  takes  place,  in  proportion, 
to  the  difference  of  pressure.  This  method  of 
separation  may  be  performed  with  an  apparatus 
called  an  atmolyser  (fig.  6).    A  porous  earth- 


Fio.  6.— AtmolyMr. 

en  ware  pipe,  a,  passes  from  a  bag,  h,  containing 
the  mixed  gases,  to  the  receiver  c,  over  a  pneu- 
matic cistern.  A  large  tube,  0,  surrounds  the 
smaller  one,  and  the  space  between  them  is 
kept  as  nearly  vacuous  as  possible  by  means  of 
an  air  pump  exhausting  through  the  tube  cL 
A  slight  pressure  upon  the  bag  causes  the  gases 
to  fiow  through  the  tube  a,  but  the  lighter 
ones  will  to  a  great  extent  pass  through  the 
sides  of  the  tube  and  be  removed  by  tiie  air 
pumps.  In  an  experiment  made  in  this  man- 
ner with  atmospheric  air,  the  proportion  of 
oxygen  was  increased  to  24*5  per  cent  When 
a  mixture  of  oxygen  and  hydrogen  is  used,  the 
separation  is  much  greater.  In  one  experiment 
an  explosive  mixture  of  one  volume  of  oxygen 
with  two  of  hydrogen,  after  atmolysis,  con- 
tained only  9 '8  per  cent,  of  hydrogen,  in  which 
a  taper  burned  without  producing  explosion. 
The  diffusion  of  gases  through  one  another  was 
regarded  by  Dalton  as  a  necessary  consequence 
of  the  self-repulsive  property  of  the  particles 
of  gaseous  bodies,  by  reason  of  which  each  gas 
expands  into  the  space  occupied  by  the  other 
as  it  would  into  a  vacuum.  But  although  the 
velocities  with  which  they  difi\ise  into  each 
other  are  in  proportion  to  those  with  which 


GAS 


635 


they  ruBb  into  a  vacQum  through  an  aperture 
in  a  thin  plate,  still  they  do  not  strictly  act  as 
vacua  to  each  other ;  for  the  diffhsion  of  one 
gas  into  another  is  vastly  slower  than  its  pas- 
sage into  a  vacuum.  III.  IixuMiNATiKa  Gas. 
This  is  to  a  limited  extent  obtained  from  natural 
sources,  but  the  great  supplies  are  made  from 
the  following  substances:  1,  coal;  2,  wood; 
3,  peat;  4,  resin;  5,  petroleum;  6,  oils  and 
fats ;  7,  water  and  coke.  There  are  many  lo* 
calities  where  combustible  gases  have  long  been 
known  to  issue  from  the  earth.  Gas  has  been 
used  in  China  for  centuries,  conveyed  in  bam- 
boo tubes  from  fissures  in  salt  mines  in  exca- 
vations from  1,200  to  1,600  ft.  in  depth.  Near 
the  Caspian  sea  in  Asia  there  are  several  so- 
called  eternal  fires  caused  by  gas  issuing  from 
the  soil.  In  the  Szalatna  salt  mine  in  Hun- 
gary illuminating  gas  constantly  issues  from  a 
muddy  clay  contained  between  rock-salt  strata. 
The  Tillage  of  Fredonia,  N.  Y.,  is  lighted  by 
gas  which  issues  from  bituminous  limestone  in- 
terspersed among  the  slates  and  sandstones  of 
the  Portage  group.  This  gas  consists  of  a  mix- 
ture of  marsh  gas,  OH4,  and  hydride  of  ethyl, 
CaHs.  A  flow  of  natural  gas  issued  from  a 
well  which  was  sunk  in  1865  at  West  Bloom- 
field,  Ontario  co.,  N.  Y.,  for  the  purpose  of  ob- 
taining petroleum.  Its  composition,  according 
to  Profs.  SiUiman  and  Wurtz,  is:  marsh  gas, 
82*41 ;  carbonic  acid,  10*11 ;  nitrogen,  4*81 ; 
oxygen,  0*28 ;  illuminating  hydrocarbon,  2*94. 
It  was  carried  in  a  wooden  main  to  the  city  of 
Rochester,  a  distance  of  24  miles,  in  1870,  for 
the  purpose  of  illuminating  the  city,  but  the 
experiment  was  a  failure.  Such  gas  has  also 
been  known  to  issue  from  beneath  peat  bogs, 
as  that  of  Ghatmoss,  near  the  Manchester  and 
Liverpool  railway  in  England.  These  natural 
gases  are  of  variable  composition,  light  car- 
buretted  hydrogen  or  marsh  gas  being  usual- 
ly the  principal  constituent. — Goal  Oclb,  The 
first  artificial  production  of  illuminating  gas 
from  coal  is  due  to  Dr.  Hales  or  the  Rev. 
John  Clayton,  rector  of  Orofton,  Wakefield, 
Yorkshire,  England.  Dr.  Hales  describes  in 
a  book  published  in  1727,  called  "Vegetable 
Statics,'^  an  experiment  by  which  he  obtained 
180  cubic  inches  of  infiammable  air  from  158 
grains  of  Newcastle  coal.  In  1659  Mr.  Thomas 
Shirley  communicated  a  paper  to  the  royal  so- 
ciety on  an  infiammable  gas  which  issued  from 
a  well  near  Wigan  in  Lancashire;  and  the 
Rev.  John  Clayton  nearly  a  century  later,  in 
examining  the  locality,  found  that  the  gas  is- 
sued from  a  bed  of  coal.  The  experiment  of 
subjecting  the  coal  to  heat  was  made,  with 
the  result  of  obtaining  an  illuminating  gas, 
which,  being  collected  in  bladders,  could  be 
burned  in  jets.  An  account  of  these  experi- 
ments was  communicated  to  the  royal  society 
in  1739.  Dr.  Rickel,  professor  of  chemistry  at 
Wtlrzburg,  in  1786  lighted  his  laboratory  with 
gas  made  by  the  dry  distillation  of  bones ;  and 
in  the  same  year  Earl  Dundonald  of  Scotland, 
in  obtaining  tar  from  the  distillation  of  coals, 


also  collected  an  illuminating  gas,  with  which 
he  lighted  Culross  abbey  by  way  of  experi- 
ment. The  first  practical  attempt  at  gas  light- 
ing is  however  generally  accredited  to  William 
llurdoch,  who  in  1792  used  coal  gas  for  light- 
ing his  workshops  at  Redruth  in  Cornwall. 
His  invention  remained  unknown  till  about 
1802,  when  it  was  introduced  at  the  Soho 
foundery  of  Boulton  and  Watt,  near  Birming- 
ham. In  the  mean  time  Lebon,  a  Frenchman, 
used  gas  made  from  wood  for  lighting  his  house, 
and  was  therefore  considered  by  the  French  as 
the  inventor  of  gas  lighting.  In  1804  Mr.  Mur- 
doch lighted  the  mills  of  Phillips  and  Lee  at 
Manchester  with  gas  which  yielded  an  amount 
of  light  equal  to  that  of  8,000  sperm  candles.  In 
1818  London  bridge  was  lighted  with  gas,  and 
about  the  same  time  it  was  introduced  into  the 
streets  in  that  part  of  the  city ;  but  it  was  not 
introduced  into  Paris  till  1820. — ^Bituminous 
coals,  such  as  English  cannel  and  boghead  coals, 
Ohio  cannel,  and  the  caking  coals  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, Maryland,  and  Virginia,  are  used  in  this 
manuifacture.  The  following  may  be  consid- 
ered as  the  average  composition  of  caking  and 
cannel  coals : 


OONSTnUEMTS. 

Oftrbon 

Hydrogen 

Kltroeren 

aT?!;;;;;;:::::::::::: 


CkkfaiK. 


87-752 
5-289 
1-702 
8'606 
1-898 


CasaA. 


75-25 
5-50 
1-61 

18-68 
2-81 


There  are  also  small  quantities  of  sulphur  and 
iron,  mostly  in  the  form  of  iron  pyrites.  The 
nitrogen  has  its  origin  in  the  organic  matter 
from  which  the  coal  is  derived.  When  bitu- 
minous coal  is  heated  to  redness  in  the  presence 
of  air,  it  is  principally  converted  into  gases 
which  unite  with  oxygen ;  but  if  air  is  excluded, 
as  when  the  coal  is  confined  in  retorts,  the  gas- 
eous products,  unable  to  unite  with  oxygen, 
may  be  collected  in  receivers  and  burned  in 
tubes.  The  products  of  the  destructive  dis- 
tillation of  bituminous  coal  consist  of  a  great 
number  of  gases,  liquids,  and  solids,  which  may 
be  conveniently  included  under  the  following 
heads,  according  to  an  analysis  by  Bunsen : 


Coke 68-98 

Tar 12-28 

Water 7-40 

Marsh  gas 7-04 

Carbonic  oxide 1*18 

Carbonic  add 1*07 


Oleflantgas 0*78 

Bolphoretted       hydro- 
gen   0*75 

Hydrogen 0*50 

Ammonia 0*17 

Nitrogen 0*09 


The  olefiant  gas  here  represents  not  pure 
heavy  carburetted  hydrogen  or  elayl,  but  a 
mixture,  in  variable  quantities,  of  acetylene, 
CaH.,  elayl,  0,H4,  trityl,  O.H.,  ditetryl,  0«He, 
and  several  hydrocarbon  vapors.  There  are 
also  small  quantities  of  cyanogen  and  sulpho- 
cyanogen.  (See  Distillation,  Destbuotive.) 
— Upon  the  temperature  to  which  the  coal  is 
subjected  depend  the  products  of  distillation, 
which  are  formed  by  a  rearrangement  of  the 
elements  of  the  coal.     The  lower  the  heat, 


the  less  will  be  the  weight  of  coke  or  car- 
boDoceouB  residue  in  the  retort,  and  there- 
fore the  greater  will  be  the  qaantjt7  of  car- 
bon which  remaina  combined  with  hjdn^n ; 
but  the  hj'drocarboiis  to  formed  will  be  most- 
]j  liqnid  and  solid,  and  not  gaseouB.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  higher  the  temperature  the 
greater  will  be  the  weight  of  solid  carbona- 
ceona  residne ;  and  the  proportion  of  perma- 
nent  gases  will  be  increased,  and  their  levitj 
also,  To  proportion  to  the  heat,  so  that  they 
maj  be  atmost  entirel;  coiDpoeed  of  bjdr^en 
and  carbonic  oxide.  A  mean  t«mperatQre  has 
therefore  to  be  employed  by  the  gas  mannfac- 
tnrer,  and  this  will  also  depend  npon  the  qual- 
ity of  the  coal  or  other  material  Dsed.  Praoti- 
oally  it  is  impossible  to  sabject  the  entire  mass 
of  coal  to  the  most  favorable  conditions,  be- 


cause the  different  portions  contained  in  are- 
tort  are  necessarily  Bnbjeet«d  to  different  de- 
grees of  heat.— The  mannfactnre  of  gas  from 
coal,  as  well  as  from  wood,  petroleum,  or  rerio, 
consists  of  three  proceesee :  1 ,  the  distillation  of 
the  crude  gaa ;  3,  its  separation  ftoni  tarry  and 
other  conden«ble  matters:  8,  its  purification 
from  other  deleterious  and  unpleasant  gaice. 
The  distillation  is  performed  in  nre-clay  retorts 
placed  ia  ftimacee,  from  fire  to  ten  retorts 
being  placed  in  one  fnmaoe  in  large  works, 
which  may  contain  100  fnmaces.  They  are 
asnally  of  a  semi-cylindrical  shape,  somewhat 
like  that  of  a  sole  drun  tile,  abont  9  ft.  m 
length,  and  fiy>m  16  to  20  in.  in  diameter. 
Tbey  were  formerly  made  of  cast  iron,  aa  fire 
clay  was  too  poroos  and  allowed  the  gas  to 
escape ;  but  smoe  the  introdnctioQ  of  appara- 


Fio.  t^-STiapttnl  Flu  of  Ou  WorkL 


tua  for  relieving  the  pressnre,  which  will  be 
described  further  on,  nre-clay  retorts  are  foimd 
aofflcientjy  tight,  and  are  much  more  durable. 
Uoreover,  they  may  be  glazed  and  rendered 
more  impervious  than  iron.  A  longitudinal 
section  of  a  furnace  and  two  retorts  is  ahown 
in  fig.  7,  and  also  a  plan  of  the  different 
parts  of  s  gas  worka,  ao  arranged  as  to  give  an 
idea  of  the  process  of  manufacture,  bnt  not 
showing  the  parts  in  their  actual  position,  aa 
this  would  be  impossible  in  one  figm^.  The 
two  retorts,  of  a  set  of  five,  are  shown  at  a,  a, 
the  inraace  at  I,  the  chimney  at  e.  The  retorta 
are  first  raised  to  a  red  heat,  and  then  charged 
about  two  thirds  full  with  coal  by  means  of  a 
kind  of  scoop  having  somewhat  the  form  of 
the  retort,  and  about  the  same  length,  which 
is  introduced  by  two  men,  turned  over,  and 
withdrawn.  The  operation  is  called  stoking, 
and  the  men  who  perfonn  it  stokers.  Machi- 
nery isnow  being  introduced  in  this  country  and 
in  Europe,  by  which  it  will  be  performed  by 
steam  power.  From  100  to  200  lbs.  are  nsnally 
introduced  at  one  charge.  A  lid  ia  then  fitted 
to  the  mouthpiece  of  the  retort  with  bolts  and 
a  luting  of  gypsum  mixed  with  iron  filings,  and 


a  host  of  abont  2,200°  continned  for  about  five 
hoars.  The  constituents  of  the  oool  are  thus 
converted  into  the  products  given  in  the  above 
table,  and  those  portions,  comprising  all  ex- 
cept the  coke,  which  are  volatile  at  that  tem- 
peratnre,  pass  into  the  tube  d,  called  the  Stand 
pipe,  which  ascends  from  the  month  of  the  re- 
tort and  ia  inserted  into  the  hydraulic  main, 
a  transverse  section  of  which  is  shown  at  e. 
This  is  a  long  tube,  usually  semi-cylindrical, 
and  from  IB  to  24  in.  in  diameter,  running  the 
whole  length  of  a  row  of  ftimaces,  which  may 
be  100  or  200  ft.  When  the  operation  of  dia- 
tillation  commences,  the  main  is  partly  filled 
with  water,  into  which  the  stand  pipes  lead- 
ing from  the  retort  dip  and  dischat^e  all  the 
gases  and  vanora,  a  considerable  portion  of 
which,  from  the  reduction  of  temperatnre,  are 
there  condensed,  forming  tar  and  smmoniacal 
liquor,  which  would  soon  fill  the  main  were  it 
not  drawn  oS'  frvm  time  to  time.  In  this  way 
the  fluid  oontents  are  kept  at  abont  the  same 
level,  and  there  is  no  necessity  of  adding  wat«r 
after  the  first  supply.  A  large  pipe,^  carries 
the  still  uncondensed  gases  and  vapora  to  the 
cooler  and  condenser  g,  through  wlucb  tbey 


GAS 


637 


pass  in  a  series  of  n-s^ftp^  P^P^  surrounded 
with  water  which  is  supplied  from  a  cistern, 
entering  at  the  bottom  of  the  condenser  and 
passing  out  at  the  top.  This  arrangement  is 
not  represented  in  the  diagram,  which  also  only 
shows  a  small  portion  of  one  condenser,  of 
which  there  are  nsnallj  three,  through  which 
the  gas  passes  saccessiTelj,  being  reduced  in 
temperature  in  each.  At  ike  base  of  each  con- 
denser are  chambers  into  which  the  legs  of 
the  n -shaped  pipes  pass,  the  descending  one,  or 
that  which  carries  the  gas  downward,  extend- 
ing to  near  the  bottom,  beneath  the  surface  of 
the  tar  and  ammoniacal  liquor,  which  then  col- 
lects and  passes  off  by  suitably  arranged  pipes 
into  the  tar  well.  These  tarry  matters,  to- 
gether with  those  collected  in  the  hydraulic 
main,  are  the  materials  from  which  the  beauti- 
ful aniline  colors  used  in  dyeing  are  made.  (See 
AuzABiNE,  AmxjHE,  Ahthraoens,  and  Coal 
Pboduots.)  From  the  condensers  the  gas  is 
conducted  into  another  apparatus  for  farther 
separation  of  impurities.  This  is  sometimes 
made  of  a  box  containing  lumps  of  coke  or  fire 
brick  moistened  with  water,  and  is  then  called 
a  scrubber.  At  the  Manhattan  gas  worka, 
New  York,  a  box,  partially  shown  at  A,  called  a 
washer,  is  used ;  it  consists  of  several  separate 
vertical  chambers,  through  which  the  gas  is 
made  to  pass,  under  one  partition  and  over  the 
next,  and  during  its  passage  subjected  to  the  ac- 
tion of  jets  of  water  thrown  into  spray.  In  this 
way  nearly  all  oondensible  and  soluble  impuri- 
ties are  abstracted ;  but  tliere  remain  several 
deleterious  gases,  the  principal  of  which  are  sul- 
phuretted hydrogen  and  carbonic  acid,  which 
must  be  removed  before  the  gas  is  fit  to  be 
delivered  for  consumption.  Several  methods 
have  been  devised  for  this  purpose,  such  as 
passing  the  gas  through  milk  of  lime,  which 
is  called  the  wet-lime  process,  or  through 
layers  of  moistened  slaked  lime,  and  also 
through  layers  of  mixed  protochloride  of  iron 
and  qnicklime,  or  sulphate  of  iron  and  slaked 
lime,  the  ferruginous  salts  being  very  effectual 
in  removing  all  traces  of  sulphuretted  hydro- 
gen. These  slaked-lime  purifiers  are  placed 
in  large  rooms,  and  require  great  care  in  man- 
agement, as  well  for  si^Tety  as  for  effectiveness, 
the  gas  being  liable  to  escape  into  the  room 
and  form  an  explosive  mixture  with  the  air ; 
and  serious  accidents  have  resulted  from  this 
cause.  A  single  purifier  is  represented  at  h  in 
the  diagram.  It  consists  of  a  tight  double-sided 
tank  from  4  to  6  ft.  high  and  about  20  ft.  long  by 
12  wide.  A  deep  gutter  runs  around  the  upper 
edge,  which  is  nearly  filled  with  water  for  re- 
ceiving the  edges  of  the  lid,  2,  by  which  means 
the  apparatus  is  effectually  sealed.  It  is  usual 
to  conduct  the  gas  successively  through  three 
of  these  purifiers.  In  small  works,  especially 
those  connected  with  the  larger  ones  for  ex- 
periment, the  gas  is  forced  from  the  retorts, 
by  the  pressure  there  created,  through  all  the 
different  pieces  of  apparatus;  and  formerly 
this  was  the  only  means  of  urging  the  gas  on- 


ward in  aU  of  them.  The  pressure  thus  crea- 
ted in  large  works  would  so  retard  the  flow  of 
the  gas  from  the  retorts  that  it  would  suffer 
much  decomposition  with  production  of  graph- 
ite carbon;  and  if  clay  retorts  were  used, 
much  would  escape  through  their  walls.  The 
difficulty  is  avoided  by  using  what  are  called 
exhausters  to  take  the  gas  from  the  washers 
and  deliver  it  to  the  lime  purifiers.  These  ma- 
chines may  be  in  the  form  of  a  rotary  fan 
blower,  or  of  a  cylinder  and  piston  blowing 
machine.  The  lime  purifiers  have  several  lat- 
tice-work shelves,  placed  one  above  anoth- 
er and  covered  two  or  three  inches  in  depth 
with  freshly  slaked  lime.  The  gas  entering  at 
the  bottom  ascends  through  these  layers  of 
lime,  which  absorb  the  carbonic  acid  and  sul- 
phuretted hydrogen  and  other  imparities  by 
the  time  it  reaches  the  chamber  beneath  the 
lid.  In  the  figure  a  pipe  is  seen  passing  from 
the  bottom  of  the  washer  directly  to  the  lune 
purifier.  It  has,  however,  been  explained  that 
the  exhauster  is  placed  between  these  two 
pieces  of  apparatus.  A  drawing  of  the  ma- 
chine has  been  omitted  in  the  cut  from  want 
of  room,  but  the  reader  can  supply  the  omis- 
sion.. In  the  latter  there  is  an  orifice  from 
which  a  pipe  conducts  the  gas  to  the  meter, 
from  which  it  passes  through  the  pipe  o  to 
the  large  reservoir,  a  small  part  of  which  is 
shown  in  the  figure.  In  the  following  table 
of  the  constituents  of  purified  coal  gas,  that  in 
the  first  two  columns  is  ordinary  coal  gas  from 
Chemnitz,  Saxony;  in  the  third  column,  or- 
dinary London  coal  gas;  and  in  the  fourth, 
London  cannel  coal  gas : 


OONSTrrUDTTS. 

H^dro^en 

Marsh  eas 

Carbonic  oxide 

OieflaDt  gas  (elayl). 

Nitrogen 

Oxygen 

Carbooioaeid 

Aqoeoos  vapor. .... 


1. 

8. 

8. 

61-29 

60-08 

46-0 

86*45 

86-92 

89-6 

4-45 

6-02 

7-6 

4-91 

6-88 

8-8 

1-41 

1-89 

0-6 

0-41 

0-64 

■  •  •  • 

1-08 

1-22 

0-7 

•  •  •  • 
1 

■  •  •  • 

2-0 

4. 


27«7 

60-0 
6*8 

18-0 
0-4 


0-1 
2-0 


There  are  other  heavy  hydrocarbon  gases  be- 
sides elayl,  or  defiant  gas,  as  acetylene,  trityl, 
and  ditetryl,  and  also  a  small  quantity  of  hy- 
drocarbon vapors,  which  yield  light;  but  the 
iUuminating  power  of  the  gas  may  be  regard- 
ed as  depending  principally  upon  the  amount 
of  defiant  gas  (heavy  carburetted  hydrogen) 
which  it  contains,  the  bulk  of  other  gases  being 
carriers  rather  than  light-producers.  The  ole* 
fiant  gas  is  separated  by  ignition  into  marsh  gas 
(light  carburetted  hydrogen)  and  carbon,  &ie 
solid  particles  of  which  become  incandescent 
and  emit  white  light,  which  is  observed  in  the 
luminous  cone  of  a  gas  flame,  and  which  has 
the  same  constitution  as  that  of  a  candle.  (See 
Flamb.)  Of  the  impurities,  tar  is  separated  in 
the  hydraulic  main  and  the  condenser;  ammonia 
in  the  hydraulic  main,  condenser,  and  washer ; 
sulphuretted  hydrogen,  cyanogen,  and  carbonic 
acid  in  the  washer  and  lime  and  iron  purifier, 


638 


GAS 


a  small  quantity  of  the  last  named  gas  remain- 
ing. The  luminosity  of  a  gas  flame  depends 
both  upon  the  percentage  of  heavy  hydrocar- 
bons it  contains,  and  the  amount  of  atmospheric 
air  or  oxygen  mixed  with  it.  Sometimes  in  pass- 
ing it  through  many  purifying  processes  a  small 
amount  of  air  is  absorbed,  the  oxygen  of  which, 
combining  with  the  carbon  at  the  moment  of 
ignition,  causes  an  increased  production  of  heat 
but  diminution  of  light,  on  the  principle  of  a 
Bunsen^s  burner.  The  iUuminating  power  may 
therefore  be  estimated  by  analysis;  but  the 
practical  method  is  to  bum  it  in  comparison 
with  some  light-producing  body  of  known 
power,  as  a  spermaceti  candle.  This  test  is 
made  with  an  instrument  called  a  photometer, 


ft 


Immiiiii 


e  n 


l.l...t.l.l.l.m.l.l.l.l.l.l.l.M.I.M.I.].I.I.I.M.I.I.I.I.I.I.t.l.l.t.l.l.L 


s:e 


■iii.iit.i.i.i.m.ii 


.yjt.>.i,i.M.i  .J.I.I 


Fig.  8.— Bmuen^s  Ffaotometer. 


a  common  form  of  which  is  shown  in  fig.  8. 
An  argand  burner  which  consumes  a  certain 
number  of  cubic  feet  per  hour  (in  experiments 
usually  five  feet)  is  placed  at  a,  and  a  candle 
at  e.  Between  them  there  is  a  horizontal 
graduated  scale  which  supports  a  slide,  5, 
bearing  a  ground  glass  screen  having  a  figure 
in  the  centre  more  transparent  than  the  rest 
of  the  plate.  When  this  screen  is  moved  to  a 
point  on  the  scale  where  the  figure  appears 
equally  bright  on  each  side,  the  light  received 
from  each  source  will  be  equal.  If  two  can- 
dles are  used,  placed  side  by  side,  and  the  dis- 
tance between  them  and  the  screen  is  one 
eighth  that  between  the  latter  and  the  gas- 
burner,  it  will  show  that  the  light  from  the 
burner  is  equal  to  that  of  16  candles.  A  sim- 
.  pie  screen  may  be  used,  or  it  may  have  a  mir- 
ror placed  upon  each  side  at  the  further  edge, 
at  such  an  angle  that  the  two  will  reflect 
images  of  the  figure  toward  the  observer,  so 
that  a  comparison  may  be  made  at  the  same 
instant.  Gas  as  usually  furnished  is  estima- 
ted, when  burning  at  the  rate  of  five  cubic 
feet  per  hour,  to  produce  a  light  equal  to  that 
given  in  the  same  time  by  16  or  18  standard 
sperm  candles,  each  burning  at  the  rate  of 
120  grains  per  hour. — The  illuminating  power 
of  gas  depends  much  upon  the  form  of  the 
burner.  It  is  a  matter  of  common  observation 
that  gas  may  be  nearly  deprived  of  its  illumi- 
nating power  if  niade  to  issue  from  the  burner 
with  great  velocity,  or  if  burned  in  a  tall  chim- 
ney which  produces  a  very  rapid  current  of 
air.  Very  small  or  thin  flames  also  do  not 
afford  conditions  of  economical  expenditure. 
The  smaller  or  thinner  the  flame,  the  greater 
is  its  exposure  to  the  oxygen  of  the  air,  and 
consequently  the  more  rapid  the  consumption 
of  the  solid  particles  of  carbon ;  in  other  words, 
the  more  nearly  are  the  conditions  present 


which  cause  the  flame  of  a  Bunsen^s  burner  to 
be  nearly  non-luminous.  The  conditions  to  be 
sought  for  in  an  illuminating  flame  are  thoae 
which  are  most  conducive  to  high  heating  of 
the  carbon  particles  and  to  the  keeping  of  them 
for  the  longest  possible  time  in  an  uncombined 
state,  but  eventually  insuring  their  complete 
combustion.  A  certain  thicluiess  of  flame  is 
therefore  desirable.  A  poor  gas,  if  burned  in 
a  jet  issuing  from  a  wide  slit,  may  be  made  to 
yield  a  better  light  than  a  rich  gas  burned  in  a 
very  thin  flame,  which  is  frequently  the  fault 
of  the  fish-tail  burner.  According  to  Prof. 
Silliman,  the  illuminating  power  of  a  ^ven 
sample  of  gas  burned  in  an  argand  burner  is 
not  in  the  proportion  of  gas  consumed,  but 
more  nearly  in  the  proportion  of  the  square 
of  the  quantity. — A  ton  of  2,000  lbs.  of  good 
oannel  coal,  carefully  distilled,  will  yield 
about  8,000  cubic  feet  of  purified  illuminating 
gas.  Other  bituminous  coals  yield  from  6,000 
cubic  feet  up  to  this  amount.  Every  section 
of  a  gas  works  has  one  or  more  meters  for 
measuring  the  volume  of  gas  before  it  passes 
into  the  reservoirs.  They  are  in  the  form  of 
cylinders,  usually  about  12  ft.  in  diameter  and 
from  8  to  12  ft.  long.  Fig.  9  is  a  transverse 
section  showing  the 
principle  npon  which 
they  act.  The  outer 
cylinder  or  drum  is 
stationary.  The  in- 
ner cylinder,  turning 
upon  a  hollow  axis, 
is  divided  by  the  par- 
titions a,  a,  a,  a  into 
five  compartments, 
one  in  the  centre  of 
the  hollow  axis,  and 
four,  d^  d^  d,  (Z,  spiral 
in  direction,  exterior 
to  this ;    slits  being 

left  open  at  e,  e,  0,  e  for  the  passage  of  the 
gas  from  the  inner  cylinder  to  the  space  be- 
tween it  and  the  outer  one,  from  which  it  has 
exit.  The  apparatus  is  a  little  more  than  half 
filled  with  water.  A  tube,  e,  passing  through 
the  axis  of  the  cylinder,  rises  a  little  above  the 
surface  of  the  water,  and  delivers  gas  to  the 
central  compartment,  from  which  it  passes  into 
each  outer  compartment  successively  through 
the  openings  ^,  ^,  g,  g.  The  movement  of  the 
inner  cylinder  is  in  the  direction  of  the  hands 
of  a  clock,  and  it  will  be  seen  that  the  gas  can 
only  pass  through  the  slit  e  when  it  is  above 
the  water.  Tlie  gas  constantly  passes  into  that 
compartment  which  is  on  the  left  in  the  figure. 
As  this  fills  it  raises  that  side,  and  consequentlj 
the  opening  of  the  compartment  above,  ont  of 
the  water,  from  which  the  gas  flows  till  it  is 
submerged  and  emptied  at  the  opposite  side. 
A  large  pipe  conveys  the  measured  gas  to  the 
reservoirs  or  gas-holders,  the  large  cylindrical 
structures  so  conspicuous  about  gas  works,  and 
which  are  constructed  much  upon  the  principle 
of  the  gas-holder  for  experimental  purposes 


FiQ.  9.— Gia  Meter. 


GAS 


639 


shown  in  fig.  2.  From  the  reservoir  it  is  car- 
ried in  cast-iron  main  pipes  through  the  streets, 
and  in  small  wrooght-iron  pipes  into  haildings, 
where  it  is  measured  to  eacn  consumer  in  small 
meters,  which  were  formerly  of  a  similar  con- 
struction to  the  one  ahove  described ;  but  of 
late  years  the  wet  has  almost  entirely  been  re- 
placed by  the  dry  meter,  which  was  inyented 
by  Mr.  James  Bogardus  of  New  York  in  1832, 
and  is  one  of  the  most  ingenious  of  mechanical 
contrivances.  It  was  fraudulently  patented  in 
England  by  a  person  who  had  been  employed 
byMr.  Bogardus,  and  afterward  adopted  in  the 
United  States  without  due  credit  to  the  inventor. 
Hia  invention  consists  of  a  double  bellows  hav- 
ing four  chambers,  which,  alternately  moved  by 
the  pressure  of  the  gas  which  is  admitted  upon 
one  side  or  the  other  by  the  opening  and  closing 
of  valves  by  such  movements,  communicates 
motion  to  a  series  of  arms  and  levers  by  which 
a  rotary  motion  is  given  to  an  index  that  regis- 
ters the  number  of  cubic  feet  passing  through 
the  different  chambers  of  the  bellows.  As 
these  have  a  measured  capacity,  the  volume  of 
gas  passing  through  the  machine  is  therefore 
shown.  Instead  of  a  double  bellows  with  four 
chambers,  a  triple  one  with  six  was  at  one  time 
constructed ;  but  the  machine  was  essentially 
the  same,  the  arrangement  of  the  arms  and 
levers,  the  most  ingenious  parts,  having  almost 
the  same  form  and  acting  upon  the  same  princi- 
ple as  the  double  bellows  with  four  chambers. 
—  Wood  6(u,  It  has  been  said  that  Le  Bon,  a 
Frenchman,  made  gas  firom  wood  about  the  end 
of  the  18th  century;  but  the  invention  did 
not  prove  practicable,  as  the  gas  had  not  suffi- 
cient illuminating  power  to  compare  with  that 
made  in  England  from  coals.  The  reason  of 
its  failure,  as  explained  by  Dumas,  was  that 
the  heat  employed  was  too  low  to  produce  the 
heavier  hydrocarbons.  In  1849  Prof.  Petten- 
kofer  of  Munich  made  experiments  showing 
that  the  gases  evolved  from  wood  at  a  heat 
sufficient  to  carbonize  it  consist  almost  entirely 
of  carbonic  acid,  carbonic  oxide,  and  marsh 
gas  (olefiant  gas  being  quite  absent);  but 
that  the  tarry  matters  and  vapors  at  the  same 
time  produced  are, ,  by  the  application  of  a 
much  higher  heat,  capable  of  gelding  a  large 
quantity  of-  heavy  hydrocarbon  gas.  The 
manufacture  of  wood  gas  therefore  requires 
retorts  for  converting  the  wood  into  empyreu- 
matic  vapors,  and  others  for  converting  these 
into  permanent  gases.  The  wood  should  be 
thoroughly  dried  before  distillation.  Accord- 
ing to  the  experiments  of  Reissig,  60  kilo- 
grammes of  aspen  wood  yielded  592  cubic  feet 
of  purified  gas  and  10  kilogrammes  of  charcoal, 
and  the  same  quantity  of  fir  wood  648  cubic 
feet  of  gas  and  9*5  kilogrammes  of  charcoal. 
Pettenkofer^s  analysis  of  crude  gas  is  as  follows : 

Hea^y  hydrocarbont 6*0t 

Manhgaa ll-0« 

Hydrof^en 15-OT 

Carbonic  add 8fi-79 

Otfbonio  oxide 40.50 

848  VOL.  vn.— 41 


The  carbonic  acid  is  removed  by  hydrate  of 
lime.  Reissig^s  analysis  of  the  purified  gas  is 
as  follows : 

H«aTy  bydrocarbona -7*24 

Hydrogen 81-64 

Marsh  gaa 85-80 

CtobonSs oxide.. 26-62 

The  illuminating  power  of  the  hydrocarbons  in 
wood  gas  is  one  half  greater  than  that  of  an 
equal  volume  of  defiant  gas.  Its  specific  grav- 
ity is  about  0*7,  which  is  rather  greater  than 
that  of  average  coal  gas,  for  which  reason  it 
requires  burners  with  larger  orifices.  "Wood 
gas  is  successfully  made  in  Germany. — Peat 
Gas.  Peat  yields  in  dry  distillation,  according 
to  an  analysis  by  Yohl  of  a  sample  from  Zu- 
rich, the  following  proportions  of  gaseous, 
liquid,  and  solid  matters : 

GaMW 17-e25 

Tarry  matters 0  *  8T5 

Aqueona  distillate 53-000 

Peat  coke 25000 

The  same  apparatus  is  used  as  for  wood  gas. 
Reissig  used  a  fat  peat  obtained  near  Munich, 
184  lbs.  of  which  jdelded  887  cubic  feet  of  gas  of 
good  quality,  having  the  following  composition : 

Haary  bydrocarbons 9*59 

Harsh  gaa 42-65 

Hydrogen 27-50 

GarboiScacid 2088 

— Renn  Gas,  Resin  vields  a  gas  of  high  illu- 
minating power,  but  its  nse  is  necessarily  re- 
stricted  by  its  limited  supply.  Several  years 
ago  it  was  successfully  employed  at  the  Phila- 
delphia works  to  increase  the  richness  of  coal 
gas,  and  is  now  used  in  several  southern  towns. 
— Petroleum  Gas,  Petroleum  is  used  in  small 
works  for  Qiaking  illuminating  gas  in  this  coun- 
try, and  very  largely  in  Germany,  Austria, 
and  Russia.  The  crude  oil  is  conducted  from 
a  reservoir  continuously  into  red-hot  cast-iron 
retorts,  from  which  it  passes  through  purifying 
apparatus,  one  vessel  of  which  contains  hydro- 
cnloric  acid.  One  hundred  weight  of  Penn- 
sylvania oil  yields  about  1,600  feet  of  gas,  which 
when  purified  consists,  according  to  BoUey,  of 

Heavy  bydrocarbons 83*4 

Ugbt  bydrocarbons 40  ■  0 

Hydrogen 26*0 

It  has  a  specific  gravity  of  about  0*7,  and  is 
the  richest  that  can  be  made.  It  is  used  in 
burners  which  consume  only  from  one  half  to 
two  cubic  feet  per  hour,  and  it  is  estimated 
that  200  cubic  feet  are  nearly  equal  in  illumi- 
nating power  to  1,000  feet  of  coal  gas.  The 
New  York  mutual  gas  light  company  own 
a  patent  for  a  process  of  making  illumina- 
ting gas  from  the  naphtha  which  passes  over 
in  the  first  part  of  the  distillation  of  petro- 
leum, and  mmgling  it  with  coal  gas,  by  which 
it  is  said  that  the  latter  is  greatly  enriched. 
The  naphtha  is  volatilized  in  a  separate  boiler, 
and  sent  into  retorts  of  similar  construction  to 
those  for  coal,  where  by  the  application  of  a 


640 


GAS 


GASCONADE 


cherrj-red  heat  it  is  converted  into  a  gas  rich 
in  heavy  hydrocarbons,  mostly  of  the  character 
of  those  made  in  using  crnde  petroleum.  The 
gas  is  conducted  into  a  reservoir  common  to  it 
and  the  coal  gas,  where  the  two  mingle,  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  law  of  the  diffusion  of  gases. 
— Oil  Ocu,  The  fixed  oils  are  excellent  gas  ma- 
terials. Rape  oil,  according  to  Lefort,  has  the 
formula  doIIisOa;  hemp  oil,  CiftHasOs.  All 
the  fatty  oils  yield  by  dry  distillation  princi- 
pally defiant  gas,  a  small  quantity  of  carbonic 
acid,  and  no  sulphuretted  hydrogen ;  and  if 
pure  oil  were  used,  it  would  require  no  purifi- 
cation, and  apparatus  only  of  the  simplest 
kind.  Under  such  circumstances  perhaps  a 
lamp  is  the  most  economical ;  but  the  gas  may 
be  made  of  impure  oils  and  fats,  in  which  case 
some  purification  is  required.  On  the  conti- 
nent of  Europe  gas  is  made  from  suint,  or 
the  fatty  materials  contained  in  the  soap  suds 
after  washing  wool  and  yams.  The  liquid  is 
mixed  in  cisterns  with  milk  of  lime  and  left  to 
stand  12  hours,  when  a  kind  of  lime  soap  is 
formed,  which  is  made  into  bricks  and  dried. 
These  are  subjected  to  dry  distillation,  and 
yield  a  gas  of  high  illuminating  power.  The 
wash  water  of  a  woollen  mill  of  20,000  spin- 
dles will  yield  annually  enough  of  this  sub- 
stance to  produce  over  1,100,000  cubic  feet  of 
gas ;  and  if  the  time  of  burning  is  1,200  hours, 
this  quantity  will  supply  500  burners,  each 
consuming  nearly  two  cubic  feet  per  hour, 
and  giving  a  light  more  than  sufficient  for  the 
mill.  —  Water  Qa%.  When  steam  is  forced 
through  retorts  containing  red-hot  coke,  char- 
coal, or  anthracite,  there  are  produced  hydro- 
gen, carbonic  oxide,  carbonic  acid,  and  a  small 
amount  of  light  carburetted  and  of  sulphuret- 
ted hydrogen  gases.  The  carbonjo  acid  and 
sulphuretted  hydrogen  may  be  removed  by 
lime,  or  lime  and  oxide  of  iron.  The  remain- 
ing gases,  principally  hydrogen  and  carbonic 
oxide,  may  be  used  for  heating  purposes,  or 
may  be  ipade  available  for  lighting  in  two 
ways :  1,  by  heating  coils  of  platinum  wire  in 
the  fiame ;  2,  by  impregnating  it  with  the  va- 
pors of  various  hydrocarbons,  as  benzole  or 
naphtha,  or  mingling  it  with  permanent  hy- 
drocarbon gases,  the  latter  being  preferable, 
as  it  has  been  found  very  difficult  to  convert 
the  lighter  hydrocarbon  oils  into  products 
which  will  not  cause  a  deposit  in  the  distribu- 
ting pipes.  Many  hundred  patents  have  been 
issued  to  inventors  for  making  this  kind  of  gas. 
That  of  Selligue,  a  French  gas  engineer,  pro- 
posed to  him  by  Jobard  of  Brussels,  consisted 
of  a  furnace  and  three  vertical  cylindrical  re- 
torts, the  first  two  filled  with  charcoal  or  coke. 
Steam  was  passed  into  the  first,  causing  evolu- 
tion of  the  gases  above  mentioned,  which  were 
Eassed  into  the  second  retort,  where  the  red- 
ot  coal  or  coke  converted  the  carbonic  acid 
into  carbonic  oxide.  The  gases  were  then 
passed  into  the  third  retort,  which  was  two 
thirds  filled  with  red-hot  iron  chains,  upon 
which  a  stream  of  oil  from  bituminous  shale 


was  made  to  flow.  Mr.  White  of  Manchester 
patented  several  years  ago  a  process  by  which 
the  water  gas  was  passed  into  another  retort, 
in  which  illuminating  gases  were  being  gener- 
ated, in  such  a  manner  as  to  sweep  the  latter 
out  of  the  retort  as  quickly  as  possible,  to  re- 
move them  from  the  decomposing  action  of 
the  intense  heat.  The  retorts  and  settings 
were  similar  to  those  in  use  for  ordinary  coal 
gas,  except  that  the  retorts  had  a  horizon- 
tal partition,  dividing  them  into  two  cham- 
bers, extending  to  within  a  foot  of  the  back. 
Whitens  method  is  known  as  the  English  hy- 
drocarbon process.  Experiments  show  that 
anthracite  can  be  used  with  greater  advantage 
in  producing  water  gas  than  coke  or  charcoaL 
— In  1877  the  six  permanent  gases  (so  called 
because  they  had  hitherto  resisted  all  efforts  to 
reduce  them),  hydrogen,  oxygen,  nitrogen,  ni- 
tric oxide,  carbonic  oxide,  and  marsh  gas,  were 
successfully  liquefied  by  M.  Gailletet  of  Paris 
and  M.  Raoul  Pictet  of  Geneva,  working  sepa- 
rately. Both  accomplished  the  same  end  bj 
different  ingeniously  contrived  apparatus,  eacli 
combining  an  exceedingly  low  temperature 
with  great  compression.  M.  Gailletet  also 
reduced  common  air  to  liquidity,  thus  demon- 
strating the  accuracy  of  the  views  of  Lavoisier 
as  to  its  possibility.  The  experiments  confirm 
the  inference  of  the  English  physicist,  Thomas 
Andrews,  that  there  exist  critical  points  of  pres- 
sure and  of  temperature,  which  must  be  united 
to  insure  the  liquefaction  of  these  gases. 

CIA8C0IGNE,  Ge«Tgf,  an  English  poet,  bom 
about  1587,  died  in  Stamford,  Oct.  7,  1577. 
He  was  educated  at  Cambridge  and  began  to 
study  law ;  but  having  fallen  into  irregular  hab- 
its, he  was  deprived  by  his  father  of  as  mnch  of 
his  inheritance  as  possible,  and  took  service  in 
Holland  under  the  prince  of  Orange,  where  be 
remained  two  years  and  distinguidbed  himself 
for  his  courage.  He  made  a  free  translation 
of  /  Snppositi  of  Ariosto,  which  was  per- 
formed by  the  gentlemen  of  Gray's  Inn  in  1566 
under  the  name  of  "  The  Supposes."  Use  was 
made  of  it  by  Shakespeare  in  ^^  The  Taming  of 
the  Shrew,"  and  it  is  the  earliest  extant  prose 
play  in  the  English  lancmage.  In  1575  Gas- 
coigne  joined  the  cowt  ot  Queen  Elizabeth,  and 
wrote  an  account  of  the  pageantries  exhibited 
at  Kenilworth,  entitled  '*The  Princelye  Plea- 
sures of  Eenel worth  Castle."  His  satire  in 
blank  verse,  "  The  Steele  Glasse,"  first  printed 
in  1576,  and  his  other  poems,  were  collected 
and  published  with  the  title  "  The  Whole  Workes 
of  George  Gascoigne,  Esquyre"  (4to,  black 
letter,  London,  1587). 

GASCONADE,  an  E.  county  of  Missouri,  bound- 
ed N.  by  the  Missouri  river,  and  intersected  by 
the  Gasconade  river;  area,  540  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  10,093,  of  whom  80  were  colored.  The 
surface  is  much  broken,  but  well  timbered,  and 
there  is  good  water  power.  Iron  ore  is  found  in 
abundance,  sulphur  and  saltpetre  are  obtained, 
limestone  and  bnhrstone  are  quarried,  and  cop- 
i  per  has  been  discovered  on  JSourbeuse  creek. 


QASOONY 


GASPARTN 


641 


The  Pacific  railroad  of  Missouri  passes  tbrongh 
the  N.  part.  The  chief  prodactions  in  1870 
were  222,850  bushels  of  wheat,  260,178  of  In- 
dian corn,  168,717  of  oats,  81,738  of  potatoes, 
82,600  lbs.  of  batter,  128,917  gallons  of  wine, 
and  8,264  tons  of  haj.  There  were  8,270  hor- 
ses, 8,811  milch  cows,  4,801  other  cattle,  8,898 
sheep,  and  17,057  swine.    Capital,  Hermann. 

€ASCOBnr  (Fr.  G(Meogne%  an  old  province  in 
the  8.  W.  comer  of  France,  bounded  N.  by 
Guienne,  E.  by  Langaedoc  und  the  county  of 
Foix,  from  which  it  was  partly  separated  by  the 
upper  Garonne,  8,  by  the  Pyrenees  and  B^arn, 
and  W.  by  the  Atlantic  (the  gulf  of  Gascony).  It 
was  originally  inhabited  by  a  population  of  Ibe- 
rian blood,  and  received  from  the  Romans  the 
name  of  Novempopulana  or  Aquitania  Tertia, 
which  was  changed  to  that  of  Gascony  about 
the  middle  of  the  6th  century,  when  it  was  occu- 
pied by  the  Vascones,  a  tribe  of  northern  Spain, 
whom  the  Goths  had  driven  across  the  Pyre- 
nees. It  was  more  than  once  invaded  by  the 
Merovingian  kings,  but  was  never  entirely  sub- 
jugated until  the  time  of  Charlemagne.  The 
supremacy  of  the  French  crown  being  finally 
established,  the  country  was  placed  under  the 
direct  sovereignty  of  the  duke  of  Aquitaine. 
Through  the  marriage  of  Eleanor  of  Aquitaine, 
ez-queen  of  France,  with  Henry  Plantagenet, 
Gascony,  in  ooigunction  with  the  whole  country 
which  that  princess  held  south  of  the  Loire,  fell 
to  the  crown  of  England  in  1162.  For  800 
years  it  remained  under  the  same  allegiance, 
and  returned  by  conquest  to  France  in  1458. 
It  formed  afterward,  with  Guienne,  one  of 
the  great  governments  of  that  country,  and  is 
now  mainly  comprised  in  the  departments  of 
Hautes-Pyr6n6es,  Gers,  and  Landes. 

(SASCOTGHE,  WlOtea,  the  inventor  of  the  mi- 
crometer, bom  in  England  about  1621,  killed 
fighting  for  Charles  I.  at  Marston  Moor,  July 
2, 1 644.  The  instmment,  as  constructed  by  him, 
consisted  principally  of  4^wo  parallel  wires  or 
metaUic  plates,  capable  of  being  moved,  which 
were  placed  in  the  focas  of  the  eye  glass  of  the 
telescope.  The  image  was  comprehended  be- 
tween these,  and  by  means  of  a  scale  for  the 
measure  of  angles  its  diameter  was  determined. 
Gascoygne  used  his  instmment  in  various  astro- 
nomical observations,  and  in  determining  the 
magnitude  or  distance  of  terrestrial  objects. 

GASKELL,  lainMh  Oeghom,  an  English  au- 
thoress, bom  at  Chelsea  about  1810,  died  at 
Alton,  Hants,  Nov.  12,  1865.  Her  maiden 
name  was  Stevenson,  and  she  was  the  wife  of 
a  Unitarian  clergyman,  who  was  for  some  time 
a  resident  of  Manchester.  Her  first  novel, 
"  Mary  Barton, ^^  published  in  1848,  is  a  stri- 
king picture  of  the  daily  life  of  a  large  manu- 
facturing town.  The  pathetic  power  of  many 
of  the  scenes  delineated,  and  the  literary  merit 
of  the  book,  gave  Mrs.  Gaskell  at  once  a  posi- 
tion among  the  first  writers  of  fiction  oi  the 
day.  She  afterward  became  a  contributor  to 
"Household  Words"  and  "All  the  Year 
Round,"  and  her  tales,  after  having  appeared 


in  these  journals,  were  republished  in  book 
form.  Her  principal  works  of  fiction  besides 
the  one  already  mentioned  were:  "Moorland 
Cottage  "  (1860) ;  "  Ruth  "  (1858) ;  "  Cranford  " 
(1853);  "North  and  South"  (1855);  "Lizzie 
Leigh;"  "Round  the  Sofa"  (1859);  "Right  at 
Last"  (1860);  "Sylvia's  Lovers"  (l 868);  and 
"  Wives  and  Daughters  "  (1866).  Most  of  them 
were  republished  in  this  country  and  translated 
into  French.  The  work,  however,  which  at- 
tracted the  greatest  attention  was  "  The  Life 
of  Charlotte  Brontfi"  (2  vols.  8vo,  1857).  It 
was  written  in  a  charming  style,  and,  as  Mrs. 
Gaskell  had  been  a  personal  friend  of  the  au- 
thor of  "Jane  Eyre,"  she  was  able  to  furnish 
many  interesting  details  of  her  private  life. 

GASPAlUBr.  I.  Adrlei  fitleiuie  Pierre,  count 
de,  a  French  statesman  and  agriculturist,  bom 
in  Orange,  June  29,  1788,  died  there,  Sept  7, 
1862.  He  entered  the  army,  but  was  soon 
compelled  by  illness  to  give  up  military  life. 
After  the  revolution  of  1880  he  was  made  suc- 
cessively prefect  of  the  departments  of  Loire 
and  Isdre,  and  in  1881  of  Rh6ne ;  and  for  his 
promptness  in  suppressing  an  insurrection  at 
Lyons  in  1884  he  was  raised  to  the  peerage. 
He  became  minister  of  the  interior  in  1836, 
and  gave  his  attention  especially  to  prison  re- 
forms and  the  establishment  of  hospitals.  He 
occupied  the  same  position  in  the  short-lived 
cabinet  of  March,  1889.  In  1848  he  accepted 
the  management  of  the  national  agricultural 
institute  at  Versailles,  which  was  abolished  in 
1852.  .  He  published  a  large  number  of  papers 
and  several  extended  works  on  agricultural 
subjects,  the  principal  of  which  is  Cours 
d: agriculture  (5  vols.,  Paris,  1848-'9).  IL 
ig^ner  fitteuM^  count  de,  a  French  publicist, 
son  of  the  preceding,  bom  in  Orange,  July 
10,  1810,  died  in  Geneva,  May  14,  1871.  He 
was  employed  in  the  ministries  of  public  in- 
struction and  the  interior,  under  Guizot  and 
his  father,  and  in  1842  was  elected  to  the 
chamber  of  deputies  for  Bastia,  Corsica.  He 
was  a  conservative,  but  advocated  parliamen- 
tary reform,  the  emancipation  of  slaves  in 
the  colonies,  and  the  rights  of  the  Protestant 
church,  of  which  he  was  a  member.  His  inde- 
pendence was  not  relished  by  the  govemment ; 
and  his  sympathy  for  Protestantism  not  being 
shared  by  his  constituents,  he  failed  of  reflec- 
tion to  the  chamber  in  1846,  and  retired  from 
political  life.  He  was  in  the  East  when  tlie 
revolution  of  1848  took  place.  When  solicited 
to  declare  himself  in  favor  of  the  new  consti- 
tution, he  refused.  His  disapprobation  of  the 
form  afterward  given  to  the  govemment  by 
Louis  Napoleon  was  even  stronger,  and  he  per- 
manently removed  to  Switzerland.  In  the 
winter  he  resided  near  Geneva,  and  delivered 
courses  of  lectures  on  economical,  historical, 
and  religious  subjects,  many  of  which  were 
subsequently  published'.  During  the  civil  war 
in  the  United  States  he  published  two  works 
warmly  sustaining  the  Union  cause :  Les  £tatS' 
Unis  en  1861 :  un  gramd  peuple  qui  ae  reUve 


642 


GASPE 


GASSENDI 


(1861),  translated  and  published  in  New  York 
nnder  the  title  *^  The  Uprising  of  a  Great 
People:  the  United  States  in  1861;"  and 
L'Amerique  dsvant  V Europe  (1862),  translated 
under  the  title  "America  before  Europe." 
During  the  F/anco-German  war  he  addressed 
an  appeal  to  the  French  people  urging  them 
not  to  persevere  in  it.  His  death  was  hastened 
by  his  exertions  in  the  care  of  refugees  ftom 
Bourbaki^s  army^,  whom  he  received  into  his 
house.  Besides  the  works  already  mentioned, 
and  numerous  articles  in  the  Journal  des  2>0- 
haU  and  the  Reou^  des  Deux  Mondes  and  other 
publications,  he  published  De  Vamortiseement 
(1884);  Eiclavage  et  traite  (1838);  InterSte 
ffeneraux  du  protestantUme  Jran^is  (1848); 
ChrUtianUme  etpaganisme  (2  vols.  8vo,  1846); 
Dei  tables  toumantee^  du  $urnaturel  en  general 
et  dee  esprite  (2  vols.  12mo,  1854;  translated 
into  English);  La  question  du  Neufehdtel 
(1857) ;  La  famille^  see  devoirs^  ses  joies  et  see 
douleurs  (2  vols.  12mo,  1865);  and  La  liberte 
morale  (1868).  His  Vie  d* Innocent  IIL  was 
published  posthumously  in  1878,  and  his  Le  hon 
vieux  temps  in  1874. — His  wife,  VaiIbie  Bou- 
BiEB,  bom  about  1816,  has  been  conspicuous  as 
an  opponent  of  religious  and  social  innovations, 
and  has  published  several  volumes  of  travels 
and  works  on  religious  subjects.  Two  of  these 
obtained  the  prize  of  the  academy :  Le  m^ariage 
au  point  de  vue  ehretien  (184^ ;  8d  ed.,  1858), 
and  llya  despauvres  d  Paris  et  ailleurs  (1 846). 

CiASPfi,  an  E.  county  of  Quebec,  Canada, 
bordering  on  tlie  river  and  gulf  of  Sti  Law- 
rence, indented  by  the  bay  of  the  same  name, 
and  including  the  Magdalen  islands;  area, 
4,578  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  18,729,  of  whom 
12,956  were  of  French,  2,884  of  Irish,  2,221  of 
English,  and  848  of  Scotch  origin  or  descent. 
It  has  a  mountainous  surface,  diversified  by 
many  fertile  valleys,  and  traversed  by  St.  Anne, 
Dartmouth,  and  other  rivers.  The  inhabitants 
are  engaged  chiefly  in  the  lumber  trade  and 
fisheries.  The  settlements  are  confined  almost 
wholly  to  the  coasts,  which  are  lined  with  ex- 
cellent harbors.  The  Gaspesians,  a  part  of  the 
Micmac  tribe  of  Indians,  reside  in  Gasp6,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  St.  Lawrence.  They  are  treated 
as  a  distinct  tribe  by  the  missionary  Le  Clerq 
in  his  GaspSsiey  but  are  almost  always  included 
among  the  Micmacs.  The  use  of  hieroglyphics 
among  them  can  be  traced  back  to  the  17th 
century.    (See  Micmaos.)    Capital,  Perc^. 

€188,  Frledrlch  WilhelK  Helnrieh  JotdilB,  a 
German  tbedlogian,  bom  in  Breslan,  Nov.  28, 
1818.  After  studying  at  the  principal  univer- 
sities, he  became  professor  of  theology  succes- 
sively at  Breslau,  Greifswalde,  Giessen,  and 
Heidelberg,  where  he  has  been  since  1868. 
His  principal  work  is  Gesehiehte  der  protestan- 
tischen  Dogmatik  im  Zusammenhange  mit  der 
Theologie  iHbet^upt  (4  vols.,  Beriin,  1854-'67). 

GASSENDI,  Pierre,  a  French  philosopher,  bora 
at  Champtercier,  Provence,  Jan.  22, 1592,  died 
in  Paris,  Oct.  24, 1665.  After  having  studied 
philosophy  at  Alx,  :he  was  appointed  at  the  age 


of  16  professor  of  rhetoric  at  Digne.  When  20 
years  of  age  he  was  simultaneously  elected  to 
the  two  chairs  of  philosophy  and  theology  at 
Aix,  of  which  he  chose  the  latter.  While  in 
this  ofiice  his  leisure  was  employed  in  the  study 
of  anatomy,  astronomy,  and  even  astrology,  a 
science  which  he  afterward  condemned  as  a 
delusion.  He  resigned  his  professorship  in 
1628.  In  1624  he  published  at  Grenoble  the 
JSxereitationes  Pa/radoxica  adversus  Aristote- 
leoSj  in  which  he  was  the  first  to  point  the  dis- 
tinction between  the  church  and  the  scholastic 
philosophy.  He  designed  to  complete  the  work 
in  five  books,  but  only  two  were  ever  written. 
About  the  same  time  he  was  appointed  provost 
of  the  cathedral  at  Digne,  but  the  appointment 
was  contested,  and  was  not  confirmed  until  ten 
years  later.  Meanwhile  he  travelled  for  a 
time,  and  entered  into  correspondence  with 
Galileo,  to  whom  he  expressed  his  concurrence 
with  the  Oopemican  system.  Returning  to 
Digne,  he  continued  his  ecclesiastical  duties, 
and  in  1680  wrote  a  treatise  agtunst  the  mysti- 
cal and  alchemistic  doctrines  of  Robert  Fludd. 
He  was  a  constant  correspondent  of  Kepler, 
who  before  his  death  had  publicly  announced 
that  Mercury  and  Venus  would  pass  over  the 
disk  of  the  sun  on  Nov.  7, 1681.  Gassendi  was 
the  first  to  observe  the  passage  of  Mercury,  and 
wrote  a  minute  account  of  the  phenomenon. 
On  the  appearance  of  the  Diseours  de  la  mSthode 
and  the  Meditations  of  Descartes,  a  controver- 
sy arose  between  the  two  philosophers.  The 
daring  and  original  genius  of  Descartes  was  in 
striking  contrast  with  the  erudition  and  criti- 
cal acumen  of  his  opponent,  who  excelled  him 
in  caution  and  courtesy.  In  1645  Gassendi  re- 
ceived from  Cardinal  Richelieu  the  appoint- 
ment of  mathematical  professor  in  the  royal 
college  of  France ;  and  two  years  later  he  pub- 
lished at  Lyons  his  biographical  treatise,  De 
Vita,  Morihus  et  Plaeitis  Epieuri,  which  was 
followed  by  his  Syntagma  Philosophia  Epi- 
eurem  (Lyons,  1649).  They  form  together  a 
complete  review  of  the  life,  eulogy  of  me  char- 
acter, and  reconstruction  of  the  philosophical 
system  of  Epicuras.  The  Epicurean  ethics  and 
physical  theory  of  atoms  and  a  vacuum  are 
elaborately  vindicated,  and  conformed  to  the 
principles  of  Christianity  and  the  discoveries 
of  modern  science.  His  feeble  health  obliged 
him  to  resign  his  professorship,  and  he  retired 
to  Toulon,  where  he  was  occupied  for  two 
years  with  the  preparation  of  another  great 
philosophical  work.  In  1658  he  return^  to 
Paris,  and  there  completed  the  work,  the- 
Syntagma  Philosophioum,  an  encyclopaedic 
view  of  the  entire  circle  of  science,  and  the 
most  complete  and  learned  statement  of  his 
opinions.  It  was  not  published  until  after  his 
death,  and  forms  the  first  two  volumes  of  his 
complete  works,  edited  by  Montmor  and  Sor- 
bidre  (6  vols.,  Lyons,  1658).  It  is  divided  into 
three  parts,  logic,  physics,  and  ethics,  is  elabo- 
rated with  great  learning  and  minuteness  of 
criticism,  and  contains  an  eclectic  philosophy 


GASTEIN 


GASTON 


643 


formed  by  the  union  of  ideas  borrowed  from 
varioas  schools  ratlier  than  a  new  systeoi.  His 
system  is  akin  to  that  of'  Locke  rather  than  of 
the  French  followers  of  Locke,  and  even  a  part 
of  his  phraseology,  as  the  actianes  r^fiexiwBy 
anticipates  that  of  the  ^^  Essay  on  the  Hnman 
Understanding/'  It  does  not  appear,  however, 
that  Locke  was  acquainted  with  his  writings. 
Not  only  as  a  metaphysician,  but  as  an  astron- 
omer, geometer,  anatomist,  Hellenist,  historian, 
and  elegant  writer,  Gassendi  merits  distinction. 
He  was  the  personal  friend  of  most  of  the 
learned  men  of  his  time,  the  first  disciple  in 
France  of  Bacon,  and  the  precursor  of  Newton. 
The  aurora  borealis,  the  parhelia,  the  conjunc- 
tions of  Venus  and  Mercury,  the  occultations 
of  the  satellites  of  Jupiter,  and  the  properties 
of  the  magnetic  needle  were  among  the  subjects 
of  his  researches.  He  wrote  the  lives  of  the 
principal  astronomers  of  his  age,  and  in  the 
preface  gave  a  brief  and  admirable  history  of 
astronomy.  By  those  who  knew  him  he  was 
'  beloved  for  his  amiability  and  modesty.  The 
latest  complete  edition  of  his  works  is  that  ed- 
ited by  Averrani  (6  vols.,  Florence,  1728).  An 
abridgment  by  Bernier  (Paris,  1 678)  has  been 
several  times  republished.  His  life  has  been 
written  by  Sorbi^re  (for  the  first  edition  of  his 
collected  writings,  Lyons,  1658),  and  by  Bou- 
gerel  (Paris,  1637). 

-  GASTEIIf)  a  valley  in  the  Austrian  duchy  of 
Salzburg,  famous  for  its  romantic  scenery  and 
for  its  mineral  springs.  It  is  about  80  m.  long 
and  2  m.  broad,  is  surrounded  by  mountains 
in  some  parts  about  8,000  ft.  high,  and  is 
traversed  by  the  Ache,  which  forms  several 
cascades.  There  are  three  villages.  Hof- 
gastein,  40  m.  S.  of  Salzburg,  has  a  resident 
population  of  about  1,000.  It  contains  a 
church,  poorhouse,  military  hospital,  and  a 
statue  of  the  emperor  Francis  I.  of  Austria. 
Gold  and  silver  mines  were  formerly  worked 
hei-c.  Dorfgastein,  6  m.  to  the  north,  is  a 
mere  hamlet.  Wildbad  Gastein,  or  Bad  Gas- 
tein,  about  equally  distant  to  the  south,  is  one 
of  the  most  celebrated  watering  places  in  Eu- 
rope. It  is  about  8,000  ft.  above  the  sea.  In 
the  centre  of  the  village  the  Ache  forms  a  cat- 
aract, which  is  spanned  by  a  covered  bridge 
400  ft.  long.  There  are  about  85  houses, 
among  which  is  a  villa  built  by  the  late  arch- 
duke John  of  Austria.  The  climate  is  cold 
and  wet  even  in  summer.  In  1880  an  aque- 
duct was  constructed  under  the  auspices  of 
the  emperor  Francis  to  convey  the  mineral 
waters  to  Hofgastein,  but  Wildbad  still  contin- 
ues to  be  the  principal  watering  place  in  the 
valley.  The  accommodations  for  visitors  are 
very  limited,  but  it  is  annually  resorted  to 
by  about  8,000  persons.  The  hot  springs, 
which  have  a  temperature  of  117°  F.,  spring 
from  the  granite  rocks  at  the  foot  of  the 
mountain,  one  of  them  bursting  out  in  the 
middle  of  the  cataract.  They  furnish  about 
100,000  cubic  feet  of  water  in  24  hours,  the 
principal  mineral   ingredients  of  which  are 


Glauber  salts  and  carbonate  of  lime.  The 
baths  are  chiefly  useful  in  nervous  affections, 
general  debility^  paralysis,  chronic  diseases  of 
the  skin,  and  disorders  arising  from  wounds. 
These  springs  have  been  known  since  the  7th 
century,  and  have  long  been  a  favorite  resort 
for  the  noble  and  royal  families  of  Germany. 
— A  convention  was  held  here  in  August,  1865, 
between  the  emperor  Francis  Joseph  and 
King  William  of  Prussia,  and  their  respective 
ministers,  in  which  the  affairs  of  the  duchies 
wrested  from  Denmark  in  the  preceding  year 
were  settled.    (See  Adstbia,  vol.  ii.,  p.  149.) 

GASnaiOPODA  (Gr.  yaar^p,  belly,  and  wov^, 
irod^,  foot),  a  class  of  the  moUusca  distinguished 
by  the  under  side  of  the  body  forming  a  single 
muscular  foot,  on  which  the  animal  creeps  or 
glides.  The  snails,  limpets,  and  chitons  are 
examples  of  this  class.  They  are  divided  into 
two  natural  groups,  one  breathing  air  {pulmo^ 
nifera),  the  other  water  (hraneh^&ra).  These 
form  the  four  orders  of  prosobranehiataj 
pulmon^feroj  apUthdbrcmckiata^  and  nuelso- 
oranohiata.  The  shell  is  usually  spiral  and 
univalve,  ^ut  sometimes  tubular  or  conical ;  in 
the  chiton  it  is  multivalve.  Some  marine  spe- 
cies, as  the  dorU  and  cBolis^  have  no  shells. 
Most  are  provided  with  a  homy  or  shelly 
operculum,  which  forms  the  bottom  of  the  foot, 
and  when  withdrawn  closely  shuts  the  aperture 
of  the  shell,  to  which  it  is  firmly  held  by  the 
strong  muscles  of  this  part  of  the  body.  In 
some  species,  as  the  limpet  and  patella,  the  ani- 
mal uses  the  expanded  surface  of  the  foot  for 
attaching  the  shell  firmly  to  rocks  and  other 
surfaces.  Almost  all  are  nnsymmetrical,  the 
body  being  coiled  up  spirally,  and  the  respira- 
tory organs  of  the  left  side  usually  atrophied. 
A  few,  like  the  snails,  are  viviparous,  but 
most  are  oviparous.  The  shells  are  nearly  all 
right-handed ;  the  cavity  is  a  single  conical  or 
spiral  chamber,  never  many-chambered  like 
the  nautilus  and  the  cephalopoda ;  the  apex  is 
almost  always  directed  backward.  The  lines 
between  the  whorls  or  turns  of  the  shell  are 
the  sutures,  the  last  or  the  body  whorl  being 
usually  very  large;  the  aperture  is  entire  in 
most  vegetable  feeders,  but  notched  or  elon- 
gated into  a  canal  or  siphon  which  is  respira- 
tory in  its  office ;  there  is  sometimes  a  poste- 
rior or  anal  canal. 

CASTON)  a  S.  W.  county  of  North  Carolina, 
bordering  on  South  Carolina,  bounded  £.  by 
Catawba  river  and  intersected  by  Catawba 
creek;  area,  about  850  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
12,602,  of  whom  4,172  were  colored.  It  has 
a  diversified  surface  and  a  fertile  soil.  Gold  has 
been  obtained.  It  is  traversed  by  the  western 
division  of  the  Wilmington,  Charlotte,  and 
Rutherford  railroad.  The  chief  productions 
in  1870  were  64,468  bushels  of  wheat,  888,028 
of  Indian  corn,  79,717  of  oats,  and  762  bales 
of  cotton.  There  were  1,218  horses,  1,166 
mules  and  asses,  2,709  milch  cows,  4,706  other 
cattle,  7,862  sheep,  and  12,858  swine;  a  cotton 
factory,  and  a  quartz  mill.     Capital,  Dallas. 


644 


GASTON 


GATES 


GASTOlf,  WUlItK,  an  American  jnriBt,  born  in 
New  Berne,  N.  0.,  Sept.  19,  1778,  died  in  Ra- 
leigh, Jan.  28,1 844.  He  graduated  at  Princeton, 
N.  J.,  in  1796,  with  the  highest  honors,  stadied 
law,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  at  New  Berne 
in  1798.  Two  years  later  he  was  elected  to 
the  senate  of  North  Carolina,  and  subsequently 
to  the  house  of  commons,  of  which  he  was 
speaker  in  1808.  In  the  same  year  he  was  cho- 
sen by  the  federalists  a  presidential  elector,  and 
in  1818  he  was  elected  to  congress,  where  he 
served  for  four  years,  and  became  one  of  the 
most  influential  leaders  of  the  federal  party. 
He  opposed  the  loan  bill,  which  proposed  du- 
ring Uie  war  with  Great  Britain  to  place  $25,- 
000,000  at  the  disposal  of  the  president,  as  was 
generally  understood  for  the  conquest  of  Can- 
ada. His  speech,  which  was  widely  read  and 
greatly  admired,  embraced  a  thorough  discus- 
sion of  the  policy,  object,  and  management  of 
the  war.  In  1817  he  retired  from  congress  to 
devote  himself  to  his  profession,  in  which  he 
soon  attained  the  foremost  rank  in  North  Caro- 
lina. In  1885  he  was  a  member  of  the  con- 
vention to  revise  the  state  constitution,  took  a 
leading  part  in  all  important  debates,  and  in 
a  great  measure  guided  the  business  of  the 
convention.  He  spoke  and  voted  against  the 
proposition  to  deprive  free  colored  men  of  the 
right  of  sufirage,  which  at  that  time  they  pos- 
sessed, but  which  was  taken  from  them  by  the 
new  constitution.  In  1884  he  was  appointed 
a  judge  of  the  supreme  court  of  North  Caro- 
lina ;  but  he  was  a  Roman  Catholic,  and  by  the 
constitution  of  that  state,  as  commonly  inter- 
preted, was  therefore  incapable  of  holding  any 
state  oiSice.  Such,  however,  was  the  universal 
regard  for  his  character  and  ability  that  the 
clause  in  the  constitution  against  the  Catholics 
became  a  dead  letter.  He  continued  in  this 
office  till  his  death,  which  was  sudden. 

GASTON  DE  FOIX,  duke  of  Nemours,  a 
French  general,  bom  in  1489,  killed  at  Ra- 
venna, April  11,  1612.  He  was  the  son  of 
Jean  de  Foix,  viscount  of  Narbonne,  and  of 
Marie  d^0rl6ans,  sister  of  Louis  XII.  In  1505 
he  was  made  duke  of  Nemours.  In  the  begin- 
ning of  1512,  at  the  age  of  28,  he  was  ap- 
ftointed  commander  of  the  French  army  in 
taly,  to  carry  on  the  war  with  Venice,  the 
pope,  and  King  Ferdinand  of  Spain,  who  had 
formed  a  "holy  league"  against  Louis  XII. 
He  raised  the  siege  of  Bologna,  defeated  the 
Venetian  army  under  the  walls  of  Brescia,  and 
on  the  same  day  carried  that  city  by  storm. 
A  few  weeks  later,  on  April  11,  he  brought 
the  allied  army  to  a  decisive  action  under  the 
walls  of  Ravenna,  and,  in  one  of  the  most  hotly 
contested  battles  ever  fought,  defeated  them 
with  a  loss  on  both  sides  of  20,000  men. 
Flushed  with  victory,  he  was  exasperated  at 
the  deliberate  manner  in  which  the  Spanish  in- 
fantry left  the  fleld,  and  charged  them  rashly 
in  person,  followed  by  Bayard  and  about  20 
other  knights.  He  broke  their  line,  but  his 
horse  was  wounded,  and  fell  in  the  midst  of 


the  enemy.  When  Bayard  reached  him  ho 
was  already  dead.  His  loss  so  disheartened 
the  French  that  they  reaped  little  advantage 
from  their  great  victory.  A  monument  near 
Ravenna  marks  the  place  where  he  fell. 

GASTBIC  JUICE.    See  Digestion. 

GITAKER,  ThMU8,  an  English  eccleaastic, 
bom  in  London,  Sept.  4,  1574,  died  June  27, 
1654.  He  wrote  several  works  illtistrative  of 
the  Scriptures.  In  1642  he  was  chosen  mem- 
ber of  the  assembly  of  divines  at  Westminster. 
In  1648  he  remonstrated,  in  coigunction  with 
47  of  his  brethren,  against  the  proceedings  of 
the.  long  parliament  in  relation  to  the  king. 
In  1652  he  published  a  critical  edition  of 
Marcus  Aurehus^s  *^  Meditations,^*  with  notes, 
and  an  introductory  discourse  on  the  philoso- 
phy of  the  Stoics.  The  best  edition  of  his 
works  is  that  of  Utrecht,  2  vols,  folio,  1698. 

GATCBDfl,  a  town  of  Russia,  in  the  govern- 
ment and  28  m.  S.  S.  W.  of  the  city  of  St.  Peters- 
burg, on  a  small  lake  formed  by  the  Izhora 
river ;  pop.  in  1867,  8,837.    It  is  the  private 
property  of  the  emperor,  and  is  famous  for  the 
imperial  palace,  built  by  Prince  Gregory  Orloff, 
and  purchased  on  his  death  by  Catharine  II., 
who  presented  it  in  1784  to  her  son,  the  grand 
duke  Paul.     The  latter  made  it  his  favorite 
residence,  and  in  1797  granted  municipal  fran- 
chises to  the  town  which  grew  up  around  the 
palace.    The  grounds  are  extensive  and  well 
laid  out,  and  the  park  is  intersected  by  lakes 
and  streams  which  abound  in  trout.    The  em- 
peror maintains  a  kennel  here,  but  the  palace 
is   rarely  inhabited  by  the   present  imperial 
family,  and  many  of  the  paintings  have  been 
removed  to  the  Hermitage.     There  are  manu- 
factures of  porcelain,  cloths,  and  hats. 
'  GATES,  a  N.  £.  county  of  North  Carolina, 
bordering  on    Virginia,   bounded   S.  W.  by 
Chowan  and  Nottaway  rivers,  the  former  of 
which  is  here  navigable ;  area,  858  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1870,  7,724  of  whom  8,207  were  colored. 
The  surface  is  generally  level,  and  much  of  it 
is  covered  with  oak  and  pine  timber.     The 
Dismal  swamp  occupies  the  extreme  N.  £. 
part.    The  principal  exports  are  tar  and  lumber. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  168,070 
bushels  of  Indian  com,  54,186  of  sweet  pot4i- 
toes,  and  151  bales  of  cotton.    There  were  774 
horses  1,858  milch  cows,  2,521  other  cattie, 
and  11,411  swine.    Capital,  Gatesville. 

CiATES,  Henitl9,  an  American  soldier,  bom  in 
England  in  1728,  died  in  New  York,  April  10, 
1806.  He  early  entered  the  British  army,  and 
was  an  officer  under  Braddock,  at  whose  defeat 
in  1755  he  was  severely  wounded.  After  the 
peace  of  1763  he  purchased  an  estate  in  Vir- 
ginia, where  he  resided  till  the  organization  of 
the  continental  army  in  1775.  Appointed  ad- 
jutant general  with  the  rank  of  brigadier,  he 
accompanied  Washington  to  Cambridge  in  July, 
1775,  and  in  June,  1776,  received  the  chief 
command  of  the  army  which  had  just  retreated 
from  Canada.  In  the  autumn  following  he 
joined  Washington  in  New  Jersey  with  a  con- 


GATESHEAD 


GAUCHOS 


645 


siderable  detaohment,  and  in  March,  1777,  in 
effect  superseded  Schuyler  in  the  command  of 
the  northern  army,  and  was  superseded  by  him 
in  May.  When,  however,  Schuyler  was  obliged 
to  retreat  down  the  Hudson  by  the  disasters 
which  followed  the  loss  of  Ticonderoga,  Gates 
was  reinstated  in  the  command  by  congress, 
Aug.  4,  1777.  The  surrender  of  the  British 
army  at  Saratoga,  which  followed,  gave  him  a 
brilliant  military  repute,  though  it  was  in  some 
measure  due  to  the  previous  operations  of 
Schuyler.  In  the  winter  of  1 777-8  *  *  Conway's 
cabal''  intrigued  to  wrest  the  supreme  command 
from  Washington  to  bestow  it  upon  Gates.  The 
latter  was  engaged  in  no  important  military 
operations  till  in  June,  1780,  he  was  appointed 
to  the  command  of  the  southern  forces.  The 
disastrous  battle  of  Camden  (Aug.  16)  lessened 
his  military  fame,  and  he  was  superseded  by 
Gen.  Greene.  His  conduct  was  scrutinized  by 
a  committee  of  congress,  and  after  the  surren- 
der of  Comwallis  he  was  restored  to  his  mili- 
tary position.  On  the  conclusion  of  peace  he 
retircHl  to  his  estate  in  Virginia,  whence,  after 
emancipating  all  his  slaves,  he  removed  in  1790 
to  the  city  of  New  York. 

GATESHEAD,  a  municipal  and  parliamentary 
borough  of  Durham,  England,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  river  Tyne,  opposite  Newcastle, 
with  which  it  is  connected  by  a  fine  railway 
viaduct  and  by  a  stone  bridge ;  pop.  in  1871, 
48,592.  Its  manufactures  are  closely  connect- 
eil  with  those  of  Newcastle,  and  comprise  ships, 
anchors,  chain  cables,  nmls,  hemp,  wire  ropes, 
iron  castings,  locomotive  engines,  boilers,  &c. 
There  are  extensive  collieries  and  grindstone 
quarries  in  the  vicinity. 

6ATH,  one  of  the  Rve  chief  cities  of  Philistia, 
often  mentioned  in  the  history  of  David  and  his 
successors.  The  giant  Goliath,  who  was  slain 
by  David,  was  either  a  native  or  an  inhabitant 
of  Gath.  It  was  for  centuries  alternately  un- 
der the  power  of  the  Jewish  kings  or  indepen- 
dent, except  a  short  period  when  it  was  under 
Syrian  rule.  In  the  time  of  Jerome  it  was  a 
'*  very  large  village."  There  is  much  dispute 
as  to  its  site,  three  different  places  being  sug- 
gested. The  one  now  considered  most  proba- 
ble is  Tel  es-Safieh,  10  m.  S.  E.  of  Ashdod,  and 
22  m.  S.  W.  of  Jerusalem,  where  are  considera- 
ble ruins. 

CrATLIIfG,  Richard  Jenbui,  an  American  inven- 
tor, bom  in  Hertford  co.,  N.  C,  Sept.  12, 1818. 
While  yet  a  boy  he  assisted  his  father  in  per- 
fecting a  machine  for  sowing  cotton  seed,  and 
another  machine  for  thinning  cotton  plants. 
Subsequently  he  invented  and  patented  a  seed- 
sowing  %iachine  for  sowing  rice.  Removing 
to  St.  Louis  in  1844,  he  adapted  his  invention 
to  sowing  wheat  in  drills.  For  several  winters 
he  attended  medical  lectures  at  Laporte,  Ind., 
and  at  the  Ohio  medical  college  in  Cincinnati ; 
and  in  1849  he  removed  to  IndianapoKs,  where 
he  engaged  in  real  estate  speculations  and  rail- 
road enterprises.  In  1850  he  invented  a  dou- 
ble-acting hemp  brake,  and  in  1857  a  steam 


plough,  which  however  he  did  not  bring  to 
practical  results.  In  1861  he  conceived  the 
idea  of  the  revolving  battery  gun  which  bears 
his  name.  (See  Abtilleky,  vol.  i.,  p.  797,  and 
Cannon,  vol.  iii.,  p.  718.)  He  made  his  first 
gun  at  Indianapolis  in  1862,  and  in  the  fall  of 
that  year  he  made  six  of  the  guns  at  Cincin- 
nati, which  were  destroyed  by  the  burning  of 
the  factory.  He  subsequently  had  12  manu- 
factured, which  were  used  by  Gen.  Butler  on 
James  river.  In  1865  he  further  improved  his 
invention,  and  in  the  year  following,  after  sat- 
isfactory trials  at  Washington  and  at  Fortress 
Monroe,  the  arm  was  adopted  into  the  United 
States  service.  It  is  also  made  in  Austria 
and  England,  and  has  been  adopted  by  sev- 
eral governments  of  Europe.  During  the  past 
ten  years  Dr.  Gatling  has  devoted  himself  to 
the  perfection  of  this  invention,  spending  much 
time  abroad  in  testing  his  gun  in  public ;  and 
he  now  (1874)  resides  in  Hartford,  Conn. 

GAUCHOS,  horsemen  of  the  plains  in  the  Argen- 
tine and  other  South  American  republics.  They 
are  generally  of  pure  Spanish  race,  having  min- 
gled but  little  with  the  aborigines.  They  are 
usually  tall  and  graceful ;  their  hair  is  black  and 
frequently  worn  long,  with  full  beards  and  mous- 
taches. Their  dress  consists  of  a  loose  flowing 
shirt,  at  times  fancifully  embroidered;  wide 
drawers,  the  lower  extremities  of  which  are 
commonly  of  open  work  and  terminated  with 
a  fringe ;  a  quadrangular  piece  of  stuff  passed 
between  the  legs  and  bound  to  the  waist,  one 
end  in  front  and  the  other  behind,  by  means 
of  a  belt,  so  as  to  fall  in  folds  far  below  the 
knees ;  boots  of  the  skin  of  a  coitus  hind  legs ; 
a  poncho,  worn  only  in  wet  or  cold  weather ; 
and  finaUy  a  small  round  hat,  with  a  narrow 
brim.  To  shield  the  back  of  the  head  and 
neck  from  the  rays  of  the  sun,  the  gaucho 
makes  use  of  a  handkerchief  fastened  to  the 
crown  of  the  hat,  falling  down  behind,  and  se- 
cured by  drawing  the  two  lower  corners  be- 
neath the  chin.  When  not  exposed  to  the  sun, 
the  handkerchief  lies  loosely  upon  the  shoul- 
ders, with  a  sailor's  knot  in  front.  To  these 
are  added  a  long  knife,  the  trador^  which  per- 
forms the  double  office  of  purse  and  girdle,  and 
a  pair  of  huge  spurs.  The  dress  of  the  women, 
most  of  whom  are  remarkably  handsome,  is 
composed  of  a  low-cut  tightly  fitting  bodice 
and  short  skirt,  with  a  shawl  so  drawn  around 
the  head  as  barely  to  leave  the  face  and  front 
hair  visible,  but  completely  covering  the  neck 
and  shoulders.  The  arms  are  rarely  encum- 
bered by  any  garment ;  and  the  hair  is  secured 
by  a  large  comb.  When  on  horseback  the  wo- 
men often  wear  European  dresses  with  body 
and  sleeves,  and  a  handkerchief  like  that  of 
the  men.  The  gaucho  dwellings  are  rude  huts, 
with  walls  of  alternate  layers  of  willow  and 
mud,  the  roof  being  thatched.  The  furniture 
is  eirtremely  scanty.  It  usually  consists  of  a 
wooden  bedstead,  with  a  mattress  of  skin 
bound  to  the  sides  with  thongs;  two  ropes 
stretched  parallel  to  each  other  from  wall  to 


■  646  GAUDEN 

wall  over  the  bed,  Berving  as  a  cradle  for  the 
children,  who  are  laabed  to  them;  a  kettle  in 
which  to  make  the  mati  or  Paraguayan  tea, 
and  a  few  cups  with  tin  pipes  throagh  which 
it  is  sucked.  Aronnd  the  walls  hang  the  bolas, 
laaBO,  and  other  hanting  implemenCa.  In  hot 
weather  the  hut  is  deserted  night  and  day,  as 
the  owners  sleep  in  the  open  air.  Their  food 
is  obiefly  coinj>o»ed  of  beef,  which  the;  roast  in 
huge  pieces.  The  ganchos  are  admirable  horse- 
men, and  are  eipert  in  the  use  of  the  bolaa  and 
lasso.  ^See  Bouls,  and  Lasso.)  This  dexterity 
is  acquired  onl;  by  nninterrupted  practice  al- 
most from  infancy,  the  gancho  passing  his  life 
on  hoTBeback.  Their  occopations  are  breaking 
in  wild  horses,  watching  herds,  and  marking 
and  slaughtering  the  animals.  They  are  polite 
and  bospiCable,  but  indolent  and  vindictJve,  and 
addicted  to  gambling  and  intemperance.    In 


fighting  they  endeavor  to  lash  each  other's 
faces;  frightful  soars  are  freqnent,  and  the 
most  trifling  quarreis  often  result  in  loss  of  life. 
They  are  zealous  Boman  Catholics.  As  guides 
across  the  pampas,  they  are  invaluable.  The 
number  of  the  gaachos  as  a  distinct  class  is 
rapidly  decreasing.— The  ganchos  have  jilayod 
a  very  conspicuous  part  in  the  history  of  the 
Sooth  American  strngglea,  and  many  of  their 
chiefs,  nstural  rivals  of  the  more  enlightened 
but  less  energetic  and  reckless  popular  leaders 
in  the  Atlantic  citiea,  have  achieved  the  highest 
honors  in  their  respective  repnblios;  some  of 
them,  like  Rosas,  exercising  their  powers  with 
mimitigated  rigor. 

GIGDEH,  Jeba,  an  English  prelate,  horn  in 
Maylaud,  Essex,  in  1605,  died  Sept.  20,  l«fi2. 
Having  preacheil  an  acceptable  sermon  before 
the  parliament,  he  received  from  it  the  living 
of  Bocking  and  other  preferments.    After  the 


GAUGING 

breaking  oat  of  the  civil  war  he  retained  hii 
preferments,  submitted  to  the  Presbyterian  dis- 
cipline, omitted  the  liturgy  from  the  church 
service,  and  subscribed  to  the  covenant.  Mean- 
while be  secretly  wrote  a  "  Protestation " 
against  the  king's  trial,  a  "  Just  Invective  against 
those  who  miirthered  £ing  Charles  1.,"  and 
other  similar  papers.  They  were  published 
after  the  restoration,  when  he  declared  him- 
self a  royalist,  and  was  app<nnted  chaplain  to 
Charlee  II.,  afterward  bishop  of  Exeter,  and  io 
16S2  of  Worcester.  His  death  is  said  to  have 
been  hastened  by  bis  not  getting  the  rich  se« 
of  Winchester,  on  which  he  had  set  his  heart. 
The  "SiiUiv  Saeiiu^  :  the  Portraiture  of  hia 
Sacred  M^esty  K.  Charles  I.  in  his  Solitudes 
and  Sutferinga,"  which  is  attributed  to  bitn, 
was  at  first  supposed  to  have  been  written  by 
Charles  himself  and  went  through  60  editiona, 
at  home  and  abroad,  in  a  single  year{J648-'9). 
After  carefully  examining  the  evidence,  Sir 
James  Uackintosh  came  to  the  conclusion  that 
Gauden  was  really  the  author  of  the  book, 

GUroiCHlUD-BElEPEi,  CkariM,  a  French  bot- 
anist, t>om  in  Angoulfeme,  Sept.  4, 1780,  died  in 
Paris,  Jan.  26, 18G1.  In  181T  he  accompanied, 
in  the  capacity  of  pharmaceotic  botanist,  tbe 
scientific  expedition  of  Freycinet.  His  ves- 
sel, the  Uronie,  was  wrecked  upon  the  Falk- 
land islands  in  the  spring  of  1820,  and  of  the 
4,176  botanical  specimens  which  he  had  collect- 
ed upward  of  2,600  were  lost  After  his  re- 
turn to  France  he  prepared  the  botanical  bla- 
tory  of  the  voyage.  In  1880-'8S  he  took  part  in 
the  expedition  which  explored  the  coast  of  Son  th 
America  in  the  Heravme,  and  suliBeqnently  cir- 
cumnavigated the  globe  again  in  the  Bonite. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  institute  and  connect- 
ed with  the  mnseum  of  natural  history,  where 
he  passed  the  remainder  of  his  life,  devoted 
to  the  classification  of  his  specimens  and  the 
preparation  and  publication  of  his  notes;  and 
he  carried  on  an  acrimonious  controversy  with 
Mirbel  on  the  subject  of  the  proeeaa  of  vege- 
table growth.  Among  his  numerous  publica- 
tions were:  Vova^e  de  la  Bonite  (hotani^tie) 
(4  vols.  8vo) ;  Mteherc?iei  ffinfrala  tur  Torga' 
Ttoffmphie,  la  pJiytioiogw  el  Torganoginie  dt* 
vegetaux  {41o,  1841)  ;  Reeherche*  generate*  tur 
la  phytiologie  et  rcrganoginie  da  tSgftavx 
(4to;  1842-'7) ;  and  Memoira  et  notieet  dneraea 
BUT  Vanatomie  et  la  phytiologie  det  t-igitavx  (2 
vols.  8vo,  1851). 

ClIICINQ,  the  operation  of  measuring  the 
capacity  of  any  receptacle,  as  for  example  that 
of  a  cask,  barrel,  or  vat.  It  may  be  performed 
either  by  measuring  the  dimensions  of  the  re- 
ceptacle and  then  calculating  its  capacity  upon 
geometrical  principles,  or,  withoot  the  necessity 
of  any  calculation,  by  means  of  a  gauging  rod 
suitably  adjusted  for  the  purpose.  Though  the 
contents  of  a  vessel  cannot  ordinarily  be  ascer- 
tained in  practice  with  absolute  aconracy  by 
these  methods,  the  art  is  of  service  in  the  col- 
lection of  excise  duties,  iDasmnch  aa  the  con- 
tents of  a  vessel  are  ascert^ncd  by  means  of 


GAUL 


647 


it  without  being  disturbed.  —  See  Symons^s 
^*  Practical  Ganger,^'  Leadbetter's  ^*  Treatise  on 
Gauging,"  Hatton's  ^*  Mensuration,"  &o. 

GAUL  (Lat.  Gallia),  the  name  applied  by  the 
Romans  to  two  great  divisions  of  their  empire, 
Cisalpine  and  Transalpine  (in  regard  to  Rome). 
L  CMj^lne  Ckiil  (Gallia  Cimlpina  or  Citeriar\ 
comprising  the  north  of  Italy  to  the  confines 
of  Etruria  and  Umbria,  was  divided  bj  the  Po 
(Padus)  into  Gispadane  and  Transpadane.  It 
was  also  called  Gallia  Togata,  or  Romanized 
Gaul,  from  the  inhabitants  wearing  togas  like 
the  Romans.  It  was  bounded  N.  W.  and  N. 
by  the  Alps,  £.  by  the  Athesis  (now  Adige), 
8.  E.  by  l^e  Adriatic,  8.  by  the  Rubicon,  the 
Apennines,  the  Macra  (Magra),  and  the  moun- 
tains of  Lif?nria.  Both  divisions  of  this  por- 
tion, like  all  Transalpine  Gaul,  were  inhabit- 
ed mostly  by  people  of  Celtic  race  (Gaelic  and 
Kymric),  called  by  the  Romans. in  general 
Gauls  (Galli),  by  the  Greeks  JLkXrai or  TaX&rai^ 
the  Tuscan  and  some  other  elements  of  the 
population  in  Cisalpine  Gaul,  and  the  Celto- 
Teutonic,  Teutonic,  Celto-Iberian,  Iberian,  and 
Greek  in  Transalpine  Gaul,  were  comparative- 
ly small.  (See  Cblts.)  .  It  is  generally  believed 
that  the  Gauls,  who  are  undoubtedly  a  branch 
of  the  great  Indo-European  family,  left  their 
Asiatic  homes  before  the  dawn  of  European 
history,  and  occupied  the  western  regions  on 
the  Rhine,  Seine,  Rh6ne,  and  Garonne,  Ebro, 
and  Tagus,  as  well  as  the  islands  of  Britain, 
when  the  Roman  state  was  still  in  its  infancy. 
Turbulent,  roving,  and  warlike,  some  of  the 
tribes  entered  noi*them  Italy,  according  to 
Livy,  under  Bellovesus,  a  nephew  of  King  Am- 
bigatus,  in  the  time  of  Tarquin  the  Elder. 
Others  are  said  by  the  same  historian  to  have 
returned  eastward  toward  the  Hercynian  for- 
est, under  Sigovesus,  another  nephew  of  Ambi- 
gatus.  Still  others  appeared  later,  though  it 
is  uncertain  whence  they  came,  in  Macedonia, 
Thrace,  and  Greece,  where  they  were  reported 
at  Delphi,  278  B.  C. ;  and  even  in  Asia  Minor, 
where  they  founded  Galatia  or  Gallo-GrsBcia 
(see  Galatia),  in  Syria,  and  in  Egypt.  There 
are  no  precise  historical  dates  for  the  consecu- 
tive invasions  of  Cisalpine  Gaul  .by  the  Celts ; 
they  are  supposed  to  have  occupied  several 
centuries.  Tribe  followed  tribe,  and  finally  we 
find  the  Salassians  settled  in  the  vicinity  of 
Ivrea  (Eporedia),  the  Insubrians  about  Milan 
(Mediolannm),  the  Cenomani  in  the  region  of 
Verona  and  Mantua,  the  Boii  in  the  country 
lately  forming  the  duchies  of  Parma  and  Mo- 
dena  and  about  Bologna  (Bononia),  the  Lin- 
gones  about  Ravenna,  the  Senones,  who.came 
last,  in  the  8.  £.  part  of  Cispadane  Gaul,  and 
other  tribes  in  various  other  parts  of  the  coun- 
try. It  was  not  long  after  the  conquest  of 
Veii  by  the  Romans  that  this  people  came 
in  contact  with  the  Gauls.  These  invaders 
had  conquered  the  northern  possessions  of  the 
Etruscan  confederacy  while  the  Romans  were 
making  their  attacks  on  its  southern  districts. 
They  had  pushed  the  Umbrians  southward. 


taken  Melpum  (about  896  B.  C),  crossed  the 
Apennines  under  one  of  their  Brenni,  as  their 
chiefs  were  called,  and  advanced  as  far  as 
Clusium.  The  Tuscans  of  this  city  sought  aid 
from  the  Romans,  who  sent  no  army  to  their 
assistance,  but  despatched  the  Fabii  as  envoys 
to  deter  the  barbarians.  The  envoys  only  pro- 
voked them,  and  excited  their  hostility  against 
Rome.  Brennus  broke  up  the  camp  before 
Clusium,  crossed  the  Tiber,  routed  the  Romans 
on  the  AUia,  entered  Rome  through  open 
gates,  and  pillaged  it;  but  after  an  obstinate 
siege  of  the  capitol,  he  sold  Jiis  conquest  for 
gold  and  retired  with  his  army.  Subsequent 
invasions  proved  disastrous  to  the  barbarians. 
In  867  they  were  routed  near  Alba  by  Marcus 
Camillus.  In  861  another  host,  like  the  first 
of  the  Senonian  tribe,  encamped  before  the 
Anio  bridge,  but  marched  further  toward  Cam- 
pania before  fighting  a  battle.  Shortly  after 
returning  from  Campania  they  renewed  their 
ravages,  and  fought  unsuccessfully  against  the 
dictators  Ahala  and  Peticus.  In  860  they  again 
encamped  before  Rome,  keeping  it  in  perpetual 
terror;  but  in  the  following  year  L.  Furius 
Camillus,  a  nephew  of  Marcus,  compelled  them- 
to  retire.  When  in  a  later  period  the  Gauls 
assisted  the  Umbrians  and  Etruscans  against 
the  advancing  Romans,  they  were  routed  in  the 
battle  of  Sentinum  (295),  where  many  of  them 
fought  on  war  chariots,  and  near  Lake  Yadi- 
mon  (288).  These  disasters,  suffered  chiefly 
by  the  Senonian  and  Boian  Gauls,  put  an  end 
to  Gallic  wars  in  Italy  for  nearly  60  "years.  The 
Romans,  who  had  conquered  Umbria,  founded 
their  first  colony  in  Cispadane  Gaul,  in  the 
land  of  the  Senones,  calling  it  Sena  Gallica 
(now  Sinigaglia);  Arirainum  (Rimini)  was 
founded  afterward.  The  Gauls  were  too  much 
weakened  to  offer  any  opposition.  Being 
strengthened  by  the  arrival  of  large  bodies  from 
beyond  the  Alps,  they  took  up  arms  again  in 
226,  and  crossed  the  Apennines,  but  were  soon 
compelled  to  retreat,  and  were  routed  at  Tela- 
mon.  The  Romans  continued  the  war  with 
great  vigor,  conquered  the  land  of  the  Boii, 
crossed  the  Po,  on  the  opposite  banks  of  which 
they  soon  after  founded  Cremona  and  Plac^n- 
tia  (Piacenza),  and  subdued  the  Insubrians 
(221).  When  Hannibal  crossed  the  Alps  (218) 
be  was  eagerly  joined  by  numerous  Gauls,  but 
after  his  final  defeat  Cisalpine  Gaul  became 
an  easy  prey  to  the  victorious  legions.  It  was 
made  a  Roman  province  at  the  beginning  of 
the  following  century,  received  numerous  new 
Roman  colonies,  became  civilized,  industrious, 
and  flourishing,  and  finally  obtained  the  privi- 
leges of  Roman  citizenship.  Of  the  eleven 
divisions  of  Italy,  as  established  under  Au- 
gustus, it  formed  the  last  four.  The  Salas- 
sians, who  revolted  under  the  same  reign,  were 
nearly  exterminated.  The  Romanization  of 
the  province  was  rapidly  developed,  and  from 
this  time  iU  history  becomes  identified  with 
that  of  the  Roman  empire.  II.  Trainalptiie  Gaul 
{Gallia  Trantalpina  or  Ulterior)  was  bounded 


648 


GAUL 


"W.  and  N.  by  the  sea,  E.  by  tlie  Rhine,  S.  E. 
by  the  Alps,  and  S.  by  the  Mediterranean  and 
the  Pyrenees,  thus  comprising  not  only  the 
whole  of  modem  France  and  Belgium,  but  also 
parts  of  Switzerland,  Germany,  and  Holland. 
Upon  its  southern  coast  PhoBnioians,  Rhodians, 
and  Phocffians  had  at  various  remote  periods 
planted  colonies  and  introduced  some  rudiments 
of  civilization,  the  arts  of  writing,  mining,  and 
working  metals,  and  the  olive  and  vine.  The 
Romans  first  entered  this  portion  of  Gaul  at  its 
S.  £.  angle.  In  166  B.  C.  the  Maritime  Alps 
were  first  crossed  by  Roman  legions,  who  de- 
feated the  tribes  of  the  western  slopes.  In 
164  they  defended  Massilia  (Marseilles),  a  col- 
ony of  Phocfida,  and  herself  the  mother  of  nu- 
merous colonies,  against  the  Ligurians.  Twenty 
years  later  they  fought  against  the  Sal  yes,  a 
Oelto-Ligurian  tribe.  Soon  afterward  they 
founded  Aqoffl  Sextise  (Aiz),  and  subdued  the 
Allobroges,  who  lived  between  the  Rh6ne 
(Rhodanus)  and  the  Isdre  (Isara),  and  were  as- 
sisted by  the  Arverni  (121).  This  new  course 
of  Roman  conquests  was  interrupted  by  the 
great  Gimbro-Teutonic  movement  (see  Gimbbi), 
but  the  two  victories  of  Marius  at  Aqu»  Sex- 
tiflB  (102)  and  on  the  Raudian  fields  (101),  over 
the  Teutons  and  Gimbri,  saved  both  the  Trans- 
alpine and  Gisalpine  possessions  of  Rome.  The 
former,  eventusdly  extending  from  the  Alps 
to  the  Pyrenees,  and  embracing  the  modem 
provinces  of  Dauphiny,  Languedoc,  Provence 
(from  the  Roman  Pravincia),  Roussillon,  and 
Kice,  were  called  Gallia  Braccata  or  Gomata, 
from  the  wide  trousers  (Jbracew)  or  the  long 
hair  {eoma)  of  the  inhabitants.  The  internal 
development  of  the  main  parts  of  Transal- 
pine Gaul,  during  the  times  when  the  Gisal- 
pine country  was  successively  Gallicized  and 
Romanized,  cannot  be  traced  in  historical  rec- 
ords. When  the  Romans,  in  the  last  period  of 
their  republic,  finally  entered  the  northwest, 
they  found  the  country  occupied  by  various 
tribes,  ruled  by  nobles,  priests,  and  chiefs  or 
kings.  GsBsar,  the  conqueror  of  the  people  and 
historian  of  their  last  struggles  for  independence, 
comprehends  all  of  them  under  the  general  name 
of  Gauls,  dividing  them  into  three  large  groups : 
Belgians,  in  the  northeast,  between  the  Rhine, 
Seine  (Sequana),  and  Marne  (Matrona) ;  Gelts, 
or  Gauls  proper,  in  the  centre  and  west,  be- 
tween the  Seine,  Marne,  and  Garonne  (Gamm- 
na);  and  Aquitanians,  in  the  southwest,  be- 
tween the  Garonne  and  the  Pyrenees.  In  the 
first  of  these  groups  Kymric  and  Belgic  ele- 
ments seem  to  have  prevailed,  in  the  second 
Gaelic,  in  the  third  Iberic  and  other  non- 
G^ltic  elements,  though  the  divisions  of  GsBsar 
do  not  fully  coincide  with  the  lines  of  distinc- 
tion drawn  by  modem  ethnologists.  Among  the 
more  important  tribes  were  the  Batavi,  near 
the  mouths  of  the  Rhine ;  the  iRervii,  in  the 
southwest  of  modem  Belgium ;  the  Eburones, 
about  Li^ge;  the  Ambioni,  about  Amiens; 
the  Morini,  "  the  remotest  of  men,"  about 
Boulogne ;  the  Atrebates,  in  Artois ;  the  Bel- 


lovaci,  about  Beanvais ;  the  Snessiones,  about 
Soissons;  the  Parisii,  about  Paris  (LutetU); 
the  Remi,  in  Ghampagne  (Rheims) ;  the  Tre- 
veri,  about  Treves;  the  Teutonic  Tribocci, 
Ubii,  and  Nemetes,  on  the  Rhine ;  the  Eburo- 
vices,  about  £vreux ;  the  Genomani,  in  Maine ; 
the  Armorican  Nannetes  (Nantes),  Veneti 
(Vannes;,  and  Red  ones  (Rennes),  the  chief 
representatives  of  the  Eymric  race,  in  Britta- 
ny ;  the  Turonea,  in  Touraine ;  the  Andes  or  An- 
degavi,  in  Anjou ;  the  Gamutes,  about  Ghartres 
and  Orleans;  the  Lingones,  about  Langres;  the 
Senonea,  about  Sens  (Agendicum) ;  the  Lemo- 
vices,  in  Limousin ;  the  Santones,  in  Saintonge ; 
the  Pictones,  in  Poitou ;  the  Arverni,  in  Au- 
vergne;  the  Helvii,  in  Yivarais;  the  Gabali,  in 
G^vaudan ;  the  iEdui,  in  Uie  region  of  Autun 
(Bibraote);  the  Mandubii,  about  Alise  Ste. 
Keine  (see  Alesia)  ;  the  Insubres,  in  Lyonnais ; 
the  Bituriges,  in  earlier  times  a  leading  tribe, 
about  Bourges  (Avaricum) ;  the  Sequani,  about 
Besan^on  ( Vesontio) ;  the  Belvetii,  in  Switzer- 
land; the  Bituriges  Vivisci,  about  Bordeaux 
(Burdigala);  and  the  Tarbelli,  in  B^rn.  At 
the  time  of  OsBsar^s  invasion,  the  Gauls  had 
towns,  and  used  the  art  of  fortification  with 
success;  they  had  long  known  the  arts  of  em- 
broidering and  working  metala,  and  were  re- 
garded as  the  inventors  of  various  implements 
of  husbandry;  the  Armoricans  possessed  a 
navy;  the  Gallic  country  was  reputed  to  be 
the  richest  in  Europe.  But  their  manners 
were  rude,  their  speech  was  rough,  milk  and 
s Winers  fiesh  were  the  principal  aliments,  their 
villages  were  disfigured  with  inhuman  trophies, 
the  treatment  of  captive  or  slain  enemies  was 
barbarous,  bloody  fights  and  duels  were  cus- 
tomary, hounds  were  used  in  w^ar,  polygamy 
was  not  prohibited,  and  females  were  little 
more  than  slaves ;  the  polytheism  which  pre- 
vailed among  the  common  people,  especially 
among  the  Gael,  was  coarse,  and  human  vic- 
tims were  sacrificed  to  the  gods.  (See  Dsums, 
and  Babd.)  The  remains  commemorative  of 
Gallic  culture  are  extremely  scanty.  The  de- 
tails of  0»sar^s  conquest  of  Gaul  may  be  read 
in  his  ^^  Gommentaries."  Its  chief  events  are 
the  defeat  of  the  Helvetians  near  Bibracte, 
and  the  expedition  against  the  Suevi  under 
Ariovistus,  undertaken  on  the  call  of  the 
^dui,  in  68 ;  the  conquest  of  Belgic  Gaul,  in 
67 ;  the  invasion  of  Armorica  or  Brittany  by 
land  and  sea,  the  submission  of  Aquitania,  and 
the  reduction  of  the  wild  tribes  on  the  K.  W. 
coast,  in  66;  the  sudden  and  successful  at- 
tacks of  the  Eburones  under  Ambiorix,  and 
their  •  annihilation,  in  64  and  68 ;  the  great 
rising  of  central  Gaul  under  Vercingetorix, 
the  double  blockade  at  Alesia,  and  the  fall  of 
Avaricum,  the  last  stronghold  of  the  natives, 
in  62.  The  loss  of  the  Gauls  in  these  strug- 
gles, in  which  genius  and  discipline  conquered 
unbridled  and  tumultuous  valor,  was  little  less 
than  a  million  men.  The  whole  Transalpine 
country  was  divided  by  Augustus  into  four 
provinces:    Gallia   Narbonensis   (Xarbonne), 


GAUME 


GAUTIER 


649 


the  former  Provincia  Romana,  Gallia  Aanita* 
nica,  Gallia  Lugdanensis,  and  Gallia  Beigica, 
to  which  were  added  the  later  divisions  Ger- 
mania  Superior  or  Prima,  and  Germania  Infe- 
rior or  Secunda,  on  the  Rhine.  Other  snh- 
sequent  divisions  are  less  important.  For 
more  than  two  centuries  after  its  conquest  hj 
Offisar,  Gaul  remained  almost  entirely  quiet, 
and  its  Romanization  proceeded  rapidly,  the 
national  habits  and  religion  retiring  by  de- 
grees toward  the  N.  W.  coast,  and  eventually 
finding  refuge  in  the  islands  beyond  it.  The 
history  of  the  country  in  the  times  of  the  Ro- 
man emperors,  under  the  latter  of  whom  it 
was  Christianized,  belongs  to  that  of  Rome. 
Civil  wars  and  dissensions  in  the  3d  century,  and 
later  the  invasions  of  the  Alemanni,  Franks, 
Burgnndians,  Visigoths,  Huns,  and  other  barba- 
rians, brought  about  its  decay.  Clovis  made 
it  Frankish.  (See  FKANGB.)---See  Desjardins, 
Geographie  ds  la  Oaule^  d'aprk  la  table  de 
Peutinger  (Paris,  1870.) 

6AIIME9  Jmu  Jtsepli,  a  French  author,  bom 
at  Fuans,  Doubs,  in  1802,  died  March  22, 1869. 
lie  received  holy  orders  at  an  early  age,  was 
appointed  in  1827  professor  of  theology  in  the 
seminary  of  Nevers,  and  became  successively 
director  of  that  institution,  canon  of  the  cathe- 
dral, and  vicar  general.  He  is  chiefly  known 
as  having  led  in  the  vehement  opposition  to 
the  teaching  of  the  pagan  classics,  which  arose 
in  France  on  the  publication  of  his  Le  ver  ron- 
geur des  societes  modemes  (Paris,  1851).  In 
this  work  he  traces  all  the  social  evils  of  the 
last  400  years  to. the  revival  of  pagan  art  and 
literature.  In  the  angry  controversy  which 
ensued,  he  was  successfully  opposed  by  Bishop 
Dupanloup.  In  1852  appeared  Lettres  d  Mgr, 
Dupanloup  sur  le  paganUme  dane  V education. 
In  furtherance  of  his  idea  that  no  I^atin  or  Greek 
authors  should  be  read  in  the  schools  save  such 
as  are  posterior  to  the  4th  century,  he  began 
forthwith  to  issue  BibHoth^ue  dee  elaseiquee 
chretieney  latine  et  greee  (30  vols.  12mo,  Paris, 
1852-'5),  and  Poltee  et  prosateure  profanes 
eompUtement  expurgke  (2  vols.,  1857).  He 
was  made  a  knight  of  St.  Sylvester  in  1841  by 
Gregory  XVI.,  and  a  prothonotary  apostolic 
by  Pius  IX.  in  1 854.  Of  his  many  other  w  orks, 
the  most  important  are :  CateehismedspersSve" 
ranee  (8  vols.  8vo,  1838;  abridgment,  18mo, 
20th  ed.,  1864,  translated  into  English) ;  ffis- 
toire  de  la  societe  domestique  chez  tous  lee 
peuplee  (2  vols.,  1844);  and  Lee  troie  Rome 
(4  vols.,  1848). 

GAUSS,  Karl  Fricdrteh,  a  German  mathemati- 
cian* bom  in  Brunswick,  April  80,  1777,  died 
in  G^ttingen,  Feb.  28, 1855.  He  early  display- 
ed such  remarkable  capacity  for  mathematical 
calculation,  that  the  duke  of  Brunswick  took 
charge  of  his  education.  At  the  age  of  18 
he  solved  a  problem  which  had  occupied  ge- 
ometers from  the  time  of  Euclid,  that  of  the 
division  of  the  circle  into  17  equal  parts.  In 
1801  he  published  his  Bisquisitionee  Arithme- 
tieWj   treating   of  indeterminate   analysis  or 


transcendental  arithmetic,  and  containing,  be« 
sides  many  new  and  curious  theorems,  a  dem- 
onstration of  the  famous  theorem  of  Fermat 
concerning  triangular  numbers.  Tiiis  gave  him 
at  once  a  distinguished  place  among  scientific 
men.  He  was  one  of  the  first  to  calculate  by 
a  new  method  the  orbit  of  the  newly  discovered 
planet  Ceres,  and  afterward  that  of  Pallas,  for 
which  he  received  from  the  French  institute  in 
1810  the  medal  founded  by  Lalande.  In  1807 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  mathematics  and 
director  of  the  new  observatory  at  Gdttingen, 
a  position  which  he  retained  till  his  death. 
Having  undertaken  for  the  government  of  Han- 
over in  1821  the  measurement  of  an  arc  of  the 
meridian  for  trigonometrical  purposes,  he  in- 
troduced important  improvements  in  geodesy. 
To  render  the  angles  visible  at  as  great  a  dis- 
tance as  possible,  he  invented  the  heliotrope, 
which  accomplishes  the  object  by  reflecting  the 
rays  of  the  sun,  and  devised  a  method  for  the 
correction  of  the  errors  which  occur  in  an 
extensive  system  of  triangulation.  After  the 
arrival  of  Weber  in  Gdttingen  in  1881  Gauss 
employed  his  leisure  principally  in  the  investi- 
gation of  magnetism.  He  invented  the  mag- 
netometer for  ascertaining  the  variations  of  the 
magnetic  needle,  and  became  member  of  the 
Magnetieeher  Vereiny  through  the  instrumen- 
tality of  which  valuable  observations  on  ter- 
restrial magnetism  were  made  and  the  resnlts 
published  (6  vols.,  GOttingen,  1837-'43).  His 
works  mark  an  era  in  the  history  of  science. 
As  a  mathematician  he  was  pronounced  by  La- 
place the  greatest  in  Europe.  Among  the  more 
important  of  his  works  are :  Theoria  Motus  Cor- 
porum  Cosleetium  ^Hamburg,  1809 ;  translated 
into  English  by  C.  II.  Davis,  Boston,  1857,  and 
into  German  by  Haase,  Hanover,  1865);  /»- 
teneitaa  Vie  Magnetiea  Terreetrie  (Gdttingen, 
1833);  Atlae  dee  Brdmagnetismite  (3  vols., 
Leipsic,  1840);  Dioptrieeke  Uhtereuehungen 
(Gdttingen,  1841);  and  Untereuehun^en  i&er 
Gegenetdnde  der  hdhem  Geodeeie  (1845-7). 

GAOTAMA.    See  BuDDmsM. 

GAVTUS,  Jeai  Fnufels  Eig^e,  a  French 
composer,  born  at  Vaugirard,  near  Paris,  in 
1822.  He  became  an  excellent  violinist,  and 
produced  many  comic  operas,  the  most  success- 
ful of  which,  Flore  et  Zephirey  was  performed 
at  .the  Th6Atre  Lyrique  in  Paris  in  1852. 

GAUTIER,  Tk^oj^hite,  a  French  author,  born  in 
Tarbes,  Aug.  81,  1811,  died  in  Paris,  Oct.  23, 
1872i  He  was  educated  at  the  college  of 
Charlemagne,  on  leaving  which  he  entered  the 
studio  of  Rioult  to  study  painting;  but,  dis- 
couraged at  the  feebleness  of  his  first  attempts, 
he  turned  to  literature,  and  became  an  ardent 
disciple  of  the  school  of  Victor  Hugo.  His 
first  volume  of  poetry,  published  in  1830,  was 
followed  in  1832  by  Alhertus^  a  legend  in  verse. 
He  then  wrote  a  series  of  articles  on  the  poets 
of  the  time  of  Louis  XIIT.,  which  were  collect- 
ed and  published  in  1844  under  the  title  of  Lee 
grotesques.  In  1836  he  began  to  write  the  arti- 
cles on  theatres  and  fine  arts  in  the  Freese,  and 


650 


GAVAENI 


GAVIAL 


at  the  same  time  was  a  contributor  to  the  Se- 
vue  de  Parisy  the  Mu»ee  des/amilles^  and  other 
publications.  He  also  wrote  numerous  novels, 
poems,  and  books  of  travel.  The  most  cele- 
brated of  his  novels  are  MademauelU  de  Mau- 
pin  (1635),  Fortunio  (1888),  Lei  roues  tniUH 
cents  and  MiliUma  (1847),  Le  eapitaine  Fro- 
easse  (1868),  La  peau  de  tigre  (1865),  Spirite 
(1866),  and  Menagerie  irUime  ri869).  Besides 
the  poems  already  mentioned,  he  published  La 
comedie  de  la  mart  (1888)  and  £tnaux  et  ca- 
mees  (1852).  Among  his  books  of  travel  are 
Tralos Mantes  (1848),  Zigzags  (1845),  and  Con- 
stantinople (1854).  He  made  three  visits  to 
Russia  by  the  invitation  of  the  emperor  Alex- 
ander II.,  and  prepared,  in  collaboration  with 
M.  Bichebourg,  Tresars  d*art  de  la  EvmU  an- 
eienne  et  modeme^  published  under  the  auspices 
of  the  Russian  government  (fol.,  with  photo- 
graphs, 1860-'68).  He  wrote  the  librettos  for 
the  ballets  Giselle  (1841),  La  Pen  (1848),  Gem- 
ma (1854),  and  Saeauntdla  (1858).  Ilis  connec- 
tion with  the  Presse  as  dramatic  and  art  critic 
continued  for  20  years,  and  at  its  end  he  be- 
came (1856)  literary  editor  of  the  Maniteur 
Unitersely  and  in  1869  of  the  Journal  Offidel. 
His  best  critical  articles  were  collected  and 
published  in  1859  under  the  title  Eistaire  de 
Vart  dramatique  en  France  depuis  tingt-cinq 
ans  (6  vols).  He  received  a  pension  in  1868, 
but  was  repeatedly  refused  admission  to  the 
academy. — See  Theophile  Gautier^  souvenirs 
intimesy  by  Ernest  Feydeau  (Paris,  1874). 

GAYARNI,  the  pseudonyme  of  Sulpioe  Guil- 
LA.UME  Paul  Ghsvaueb,  a  French  caricaturist, 
born  in  Paris  in  1801,  died  at  Auteuil,  Nov.  28, 
1866.  He  was  employed  by  an  engineer  as 
draftsman  at  Tarbes,  and  borrowing  a  name 
from  the  village  of  Gavamie  in  that  region, 
subscribed  it  to  sketches  of  the  costtones  and 
scenery  of  the  Pyrenees.  These  brought  him 
into  notice,  and  he  began  the  publication  of  the 
designs  which  made  him  celebrated.  He  first 
represented  various  types  of  eccentric  life  in 
Paris,  and  afterward  attempted  with  equal  suc- 
cess scenes  of  domestic  life.  Some  of  his  series 
in  the  latter  style  were  entitled  Les  en/ants  ter- 
ribles^  Les  faurheries  de  femmes^  Les  maris 
Tenges,  Les  nuances  de  sentiment,  &o.  Among 
the  books  which  he  illustrated  were  the  Ju^f 
errant  of  Sue  and  the  Dialle  d  Paris  of  Balzac. 
His  (Euvres  ehoisies^  with  letterpress  by  Jules 
Janin,  Tli^phile  Gautier,  Balzac,  and  others, 
were  published  in  1845  (4  vols.).  Two  vol- 
jmes  more  appeared  in  1850,  under  the  name 
of  Perles  et  parures.  In  1869  was  published 
Maniires  de  voir  et  /afons  deparler:  reeeuil 
des  ecHts  de  Gavami^  edited  by  (Charles  Yriarte ; 
and  in  1878  a  Catalogue  des  lithographies  de 
Goivarni,  and  Gavami,  a  biography,  by  £d- 
mond  and  Jules  de  Goncourt. 

GAYAZZI,  AlcssaBdrs,  an  Italian  preacher  and 
political  agitator,  bom  in  Bologna  in  1809. 
He  joined  the  order  of  the  Bamabites  in  1825, 
and  afterward  officiated  as  professor  of  rhetoric 
at  Naples.    He  was  in  Rome  at  the  outbreak  of 


the  revolution  in  Lombardy  in  1848,  delivered 
in  the  Pantheon  a  funeral  oration  on  those  who 
had  fallen  in  that  struggle,  and  made  passion- 
ate appeals  in  behalf  of  tlie  independence  of 
Italy.  The  pope  appointed  him  almoner  of  the 
Roman  legion  which  was  despatched  to  Y ioen- 
za,  and  he  was  called  by  the  people  the  Pietro 
Eremita^  or  Peter  the  Hermit,  of  the  national 
crusade.  In  Venice  he  addressed  immense 
crowds  in  St.  Mark's  place,  and  thus  gained 
means  for  furthering  the  movement.  Pius  IX., 
however,  alarmed  at  the  spread  of  the  revolu- 
tion, recalled  his  troops  to  Rome.  Gavazzi 
repaired  to  Florence,  and,  after  bis  expulsioii 
from  that  city,  to  Genoa;  but  he  was  recalled 
to  Bologna,  where  he  was  received  with  great 
enthusiasm  by  the  people  who  had  risen  against 
the  papal  government.  He  was  appointed  hj 
the  republican  government  chaplain  in  chief  of 
the  army,  and  after  the  French  occupation  of 
Rome  (July,  1849)  he  found  an  asylum  in  Eng- 
land, and  subsequentiy  lectured  in  Great  Brit- 
ain, the  United  States,  and  Canada,  against  the 
church  and  government  of  Rome.  In  1861  he 
published  in  London  his  ^^  Life,  Sermons,  and 
Lessons."  He  afterward  returned  to  Italy, 
and  in  1860  accompanied  the  expedition  of 
Garibaldi  to  Sicily.  In  1870  he  again  visited 
Great  Britain,  and  in  1878  he  solicited  fund8 
in  the  United  States  for  the  maintenance  of 
Protestant  churches  in  Italy. 

filYEULUiD,  a  tenure  in  England  by  which 
the  estate  descends,  not  to  the  eldest  son,  as 
by  common  law,  but  to  all  the  sons,  or  if  there 
be  no  sons,  to  all  the  brothers.  The  word  is 
said  by  some  persons  to  be  derived  from  the 
English  iKords  *'*'  given  to  all  the  kindred;''  but 
other  derivations  are  suggested.  It  prevails 
throughout  the  English  county  of  Kent,  but  is 
seldom  met  with  in  other  counties.  The  best 
authorities,  including  Selden,  believe  that  this 
was  the  general  custom  of  England  before  the 
Norman  conquest. 

GAYIALi  or  Garrhlal,  a  crocodilian  reptile  of 
Asia  and  Africa,  of  the  genus  gavialiM  (Geof- 
frey), characterized  by  its  very  long,  straight, 
and  narrow  jaws,  somewhat  enlarged  at  the 
extremity.  The  number  of  teeth  is  greater 
than  in  other  crocodilians,  being  100  to  120  in 
all,  from  60  to  60  in  each  jaw ;  tiie  upper  man- 
dible is  not  pierced  for  the  passage  of  tbe  lower 
teeth,  but  has  two  gi'ooves  in  each  side  for  the 
reception  of  the  first  and  fourth  under  teeth, 
tbe  anterior  being  deep  and  in  the  front  of  the 
jaw ;  the  t^^  or  six  anterior  pairs,  both  above 
and  below,  are  larger  than  the  rest  of  the  teeth, 
the  largest  being  the  first,  third,  and  fourth 
above,  and  the  first,  second,  and  fourth  below, 
and  £^1  are  of  a  conical  form,  slightiy  depressed 
from  before  backward.  The  division  of  the 
lower  jaw  into  two  branches  begins  about  the 
22d  tooth  of  the  series  of  26.  The  bony  open- 
ing of  the  nasal  fossad  is  triangular,  and  this  is 
closed  in  the  males  by  a  large  oval  cartilaginous 
sac,  whose  cavity  is  supposed  to  serve  as  a  res- 
ervoir of  air  when  the  animal  plunges  under 


GAVIAL 

water.  There  are  five  lo«s  on  the  fore  paws 
and  four  on  the  hind,  the  middle  three  of  the 
former  beingnnited  at  their  base  hj  a  very  short 
wob,  and  the  external  three_  of  tlie  latter  by  a 
thicker  and  more  extensive  membrane  covered 
with  small  f;rannlHr  Bcolea;  the  oaiU  are  feebly 
curved.  The  nuchal  plates  ore  two,  of  tai^ 
size  and  ridged,  and  oval  form,  sometimes  with 
a  emaU  plate  on  each  aide  of  them ;  the  cervical 
platee,  fonr  pdrs,  extend  from  the  middle  third 
of  the  neck  to  the  dorsal  covering  in  a  longi- 
tudinal band,  and  are  ridged  on  their  median 
Kne ;  the  upper  part  of  the  trunk  ia  protected 
by  four  longitudinal  Beriea  of  ridged  quadrilat- 
eral acales,  each  containing  about  18,  and  the 
ridea  of  the  neck  and  flanks  by  flat  smooth 
Bcalee  of  medium  size;  the  tail  has  from  S4  to 
40  circlea  of  scales,  becoming  crested  about 
the  dxth  or  seventh  on  eaeh  side,  the  double 
portion  becoming  single  and  the  highest  near 
middle  of  the  lei^;th ;  the  nnder  sarfaoe  of  the 
body  is  covered  by  about  60  transverse  rows 
of  smooth,  oblong,  qnadrilatersl  scales,  each 
pieroed  on  the  posterior  border  by  a  small  open- 


GAT 


651 


GitUI  or  Ousetto  CmsodUe. 

ing.  The  scales  of  the  limbs  are  rhoinboidal, 
and  on  the  posterior  ones  A'om  the  ham  to  the 
little  toe  tiimished  with  a  serrated  crest.  The 
common  species,  the  gavial  of  the  Ganges  (0. 
OangelUit*,  Geoff.),  is  of  a  deep  sea-green  color 
above,  with  uumerons  irregnlar  brown  spots, 
smallest  and  thickest  about  the  Jaws,  and  be- 
low pale  yellowish  white;  the  young  have  the 
hack  and  limbs  banded  with  black.  It  attains 
a  length  of  over  20  ft,,  though  the  specimens 
Qsnally  seen  are  considerably  smaller  than 
this ;  in  the  adnlt  the  head  is  a  little  less  than 
one  fifth,  and  the  tail  abont  one  half  of  the  to- 
tal length  of  the  animal.  Though  most  com- 
mon in  the  river  Ganges,  it  is  found  in  other 
rivers  of  Asia ;  and  other  species  have  been 
described  from  Africa,  Not  with  stand  in(f  ita 
large  size  and  nnmerous  teeth,  the  gavial  feeds 
on  fishes  and  small  prey ;  the  narrownesa  and 
feeblenesa  of  the  Jaws  do  not  enable  it  to  seize 
large  land  animals,  like  the  wide  and  stronger 
jawed  crocodile  and  alligator.  The  general 
structure  and  habits  of  the  gavial  do  not  differ 
essentially  lirom  those  of  the  crocodile. — Hie 


'  fossil  crooodileswbioh  existed  toward  the  end  of 
the  secondary  epoch  all  had  the  elongated  Jaws 
of  the  gavial,  the  true  crocodiles  not  appearing 
until  the  tertiary  period  at  the  same  time  with 
their  mammalian  prey.  The  crocodilui  primn* 
of  SOmmering,  the  teleoiaumt  and  the  tteneo- 
taurv*  of  GeofiVoy,  all  bad  the  cranial  charac- 
ters of  the  gavial.  This  reptile,  though  now 
confined  to  tlie  warmest  regions,  in  former 
geological  ages  lived  in  northern  Europe. 

GAY,  Claide,  a  French  traveller  and  natnral- 
iat,  bom  at  Dragnignan,  March  18, 1800.  After 
having  stndied  the  natural  sciences  at  Paris 
and  travelled  in  Greece  and  the  East,  he  went 
to  Chili  in  1828  and  studied  the  botany,  zoolo- 
gy, and  meteorology  of  that  country,  and  also 
of  parts  of  Peru,  Brazil,  and  Buenos  Ayres. 
After  his  retnm  to  Paris  in  1B42  he  published 
in  Spanish,  at  the  expense  of  the  Chilian  gov- 
ernment, his  great  work,  the  HUtoriafiiiea  y 
paliCiea  ds  CkiU  (Paris,  J848-'B1),  in  24  vols., 
besides  an  atlas  in  2  large  4to  vols.,  composed 
of  815  plates. 

CAT,  MpUM,    See  GtB&nniN. 

CAT,  EkcMser,  an  American  clergyman,  )x)m 
in  Dcdham,  Haas.,  Aug.  Sfl,  1690,  died  March 
IB,  1787.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  college  in 
1714,  and  was  in  1718  settled  over  the  church 
at  Hingham,  Mass.,  where  he  remained  till  his 
death.  On  his  8Sth  birthday  he  preached  a 
sermon  from  the  text :  "  Lo,  I  am  this  day 
fourscore  and  five  years  old,"  which,  under 
the  title  of  "The  Old  Uan's  Calendar,"  has 
been  frequently  republished  in  America,  went 
through  several  editions  !n  England,  and  was 
translated  into  one  or  two  of  the  continental 
langaages  of  Europe,  lu  theology  be  was  lib- 
oral.  John  Adams  said,  on  the  first  distinctive 
announcement  of  Unitarianism  in  this  country, 
that  he  had  heard  the  doctrine  from  Dr.  Gay 
long  before.    He  published  several  volumes  of 


GIT,  Jshi,  on  English  poet,  bom  near  Tor- 

riugton,  Devonshire,  in  1088,  died  in  London, 
Dec.  4,  1782.  After  receiving  an  elementary 
education  at  the  grammar  school  of  Barnstaple, 
he  was  apprenticed  to  a  silk  mercer  in  London, 
but  soon  abandoned  this  business  for  literary 
pursuits.  In  1711  he  produced  hispoem  "Bu- 
ral  Sports,"  which  he  dedicated  to  Pope,  and  a 
lifelong  fHendsbip  sprung  np  between  the  two 
poets.  In  the  following  year  he  became  secre- 
tary to  the  duchess  of  Monmouth.  His  next 
work,  "The  Shepherd's  Week,"  was  written 
to  throw  ridicule  on  the  pastorals  of  Ambrose 
Philips,  and  met  with  great  success.  In  1718 
he  brought  out  a  comedy  colled  "  The  Wife  of 
Bath,"  which  was  acted  only  three  nights.  In 
1714  he  accompanied  the  British  ambassador, 
Ixird  Clarendon,  to  Hanover  as  secretary.  On 
the  death  of  Qaeen  Anne,  however,  he  was 
dismissed  tram  ofiice,  end  driven  once  more  to 
use  his  pen  as  a  means  of  support.  Soon  after 
returning  to  England  he  produced  a  drama  en- 
titled "  What  d'ye  Call  It  ?"  which  wae  «>  well 
received  that  he  made  another  attempt  of  a 


652 


GAY 


GATARRE 


similar  nature,  in  which  he  is  said  to  have 
been  assisted  by  Pope  and  Arbuthnot.  Owing 
to  its  personality  and  ipdelioacj,  bis  ^*  Three 
Hours  after  Marriage  "  proved  a  decided  fail- 
ure, and  involved  its  author  for  a  time  in  dis- 
grace. In  1727  his  celebrated  ^*  Beggars'  Op- 
era "  was  brought  on  the  stage,  and  was  repre- 
sented for  G2  successive  nights,  four  of  which 
were  for  his  own  benefit,  and  yielded  him 
nearly  £700.  This  piece  was  followed  by  an- 
other opera  entitled  "Polly;"  but  the  lord 
chamberlain  forbade  its  representation,  and  Gay 
was  constrained  to  publish  it  by  subscription, 
by  which  he  realized  £1,100  or  £1,200.  The 
most  important  of  his  other  works  are  "  Tri- 
via, or  the  Art  of  Walking  the  Streets  of  Lon- 
don,*' and  his  '^  Fables,"  which  are  among  the 
best  of  their  kind  in  the  language.  Of  his  mi- 
nor poems,  the  ballads  of  "  Black-eyed  Susan '' 
and  "  'Twas  when  the  Sea  was  Roaring "  are 
the  most  popular.  Gay  was  at  one  time  rich, 
but  he  lost  nearly  all  his  property  by  the  burst- 
ing of  the  South  sea  bubble.  His  latter  days 
Wttre  spent  in  the  house  of  the  duke  of  Queens- 
berry.  The  prominent  characteristics  of  his 
poetry  are  wit,  simplicity,  and  sweetness.  The 
best  edition  of  his  poetical  works  is  that  of  W. 
Coxe  (8  vols.,  London,  1797;  2  vols.,  1806); 
the  best  edition  of  his  *' Fables,"  that  of  O.  F. 
Owen  (London,  1856). 

GAT,  Marie  FratftiM  So]fbk,  a  French  novel- 
ist, bom  in  Paris,  July  1, 1776,  died  March  5, 
1852.  She  was  the  daughter  of  a  French 
financier  named  Nichault  de  la  Yalette,  and 
was  married  in  1793  to  M.  Liottier,  from  whom 
she  was  divorced  in  1799.  She  then  became 
the  wife  of  M.  Gay,  receiver  general  of  finance 
in  the  department  of  Roer,  under  the  empire, 
and  accompanied  him  to  Aix-la-Chapelle,  its 
capital,  where  she  resided  ten  years.  She  was 
remarkable  for  her  wit,  agreeable  manners, 
and  social  disposition,  and  her  house  at  Aiz-la- 
Ghapelle,  at  Paris  after  her  return  thither,  and 
at  Versailles,  where  she  passed  the  last  few 
years  of  her  life,  was  the  resort  of  literary  and 
fashionable  society.  As  early  as  1802  she  pub- 
lished anonymously  in  the  Journal  de  ParU  an 
article  upon  Mme.  de  StaSl,  and  in  the  same 
year  her  first  novel,  Laure  cTEstell^  which  had 
a  moderate  success.  In  1813  she  published 
Llonie  de  Manthrettse^  considered  one  of  her 
best  novels ;  in  1815,  Anatole,  which  narrates 
the  loves  of  a  deaf  mute ;  and  in  1818,  Les  mal- 
hevrs  d'un  amant  heureux^  a  lively  picture  of 
manners  during  the  empire.  She  continued  to 
produce  books  until  a  few  years  before  her 
death,  among  them  Lee  eouvenire  d^vne  tieille 
femme,  a  piquant  abstract  of  her  personal  me- 
moirs.   She  wrote  unsuccessfully  for  the  stage. 

QAT,  Sydney  Ileward  and  If  Inckwortli  Allan.  See 

supplement. 

GATA,  a  town  of  Bengal,  British  India,  in 
the  district  of  Behar,  265  m.  N.  W.  of  Calcutta; 
pop.  about  40,000.  It  consists  of  two  parts, 
the  old  town,  in  which  the  Brahmans  reside, 
and  the  new  town,  inhabited  by  the  secular 


population  and  Europeans.  The  old  town  is 
well  built,  but  the  streets  are  narrow,  filUij, 
and  hardly  passable.  There  are  numerous 
shrines  and  places  of  pilgrimage,  visited  by^ 
devotees  from  all  parts  of  India.  The  Phalgn, 
a  tributary  of  the  Ganges,  flows  through  the 
town,  and  is  deemed  a  sacred  stream.  The 
most  revered  structure  here  is  the  temple  ol 
Vishnu,  erected  by  a  Mahratta  prince^  82 
ft.  in  length,  and  crowned  by  an  octagonal 
pyramid  more  than  100  ft.  high.  In  the  im- 
mediate vicinity  are  the  ruins  of  Buddha- 
Gaya,  supposed  to  have  been  the  scene  of  the 
birth  of  Buddha,  whence  the  sanctity  of  the 
existing  town  is  derived.  The  new  town  has 
wide  and  straight  streets,  with  a  row  of  trees 
and  foot  walks  on  each  side ;  but  the  houses 
for  the  most  part  are  mere  mud-built  huts. 

GATAHrCSOS,  Pnacial  de,  a  Spanish  orientalist, 
bom  June  21,1 809.  He  studied  at  Paris  under 
Sylvestre  de  Sacy,  travelled  through  northern 
Africa  in  1828,  married  an  English  lady  at 
Algiers,  and  was  from  1881  to  1886  interpreter 
to  the  ministry  of  foreign  affairs  in  Paris.  He 
afterward  resided  several  years  in  England. 
He  translated  into  English  Al-Makkari*s  *'  His- 
tory of  the  Mohammedan  Dynasties  of  Spain  " 
(2  vols.  4to,  London,  1840-'48).  Prescott  was 
indebted  to  Gayangoe  for  materials  for  his  his- 
torical works.  In  1848  he  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  Arabic  in  the  university  of  Madrid. 
He  made  with  H.  Vedia  a  Spanish  translation 
of  Ticknor's  **  History  of  Spanish  Literature,^' 
to  which  he  added  copious  notes  (Madrid, 
1851-^6).  Among  his  other  publications  are 
critical  editions  of  the  Gran  eanguieta  de  Ul» 
tramar,  of  the  Libr&e  de  eahalleruLt  and  of  thf 
Eecritoree  en  pr&ea  anteriaree  al  siglo  XV, 
His  most  recent  works  are  Cartae  del  cardinal 
Cisneroa  (Madrid,  1867),  and  Cartae  y  relaeio- 
nee  de  Hernan  Cortee  al  emperador  Cdrhe  V. 
(Paris,  1870). 

GATARRfi,  Charier  an  American  historian, 
bom  in  Louisiana,  Jan.  9,  1805.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  the  college  of  New  Orleans.  In  1825, 
the  draft  of  a  criminal  code  having  been  laid 
before  the  state  legislature  by  Edward  Living- 
ston, Gayarr^  published  a  pamphlet  in  which 
some  of  its  provisions  were  ably  canvassed. 
He  studied  law  at  Philadelphia,  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1829,  and  returned  to  Kew  Or- 
leans. An  £eeai  hutorique  eur  la  Louinane 
(2  vols.  12mo),  which  he  published  at  that 
time,  attracted  attention,  and  he  was  soon 
elected  to  the  state  legislature.  The  next  year 
he  was  appointed  deputy  attorney  general  of 
the  state,  and  in  1888  presiding  judge  of  the 
city  court  of  New  Orleans.  In  1885  he  was 
elected  to  the  United  States  senate,  but  im- 
paired health  prevented  his  taking  his  8eat«, 
and  he  went  to  Europe,  where  he  remained  for 
nearly  eight  years.  In  1844  he  again  entered 
the  state  legislature,  and  was  reelected  in 
1846.  He  was  appointed  secretary  of  state, 
and  retained  the  office  for  seven  years,  after 
which  he  retired  from  public  life.    His  histori- 


GAT.LUS8A0 


GAZA 


653 


cal  works  comprise  the  Hutoire  de  la  Loui$iane 
(2  vols.  8vo,  iJew  Orleans,  1847) ;  "  Romance 
of  the  Historj  of  Loaisiana"  (12mo,  New 
York,  1848) ;  ^*  Louisiana,  its  Colonial  History 
and  Romance  "  (8vo,  New  York,  1851) ;  "  Lou- 
isiana, ijs  History  as  a  French  Colony''  (2 
vols.  8vo,  New  York,  1851-'2) ;  and  ''  History 
of  the  Spanish  Domination  in  Louisiana,  from 
1769  to  December,  1803"  (New  York,  1854). 
He  is  the  author  of  **  Philip  II.  of  Spain,"  a 
biography  (New  York,  1866),  and  of  a  novel, 
^* Fernando  de  Lemos,  Truth  and  Fiction" 
(1 872),  which  is  to  be  followed  by  a  sequel  en- 
titled "Aubert  Dubayet."  He  has  also  pub- 
lished a  drama,  "  The  School  for  Politics,"  and 
several  literary  and  political  addresses,  among 
which  are  two  lectures  on  ^*  The  Influence  of 
the  Mechanic  Arts." 

GAT-LIJSS1€,  Josej^li  Lovis,  a  French  chemist, 
bom  at  St.  Leonard,  Limousin,  Dec.  6,  1778, 
died  in  Paris,  May  9,  1850.  He  was  educated 
at  the  polytechnic  school  of  Paris,  then  called 
Vecole  centrals  des  travaux  publics^  where  he 
attracted  the  notice  of  Berthollet,  and  was 
employed  by  him  for  a  short  time  in  the  labo- 
ratory of  the  government  chemical  works  at 
Arcueil.  He  then  returned  to  the  polytechnic 
school  as  assistant  professor.  Observations 
made  on  balloon  ascensions  having  led  to  the 
supposition  that  the  magnetic  force  diminislies 
at  great  elevations  above  the  surface  of  the 
earth,  Gay-Lussac  and  Biot  were  commissioned 
by  the  institute  to  make  experiments  with  ref- 
erence to  it.  Two  ascensions  were  made,  the 
first,  Aug.  23,  1804,  by  both,  and  the  second, 
Sept.  15,  by  Gay-Lussac  alone.  In  the  latter 
he  reached  the  extraordinary  height  of  about 
23,000  feet.  These  ascensions  were  the  first 
made  for  exclusively  scientific  purposes.  Their 
results  were  not  conclusive,  but  interesting 
observations  were  made  upon  the  decrement 
of  temperature  with  the  increase  of  elevation, 
and  upon  ttie  uniformity  in  the  composition  of 
the  atmosphere  at  all  heights.  On  Oct.  1  of 
the  same  year  Alexander  von  Humboldt  and 
Gay-Lussac  submitted  to  the  French  academy 
a  joint  paper  upon  the  combination  of  gases, 
especially  of  oxygen  and  hydrogen,  which  at- 
tracted much  attention  and  marks  an  era  in 
the  progress  of  chemical  science.  In  1805-^6 
Gay-Lussuc  prosecuted  in  company  with  Hum- 
boldt scientific  inquiries  in  France,  Switzer- 
land, Germany,  and  Italy.  They  were  present 
at  Vesuvius  when  there  was  an  eruption  and 
an  earthquake.  Their  observations  on  terres- 
trial magnetism  were  published  in  the  MSmaires 
de  la  soeiete  d^ArcueiL  Gay-Lussao  began  in 
1807  to  investigate  the  expansion  of  the  air 
and  gases  under  increased  temperatures,  and 
established  theJaw  that  when  free  from  m<»is- 
ture  they  all  dilate  uniformly  and  to  equal 
amounts  for  all  equal  increments  of  tempera- 
ture, at  least  between  zero  and  100°  C.  He 
also  showed  that  the  gtoes  combine  in  simple 
proportions  of  their  volumes,  and  that  the 
contraction  sometimes  experienced  when  sev- 


eral of  them  are  compounded  is  always  an 
exact  simple  fraction,  usually  one  half,  one 
third,  or  one  quarter  of  their  joint  bulk.  Sir 
Humphry  Davy  having  shown  by  means  of 
the  voltaic  pile  that  potassium  and  sodium  are 
not  simple  substances,  as  had  previously  been 
supposed,  and  having  decomposed  them  by 
the  same  means,  Gay-Lussac  and  Th^nard  ob- 
tained potassium  and  sodium  in  greater  pro- 
portions even  than  they  had  been  obtained  by 
Davy  himself.  They  dso  developed  the  com- 
pound character  of  boracic  and  fluoric  acids, 
introduced  new  methods  of  analyzing  organic 
substances  by  their  combination  with  chlorate 
of  potash,  and  elucidated  the  composition  of 
many  of  these  compounds.  The  results  of  their 
investigation  were  given  in  Beeherchea  phyHeo- 
chimiques  %ur  la  piUy  »ur  lea  alcoola,  &o.  (2 
vols.  8vo,  1811).  Gay-Lussac  afterward  made 
original  researches  of  great  value  into  the 
newly  discovered  elementary  substances  of  io- 
dine and  cyanogen,  into  Prussian  blue,  chloric 
and  hydrosulphuric  acids,  the  theory  of  vapors, 
capillary  attraction,  and  other  subjects.  Their 
results  were  published  in  the  Annales  de 
ehimie  et  de  physique^  which  he  edited  with 
Arago,  and  in  other  publications.  In  1816  he 
invented  the  siphon  barometer,  since  modified 
by  Bunsen,  by  whose  name  it  is  best  known. 
He  also  invented  instruments  for  estimating 
the  quantities  of  alcohol,  chlorine,  and  alkali 
present  in  solutions,  known  severally  as  the 
alcoholometer,  chlorometer,  and  alkalimeter. 
In  1882  he  gave  up  the  professorship  at  the 
Sorbonne,  to  which  he  had  been  appointed  in 
1809,  and  accepted  that  of  general  chemistry 
at  the  jard in  dee  plantes.  As  an  expounder 
of  science  he  was  distinguished  for  the  clear- 
ness of  his  explanations.  In  1831  he  was 
chosen  by  the  electors  of  his  native  town 
member  of  the  chamber  of  deputies;  and  in 
1889  he  was  made  a  peer  of  France. 

GAZA  (Arab.  Ohasze  or  Ghueze),  a  town  of 
Syria,  built  partiy  on  a  steep  hill,  partly  on  the 
plain  below,  on  the  road  leading  to  Egypt,  be- 
tween the  Mediterranean  and  the  desert ;  pop. 
about  15,000.  It  is  situated  about  3  m.  from 
the  jsea,  in  the  neighborhood  of  rich  gardens,  is 
not  fortified,  and  consists  partly  of  mud  cot- 
tages, partly  of  ruinous  stone  buildings,  which 
are  occupied  by  the  government  and  chief 
citizens.  It  is  an  important  entrepot  for  the 
caravan  traffic  between  Egypt  and  Syria.  It 
has  few  relics  of  antiquity,  and  its  only  inter- 
esting edifice  is  a  mosque  which  was  originally 
a  Christian  church,  founded,  according  to  tra- 
dition, by  the  empress  Helena. — ^The  ancient 
city  of  Gaza,  which  some  suppose  to  have 
stood  nearer  the  sea,  is  known  in  the  Bible 
as  the  most  southern  of  the  five  confederate 
cities  of  the  Philistines,  and  is  often  mentioned, 
as  in  the  history  of  Samson.  Its  Hebrew 
name  {^Azzah)  signifies  *'  strong."  On  the 
conquest  and  division  of  Palestine  by  the  Isra- 
elites, it  was  allotted  to  the  tribe  of  Judah, 
which  conquered  it,  but  lost  it  again.     It 


654 


GAZA  . 


shared  in  the  wars  of  the  PhilisUnea  with  the 
Hebrews.  BBriDg  become  a  posaession  of 
Persia,  it  wastakeu  after  an  obetinate  eiefte  by 
Alexander  the  Greut  (882  B.  C.J ;  nearly  all 
its  inhabitants  perisbed  during  tbe  assault,  and 
ite  commander  B&tis,  at  the  conqaeror's  order, 
was  dragged  around  the  walls  at  the  wheels 
of  a  cbsriot.  After  Alexander's  death  it  waa 
taken  by  Antigonus,  and  witneeeed  the  defeat  of 
DemetriuHPoliorcetesbj  Ptolemy  (812).  After 
the  restoration  of  Jewish  independence  by  the 
—UaccabeeB,  it  was  several  times  assanlted,  be- 
sieged, and  taken  by  the  princes  of  that  house. 
The  Bomans  ceded  it  to  Herod  the  Great, 
tinder  Nero  it  was  taken  by  the  revolted  Jews. 
Conatantine  restored  itsanoient  splendor,  made 
it  a  bishopric,  and  gave  it  the  name  of  Oon- 
stantia,  with  various  privileges.  These  were 
abolished  by  Jnlian  the  Apostate,  and  restored 
by  his  Christian  successors.  The  Arabs  took 
it  in  684,  two  years  after  the  death  of  Mo- 


bammed.  The  crnsaders  oaptnred  it  in  IIOO, 
and  from  them  it  was  wrested  by  Balsdin.  In 
the  18th  century  it  witnessed  the  defeats  of 
the  Christian  armies  by  the  Khsresmiana  and 
of  the  emir  of  Damascas  by  the  Egyptians, 
and  in  1516  that  of  the  Maraelnkes  by  the 
Tnrks.  In  1771  it  was  seized  by  the  revolted 
All  Bey,  and  in  1799  by  tbe  French  under 
EUber. — Another  Gaia  (correctly,  Gataea) 
was  in  Media  Atropatene,  a  summer  residence 
of  the  Median  kings.  Rnina  of  it  are  seen  be- 
tween Miana  and  Tabriz. 

€iZl,  TlieadN*,  one  of  those  learned  Greeks 
who  contributed  to  the  revival  of  letters  in 
Italy,  bom  in  Thessalonica  about  1400,  died  in 
.  Abrnzzo  in  HT8.  After  the  capture  of  his 
native  town  by  the  Turks  in  1480  he  fled  to 
Italy,  where  lie  introduced  a  more  exact 
knowledge  than  had  before  existed  of  the  two 
principal  philosophers  of  antiquity.    He  was  a 


GAZELLE 

Peripatetic,  and  devoted  himself  to  translaUuK 
from  the  works  of  Aristotle,  Theophraatus,  and 
Hippocrates  into  Latin,  and  from  those  of  Ci- 
cero into  Greek,  and  was  also  the  author  of  a 
treatise  on  the  Aitic  months;  of  a  book  oa  tbe 
origin  of  the  Turks,  and  of  a  Greek  grammar, 
which  was  published  at  Venice  and  often  re- 
printed. After  assisting  atthe  council  of  Flor- 
ence in  1439,  he  taught  Greek  at  Ferrara  by 
the  invitation  of  tbe  duke,  and  founded  there 
an  academy.  In  1450  he  was  called  by  Pope 
Nicholas  V.  to  Borne.  He  afterward  lived  at 
Naples  under  tbe  patronage  of  Alfonso  the 
Magnanimous,  and  at  Rome  under  that  of  Car- 
dinal Bessarion. 

GAZEL,  or  Ghud,  a  hind  of  tyric  poem,  con- 
sisting of  tVom  G  to  IT  stanxoa  of  two  lines 
each,  all  the  second  lines  of  which  rhyme  to- 
gether.   It  is  a  favorite  form  in  the  poetry  of 
the  Turks  and  the  Persians,  and  may  be  colled 
the  sonnet  of  the  East,    llie  laat  cooplet  al- 
ways contains  toe  real 
or  assumed  name  of  the 
author.     The  suUeota 
treated  in  the  gazel  are 
either  erotic  and  bac- 
cbaoolian,  or  allegori- 
cal and  mystical.    Ha- 
fir  eicela  in  this  fcrm 
of  the  lyric,  and  liai- 
tations  of  it  have  been 
made    in   German   by 
PlaUu,    Rttckert,    and 

ttZEI.l.E,  the  type  of 
a  group  of  the  antelope 
family  (aee  Abthope), 
of  beautiful  form,  smidl 
size,  and  graceful  car- 
riage.   Both  Bcses  are 
provided    with    horns, 
nearly  over  the  orbite, 
annulated    and    stria- 
ted, nearly  vertical,  and 
bending  outward  and 
at  the  top  inward  in  & 
lyrat^  form,  and  of  a  black  color ;  the  shape  of 
the  ancient  lyre  is  said  to  have  originated  from 
using  in  its  constmction  the  horns  and  the 
frontal  bone  of  antelopes,  tbe  strings  being 
passed  from  a  cross  bar  at  their  tips  to  a  aecoad 
fastened  across  the  orbits;  tbe  bony  core  of 
the  bom  is  solid.    Tbey  have  a  small  lachrymal 
ainua,  inguinal  pores,  generally  tufts  upon  the 
kneea,  a  abort  dark-tiifled  tail,  and  two  or  four 
mommfe ;  the  darker  color  of  the  sides  b  sepa- 
rated from  the  white  of  the  abdomen  by  a  very 
dark  band ;  the  eyes  are  prominent,  dark-col- 
ored, with  a  soft  an(l  gentle  expression;  tba 
nose  is  ovine.     They  are  gregavioua,  inhabiting 
the  open  and  barren  plains  of  northern  Africa 
and  western  Asia,  shy  and  difficult  of  approach, 
hnd  extremely  swift.    The  common  gazelle,  or 
Barbary  antelope  (gatella  doreai,  H.  Smith), 
the  gatal  of  the  Arabs,  is  generally  euppoaed 
to  be  the  iopK^  of  j£lian  and  the  (i #M  of  th« 


GAZELLE 

Scriptures.  It  is  a  little  less  than  the  roebuck 
in  size,  with  ronod,  black,  lyrated  horns,  about 
13  in.  long,  with  12  or  13  bars,  and  sharp 
pioiats  tnmed  forward ;  the  general  color  is 
pale  fulvoaa,  extending  down  the  front  and 
■outfflde  of  the  limbs;  the  lips,  nose,  battocks, 


GEBWEILER 


655 


/^ 


Commoi  OwDa  (Ouelb  doma). 

under  parts,  and  inside  of  I^s  white;  s  rnfoaa 
tint  on  tbe  forehead,  blackish  in  the  middle, 
and  white  and  black  streaks  on  the  nose;  ejes 
large,  black,  and  lustrous.  The  honiH  in  the 
female  are  more  slender,  and  the  points  are 
tamed  inward;  the  mammn  are  two.  This 
species  seems  to  be  confined  to  the  N.  side  of 
tbe  AUns  mountains,  Egypt,  Abyssinia,  Sjria, 
Arabia,  and  S.  Persia,  They  feed  generaUy  at 
dawn  end  at  evening,  approaching  water,  it  is 
said,  only  once  in  24  hours;  they  are  hunted 
in  various  ways,  and  their  fleah  is  excellent; 
they  fnrnish  food  to  great  nnmbera  of  osr- 
nivorona  animals.  The  kevel  (0,  hmtlla,  H. 
Smith)  is  by  some  considered  a  mere  variety 
of  the  common  gazelle ;  it  is  abont  tQe  same 
size,  but  the  head  is  longer,  the  bonis  are 


Kenl  (Quelli  ktralli). 

more  robust  and  longer,  the  orbits  larger,  the 
eyes  fnller,  and  the  geographical  distribution 
to  tbe  south  of  the  Atlas ;  the  habits  and  gen- 
eral disposition  of  the  colors  are  the  same  as 
in  the  common  gazelle.  The  corinua,  found 
in  central  Africa  and  described  by  Adanson, 


appears  to  be  one  or  the  other  of  the  prece- 
ding species.  Other  gazelles  are  the  m'hor 
of  Mr.  Bennett,  the  uangner  of  P.  Cavier, 
and  the  ariel  or  cora,  which  are  also  sapposed 
by  many  to  be  varieties  of  the  0.  dareat. 
SOmmering's  gazelle  (6.  SoemmeriTigii,  Bfipp.) 
is  a  very  beaatiful  and  delicate  creatore^  aboat 


■lit  (Onalk  SoamuwrliiKU). 

2^  ft.  high  at  the  shoolder;  the  color  above 
is  a  reddish-gray  Isabella  color,  the  buttocks, 
lower  parts,  and  inside  of  the  limbs  wbite,  and 
the  median  line  of  the  forehead  to  tbe  nose 
brownish  black;  it  inhabits  N.  E.  Africa. 

GUDGl,  a  N.  E.  connty  of  Ohio,  drained  by 
the  sources  of  Cuyahoga,  Qrand,  and  Chagrin 
rivers;  area,  abont  4S0  sq.  m.;  pop.  in  1870, 
14,190.  It  has  an  nndolating  surface,  admi- 
rably adanted  to  pasturage.  Sandstone  and 
iron  are  aonndant.  The  chief  productions  in 
I8T0  were  64,810  bnshels  of  wheat,  179,319  of 
Indian  com,  837,086  of  oats,  185,731  of  pota- 
toes, 493,160  lbs.  of  fiaz,  877,941  of  maple 
sngar,  105,811  of  wool,  619,743  of  butter,  453,- 
834  of  cheese,  and  89,160  tons  of  hay.  There 
were  4,622  horses,  18,674  milch  cows,  7,267 
other  cattle,  19,818  sheep,  and  4,344  swine;  6 
manufactories  of  saddlery  and  harness,  12  of  . 
carriages  and  wagons,  8  of  boies,  27  of  cheese, 
4flouTmill9,«nd3sawmillB.  Capital, Chardon. 

GfcBixn,  Craft  de.    See  Coubt  de  GfiBBLiK. 

CEBiX,  Abi  Bua  Jalkr  il-Sal,  founder  of  the 
school  of  Arabian  chemists  about  tbe  close  of 
the  8th  century,  horn  in  Thus,  Persia,  or,  ac- 
cording to  Abulfeda,  in  Harran,  Mesopotamia. 
He  is  reckoned  by  Cardsn  as  one  of  the  twelve 
subtlest  geniuses  of  the  world,  and  his  authority 
was  unrivalled  among  the  alchemists  of  the 
middle  ages.  His  works,  only  fragments  of 
which  rem»D,  contain  the  germs  of  the  belief 
in  the  transmutation  of  metals,  and  in  the  uni- 
versal elixir,  which  be  thought  to  be  a  solution 
of  gold.  They  also  contain  curious  and  useful 
details  conceminf;  the  natare,  fusion,  purifi- 
cation, and  malleability  of  metals.  They  have 
all  been  translated  into  Latin  (Dantzic,  1682), 
and  into  English  by  Russell  (London,  1678). 

GEBWEILEE  (Fr.  Oitebwiller),  a  town  of 
Germany,  capital  of  s  circle  of  Upper  Alsace, 


656 


GECKO 


Bitnated  on  the  Lanch  in  a  valley  of  the  Yosges 
monntains,  15  m.  S.  W.  of  Golmar;  pop.  in  1871, 
11,888.  It  has  three  gates,  a  fine  promenade, 
two  handsome  churches,  and  many  Swiss  ch4- 
lets  and  pleasant  cottages  on  the  slopes  of 
Mount  Gebwciler,  the  culminating  point  of  the 
Yosges  (4,700  ft.).  There  are  manufactories 
of  cloth,  cotton  goods,  ribbons,  chemical  pro- 
ducts, machinery,  and  other  articles.  Previous 
to  the  Franco-German  war  it  belonged  to  the 
French  department  of  Haut-Bhin. 

GECKO,  a  name  applied  to  a  family  of  noc- 
turnal lizards  (asealabota  of  Dum^ril  and  Bi- 
hron),  numerous  in  species,  living  in  warm  cli- 
mates, and  presenting  characters  of  form,  struc- 
ture, and  habits  which  make  the  group  as  dis- 
tinct as  that  of  the  crocodiles  or  chameleons. 
Their  size  is  small ;  the  head  wide,  flattened, 
covered  with  scales,  with  marginal  scuta  at 
each  jaw ;  the  neck  short ;  the  body  depressed, 
stout,  thickest  in  the  middle,  without  crest  on 
the  back,  generally  covered  with  small  imbri- 
cated scales  and  scattered  tubercles,  sm/dlest 
on  the  back ;  the  tail  moderate ;  the  feet  five- 
toed,  the  thumb  often  very  short,  and  the  other 
fingers  equal,  fiattened  below  and  lobed  at  the 
end ;  the  tongue  is  fleshy,  short,  slightly  pro- 
tractile, free  and  scarcely  emarginate  at  the 
tip ;  the  eyes  very  large,  covered  as  in  serpents 
by  a  transparent  immovable  lid,  behind  which 
these  organs  have  free  motion ;  the  pupil  ver- 
tical, and  often  linear  as  in  nocturnal  animals 
generally;  the  opening  of  the  ear  is  distinct, 
and  the  tympanum  depressed ;  there  are  no  teeth 
on  the  palate,  those  of  the  jaws  thin,  entire, 
numerous,  with  cutting  edges,  and  adhering  to 
the  internal  margin ;  femoral  pores  occasionally 
present,  but  usually  absent;  besides  the  leaf- 
like expansion  at  the  end  of  the  toes,  nails  are 
generally  present,  capable  of  retraction,  as  in 
the  cats,  the  latter  favoring  their  progression 
in  climbing  on  smooth  surfaces.  The  tail  is 
shorter  than  in  ordinary  lizards,  and  the  flat- 
ness and  width  of  the  head  give  them  some- 
what the  aspect  of  salamanders ;  the  mouth  is 
deeply  cleft,  and  the  widely  expanded  jaws 
may  be  kept  open  for  a  long  time,  the  cavity 
of  the  mouth  being  shut  off  from  the  throat  by 
the  application  of  the  base  of  the  tongue  to  the 
posterior  part  of  the  palate ;  from  the  shortness 
of  the  robust  legs,  the  abdomen  touches  the 
ground  in  walking.  This  reptile  is  mentioned 
by  Aristotle,  and  the  modem  name  gecko  is 
derived  from  the  sound  made  by  some  of  the 
Indian  species,  resembling  the  click  of  the 
hostler  urging  on  his  horses,  and  was  flrst 

fiven  by  Lanrenti ;  this  genus  was  the  ascala- 
otei  of  Aristotle,  the  stellio  of  Pliny,  and  the 
tarentola  of  the  ancient  Italians.  Their  colors 
are  generally  gray  or  yellowish,  but  some  have 
brighter  tints  which  can  be  varied  like  those 
of  the  chameleon,  probably  by  the  same  changes 
in  the  reflecting  surface  of  the  integuments; 
the  sides  of  the  body,  limbs,  and  tail  are  some- 
times fringed  with  membranes.  In  many  spe- 
cies there  is  a  line  of  pores  along  and  under 


the  thighs,  from  which  a  fatty  moisture  distOs ; 
some  species  of  a  genus  wiU  have  these,  and 
others  not,  and  sometimes  one  sex  only  will  be 
destitute  of  them.  The  tail,  as  in  salamanders, 
is  ruptured  with  facility,  and  is  reproduced 
readily,  often  in  a  deformed  manner.  Their 
food  consists  of  larvflB  and  insects,  which  they 
pursue  into  their  leafy  retreats;  the  imbricated 
plates  on  the  bottom  of  their  feet,  like  those 
of  the  tree  frog  and  flies,  enable  them  to  climb 
smooth  walls  and  similar  surfaces,  and  to  ad- 
here to  them  with  the  back  downward ;  by 
means  of  their  sharp,  curved,  retractile  clawa, 
they  can  ascend  trees  and  rough  objects  with 
ease  and  rapidity ;  from  the  quickness  of  their 
movements,  their  suddenly  becoming  motion- 
less, and  remaining  so  for  a  long  time,  and  their 
resemblance  to  the  colors  of  the  substances  on 
which  they  are  placed,  they  are  difficult  to  ob- 
tain, and  not  easy  even  to  see ;  they  hunt  for 
food  both  by  night  and  day;  the  same  qualities 
which  flt  them  for  the  pursuit  of  living  prey- 
enable  them  to  escape  their  bird  enemies. 
These  reptiles  are  objects  of  horror  and  repug- 
nance, from  the  erroneous  idea  that  they  exude 
a  poison  so  powerftil  and  subtle  that  their 
touch,  a  drop  of  their  saliva,  or  a  scratch  with 
their  nails,  will  produce  leprosy  and  other  oa« 
taneous  diseases,  often  enaing  fatally.  They 
like  to  approach  human  habitations,  as  there 
they  find  in  greatest  abundance  their  insect 
food ;  their  ill-shaped  body,  smooth  or  spiny, 
dull  colors,  large  head,  their  enormous  staring 
eyes,  rapid  and  silent  motions,  and  familiarity 
in  houses,  render  them  very  disagreeable,  but 
by  no  means  dangerous  inmates.  Found  in  all 
warm  climates,  they  are  very  uncommon  in 
Europe  (two  or  three  species),  and  most  abun- 
dant in  Asia,  America,  and  Africa,  and  the 
Pacific  islands  are  well  supplied  with  them. 
They  have  been  divided  into  genera  according 
to  the  form  and  structure  of  their  toes;  but 
these  generic  characters  in  a  family  so  nearly 
alike  in  its  members  are  very  unsatisfactory, 
and  great  and  unnecessary  multiplication  of 
genera  has  been  the  result  of  the  labors  of 
various  systematists.  The  arrangement  of  Du- 
m^ril  and  Bibron,  which  differs  but  little  from 
that  proposed  by  Ouvier  in  1829,  is  as  fol- 
lows :  1.  Platydactylus  (Dum.  and  Bibr.), 
with  toes  enlarged  for  their  whole  length, 
with  finely  plicated  stria)  beneath  ;  of  those 
species  having  the  feet  cloven,  some  have  all 
the  toes  unarmed,  others  all  ungniculate,  oth- 
ers with  the  thumb  only  or  with  the  second 
and  third  fingers  unarmed ;  of  those  with  pal- 
mated  feet  the  fingers  are  either  all  unguicu- 
lated,  or  the  thumb  alone  is  unarmed ;  there 
are  about  20  species,  of  which  the  varieties 
have  been  made  into  genera  by  Fitzinger,  Wieg- 
mann,  Kuhl,  and  others.  2.  EemidaetyluM 
(Guv.),  with  the  toes  widened  only  at  the  base 
into  an  oval  disk  striated  beneath;  about  15 
species.  8.  Ptyodaetylus  (Cuv.),  with  the  toes 
enlarged  at  the  extremity  into  a  cleft  oval  disk, 
striated  below  like  a  fan,  and  all  armed  with 


GEOKO 

dswi;  deatitata  of  femoral  pores;  fonr  de- 
scribed species.  4.  Phyllodaetylua  (Gray), 
with  the  terminal  disk  as  in  the  last  geoaa, 
except  that  two  plates  take  the  place  of  the 
fan-like  atriffi ;  eif^ht  specieH.  H.  Sphariodae- 
tylu*  (CuF.).  small  species,  with  the  toea  end- 
ing in  a  single,  simple,  smooth  cushion ;  nails 
aUent,  as  well  as  femoral  pores ;  three  species. 
6.  6'^mnoia«fy^uj(Spiz),  with  toesnot  widened, 
bat  striated  beneath ;  12  species.  7.  Stenodae- 
tylut  (Fitz.)'  with  simple  toes,  granulated  be- 
low, and  all  provided  with  nnils ;  with  a  single 
species. — As  specimens  of  this  animal  the  fol- 
lowing may  be  mentioned :  The  wall  gecko 
(PI.  mvralu.  Dam.  and  Bibr, ;  PI.  Jaeetantu, 
AldroT.)  ia  S  in.  long,  of  a  grayish  color,  the 


GEDDE3 


657 


ConnwD  a«cka  (Pktfdactjliia  gatuuu). 

npper  port  of  the  body  and  head  rough ;  this 
species  occurs  ull  around  the  Mediterranean, 
sod  conceals  itself  in  walla  and  stone  heaps, 
delighting  to  cover  itself  with  dirt  end  filth ; 
it  likes  the  heat  of  the  sun,  and,  though  bene- 
ficial in  himses  by  destroying  insects  and  ver- 
min, is  generally  feared  and  persecuted,  like 
the  toad  and  other  useful  creatures.  The  com- 
mon gecko  {PL  gultatut,  Cuv.)  of  the  conti- 
nent of  Asia  and  its  archipelago  is  11  in.  long, 
of  which  the  tail  is  about  half;  the  general 
color  is  dark  gray,  witli  whitish  spots.  A  com- 
mon gecko  in  the  walls  of  houses  in  the  West 


HemldAclTEiu  nubmils, 

Indies  is  the  B.  mabauia  (Cuv.),  abont  5  in. 
long,  of  a  grayiah  color  marbled  with  browu, 
with  the  posterior  half  of  the  tail  ringed  with 
black.  The  hooae  gecko  (Pi,  Ilatttli/uUtii, 
Dam.  and  Bibr.),  found  in  Egypt,  Arabia,  and 
conntries  bordering  on  the  eastern  part  of  the 


Uediterranean,  is  about  h\  in.  long,  of  a  red- 
dish gray  color,  spotted  with  white  and  pale 
brown,  and  whitish  below;  it  is  common  in 
the  damp  and  gloomy  parts  of  bonses,  and  is 
called  at  Cairo  '*  father  of  leprosy,"  from  the 
belief  tliat  it  communicates  this  disease  to  per- 
sons who  partake  of  food  over  which  thia  ani- 
mal has  walked,  the  poison  being  supposed  to 
exude  irom  the  lobes  of  the  toes.  The  tmth 
is,  that  neither  its  bite  nor  any  of  its  secretions 
are  hurtful  to  man  or  beaat;  cats  poraue  it  and 
eat  it  eagerly.  The  Egyptians  are  said  to  keep 
it  from  their  kitchens  by  targe  qnantitiea  of 
garlic.  The  flat-tailed  gecko  (6.  phylhirut, 
Dnm.  and  Bibr.)  has  the  tail  flattened  like  a 
leaf^  and  the  upper  part  of  the  body  rough 
with  spines;  it  is  a  native  of  Australia,  and  is 
abont  9  in.  long,  dark  gray,  marbled  with  black- 
iah  above,  and  whitish  beneath. 

GED,  fftnUM,  a  Scottish  mechanic,  the  in- 
ventor of  stereotyping,  bomin  Edinburgh  abont 
16S0,  died  Oct.  19,  1749.  Ha  was  originaliy  a 
goldsmith  in  his  native  city,  and  is  said  to  have 
first  attempted  stereotyping  in  1725.  In  1729 
be  entered  into  partnership  with  William  Fen- 
ner,  a  London  stationer,  in  order  to  carry  his 
invention  into  regnlor  practice,  Fenner  advan- 
cing the  necessary  capital  on  condition  of  re- 
ceiving half  the  profits.  Other  partners  sul>- 
sequently  joined  the  firm.  In  1731  the  com- 
pany contracted  with  the  university  of  Cam- 
bridge for  the  prlntmg  of  Bibles  and  prayer 
books  by  stereotype,  and  invested  a  largo  snni  of 
money  in  the  enterprise;  hut  when  only  two 
prayer  books  were  finished  the  contract  had 
to  be  surrendered,  owing,  as  Ged  alleged,  to 
the  malignant  miNninnsgement  of  the  pressmen, 
who  wore  hostile  to  the  innovation,  and  the 
disrepotsble  conduct  of  some  of  his  associates. 
In  1733  he  returned  to  Edinbnrgh,  where  in 
173G  he  completed  an  edition  of  Sallast,  which 
was  not  published  till  1744,  and  was  inoccn- 
rately  executed.     Ged  died  in  poverty. 

6EDDE8,  il«ud«r,  a  Scottish  Roman  Cath- 
olic ecclesiastic,  bora  in  Arradowl,  Banfishire, 
Sept  4,  1787,  died  in  London,  Feb.  20,  1802. 
He  was  educated  at  the  Scotch  college  in  Paris, 
where  be  distinguished  himself  as  a  theologian 
and  linguist.  In  1769  be  was  appointed  pastor 
of  a  Catholio  congregation  at  Auchinhalrig  in 
his  native  county.  In  1780  he  removed  to  Lon- 
don with  the  intention  of  commencing  a  new 
translation  of  the  Bible  for  the  ose  of  English 
Catholics;  and  imder  the  patronage  of  Lord 
Petre,  who  allowed  him  £200  a  year,  and  pro- 
vided him  with  all  the  necessary  authorities, 
he  applied  himself  to  his  work.  His  original 
design  was  to  make  the  Vulgate  the  basia  of 
his  translation,  but  he  soon  abandoned  this 
idea,  and  snbstitated  the  Hebrew  and  Greek 
versions  in  its  stead.  The  1st  and  2d  volnmes 
of  this  translation  appeared  in  1792  and  1798 ; 
the  Sd,  which  was  merely  a  commentary  on 
the  Pentateuch,  in  1800;  the  rest  of  the  work 
was  never  published.  This  translation  is  con- 
sidered to  have  contribated  in  a  considerable 


658 


GEEFS 


GEFFRARD 


degree  to  the  advancement  of  Biblical  criticism. 
The  commentary  was  written  in  the  spirit  of 
the  rationalistic  school  of  Germany,  and  was 
favorably  regarded  by  Paalus  and  Eichhom, 
the  principal  writers  of  that  school.  Imme- 
diately after  the  publication  of  his  commentary, 
the  reading  of  his  work  was  forbidden  to  the 
faithful,  and  the  author  was  deposed  from  the 
priesthood.  He  was  the  author  of  several 
poems  and  translations,  among  which  was  an 
imitation  of  the  satires  of  Horace,  which  had 
extraordinary  success.  A  life  of  Geddes,  with 
a  catalogue  of  his  works,  was  written  by  Dr. 
John  Mason  Good  (1  vol.  8vo,  London,  1808). 

GEEFS)  GilDauie,  a  Belgian  sculptor,  bom  in 
Antwerp,  Sept  10,  180G,  died  May  10,  1860. 
After  completing  his  studies  he  went  to  Paris, 
where  he  spent  some  time  in  the  studio  of  M. 
Ramey.  Soon  after  returning  to  Belgium  he 
obtained  a  commission  from  the  Belgian  gov- 
ernment to  execute  a  monument  to  the  mem- 
ory of  the  victims  of  the  revolution  of  1830. 
He  also  produced  "Genevidve  de  Brabant." 
**  Francesca  da  Rimini,"  "  Fisherman's  Dangn- 
ter,"  "Infant  St.  John,"  &c.,  and  executea  a 
statue  of  Rnbens,  a  colossal  marble  statue  of 
King  Leopold  I.  for  the  vestibule  of  the  nation- 
al palace,  and  a  monumental  statue  of  Charle- 
magne.— ^His  brotlier  Joseph,  born  in  1808, 
also  a  sculptor,  distinguished  by  the  same  quali- 
ties, has  executed  among  other  works  "  Adonis 
departing  for  the  Chase "  and  an  equestrian 
statue  of  Leopold  I.  Their  brother  Aloys, 
bom  about  1816,  gave  promise  of  great  excel- 
lence as  a  sculptor,  but  died  in  1841. 

GEELONG,  a  city  of  Victoria,  Australia,  near 
the  head  of  Corio  bay  or  Greelong  harbor,  the  W. 
arm  of  Port  Phillip  bay,  45  m.  S.  W.  of  Mel- 
bourne, with  which  it  i^ connected  by  railway; 
pop.  in  1871, 14,897.  It  b  built  on  ground  slo- 
ping to  the  bay ;  the  streets  are  wide  and  well 
paved  and  drained,  and  the  houses  are  mostly 
of  brick  and  stone.  The  principal  buildings  are 
the  hospital  and  benevolent  asylund,  the  cham- 
ber of  commerce,  the  mechanics'  institute,  the 
,  clock  tower,  the  grammar  school,  the  court 
house,  the  post  office,  several  of  the  hotels,  the 
churches,  and  the  banks.  There  is  an  extensive 
botanical  garden.  The  town  is  lighted  with 
gas,  and  is  supplied  with  water  from  the  river 
Barwon.  The  surrounding  country  is  beautiful, 
the  soil  fertile,  and  the  climate  healthy.  There 
are  four  jetties  in  Corio  bay,  at  which  large 
ships  can  load  and  discharge,  and  the  commerce 
in  wool,  tallow,  gold  dust,  &c.,  is  important. 
Three  newspapers  are  published. — Geelong  was 
first  settled  in  1837,  and  was  incorporated  in 
1849.  It  first  assumed  importance  after  the 
discovery  of  gold  at  Ballarat,  48  m.  N.  W.,  in 
1851,  and  for  a  time  promised  to  become  the 
principal  seaport  of  southern  Australia ;  but 
the  construction  of  the  railway  from  Melbourne 
to  this  point  and  thence  to  Ballarat  diverted 
the  produce  of  the  interior  to  Melbourne. 

GEER,  Karl  de,  baron,  a  Swedish  naturalist, 
born  at  Finspang,  Feb.  10, 1720,  died  in  Stock- 


holm, March  8,  1778.  He  studied  at  Utrecht 
and  IFpsal,  was  a  pupil  of  Linnceus,  and  pub- 
lished Memoirea  pour  servir  d  Vhutoire  dea  tn- 
8eete$  (8  vols.  4to,  Stockholm,  1752-'78),  con* 
taining  descriptions  of  more  than  1,500  species, 
accompanied  with  excellent  illustrations.  To 
this  the  Genera  et  Speciea  Inseetarum  of  Ret- 
zius  (Leipsic,  1783)  may  be  regarded  as  a  sup- 
plement. De  Geer  also  published  several  other 
zoological  works.  He  inherited  from  an  uncle 
a  very  large  fortune,  which  he  employed  in 
benevolent  and  useful  enterprises. 

GEERTS,  CliariM  Hciri,  a  Belgian  sculptor  and 
wood  carver,  born  in  Antwerp  in  1808,  died 
in  1855.  He  was  professor  at  the  academy 
of  Louvain.  Among  his  principal  works  are 
**  Christ  sinking  under  the  Weight  of  the 
Cross,"  in  Leyden ;  a  Madonna  in  the  museum 
of  Brussels;  the  " Mater  Dolorosa "  and  "St. 
John  "  in  Bristol.  At  the  great  exhibition  of 
1851  he  gained  a  prize  medal  for  his  chief  con- 
tribution, the  "Coronation  of  the  Virgin." 

GEESTEBMVnDE,  a  seaport  of  Prussia,  in  the 
province  of  Hanover,  at  the  confluence  of  the 
Geeste  and  Weser,  separated  by  the  Weser  from 
Bremerhafen;  pop.  in  1871,  3,219.  It  was  es- 
tablished by  the  government  of  Hanover  as  a 
rival  of  Bremerliafen,  was  made  a  free  port  in 
1847,  and  in  1862  extensive  harbor  works  were 
commenced.  Since  the  annexation  of  Hanover 
to  Prussia,  Geestermtlnde  has  been  made  a 
station  of  a  part  of  the  German  fleet.  The 
place  possesses  some  advantages,  which  will 
probably  render  it  an  important  port. 

GEEZ*    See  Ethiopia,  Lakouaoe  and  Lite- 

BATUBB  OF. 

GEFFRARD,  Falbre,  a  mulatto  soldier  and  presi- 
dent of  Hayti,  bom  at  L^Anse-Veau,  Sept.  19, 
1806.  His  father,  Nicholas  Gefi^ard,  was  a 
general  of  the  war  of  independence  and  one  of 
the  framers  of  the  national  constitution.  Fabre 
entered  the  army  in  1821.  After  the  downfall 
of  President  Boyer  in  1842  he  rapidly  rose  in 
rank  and  consideration,  and  became  general  of 
division  in  1845,  to  which  rank  SouTouque  on 
becoming  emperor  in  1849  added  a  ducal  title. 
Geffrard^s  popularity  increased  in  proportion 
to  the  decline  of  that  of  his  master,  and  at  the 
end  of  1858  he  led  the  revolution  against 
him,  proclaiming  his  deposition  at  Saint-Marc. 
While  the  emperor  was  marching  toward  that 
place  with  a  considerable  force,  Geffrard  suc- 
ceeded in  outwitting  him,  and  in  entering 
Port-au-Prince  Jan.  15,  1859.  He  banished 
Soulouque  to  Jamdca,  and  being  at  once 
chosen  as  president,  he  marked  his  accession 
by  acts  of  clemency  and  by  salutary  reforms, 
declining  to  accept  the  absolute  power  offered 
him.  Those  who  had  benefited  by  previous 
abuses  now  conspired  against  him,  together 
with  the  minister  of  the  interior,  Guerrier- 
Proph^te,  and  instigated  an  attempt  upon  his 
life  (Sept.  3),  which  resulted  only  in  the  as- 
sassination of  his  daughter,  who  had  just  been 
married.  The  minister  and  two  accomplices 
were  sentenced  to  death  in  their  absence;  16 


GEFLE 


GEIJEB 


659 


others  were  executed,  aod  a  few  were  par* 
domed  or  imprisoned.  In  1861  his  popularity 
was  impaired  by  what  was  denounced  as  his 
subserviency  toward  Spain  on  its  taking  pos- 
session of  the  Dominican  republic ;  and  intes- 
tine commotions  being  set  on  foot  on  various 
pretexts,  outbreaks  became  henceforward  ha- 
bitual occurrences,  which  were  suppressed  and 
many  of  their  leaders  executed.  In  1864  Sal- 
nave  headed  an  insurrection  in  the  N.  part  of 
Hayti,  which  had  belonged  to  Dominica.  This 
movement  being  put  down  and  Salnave  out- 
lawed, he  enlisted  soldiers  in  the  adjoining  re- 
public and  proclaimed  a  provisional  govem- 
ntent  of  the  Cape  district  in  May,  1865.  In 
November  this  was  overthrown  with  the  aid 
of  the  English,  with  whose  rights  it  had  inter- 
fered, and  Sdnave  took  refuge  on  board  an 
American  man-of-war.  In  July,  1866,  he  led 
a  new  outbreak  at  Gonaives,  which  was  once 
more  put  down.  To  reconcile  the  people,  who 
began  to  compare  him  with  Soulouque,  Gef- 
frard  abolished  capital  punishment  for  political 
offences;  but  the  revolution  continued  and  in- 
creased in  strength  till  Salnave  gained  posses- 
sion of  the  capital,  March  18,  1867,  and  Gef- 
frard  was  obliged  to  take  refuge  in  Jamaica. 

GEFLE,  a  seaport  town  of  Sweden,  capital 
of  the  l&n  of  Gefleborg,  situated  near  the 
gulf  of  Bothnia  and  the  mouth  of  the  river  of 
its  name,  92  m.  K  N.  W.  of  Stockholm.  It 
formerly  contained  a  population  of  about 
18,000,  and  was  one  of  the  handsomest  towns 
in  Sweden,  but  in  1869  it  was  almost  totally 
destroyed  by  f  re.  The  chief  manufactures  are 
tobacco,  linen,  sail  cloth,  cards,  and  leather. 
There  are  two  ship  yards. 

GEHENITA  (Heb.  Ge-Einnom,  the  vale  of  Hin- 
nom),  a  valley  adijacent  to  Jerusalem,  on  the 
south  and  southwest,  also  called  Tophet,  and 
often  mentioned  in  Scripture  in  connection 
with  the  idolatrous  rites  of  Moloch,  which 
were  there  celebrated.  From  the  abhorrence 
with  which  the  Jews  after  the  captivity  re- 
garded this  worship,  the  valley  was  made  the 
common  sewer  of  the  city,  and  a  receptacle 
for  all  its  refuse,  which  was  there  consumed 
by  fire.  In  the  New  Testament  the  name  is 
transferred  by  an  easy  metaphor  to  hell. 

CEIBiXi,  Enanflel,  a  German  poet,  bom  in 
Ltlbeck,  Oct.  18,  1815.  He  became  associated 
in  1886  at  Berlin  with  Ghamisso,  Gaudy,  and 
Kugler,  and  was  professor  of  sBsthetics  in  the 
university  of  Munich  from  1862  to  1868.  Of 
his  Qediehte  und  Oedanhenbldtter^  the  9th  edi- 
tion appeared  in  1868 ;  of  his  Neue  GedielUej 
the  12th,  and  of  his  Juniuilieder^  the  18th,  in 
]  870 ;  of  his  GediehU,  the  69th  in  1871 ;  and 
of  his  political  poems,  JTeroldarnfe^  the  4th 
in  1871.  His  principal  dramatic  poems  are 
Brunhild  (1857)  and  Saphanisbe  (1868). 

CQGEB,  AbraiiAB,  a  German  rabbi,  oriental- 
ist, and  Biblical  critic,  born  in  Frankfort,  May 
24,  1810,  died  Nov.  13,  1874.  He  studied  at 
the  universities  of  Heidelberg  and  Bonn,  gain- 
ing in  the  latter  the  prize  for  a  dissertation  on 


the  Hebrew  sources  of  the  Koran.  In  1832  he 
became  a  rabbi  at  Wiesbaden,  in  1838  at  Bres- 
lau,  in  1863  at  Frankfort,  and  in  1869  at  Ber- 
lin, which  position  he  held  till  his  death.  His 
efforts  to  effect  reforms  in  Judaism  rendered 
him  one  of  the  most  conspicuous  Jewish  theo- 
logians in  Europe.  From  1835  to  1847  he 
edited  the  ZeiUehrift  /Ur  jMuehe  Theologie^ 
and  in  1862  he  started  the  Judisehe  ZeiUehrift 
/ur  Wiseeneehqft  und  Leben.  The  most  im- 
portant of  his  writings  are :  Lehr-  und  Leeebuch 
eur  Spraehe  der  Mieehna  (Breslau,  1846) ;  Ur- 
9ehri/t  und  Uebersetzungen  der  Bibel  (1857) ; 
and  Dcte  Judentkum  vnd  »eine  Gesehiehte  (3 
vols.,  1865-71 ;  English  translation  of  part  i., 
New  York,  1866). 

GEIJER9  Eric  Gosttf,  a  Swedish  historian  and 
poet,  bom  at  Ransater,  Wermland,  Jan.  12, 
1788,  died  in  Upsal,  April  28,  1847.  At  the 
age  of  16  he  was  sent  to  the  university  of  Up- 
sal. He  neglected  to  take  his  degree  at  the 
proper  time,  and  consequently  in  1808  was 
refused  a  tutorship  in  a  distinguished  family. 
This  aroused  his  pride,  and  to  restore  his  repu- 
tation he  at  once  determined  to  contend  for 
the  next  prize  of  the  Swedish  academy  for  ex- 
cellence m  composition.  With  very  meagre 
authorities,  and  with  scarcely  paper  enough  for 
his  manuscript,  he  wrote  a  eulogy  upon  the 
Swedish  administrator  Sten  Sture,  which  ob- 
tained the  first  prize.  He  graduated  master  of 
arts  in  1806,  and  after  a  short  visit  to  England 
was  appointed  in  1810  lecturer  on  history  at 
Upsal,  and  was  a  second  time  crowned  by  the 
academy  for  an  essay  on  the  question :  *^  What 
advantages  may  be  derived  from  the  imagina- 
tion in  the  moral  education  of  man  ?  *'  In  181 1 
he  was  one  of  twelve  young  men  who  founded 
the  Gothic  society,  the  object  of  which  was  to 
nurture  a  nationcd  spirit  and  national  manners, 
and  to  derive  the  materials  of  literature,  not 
from  classical  and  foreign  sources,  but  from 
the  ancient  traditions  of  the  North.  The  new 
school  was  quickly  divided  into  two  parties, 
the  Gothic  and  more  moderate  party,  of  which 
Ge^er  and  Tegn^r  were  the  chiefs,  and  whose 
organ  was  the  Iduna^  and  the  Phosphorist 
party,  so  called  from  its  organ  the  Phospho- 
r<M,  of  which  Atterbom  was  the  chief.  In  the 
Iduna^  which  appeared  from  1811  to  1824, 
Geger  published  his  finest  poems,  as  "The 
Viking,"  "The  Last  Scald,"  and  "The  Last 
Champion,"  which  became  immediately  popu- 
lar. His  song  of  "The  Charcoal  Boy"  is  still 
a  favorite  throughout  Sweden.  In  1814-'15  he 
united  with  Afzelius  in  preparing  a  collection 
of  Swedish  popular  ballads,  and  in  1817  was 
appointed  professor  of  history  at  Upsal.  He 
composed  melodies  for  many  of  his  own  songs, 
and  in  1824  published,  in  connection  with 
Lindblad,  Musih  for  Sdng  och  Pianoforte, 
Liberal  in  politics  and  religion,  he  was  twice 
offered  a  bishopric,  which  he  declined,  and 
twice  represented  the  university  of  Upsal  in 
the  diet.  His  chief  distinction  is  as  th«  histo- 
rian of  Sweden.    He  was  appointed  with  Fant 


660 


GEIKIE 


GELATINE 


and  Schroder  to  edit  the  collection  of  Scrip- 
tores  Rerum  Sueeica/rum  Medii  JEtfi  (2  vols., 
Stockholm,  1818-'25).  His  Stea  Eikes  Hafdet 
("  Annals  of  Sweden,"  Upsal,  1825;  translated 
into  German,  1826)  is  a  collection  of  disserta- 
tions on  the  early  history  and  antiquities  of  the 
kingdom.  His  principal  work  is  the  Svemha 
FolkeU  HUtoria  ("History  of  the  Swedish 
People,"  8  vols.,  Orebro,  1882-'6  ;  translated 
into  German  by  LeflSer,  Hamburg,  1882-'6; 
into  French  by  Lundblad,  Paris,  1840;  and 
into  English  by  Turner,  London,  1845),  which 
extends  only  to  the  death  of  Queen  Christina, 
but  has  been  continued  by  Carlson.  The  work 
of  Fryxell  is  also  regarded  as  a  supplement  to 
it.  At  once  a  history  of  ideas,  of  manners, 
and  of  institutions,  it  is  remarkable  both  for 
eloquence  and  learning,  for  its  patriotic  tone. 
Among  his  minor  works  are  a  "  Sketch  of  the 
State  of  Sweden  from  Charles  XIL  to  Gustavus 
in."  (Upsal,  1839),  and  "Life  of  Charles  XIV. 
John"  (1844).  A  complete  edition  has  been 
published  (12  vols.,  Stockholm,  1849-^55). 

6EIK1E,  AitlilfeakL    See  supplement. 

GEUUE,  CnmiiighaBi.    See  supplement. 

CELAy  an  ancient  city  of  southern  Sicily,  on 
a  river  of  the  same  name  (now  Fiume  di  Terra- 
nova),  founded  about  690  B.  C.  by  a  colony  of 
Rhodians  from  Lindus  and  Cretans.  It  soon 
became  flourishing,  and  was  the  parent  of  Agri- 
gentum  (now  Girgenti),  which  afterward  sur- 
passed the  mother  city.  The  constitution  of 
Gela  was  originally  oligarchical,  but  was  over- 
thrown in  505  B.  C.  by  Cleander,  who  was  the 
first  of  its  tyrants.  His  brother  Hippocrates 
succeeded  him,  and  extended  its  influence  and 
power  over  the  greater  part  of  Sicily.  His 
successor  Gelon^s  transfer  of  the  seat  of  his 
power  and  of  a  part  of  the  inhabitants  of  Gela 
to  Syracuse  (485),  his  brother  Hiero  being  made 
governor  of  the  former,  caused  its  decay ;  and 
its  desolation  was  completed  about  280  by  Phin- 
tias,  tyrant  of  Agrigentum,  who  removed  its 
inhabitants  to  a  new  town,  to  which  he  gave 
his  name.  In  the  time  of  Augustus  it  was  al- 
ready in  ruins,  which  are  still  visible  in  the 
vicinity  of  Terranova. 

GELATINE,  an  azotized  substance  obtained 
from  various  parts  of  the  animal  body,  such  as 
the  white  fibrous  tissue,  the  skin  and  serous 
membranes,  and  cartilage,  by  boiling  in  water. 
The  substance  as  it  exists  in  the  body  is  proba- 
bly not  precisely  the  same  as  that  obtained  by 
boiling,  although  it  cannot  be  said  with  certain- 
ty that  the  proportions  of  its  chemical  constit- 
uents have  Been  changed.  Ko  precise  formula 
of  equivalents  has  been  established,  and  it  is 
therefore  usual  to  write  the  composition  of 
gelatine  in  percentage  parts  by  weight.  Ac- 
cording to  Mulder  it  consists,  in  100  parts,  of 
carbon  50*40,  hydrogen  6*64,  nitrogen  18*84, 
and  oxygen  and  sulphur  24*62,  of  which  about 
0*7,  according  to  verdeil,  is  sulphur ;  but  the 
presence  of  sulphur  is  disputed,  and  gelatine, 
although  an  azotized,  is  not  a  proteine  substance. 
Fr6my  and  Scherer  make  the  percentage  of 


nitrogen  rather  less  than  that  here  given* 
The  gelatine  of  commerce  is  prepared  as  fol- 
lows: The  skins  of  calves^  heads  and  other 
thick  pieces  which  are  unfit  for  the  manu&o- 
ture  of  leather  are  first  freed  from  hair  and 
thoroughly  cleaned  of  flesh  and  fat,  and  well 
washed.  They  are  then  reduced  by  cutting 
machinery  to  small  pieces  or  to  a  pulp,  cold 
water  being  allowed  to  run  through  the  pieces 
during  this  operation  in  order  to  remove  all 
impurities.  The  pieces  of  skin  or  pulp  are 
differently  treated  by  different  manufacturers 
in  order  to  obtain  the  solution  most  readily, 
some  employing  the  mechanical  force  of  rollers 
in  coig unction  with  the  application  of  a  'tem- 
perature varying  from  280**  to  250"  F.  When 
the  solution  is  obtained  it  is  clarifled  with 
some  albuminous  matter,  as  the  white  of  eggs 
or  ox  blood,  and  after  settling  is  drawn  off 
upon  shallow  coolers,  as  plates  of  glass  or  dates. 
When  partially  dry,  so  that  it  can  be  cut  into 
convenient  shapes  for  handling,  it  is  removed 
upon  nets  or  placed  in  a  vacuum  drying  ap- 
paratus to  complete  the  process  of  desiccatioiu 
In  the  course  of  the  preparation  the  substance 
is  flavored  with  essences.  Bones  and  ivory 
also  are  made  to  yield  gelatine  by  subjecting 
them,  when  crushed,  to  water  boiling  at  high 
temperatures  in  a  digester,  or  to  the  action  of 
steam  gradually  raised  to  the  pressure  of  82 
pounds  to  the  square  inch,  and  thus  kept  for  8^ 
nours.  By  this  means  their  soluble  portions 
are  taken  up,  and  the  earthy  matters,  about  60 
per  cent,  of  the  whole  weight,  are  left  behind, 
together  with  a  soapy  substance  produced  from 
the  fat  and  lime  of  the  bones.  This  residue  is 
used  for  the  manufacture  of  bone  black,  or  the 
preparation  of  phosphorus,  and  is  besides  an 
excellent  material  for  composts.  The  manufac- 
ture of  gelatine  has  been  largely  carried  on  in 
France  by  flrst  removing  the  earthy  salts  from 
bones  by  digesting  them  for  many  days  in  di- 
lute hydrochloric  acid,  and  afterward  in  boiling 
water. — For  a  long  time  gelatine  was  largely 
employed  in  the  hospitals  and  pauper  estab- 
lishments of  Paris,  as  a  cheap  and,  as  it  was 
believed,  very  nutritive  material  for  soups. 
Its  value  for  this  purpose  was  at  last  ques- 
tioned, and  the  commission  appointed  to  in- 
vestigate its  qualities  reported  unfavorably.  It 
is,  however,  generally  regarded  as  possessing 
nutritive  properties,  though  in  a  less  degree 
than  fibrine  and  albumen ;  and  even  if  insuf- 
ficient itself  to  support  life,  its  almost  uni- 
versal use  in  some  form  of  food  attests  its 
importance  as  an  article  of  diet.  It  also  finds 
numerous  other  uses,  as  for  the  clarifying  of 
Uquors,  in  the  manufacture  of  cements,  as  a 
chemical  test  for  tannin,  and  in  pharmacy  for 
coating  pills  and  forming  pouches  or  capsules 
in  whicn  disagreeable  medicines  may  be  con- 
cealed and  swallowed  without  disgust.  It  is 
also  applied  in  the  dressing  of  silk  and  other 
stuffs.  It  is  made  by  the  French  into  thin 
transparent  sheets  called  papier  glace,  which 
are  used  for  copying  drawings ;  and  they  also 


GELDERLAND 


GELLIU8 


661 


prepare  from  it  artificial  flowers  richly  col- 
ored to  imitate  the  natural  specimens,  or  pre- 
senting the  appearance,  in  their  glittering  and 
semi-transparent  substance,  of  flowers  wet 
with  dew  or  drenched  with  rain.  Another  ap- 
plication of  gelatine  is  for  taking  oasts  or  form- 
ing moulds  of  objects  presenting  complicated 
forms,  for  retaining  which  plaster  is  not  sufiS- 
ciently  adhesive.  A  series  of  casts  in  imitation 
of  ivory  were  produced  in  this  substance  in 
1844  by  M.  Franchi,  for  which  the  prize  of  the 
London  society  of  arts  was  awarded  in  1846. 
He  afterward  obtained  gelatine  casts  from 
moulds  of  the  same  substance,  the  lines  being 
perfectly  retained  in  their  original  sharpness* 
He  also  took  casts  in  gelatine  from  flat  models, 
which  he  applied  to  cylindrical  bodies,  thus 
saving  much  expense  in  the  carving  or  con- 
struction of  intricate  models. — Pure  gelatine  is 
colorless,  transparent,  inodorous,  and  insipid. 
It  should  be  tested  for  smell  by  putting  it  in 
boiling  water,  as  when  dry  the  odor  of  glue 
may  not  be  perceived.  It  softens  and  swells 
in  cold  water,  but  does  not  dissolve  till  heat 
is  applied,  a  property  which  distinguishes  it 
from  flbrine  and  albumen.  According  to  Bos- 
took,  one  part  of  gelatine  dissolved  in  100  of 
water  gelatinizes  on  cooling,  but  in  150  parts 
it  remains  liquid.  When  the  solution  is  re- 
peatedly warmed  and  cooled,  especially  if  boiled, 
it  loses  its  tendency  to  gelatinize,  and  becomes 
more  and  more  soluble  in  cold  water.  Gela- 
tine is  soluble  in  all  the  dilute  acids  exoept  tan- 
nic, in  which  respect  it  diflers  much  from  al- 
bumen. It  is  precipitated  from  aqueous  solu- 
tions by  excess  of  alcohol.  Tannic  acid  is  a 
very  delicate  test ;  when  added  to  a  solution 
of  one  part  of  gelatine  in  5,000  parts  of  water, 
it  will  render  it  cloudy ;  when  added  to  a  strong 
solution,  a  dense  curdy  precipitate  falls,  which 
is  the  same  substance  as  the  basis  of  leather. 
Gelatine  is  rendered  insoluble  when  mixed 
with  chromic  acid  and  exposed  to  the  action  of 
light.  This  property  is  applied  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  imitations  of  ivory,  and  in  the  repro- 
duction of  photographic  prints,  according  to 
the  invention  of  Woodbury  and  Albert. — Gela^ 
tine  which  is  obtained  from  the  sounds  of  fishes 
is  called  isinglass,  and  an  impure  variety  is 
known  as  glue.    (See  Glub,  and  Isinglass.) 

GiXiDERLAND,  or  Gvelderltiid,  a  province  of 
Holland,  bounded  N.  W.  by  the  Zuyder  Zee,  S. 
£.  by  Prussia,  and  on  the  other  sides  by  the 
provinces  of  Overyssel,  Utrecht,  South  HoUand, 
and  North  Brabant ;  area,  1,964  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  482,698.  Its  surface  is  more  hilly  than 
that  of  most  of  the  Netherlands ;  its  climate  is 
mUd,  but  its  soil,  except  in  the  river  valleys,  is 
poor.  The  principal  streams  are  th  e  Maas  (sep- 
arating it  from  North  Brabant),  Waal,  Rhine, 
and  Yssel,  on  the  banks  of  which  fruit,  grain, 
hops,  potatoes,  and  tobacco  are  cultivated  with 
considerable  success,  while  the  more  sterile  dis- 
tricts have  recently  been  planted  with  timber, 
or  are  used  for  cattle  raising.  Brewing,  distil- 
ling, and  the  maQit&cture  of  paper,  linen,  tiles, 


and  leather,  are  important  branches  of  indus- 
try, and  there  is  also  an  extensive  transit  trade. 
There  are  iron  mines  in  the  canton  of  Zutphen. 
The  herring  fisliery  is  actively  prosecuted  on 
the  Zuyder  Zee.  Amliem,  the  capital,  Nime- 
guen,  Zutphen,  and  Harderwyk  are  the  chief 
towns. — Gelderland  was  made  a  county  in  1079 
by  the  emperor  Henry  IV.,  and  a  duchy  in  1839 
by  Louis  the  Bavarian.  It  was  governed  by 
dukes  of  its  own,  who  resided  at  its  present 
capital,  till  1528,  when  it  passed  into  the  hands 
of  Charles  V.  It  joined  the  union  of  Utrecht 
in  1579.  In  1794  it  was  taken  by  the  French, 
who  held  it  till  1814,  when  it  became  a  part 
of  the  Netherlands.  A  portion  of  upper  Gel- 
derland (area,  about  450  sq.  mX  including  its 
capital  Geldem,  was  added  to  Prussia  by  the 
peace  of  Utrecht  (1713),  and  now  forms  part 
of  the  circle  of  Geldern  in  the  district  of  DtLs- 
seldorf. 

GELDERIf,  a  town  of  Prussia,  in  the  province 
of  the  Rhine,  on  the  Niers,  28  m.  N.  W.  of 
DUsseldorf;  pop.  in  1871,  5,096.  It  has  a 
Catholic  and  a  Protestant  chnrch,  two  con- 
vents, manufactures  of  doth,  stockings,  hats, 
woollen,  silk,  and  linen  goods,  and  a  consider- 
able trade  in  grain.  The  town  was  built  in 
1097,  and  was  till  1848  the  residence  of  the 
counts  and  dukes  of  Geldern.  (See  Gelder- 
land.) Its  fortifications  were  razed  <by  Fred- 
erick the  Great  in  1764. 

CELL,  Sir  WllllaM,  an  English  scholar,  bom  at 
Hopton,  Derbyshire,  in  1777,  died  in  Naples, 
Feb.  4,  1886.  He  graduated  at  Cambridge  in 
1798,  and  was  sent  on  a  secret  mission  to  the 
Ionian  Islands.  In  1814  he  accompanied  the 
princess  of  Wales  abroad  as  one  of  ner  cham- 
berlains, and  was  one  of  the  witnesses  at  her 
trial,  after  she  had  become  queen.  He  subse- 
quently returned  to  Italy,  where  he  sojourned 
tUl  his  death.  He  was  a  voluminous  writer  on 
classical  antiquities.  His  principal  works  are : 
"  The  Topography  of  Troy  and  its  Vicinity " 
(foL,  1804) ;  "  Itinerary  of  Greece,  with  a  Com- 
mentary on  Pausanias  and  Strabo''  (4to,  1810); 
and  ^^Pom'peiana,  or  Observations  upon  the 
Topography,  Edifices,  and  Ornaments  of  Pom- 
peii "  (with  J.  P.  Gandy,  8vo,  1817-^19 ;  8d  ed., 
1852).  Of  the  last,  a  continuation  in  2  vols. 
8vo  was  published  in  1882. 

GELLERT,  Chrtetlui  Ftrehtei^ott,  a  German  poet 
and  mondist,  bom  in  Hainichen,  Saxony,  July 
4, 1715,  died  in  Leipsic,  Dec.  18, 1769.  He  was 
one  of  the  early  promoters  of  the  great  lite- 
rary movement  which  produced  Schiller  and 
Goethe.  The  latter  in  his  youth  was  one  of  his 
disciples,  but  judged  his  ethical  system  to  be  of 
an  effeminate  tendency.  He  published  fables 
and  poetical  tales,  which  are  still  popular,  let- 
ters, sacred  hymns  and  odes,  and  a  romance  en- 
titled "  The  Swedish  Countess."  He  was  pro- 
fessor of  philosophy  in  the  university  of  Leipsic. 

CiELLIPS,  Ailis,  a  Eoman  grammarian,  who 
flourished  about  the  middle  of  the  2d  century 
A.  D.,  supposed  to  have  been  bom  in  Rome. 
He  studied  rhetoric  there,  and  philosophy  at 


662 


GELON 


GEM 


Athens.  He  was  still  a  youth  when  he  com- 
menced, during  the  long  winter  evenings  spent 
at  a  country  house  near  Athens,  a  compilation 
of  extracts  from  Greek  and  Roman  authors, 
concerning  languages,  antiquity,  philosophy, 
history,  and  literature,  interspersed  with  origi- 
nal remarks.  He  continued  it  at  Home,  where 
he  held  a  judicial  office.  His  work,  named  from 
its  origin  NocU$  Attica  ("Attic  Nights"),  and 
divided  into  20  books  (of  which  the  8th  is  lost), 
though  without  any  attempt  at  order  or  ar- 
rangement, contains  a  mass  of  materials,  valu- 
able mostly  as  remnants  of  lost  ancient  authors. 
The  editio  princ^  was  published  at  Rome 
n469) ;  the  best  of  the  older  editions  at  Ley- 
den  (1706),  by  Gronovius,  reprinted  at  Leipsio 
(1 762).  The  best  of  all  is  that  of  Hertz  (Leipsic, 
1858).  An  English  translation  was  published 
by  Bedloe  (London,  1795). 

6EL0N,  a  ruler  of  Syracuse,  bom  in  Gela  in 
Sicily,  died  about  478  B.  0.  He  served  as 
commander  of  the  cavalry  under  Hippocrates, 
tyrant  of  Gela ;  on  whose  death,  the  people 
revolting  against  his  sons,  Gelon  supported  the 
latter,  but  finally  set  them  aside  and  assumed 
the  chief  power  himself  (491).  Called  to  the 
assistance  of  the  Gamori,  the  landed  aristoc- 
racy of  Syracuse,  then  expelled  by  the  revolt- 
ed slaves  and  the  popular  party,  he  contrived 
to  become  master  of  that  city  (about  486),  ap- 
pointed his  brother  Hiero  governor  of  Gela, 
and  by  degrees  extended  his  influence  and  pow- 
er over  all  Sicilv.  He  won  the  affections  of 
the  Syracusans  by  mildness,  by  the  protection 
of  arts  and  sciences,  and  by  the  aggrandize- 
ment of  the  city,  for  which  purpose  he  even 
destroyed  Camarina  and  other  towns,  and  trans- 

Elanted  their  inhabitants  thither,  as  well  as 
alf  the  population  of  Gela.  When  Xerxes 
was  threatening  the  invasion  of  Greece,  the 
Laoedffimonians  and  Athenians  invoked  the 
ssnstance  of  Gelon.  According  to  Herodotus, 
he  offered  to  furnish  200  triremes,  nearly  80,000 
soldiers,  and  corn  for  the  whole  Grecian  army 
so  long  a9  the  war  should  last,  provided  he 
was  made  commander-in-chief.  The  condition 
being  rejected,  Geloa  sent  an  ambassador  to 
Delphi,  with  rich  gifts,  and  orders  to  greet  and 
acknowledge  Xerxes  if  victorious.  Herodotus, 
however,  also  mentions  that  the  Syracusans 
give  a  different  version  of  the  affair,  which 
vindicates  the  character  of  GeloQ  and  the  poli- 
cy of  the  Syracusans  in  not  assisting  Greece. 
They  were  fully  occupied  at  home,  for  the 
Carthaginians  at  this  juncture  invaded  Sicily 
with  a  great  army.  Gelon  completely  defeated 
them  at  Himera  (480),  on  the  same  day,  ac- 
cording to  Herodotus,  on  which  the  Greeks 
won  the  victory  of  Salamis,  but  according  to 
Diodorus,  on  the  day  of  the  battle  of  Ther- 
mopylaB.  He  now  proposed  to  resign  his  pow- 
er and  restore  popular  liberty,  but  the  offer 
was  rejected  in  the  assembly,  and  his  exhibi- 
tion of  magnanimity  was  rewarded  by  the  title 
of  king,  which  he  accepted  and  bore  till  his 
death.    The  Syracusans  erected,  against  his 


will,  a  splendid  tomb  to  his  memory,  and  hon- 
ored him  as  a  hero.     When  Tinioleon,  130 
years  afterward,  sought  to  destroy  all  vestiges 
of  the  tyrants,  the  statue  of  Gelon  was  ex- 
cepted.   His  brother  Hiero  was  his  successor. 
GEM  (Lat.  gemma,  a  bud),  the  designation  of 
precious  stones  prized  for  their  brilliant  lustre 
and  splendid  colors  or  perfect  limpidity.    They 
possess  also  a  hardness  which  renders  them 
susceptible  of  the  highest  polish,  and  capable 
of  retaining  unimpaired  the  forms  into  which 
they  are  cut  ^d  the  lines  or  figures  that  may 
be  engraved  upon  them.    These  properties,  in 
connection  with  their  rarity,  have  given  to 
them  the  highest  value  of  all  substances,    llie 
principal  gems  are  diamonds,  rubies,  and  eme- 
ralds ;  the  finest  specimens  of  these  are  noticed 
under  their  respective  titles.    Other  beautiful 
species  of  gems  are  the  agate,  chrysoberjl, 
chrysolite,  garnet,  sapphire,  topaz,  tourmaline, 
&c.    These  stones  are  not  usually  presented  by 
nature  in  their  full  beauty ;  but  they  are  found 
in  the  form  of  worn  pebbles  among  the  sands 
derived  from  the  disintegration  of  the  rocks  in 
which  they  were  originally  contained.    Some, 
however,  are  obtained  crystallized  in  the  mat- 
rix of  quartz,  calcareous  spar,  or  other  gangae 
of  veins  in  which  they  were  produced,  or  in 
geodes,  of  the  dark  cavities  of  which  tbey 
made  with  other  crystals  a  lining  or  incrusta- 
tion.   The  crystals  may  have  the  perfections  of 
the  stone  fiilly  developed,  but  art  is  not  satis- 
fied with  the  form,  and  this  is  almost  alwajs 
sacrificed  to  fit  the  stone  to  the  shapes  judged 
best  suited  to  display  its  highest  lustre.    The 
rough  pebble  requires  the  work  of  the  lapidary 
to  develop  its  beauties.    The  processes  to  which 
the  stones  are  subjected  are  described  in  the 
articles  Diamoi^d  and  Lapidabt  ;  the  method 
of  carving  them  to  bring  out  from  their  differ- 
ently colored  layers  figures  in  relief  is  described 
under  Cameo  ;  and  gem  engraving  will  be  treat- 
ed in  this  article. — ^To  distinguish  gems  from 
each  other  and  from  their  artificial  counterfeits, 
a  practised  eye  was  formerly  sufficient;  but 
modem  imitations  are  so  perfect,  that  the  tests 
of  comparative  hardness  and  of  specific  gravity 
are  often  required.    The  chemical  tests  which 
are  usually  employed  to  distinguish  minerals 
cannot  be  applied  to  these  stones  on  account 
of  the  iiyury  tliey  would  occasion.    The  finest 
collection  of  gems  in  the  world  is  that  of  the 
emperor  of  Russia.    Siberia  has  proved  a  rich 
field  for  their  production,  and   all  precious 
stones  found  there  belong  to  the  crown.    They 
are  taken  to  Yekaterinburg,  and  being  ont  and 
polished  in  the  government  works,  the  choicest 
are  selected  for  the  imperial  treasury.    Clarke 
in  his  account  of  his  travels  in  Russia  makes 
frequent  reference  to  the  abundance  of  fine 
gems  met  with  in  the  cabinets  and  jewellers^ 
shops,  and  states  that  in  Moscow  tbey  were 
so  much  more  highly  prized  than  in  western 
Europe,  that  the  most  costly  gems  were  some- 
times purchased  in  London  to  be  deposited  in 
Russian  collections.     Different  Asiatic  conn- 


GEM 


663 


tries,  partioalarly  Hindostan,  Pega,  and  Ceylon, 
have  been  famoas  from  the  remotest  periods 
for  their  rich  gems ;  and  in  modern  times  Bra- 
zil, Pern,  and  south  Africa  have  rivalled  them 
in  these  productions. — Gem  Enobaving,  known 
also  as  the  glyptic  art  (Gr.  yXimreiv,  to  engrave), 
was  skilfully  practised  in  very  remote  times. 
In  Exodus  xxviii.  17-20,  the  following  stones 
are  designated  as  those  upon  which  were  en- 
graved the  names  of  the  12  children  of  Israel : 
sardius,  topaz,  carbnncle,  emerald,  sapphire, 
diamond,  ligure,  agate,  amethyst,  beryl,  onyx, 
and  jasper.  At  this  early  period,  as  we  learn 
from  verse  11  of  the  same  chapter,  engraving 
of  signets,  and  upon  the  hardest  stones,  was 
practised.  The  Israelites,  it  is  believed,  ac- 
quired the  art  from  the  Egyptians,  who  are 
known  to  have  made  use  of  the  lapidary^s 
wheel  and  emery  powder,  and  are  supposed  to 
have  been  acquainted  with  the  diamond  and 
the  method  of  engraving  other  hard  stones  by 
means  of  it.  The  Assyrians  and  Babylonians 
were  very  skilful  in  engraving  on  gems,  many 
of  which  have  been  found  in  the  ruins  of 
their  cities.  Many  of  their  seals  are  most  deli- 
cately and  minutely  ornamented  with  various 
sacred  devices  and  with  the  forms  of  animals. 
The  Greeks  adopted  the  art,  and  practised  it 
with  the  greatest  zeal  and  success.  Their 
works  of  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great  are 
still  the  most  perfect  specimens.  The  most 
distinguished  among  their  earlier  artists  was 
Pyrgoteles,  who  alone  was  permitted  to  en- 
grave the  head  of  Alexander,  as  Apelles  only 
was  allowed  to  paint  his  portrait,  and  Lysippus 
to  cast  his  image  in  bronze.  During  the  reign 
of  Augustus  in  Rome,  Dioscurides  from  ^olia 
in  Asia  Minor  attained  the  highest  eminence. 
His  head  of  lo  is  regarded  by  some  as  the  finest 
engraved  gem  in  existence,  and  others  almost 
equally  beautiful  are  two  busts  of  Augustus,  a 
head  of  Demosthenes  on  an  amethyst,  and  vari- 
ous mythological  representations.  Several  of 
the  most  skilful  artists  of  Greece  established 
themsel  ves  at  Rome  under  the  emperors.  With 
the  empire  the  art  declined,  and  though  the 
mechanical  execution  was  not  lost,  no  produc- 
tions of  genius  appeared  till  the  15th  century. 
At  this  time  it  became  fashionable  to  make 
collections  of  antique  gems,  and  among  others 
Lorenzo  de^  Medici  was  especially  interested 
in  this  object  and  in  encouraging  artists  to 
imitate  the  finest  productions,  in  which  they 
attained  great  success.  The  same  taste  soon 
spread  to  France,  Germany,  and  England ;  and 
in  all  civilized  countries  the  art  has  since  been 
held  in  high  estimation.  As  applied  to  the 
hardest  gems,  as  the  diamond,  ruby,  sapphire, 
and  topaz,  it  is  no  donbt  carried  to  a  higher 
degree  of  perfection  than  was  attained  in  an- 
cient times,  for  among  the  antique  engraved 
gems  preserved  there  are  few  if  any  of  this 
class.  Engraved  gems  are  for  the  most  part 
readily  referred  by  connoisseurs  to  their  true 
period^  country,  and  sometimes  to  the  artist 
himself.    Each  had  his  own  cipher,  which  is 


commonly  found  upon  the  gem,  though  this 
is  in  modern  times  imitated,  together  with  the 
peculiar  style  of  the  ancient  artists  and  their 
coinpiete  work,  in  great  perfection.  Specimens 
of  Egyptian  art  are  recognized  by  the  repre- 
sentations of  the  peculiar  favorite  animals  and 
divinities  of  this  people,  accompanied  with  their 
hieroglyphics.  Their  gems  were  engraved  al- 
most exclusively  in  intaglio,  and  they  were  of 
the  form  designated  as  9ca/rabm,  from  the  upper 
surface  of  the  stone,  always  of  the  oval  form, 
being  cut  to  represent  the  beetle.  The  Etrus- 
oatis  also  adopted  this  form,  but  their  devices 
more  resemble  those  of  the  earliest  Greek 
workmanship.  Their  specimens  are  distinguish- 
ed by  low  relief,  a  granular  border  surrounding 
the  engraving,  stiffness  in  the  figures,  peculiar 
style  of  letters  and  writing,  wings  given  to  the 
deities  which  the  Greeks  represent  without 
wings,  and  names  generally  attached  to  the 
figures.  The  Greeks  also  practised  chiefly  in 
intaglio,  and  some  of  their  finest  works  are 
in  chalcedony  and  camelian.  The  highly 
famed  Dionysiac  bull  of  Hyllus,  an  artist  sup- 
posed to  have  lived  before  the  age  of  Augustus, 
is  upon  chalcedony ;  and  a  celebrated  specimen 
in  carnelian  is  the  beautiful  seal  which  once 
belonged  to  Michel  Angelo,  and  was  afterward 
preserved  in  the  national  library  at  Paris.  The 
engraving  represents  a  vintage,  but  the  design 
has  been  referred  in  various  learned  disserta- 
tions to  a  number  of  different  objects,  some  of 
mythological  character.  Many  impressions  and 
copies  have  been  taken  of  this  famous  specimen. 
The  engraved  gems  of  the  first  15  centuries  A. 
D.,  excepting  the  imitations  of  antique  works, 
generally  have  designs  from  Scriptural  subjects 
— ^images  of  Ohrist  and  of  the  Virgin  Mary, 
representations  of  the  Good  Shepherd,  and  often 
a  fish,  symbolical  of  the  Saviour,  from  the  let- 
ters in  its  Greek  name,  f;t^Ci  being  the  initial 
letters  in  the  appellation  Irfaovq  Xpiarbg  Oeov 
Tide  lAjrfip.  Some  terms  employed  to  desig- 
nate certain  styles  of  antique  gems  may  be  prop- 
erly noticed  here  before  speaking  of  the  art  m 
modern  times.  Stones  convex  on  one  side  are 
said  to  be  en  cahoehon  ;  ehimarcB  are  those  with 
representations  of  imaginary  beings  made  up 
of  portions  taken  from  different  animals ;  grylli 
are  those  with  hideous  heads,  said  to  be  so 
called  from  an  Athenian  named  Gryllus,  who 
was  extraordinarily  ngly ;  canjugata^  or  joined, 
are  those  with  heads  represented  together  upon 
the  same  profile,  called  opposite  when  they  face 
each  other.  Engraving  was  practised  both  in 
intaglio  and  in  rilievo,  and  the  two  styles  were 
sometimes  combined  in  the  same  specimen. 
Stones  having  differently  colored  layers,  like  the 
onyx,  were  especially  adapted  for  the  rilievo 
style,  for  an  account  of  which  see  Cambo. — In 
modem  times  the  finest  gem  engravers  are  found 
among  the  Italian  artists  of  the  18th  century,  and 
chiefly  those  of  Florence.  Some  of  their  works 
are  hardly  inferior  to  those  of  the  most  famous 
Grecian  artists.  Flaviano  Sirletti  of  Florence, 
who  died  in  1737,  was  especially  distinguished 


664 


GEM 


for  his  copies  of  ancient  gems  and  exact  imita- 
tions of  the  ancient  letters.  The  Costanzis  and 
many  others  also  attained  great  repute ;  and  in 
the  present  centnry  are  some  whose  productions, 
as  those  particularly  of  Signor  Rega  of  Naples, 
rank  with  the  famous  antique  gems.  Among 
the  Germans,  Daniel  Engelhard  of  Nuremberg, 
a  friend  of.  Albert  DOrer,  was  celebrated  for 
his  skill  in  engraving  crests  and  arms.  He 
died  in  1652.  The  works  of  the  Pichlers,  father 
and  son,  who  came  from  Tyrol,  are  of  the  high- 
est merit,  especially  tiiose  of  the  father.  The 
son  was  much  in  Italy,  and  is  often  spoken  of 
as  an  Italian.  The  celebrated  PoniatowsKi  col- 
lection of  antique  gems  has  recently  been  cred- 
ited to  the  elder  Pichler.  Natter  of  Swabia, 
who  died  in  1763,  was  not  only  a  workmaA  of 
the  most  delicate  skill  and  refined  taste,  but  a 
student  and  author  also,  and  published  in  1754 
a  treatise  specially  devoted  to  his  art :  Traite 
de  la  methode  antique  degraner  enpierresjinei 
eomparee  cvoee  la  methode  modeme.  From  this 
work  it  appears  that  the  ancients  employed 
the  same  sort  of  tools  and  the  same  methods 
as  those  in  use  at  the  present  day.  The  modem 
practice  is  described  by  Holtzapffel  in  vol.  iii. 
of  his  *^  Mechanical  Manipulation.'' — The  ap^ 
paratus  employed  in  engraving  consists  of  a 
foot  lathe  attached  to  a  small  table,  upon  which 
is  fixed  a  little  pillar  for  holding  the  norizontal 
pulley,  which  is  the  receptacle  for  the  cutting 
tooL  This  part  of  the  apparatus  is  called  the 
mill.  The  tools  are  soft  iron  wire  spindles  care- 
fully annealed  and  nicely  fitted  to  the  hollow 
axis  of  the  pulley.  Only  one  is  used  at  a  time. 
When  set  in  its  place  it  prqiects  through  the 
bearings  of  the  pulley,  one  end  extending  hori- 
zontally on  the  right-hand  side  of  the  operator, 
who  sits  at  his  work  in  front  of  the  table.  This 
extremity  of  each  tool  is  fashioned  for  its  spe- 
cial work.  Most  of  them  terminate  in  a  small 
disk,  the  edge  of  which,  as  it  rotates  rapidly, 
cuts  lines  in  the  stone  held  up  against  it,  the 
tool  being  fed  with  diamond  dust  and  oil.  The 
larger  sized  disks  are  only  about  a  quarter  of 
an  inch  in  diameter,  and  from  this  they  are 
made  of  decreasing  sizes  down  to  yf^^  of  an  inch, 
when  the  disk  can  scarcely  be  distinguished  by 
the  eye  from  the  stem.  They  are  also  variously 
shaped  for  special  kinds  of  cutting.  The  stone 
intended  to  be  engraved  is  usually  shaped  by 
the  lapidary,  and  is  sometimes  set  by  the  jew- 
eller before  it  is  engraved.  If  not  set,  the  en- 
graver secures  it  to  a  wooden  handle  by  the 
cement  known  as  tlie  lapidary's ;  or  if  set,  he 
secures  it  in  a  notch  in  a  piece  of  cork.  The 
polish  is  removed  by  roughening  the  face  with 
a  suitable  cutting  powder,  as  the  tools  work 
better  upon  a  rough  surface,  and  the  outline 
of  the  design,  which  is  next  marked  with  a 
brass  point,  is  tlie  more  conspicuous.  The  area 
thus  enclosed  is  then  sunk  by  the  tools  to  a 
suitable  depth ;  and  within  this  the  details  of 
the  design  are  successively  introduced  and  ex- 
cavated. For  the  parallel  lines,  called  color 
lines,  A  thicker  disk  with  two  cutting  edges  is 


employed,  its  form  being  that  of  a  little  pulley; 
the  two  edges  are  just  as  far  apart  as  the  lines 
they  are  intended  to  cut,  and  as  one  pair  is  cot 
the  stone  is  moved  so  as  to  bring  the  outer  edge 
of  the  disk  into  the  groove  marked  by  the  other 
edge,  and  thus  the  work  goes  on  step  by  step 
over  the  surface  to  be  thus  "  colored."    The 
plan  must  be  perfectly  understood  by  the  art- 
ist at  the  commencement  of  his  work,  and  as 
it  goes  on  he  watches  the  efifect  produced  with 
the  aid  of  a  magnifying  glass  conveniently  at- 
tached to  a  stand  over  the  tool,  and  occasionally 
takes  a  proof  of  his  work  in  wax.    After  the 
stone  is  engraved  the  polish  is  restored  to  the 
flat  surface  by  a  pewter  polishing  disk  or  lap 
fed  with  rotten  stone  and  water.    The  engraved 
portions  are  polished  with  great  care,  first  by 
using  in  the  mill  copper  tools  charged  with 
diamond  powder ;  this  buries  itself  more  deeply 
in  the  copper  than  in  the  iron  tools,  ana  a 
smoother  surface  is  thus  obtained.    Boxwood 
tools  charged  with  still  finer  diamond  powder 
are  next  used,  and  after  these  copper  tools 
charged  with  rotten  stone  and  water.    The 
harder  gems,  excepting  the  diamond,  which  is 
engraved  with  the  greatest  difiScnlty,  are  better 
adapted  for  this  process  than  those  of  softer 
quality.    The  latter  are  liable  to  hold  the  dia- 
mond powder  and  cause  it  to  wear  out  the 
tools ;  they  do  not  when  finished  present  such 
smooth  and  highly  polished  surfaces  as  the 
harder  stones.    The  amethyst  is  considered  as 
soft  a  stone  as  can  be  cut  very  smoothly.    Car- 
nelian  and  bloodstone  are  of  close  texture,  and 
admit  of  excellent  work ;  the  ruby  cuts  slowly, 
but  small  pieces  are  apt  to  flake  off.    The  sap- 
phire is  firm  and  close ;  it  cuts  slowly,  but  pre- 
sents beautifully  smooth  surfaces. — Abtificial 
Gbhs.    The  great  value  attached  to  precious 
stones  led  at  an  early  period  to  successful  at- 
tempts to  imitate  them.    The  Egyptians  pos- 
sessed the  art  of  coloring  glass,  and  among  their 
mixtures  they  produced  excellent  imitations  of 
the  most  beautiful  gems,  so  that,  as  Pliny  states, 
it  was  difiScult  to  distinguish  the  false  from  the 
real.    Their  artificial  emeralds,  sapphires,  and 
hyacinths  are  spoken  of  by  various  ancient  au- 
thors.   Some  of  the  first  named  were  of  such 
gigantic  size  that  they  were  used  in  the  con- 
struction of  statues,  as  of  that  of  Serapis  in  the 
Egyptian  labyrinth,  13^  ft.  in  height.    Another 
presented  by  the  king  of«  Babylon  to  an  Egyp- 
tian Pharaoh  was  6  ft.  long  and  4}  broad  ;  and 
an  obelisk  in  the  temple  of  Jupiter  60  ft.  high 
and  6  ft.  broad  was  composed  of  four  artificial 
emeralds.    These  were  very  extraordinary  pro- 
ductions if  made  only  of  pieces  of  colored  glass. 
Seneca  also  makes  mention  of  one  in  his  time 
who  manufactured  artificial  emeralds.    Beck- 
mann  states  that  in  some  ancient  collections 
at  Rome  are  pieces  of  colored  glass,  which 
were  once  used  as  jew^els.    In  the  Museum 
Victor] nm  are  seen  a  chrysolite  and  emerald 
of  faultless  execution.    In  the  17th  century  the 
discovery  of  the  preparation  of  gold  and  bin- 
oxide  of  tin,  called  purple  of  Cassius,  afibrded 


GEM 


GEMCOT)ER 


665 


the  means  of  giving  a  ruby-red  color  to  glass, 
and  artificial  rubies  were  then  first  made,  espe- 
cially by  one  John  Kankel,  afterward  LOwen- 
stiem,  inspector  in  1679  of  the  glass  houses  in 
Potsdam.  In  modem  times  the  art  has  been 
wonderfully  perfected  by  the  French,  chiefly 
through  the  genius  of  M.  Donault-Wieland. 
A  glass  called  strass,  of  great  lustre  and  per- 
fectly transparent,  of  which  the  ingredients  are 
given  in  the  article  Glass,  is  prepared  as  the 
basis  of  the  composition.  It  resembles  the  dia- 
mond in  high  refractive  power  as  in  its  other 
qualities,  except  hardness.  That  it  may  be 
&ee  from  color  its  ingredients  must  be  abso- 
lutely pure;  and  care  must  be  exercised  in 
selecting  crucibles  least  likely  to  impart  color 
to  the  fused  mixture.  Artificial  diamonds  are 
noade  from  pure  strass,  which  is  cut  directly 
into  brilliants  and  roses,  without  the  addition 
of  other  matter.  Other  gems  are  imitated  by 
melting  and  mixing  it  with  substances  having 
a  metric  base,  generally  oxides,  which  com- 
municate the  various  colors. — ^Tlie  researches 
and  experiments  of  M.  Ebelmen  are  of  a  higher 
order  of  art.  He  conceived  the  idea  in  1847 
of  forming  various  mixtures  with  some  in- 
gredients volatile  at  very  high  heat.  By  the 
dispersion  of  these  in  the  &mace  the  other 
ingredients  should  crystallize,  as  substances 
held  in  solution  in  liquids  crystallize  when 
these  are  evaporated.  He  thus  proposed  to 
produce  the  ruby,  corundum  or  sapphire,  and 
other  precious  stones.  The  volatile  solvents 
or  fluxes  he  employed  were  principally  boracic 
acid  and  borax.  The  spinelle  ruby,  among  the 
first  minerals  he  imitated,  was  obtained  by 
mixing  together  80  parts  of  magnesia,  25  of 
alumina,  1  of  chlorate  of  potash,  and  85  of 
boracio  acid,  and  subjecting  500  grammes 
(7,716  grains)  of  the  compound  to  high  tem- 
perature in  the  mu£9e  of  a  furnace  for  eight 
days.  The  crystals  measured  0*197  inch  on 
a  side.  Ghrysoberyl  was  produced  in  crystals 
with  faces  of  0'24  inch,  perfectiy  transparent, 
and  scratching  topaz  from  a  mixture  of  alumi- 
na 12  grammes,  glucine  8*5,  carbonate  of  lime 
10,  and  fused  boracic  acid  14  grammes.  The 
object  of  the  lime  was  to  form  a  fusible  borate 
for  holding  the  other  ingredients  in  a  condition 
fjAVorable  for  crystallization.  Chrysolite  in 
well  defined  crystals  resulted  from  silica  4*5, 
magnesia  6*15,  and  boracic  acid  6.  Transpa- 
rent crystals  of  pure  aluminis,  which  are  sap- 
phire or  corundum,  and  which  presented  the 
same  hardness  and  specific  gravity  with  this 
mineral,  were  a  product  of  alumina  thus  fused 
with  8  or  4  parts  of  borax,  or  of  10  parts  of 
alumina  with  4  of  silica  and  16  of  borax.  M. 
Ebelmen  employed  also  as  fluxes  the  salts  of 
phosphorus  and  the  carbonates  of  potash  and 
of  soda,  all  which  are  volatile  at  high  temper- 
atures, and  by  means  of  these  solvents  repro- 
duced many  other  minerals,  as  he  announced  to 
the  academy  in  1851.  His  death  shortly  after 
terminated  his  interesting  researches ;  but  they 
have  been  successfully  toontinued  hy  Peville, 


Eisner,  Manross,  and  others,  and  numerous  arti- 
ficial minerals  have  been  prepared. — ^The  great 
establishment  of  M.  Bourguignon  in  Paris  was 
at  one  time  the  most  famous  manufactory  of 
artificial  gems  in  the  world.  About  100  work- 
men, besides  many  women  and  girls,  were 
constantiy  employed  in  preparing  and  fusing 
the  mixtures,  cutting  and  polishing  tlie  stones, 
and  lining  the  imitation  pearls  with  fish  scales 
and  wax.  The  sand  used  to  furnish  the  silica 
is  from  the  forest  of  Fontainebleau ;  and  its 
quality  is  so  highly  esteemed  that  much  is  ex- 
ported for  similar  use  elsewhere.  The  gems 
are  such  perfect  imitations  that  they  can  be 
distinguished  from  genuine  stones  only  by  the 
closest  scrutiny  of  those  experienced  in  such 
matters.  The  great  hardness  of  the  natural 
stones  it  is  found  most  difficult  to  imitate,  and 
there  is  a  want  of  permanency  in  the  qualities 
of  most  of  the  imitations,  which  at  last  causes 
their  true  character  to  appear. — See  *^A 
Popular  Treatise  on  Gems,"  by  Dr.  L.  Feuch- 
twanger  (New  York,  1859 ;  revised  ed.,  1867) ; 
"  The  Natural  History  of  Gems,"  by  0.  W. 
King  (London,  1867) ;  "  Diamonds  and  Precious 
Stones,"  by  Harry  Emanuel  (London,  1867) ; 
and  '^Diamonds  and  Precious  Stones,"  trans- 
lated from  the  French  of  Louis  Dieulafait  by  F. 
Sanford  (New  York,  1874). 

GEmiNI  (the  twins),  the  third  constellation 
in  the  zodiac,  so  named  from  its  two  brightest 
stars,  to  which  the  names  Castor  and  Pollux 
are  given,  and  which  are  about  midway  be- 
tween Aldebaran  and  Regulus. 

GianSTTS,  George,  surnamed  Plbtho,  a  schol- 
ar and  philosopher  of  the  15th  century,  bom 
in  Constantinople,  and  said  to  have  lived  to 
the  age  of  100.  He  held  a  high  position  at 
the  court  of  the  PalsBologi,  and  at  the  council 
of  Florence  in  1489  opposed  the  union  of  the 
churches  of  the  East  and  the  West.  Subse- 
quently banished  from  his  country,  he  found 
an  asylum  in  Italy,  and  declared  himself  in 
favor  of  the  Latins.  While  the  philosophy 
of  Aristotle  was  still  reigning,  he  became  an 
enthusiastic  votary  of  the  Platonic  theories  in 
metaphysics  and  natural  theology,  and  being 
admitted  to  the  circle  of  the  Medici,  prompt- 
ed Cosmo  to  found  his  celebrated  Platonic 
academy.  His  treatise  in  praise  of  Platonism 
inaugurated  the  long  quarrel  between  the  dis- 
ciples of  the  two  great  masters  of  antiquity, 
which  produced  a  profound  study  of  their  sys- 
tems. Gemistus,  however,  mingled  with  the 
Platonic  philosophy  the  notions  of  the  later 
Alexandrian  school  and  of  the  n)urious  wri- 
tings attributed  to  Zoroaster  and  Hermes,  and 
revived  in  the  West  that  eclecticism,  half 
Christian  and  half  pagan,  half  oriental  and 
half  Greek,  which  flourished  during  the  de- 
cline of  the  Greek  philosophy  at  Alexandria. 

GEBI&NDES9  Geoif^,  an  American  violin  ma- 
ker, bom  at  Ingelfingen,  Wtlrtemberg,  April 
13,  1816.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Baptiste  Vuil- 
laume  in  Paris,  and  removed  to  the  United 
States  in  1847,  establishing  himself  in  Boston, 


666 


GENDRIN 


GENESEE 


Mass.  In  1851  his  violins  obtained  the  prize 
medal  of  the  world^s  fair  in  London.  In 
1862  he  removed  to  New  York,  where  he  has 
since  lived.  Yuillanme  and  other  makers  of 
violins  in  Europe  adopted  the  practice  of  giv- 
ing a  pseudo-antiquity  to  their  wood  by  a 
chemical  process,  in  order  to  gain  for  their 
instruments  a  desirable  quality  of  tone ;  but 
wood  thus  treated  soon  loses  its  resonance,  and 
After  a  time  the  instruments  become  worth- 
less. Gemtlnder,  rejecting  this  method,  has 
succeeded  with  natural  wood  in  producing 
violins  which  fulfil  every  requirement,  and  in 
respect  of  volume,  power,  equality,  and  quick- 
ness of  tone,  are  fully  equal  to  the  work  of 
the  best  old  masters.  In  the  model  and  finish 
of  his  instruments,  and  especially  in  the  var- 
nish, he  is  exceedingly  successful.  He  repro- 
duces faithfully  the  distinctive  characteristics 
of  the  old  Italian  violins,  so  that  his  instru- 
ments are  often  taken  for  genuine  productions 
of  Oremona.  One  called  the  Kaiser  violin, 
finished  in  1873  and  exhibited  in  the  great  ex- 
position at  Vienna,  was  pronounced  an  Italian 
violin  of  the  classic  period,  because  it  was  be- 
lieved impossible  to  produce  so  fine  a  tone  in  a 
new  instrument. 

GENDRIHr,  Aigiste  IRcolas,  a  French  physician, 
bom  at  Ch&teaudun,  Dec.  6, 1796.  He  received 
a  doctor^s  diploma  in  1821,  and  published  on 
this  occasion  Du  trmtement  de  le  hUnnor- 
rhagie,  relating  to  his  new  method  of  inject- 
ing opium.  His  Recherches  sur  la  nature  et 
9UT  les  causes  prochainet  des  JUvres  (2  vols., 
1828),  and  his  Histoire  anatomique  des  inflam- 
matiam  (2  vols.,  1826),  which  latter  has  been 
translated  into  German,  won  academical  prizes, 
as  did  some  of  his  subsequent  writings,  the 
most  renowned  being  his  TraiU  philosophiqve 
demidecine pratique  (^  vols.,  1888-'41).  After 
having  been  attached  to  various  hospitals,  he 
was  from  1886  to  1866  the  principal  physician 
of  La  Piti6.  During  the  June  insurrection  of 
1882  he  incurred  odium  for  having,  as  alleged, 
reported  to  the  authorities  political  offenders  on 
whom  he  had  happened  to  attend  profession- 
ally; and  his  Memoire  medico-legal^  showing 
that  the  prince  of  Cond6  did  not  die  by  his  own 
hands  in  1830,  but  by  those  of  assassins,  also 
gave  rise  to  unfavorable  comments,  which  he 
endeavored  in  vain  to  combat. 

GEIVDRON,  Avgnstc,  a  French  painter,  born  in 
Paris  in  1818.  He  studied  under  Delaroche  and 
in  Italy,  and  became  famous  (1844r-*6)  by  his  pic- 
ture representing  Lee  willie,  or  maidens  resus- 
citated from  their  graves  according  to  a  Bohe- 
mian legend,  and  dancing  during  a  whole  night. 
His  "  Dante  commented  upon  by  Boccaccio  " 
(1844),  his  "Sylphs"  (1852),  "Titania"  (1858), 
and  many  other  works,  have  since  been  ex- 
hibited. He  excels  in  historical,  fantastic,  and 
fairy  delineations,  and  has  also  painted  on  por- 
celain for  the  manufactory  at  Sevres,  and  re- 
markable decorations  for  the  palais  d^Orsay. 

GEBfELLI,  BontTentnm,  a  German  painter, 
bom  in  Berlin  about  1798,  died  in  Weimar, 


Nov.  18,  1868.  He  studied  under  his  father, 
who  was  a  landscape  painter,  and  at  the  acad- 
emy in  Berlin,  and  during  ten  years  in  Italj, 
chiefly  in  Rome.  He  was  subsequently  em- 
ployed in  classical  decorations  at  Leipsic  till 
1886,  when  he  removed  to  Munich.  In  1859 
he  was  invited  to  Weimar  by  the  grand  duke, 
and  spent  there  the  rest  of  his  life.  His  most 
famous  works  are  "Lot's  Entry  into  Zoar," 
and  aquarels  illustrating  ^sop,  Homer,  Apollo, 
Sappho,  Dante,  the  life  of  a  witch,  and  the 
life  of  a  rake.  His  later  works  are  chiefly  oil 
paintings  relating  to  mythological  and  classi- 
cal subjects,  upon  which  he  brought  to  bear  a 
glowing  imagination  and  great  ideality.  The 
publication  of  some  of  his  later  paintings  was 
begun  in  1870  in  a  work  entitled  8atura,—E\B 
brother  Hanb  Chbistian,  bom  in  Berlin,  Dec. 
8,  1823,  has  published  several  works  relating 
to  the  fine  arts,  and  excels  as  a  draughtsman 
and  architect.  His  son  OAiinxo,  who  died  in 
1867,  gave  promise  of  being  a  good  painter ; 
and  his  daughter  Gabbielx  is  a  popular  actress. 

CrENESEE,  a  river  of  western  New  York,  rises 
in  Potter  co..  Pa.,  within  a  few  yards  of  the 
head  waters  of  the  Alleghany  and  the  north 
branch  of  the  Susquehanna,  flows  N.  W.  and 
N.  E.  through  Alleghany,  Wyoming,  Living- 
ston, and  Monroe  counties,  N.  T.,  and  falls 
into  Lake  Ontario  7  m.  N.  of  Rochester.  Its 
length  is  about  145  m.  It  is  navigable  from 
Lake  Ontario  to  the  N.  line  of  Rochester. 
The  mouth,  protected  by  two  fine  piers>  forms 
a  good  harbor,  which  gives  rise  to  the  ril- 
lage  of  Charlotte,  on  the  W.  side.  The  river 
abounds  in  beautiful  scenery,  especially  in  cata- 
racts. In  Livingston  co.,  near  Portage,  are 
three  falls  within  a  distance  of  two  miles, 
which  are  respectively  60,  90,  and  110  ft 
high;  and  for  several  miles  below  these  the 
stream  flows  between  perpendicular  banks 
400  fb.  high.  At  the  S.  line  of  Rochester 
commences  a  series  of  rapids,  which  terminate 
in  the  centre  of  the  city  in  a  sheer  fall  of  96 
ft.,  called  Genesee  falls.  This  was  the  scene 
of  Sam  Patch's  last  leap.  Six  miles  from  the 
mouth  of  tiie  river  is  a  broken  fall  of  84  ft, 
by  which  the  stream  reaches  the  level  of  the 
lake.  The  Genesee  is  tapped  above  the  rapids  to 
feed  the  Erie  canal,  which  at  Rochester  crosses 
it  by  a  fine  limestone  aqueduct  of  nine  arches, 
each  of  50  ft.  span.  The  Genesee  Valley  canal, 
commencing  at  Rochester,  follows  the  course 
of  the  river  for  a  considerable  distance,  locks 
into  it  at  Mt.  Morris,  and  crosses  it  at  Portage 
by  an  aqueduct.  The  Buffalo  branch  of  the 
Erie  railway  has  a  trestle  bridge  near  the  same 
place,  800  ft.  long  and  284  ft.  high. 

OENESEE.  I.  A  W.  county  of  New  York, 
drained  by  Tonawanda  creek ;  area,  about  4136 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  21,562.  The  surface  is 
almost  level,  and  the  soil,  consisting  chiefly  of 
a  very  sandy  loam,  is  well  suited  both  to  grain 
and  pasturage.  Salt  springs  exist  in  several 
places,  and  iron,  limestone,  and  water  cement 
are  obtained.    The  county  is  traversed  by  the 


GENESIS 

New  York  Central  railroad,  the  Batavia  and 
Atdoa  branch,  tbe  Oanandaiguo,  Batavio,  and 
Tonawonda  branoh,  and  tbe  Erie  railway. 
Tbe  chief  productions  in  leTO  w^re  T22,ST4 
bnshele  of  wbeat,  426,710  of  Indian  corn, 
609,690  of  oats,  S80,4«6  of  barley,  21,447  of 
bnekwhe8t,275,Tl7  of  potatoes,  42,S91  of  peas 
and  beans,  868,721  lbs.  of  butter,  461,837  of 
wool,  143,208  of  hops,  and  60,144  tons  of  hay. 
There  were  10,411  horses,  10,485  milch  cows, 
7,796  other  cattle,  78,884  sheep,  and  8,496 
swine;  fi  manafactories  of  agricultaral  im- 
plementa,  3  of  brooms,  80  of  carriages  and 
wagons,  3  of  cheese,  9  of  clothing,  18  of  bar- 
rels and  casks,  1  of  malt,  14  of  saddlery  and 
hameaa,  8  of  tin,  copper,  and  sheet-iron  ware, 
13  flour  mills,  1  planing  mill,  9  saw  mills, 
4  tanneries,  and  8  currying  estahlishmeots. 
Capital,  Bataria.  U.  A  6.  E.  coaoty  of  tbe  6. 
peainsala  of  Uichigan,  drained  by  Flint  and 
Shiawaasee  rivers;  area,  600  sq.  m. :  pop.  in 
1870,33,900.  Itisintersected  by  the  Flint  and 
P6re  Marquette,  the  Detroit  and  Milwaukee, 
and  tbe  Fort  Hnron  and  I.ake  Michigan  rail- 
roads. Its  surface  is  nndnlating,  coreret)  with 
extensive  oak  openings  in  tlie  8.  part,  and 
densely  wooded  with  pine  and  other  timber  in 
tbe  N.  Tbe  chief  productions  in  19T0  were 
558,183  bushels  of  wheat,  826,687  of  Indian 
com,  410,661  of  oats,  288,829  of  potatoes, 
910,876  lbs,  of  batter,  876,877  of  wool,  and 
48,041  tons  of  hay.  There  were  7,486  horses, 
8,860  milch  cows,  11,860  other  cattle,  79,806 
sheep,  and  9,818  swine;  12  mannfaotories  of 
agricultural  iraplements,  4  of  boots  and  shoes, 
6  of  bricks,  81  of  oarriages,  9  of  barrels  and 
casks,  18  of  fnmiture,  13  of  iron  castings,  18 
of  saddlery  and  harness,  8  of  sashes,  doors,  and 
blinds,  11  of  tin,  copper,  and  sheet  iron,  8  of 
woollen  goods,  18  floor  mills,  6  breweries,  8 
planing  mill^  and  60  saw  mills.    Capital,  Flint. 

CESE8I8,  the  name  of  the  first  book  in  the 
Bible,  denoting  in  Greek  '^the  generation," 
I.  e.,  the  account  of  the  generation  or  pro- 
duction of  all  things.  In  Hebrew  Bibles  it  is 
called  Beruhithf  signifying  "  in  the  beginning," 
because  it  commences  with  that  word.  By 
some  Jewish  writers  it  is  also  colled  Sepher 
yttxii^h,  the  book  of  creation.  Its  history 
goes  back  to  the  very  earliest  ages  of  the  ha- 
man  race,  and  covers  a  period  of  upward  of 
2,800  years ;  giving  an  account  of  the  creation, 
the  fall  of  man,  the  religion,  arts,  settlements, 
genealogies,  corruption,  and  destruction  of  the 
antediluvian  world  ;  of  the  repeopling  and  di- 
vision of  the  earth,  the  dispersion  of  its  inhab- 
itanta,  the  calling  of  Abraham,  and  the  rise 
and  prioress  of  the  Hebrew  nation,  to  the 
death  of  Joseph. — For  all  questions  relating  to 
tbe  authorship  and  authenticity  of  the  book, 
•ee  PsNTATBtroH. 

fiSaHn'  (in  this  country  commonly  written 
Gbnbt),  EdMWi  Cbarks,  a  French  diplomatist, 
borninVersailIe3,JaR.8,1765,diedatSchodack, 
Rensselaer  co.,  N.  Y.,  July  14, 1884.  Although 
his  father  was  attached  to  the  c«art  and  his 


GENET 


667 


sister,  Mme.  Compan,  was  In  the  service  of 
Marie  Antoinette,  ne  mode  himself  known  by 
his  republican  opinions.  In  April,  1T8Q,  he 
was  appointed  charge  d'atftiircs  to  the  court 
of  St.  Pelersburg,  where  hia  situstion  soon  be- 
came ancomfortuble ;  in  1791  he  was  informed 
by  Count  Ostormann,  minister  of  Catharine  II. 
that  he  woidd  better  not  appear  again  at  the 
coart;  and  in  July,  1792,  he  was  formally 
dismissed.  On  his  return  to  France  he  was 
appointed  ambassador  to  Holland ;  bat  before 
gomg  thither  he  received  (December,  1T92)  his 
nomination  as  minister  to  the  United  States. 
He  arrived  in  April,  1763,  at  Charleston,  8.  0., 
where  be  was  cordially  welcomed.  On  May 
20  he  had  a  triumphant  reception  in  Phila- 
delphia; the  citizens  presented  him  with  an 
address  congratnlating  France  upon  obtaining 
the  freedom  she  had  helped  the  United  States 
to  secure.  Encouraged  by  these  demonstra- 
tiont  of  popular  feeling,  Genest  thought  he 
could  easily  persuade  the  American  people  to 
embark  in  the  cause  of  France,  notwithstand- 
ing the  proclamation  of  neutrality  recently 
isaaed  by  President  Washington.  He  openly 
maintained  that  the  United  States  were  in  duty 
bound  to  side  with  France  against  England, 
and  bitterly  denounced  the  American  govern- 
ment for  want  of  sympathy  toward  the  French 
republic.  He  even  fitted  out  privateers  from 
Charleston,  to  cruise  against  the  vessels  of  na- 
tions then  at  peace  with  the  United  States,  and 
to  project  hostile  expeditions  against  Florida 
and  Louisiana,  then  colonies  of  Spain.  In  con- 
sequence of  these  imprudent  measures  Wash- 
ington demanded  and  obtained  his  recoil. 
Genest  decided  not  to  retam  to  France,  settled 
in  the  state  of  New  York,  was  naturalized, 
and  married  a  daughter  of  George  Clinton. 

fiEKET  Igenetta,  Gov.),  a  diptigrade  camiv- 
orons  mammal  of  the  family  titemda,  inhabit- 
ing Africa,  and  occasionally  fonnd  in  sonthero 


(.'iHDman  Osiul  (OsnetU  Tulguii). 

Europe.  The  dentition  and  stmctnral  charac- 
ters are  the  same  as  in  the  civet,  the  principal 
difference  being  that  the  anal  pouch  which 
contuns  tbe  gl^ds  secreting  the  odorous  sub- 
stance is  much  less  developed  and  prominent 
in  the  genet  than  in  the  civet.    The  common 


g«Det  of  Barbary  {titerra  gtnttta,  Linn. ;  G. 
fmlgarii,  Cuv.)  ia  ashy  gray,  with  blackish 
Bfiots;  the  toil  is  nearly  as  long  as  the  body, 
with  long  hair  and  10  or  11  dark  and  light 
rings ;  the  length  of  the  body  is  ahont  a  foot 
and  the  tail  aboot  the  aame,  and  the  height  6 


File  Qenet  (GenstU 

in.  It  is  only  seni-camiToroas,  and  will  live  in 
captivity  wholly  on  vegetable  food.  The  clawe 
are  sliarpt  semi-retractile,  and  well  adapted  for 
climbing  \  the  anal  secretion  has  a  musky  odor ; 


of  the  weaxcl  tribe ;  it  is  easily  tamed,  and  is 
sometimes  employed  to  cateh  rats  and  mice  in 
houses;  the  period  of  gestation  in  captivity  is 


r  species,  and  is  reddish  gray  with  pale 
spots  above  the  eyes,  brown  bands  and  spots 
OD  the  body  and  limbs,  and  an  obscurely  ringed 
tail.  Both  species  prey  upon  small  mammals, 
birds,  and  reptiles,  and  are  not  averse  to  fruits. 
Several  other  species  are  described. 

eEXEVl,  a  8.  E.  county  of  Alabama,  border- 
ing on  Florida  and  intersected  by  the  Choctaw- 
hatchee  and  Pea  rivers;  area,  abont  550  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  2,057,  of  whom  227  were  colored. 
Fine  forests  abound ;  the  soil  is  sandy  and 
poor.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
63,942  bashels  of  Indian  com,  4,IIB0  of  oats, 
22,089  of  sn-eet  potatoes,  4,749  of  peas  and 
beans,  420  bales  of  cotton,  and  40,657  lbs.  of 
rice.  There  were  2,148  milch  cows,  6,126 
other  cattle,  4,222  sheep,  6,874  sivine,  and  408 
hordes.     Capitol,  Geneva. 

CENEVt,  a  village  of  Ontario  co..  New  York, 
beautifully  situated  at  the  N.  W.  eitreniity  of 
Seneca  lake,  on  the  New  York  Central  and 
the  Geneva  and  Ithaca  railroads,  100  m.  E.  of 
Buffalo;  pop.  in  1870.  5,621.  The  principal 
street  runs  parallel  with  the  bank  of  the  lake, 
at  an  elevation  of  100  ft.,  and  from  many  of 
the  residences  terraced  gardens  extend  to  the 
aliore.  It  eomnands  a  fine  view  of  the  lake 
and  of  the  anrronndiog  country.  Geneva  is 
handsomely  built,  and  containa  many  large 


I  stores.  One  of  the  Episcopal  churcbea  )a  a 
tine  stone  stmotnre  in  Gothic  style,  and  vas 
built  at  an  expense  of  ^^,000.  Steamers  ply 
daily  on  the  lake,  which  is  open  thronghout 
the  year,  between  Geneva  and  Watkins,  at 
the  opposite  extremity,  touching  at  intermedi- 
ate places.  There  are  si*  hotels,  two  national 
bants,  gas  works,  marble  works,  two  iron 
works,  bending  works,  a  flour  mil),  a  malt 
faonse,  &o.  The  nursery  busineas  is  the  chief 
branch  of  industry,  employing  18  firms  and 
many  individuals.  The  uurHeries  cover  over 
8,000  acres,  and  furnish  occupation  to  from 
800  to  700  men  and  boys.  The  value  of  the 
stock  is  about  (1,600,000,  snd  the  annual  ship- 
ments of  trees,  &c.,  amount  to  over  (600,000. 
Hobart  Free  college  (called  Geneva  college  till 
1662)  was  established  here  in  1824,  nnder  the 
direction  of  Episcopalians,  and  in  1872  had 
9  professors,  44  students,  a  library  of  1S,000 
volumes,  and  a  well  appointed  observatorj. 
The  union  public  school,  a  fine  brick  bnilding 
costing  $80,000,  and  ila  four  branches,  hare 
abont  1,200  pupils.  A  Roman  Catholic  school 
is  in  process  of  erection.  There  are  two  pri- 
vate schools  for  girls  and  one  for  boys,  two 
weekly  newspapers,  and  eight  churches. 

CraEVA  (Fr.  Ocnhit;  Qer.  Oen/ ;  Ital.  Gine- 
wo).  I.  A  canton  of  Switzerland,  bonudedN. 
by  vand  and  the  lake  of  Geneva,  and  on  all 
other  sides  by  France ;  area,  ]  09  8<i.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1870,  93,28fl,  of  whom  4T,868  were  Catho- 
lics, 43,989  Protestants,  771  Christians  of  oilier 
denominations,  and  901  Jews  and  other  non- 
Christians  ;  20,209  families  were  Frencb,  978 
German,  121  Italian,  and  7  Romaic.  The  peas- 
antry speak  a  patois  which  resembles  some- 
what that  spoken  in  the  neighboring  districts 
of  France  and  Yaud.  The  canton  is  withont 
mountains,  and  its  highest  hills  rise  only  abont 
600  ft.  above  the  lake.  The  soil  is  hilly  and 
stony,  and  therefore  not  fertile ;  but  in  conse- 
quence of  the  excellent  cultivation,  the  canton 
resembles  a  garden.  The  Bh6nc,  which  Sows 
southwesterly  from  the  lake  of  Geneva,  re- 
ceives the  Arve,  Nante  de  Vernier,  Avril,  I^d- 
don,  and  Laire.  The  canton  is  divided  into 
three  districts  and  contains  48  communes;  in 
31  of  them  the  Catholics  are  a  majority,  and  in 
17  the  Protestants.  The  canton  has  5  gymna- 
sia or  secondary  scbouls  and  about  76  primary 
schools  with  5,600  pupils.  Tlie  receipt!  and 
expenditures  are  about  8,000,000  franca  annu- 
ally, the  public  debt  abont  16,000,000  francs. 
Tlie  legislature,  called  the  grand  council,  con- 
sists of  one  representative  for  every  669  inhab- 
itants. Geneva  was  the  first  Bwise  state  to 
introduce  trial  by  jury  (1644),  and  exerted  a 
liberal  influence  upon  the  national  councils  in 
the  promnlgation  of  the  federal  constitution  in 
1646.  The  canton  sends  fonr  delegates  to  the 
lower  house  of  the  Swiss  diet,  and  furnishes  a 
contingent  to  the  army  of  about  4,000  men. 
j  The  Protestant  churches  are  governed  by  a 
I  consistory,  which  is  elected  for  four  years,  ap- 
I  points  an  executive  committ«e  of  D,  and  ia 


composed  of  25  lay  members  and  6'  clergymen. 
The  eompagnie  de*  pait«tir»,  which  comprises 
all  clergymen  and  profesaora  of  theology,  pre- 
sides over  the  religions  instraction  of  the  l^^t- 
estant  population,  and  controls  ecclesiastical 
appointments.  The  Catholics  of  the  canton, 
who  are  divided  into  23  parishes,  formerly  be- 
longed to  the  diocese  of  Lausanne.  In  1ST3 
the  pop«  erected  it  into  a  diocese,  a  measure 
which  thegoverDmeiitof  the  canton  denoanced 
as  contrary  to  the  law,  insisting  tJiat  a  new 
diocese  cunld  be  erected  only  with  the  consent 
of  the  govemment.  The  free  "  Evangelical 
Cbarch,"  nbich  is  nnconnectod  with  the  state, 
has  ft  theological  school  in  the  city  of  Geneva, 
and  had  in  18T2  eight  clergymen.  The  admin- 
istration of  edncation  Is  in  the  hands  of  the 
government,  hut  the  parishes  are  called  upon 
to  oontribnte  toward  its  support,    ll.  A  city, 


capital  of  the  oaaioo,  at  the  Vf.  extremity  of 
the  lake  of  Geneva,  where  the  RhAne  issues 
from  it,  and  S  m.  above  the  confluence  of  the 
Arve;  pop.  in  1870,  48,774,  of  whom  25,897 
were  Protestants,  20,284  Catholics,  618  mem- 
bers of  other  Christian  denominations,  and  fi74 
Jews  and  other  non-0 hristians.  Including  the 
subarbs,  the  population  in  1670  was  CT,697. 
The  old  city,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Khfine,  is 
hilly  and  narrow.  It  was  enlarged  in  1B50  by 
the  conversion  of  the  fortifications  into  prom- 
enades and  quays.  On  the  right  bank  is  the 
more  modern  part,  where  the  streets  are  most- 
ly straight  and  wide.  The  two  parts  are  con- 
nected by  sii  bridges.  TheUont  Blanc  bridge, 
near  the  lake,  is  magnificent.  The  cathedral, 
dedicated  to  St.  Feter,  erected  in  the  beginning 
of  the  12th  century,  in  the  Byzantine  style,  ia 
believed  to  occupy  the  site  of  an  ancient  tem- 


ple of  Apollo.    The  b6tet  de  ville  formerly  hod 

a  number  of  inclined  planes  without  steps, 
enabling  the  aged  senators  to  ride  up  to  ttie 
highest  story  in  their  litters  or  even  on  horse- 
back. The  public  library  contains  about  60,000 
volmnea  and  BOO  MS3.  The  Mnsfie  Rath  is 
named  after  Its  founder  and  devoted  to  the  fine 
arts.  On  a  small  island  of  the  Rh6ne,  below 
the  Kfont  Blanc  bridge,  stauda  a  monument  to 
Ronsseaa,  who  was  bom  in  Geneva  in  1712. 
Of  tho  churches  in  Geneva,  the  Reformed  have 
seven,  the  Catholics  three;  there  are  also  one 
English  and  one  Greek  cborch,  and  a  syna- 
gogue. In  1873  all  the  Catholic  churches 
passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Old  Catholics,  as 
they  alone  took  part  in  the  election  of  pastors 
ordered  by  the  new  church  law  of  the  canton. 
Geneva  has  celebrated  private  schools,  which 


attract  many  pupils  from  abroad,  and  commer- 
cial, industrial,  artistic,  and  musical  schools. 
The  university  of  Geneva  was  founded  in  1388, 
and  was  reorganized  by  Calvin  and  Beza.  The 
college  attached  to  it  resembles  the  English 
Eton  and  Westminster  schools,  and  is  conduct- 
ed by  masters  (regenlet),  nnder  the  direction 
of  a  rector,  a  principal,  and  the  orofeasors  of 
the  university.  The  studies  at  tno  university 
embrace  belles-lettres,  philosiipliy  and  science, 
divinity,  and  law.  The  environs  of  Geneva 
are  dotted  with  villas.  The  suburb  Plainpa- 
lais  is  regularly  built,  and  has  about  8,000  in- 
habitants. Lea  Eanx  Vivos,  a  suliurb  on  the 
road  to  Chamouni,  has  a  population  of  about 
6,000.  In  the  vicinity  is  a  celebrated  lunatic 
asylum  in  a  magnificent  edifice. — Geneva  has 
long  been  celebrated  for  its  manufacture  of 


670 


GENEVA 


watches,  jewelry,  and  musical  boxes,  employ- 
ing about  8,000  persons,  who  make  more  than 
100,000  watches  a  year,  and  work  up  annual- 
ly about  76,000  ounces  of  gold,  6,000  marks  of 
silver,  and  $200,000  worth  of  precious  stones. 
There  are  also  manufactories  of  velvet,  silk 
goods,  India  stuffs,  hats,  leather,  cutlery,  fire- 
arms, chronometers,  and  mathematical,  musi- 
cal, and  surgical  instruments.  Geneva  became 
a  free  port  in  1864.  The  transit  trade  is  con- 
siderable, and  the  neighborhood  of  France  and 
Italy  gives  rise  to  active  smuggling.  The  for- 
warding, commission,  and  banking  business, 
especially  the  latter,  are  of  great  magnitude. 
Geneva  is  also  the  principal  telegraph  station 
and  the  focus  of  the  railways  of  Switzerland, 
and  the  central  point  of  the  federal  postal  and 
customs  union. — Calvin  lived  in  Geneva,  and 
Servetus  was  burned  at  the  stake  in  the  champ 
du  haurreaiLf  the  ancient  place  of  execution, 
outside  the  walls.  John  Knox  was  made  a 
citizen  of  Geneva  in  1668.  Among  the  distin- 
guished persons  born  in  the  city  are  Jean 
Jacques  Rousseau,  Necker,  the  naturalists  De 
Saussure,  Deluc,  Bonnet,  Huber,  and  De  Can- 
doUe ;  Dumont,  the  friend  of  Mirabeau  and  of 
Jeremy  Bentham ;  Sismondi  the  historian ;  and 
Albert  Gallatin,  tlie  American  statesman.  Sir 
Humphry  Davy  died  and  was  buried  in  Ge- 
neva. Guizot  the  French  statesman,  whose 
mother  found  an  asylum  in  Geneva,  received 
his  early  education  there. — Geneva  is  supposed 
to  have  formed  part  of  the  territory  of  the  Al- 
lobroges.  It  was  subjected  to  the  Romans 
about  122  B.  0.  The  city  was  burned  du- 
ring the  reign  of  Heliogabdus,  and  rebuilt  by 
Aurelian,  who  gave  it  many  privileges  and 
called  it  Aurelianum  Allobrogum.  In  the  6th 
century  it  was  annexed  to  the  possessions  of 
the  Burgundians,  and  in  the  6th  to  the  Frank- 
ish  kingdom.  The  republic  of  Geneva  origina- 
ted in  the  municipal  institutions  of  the  town, 
to  which  Charlemagne  granted  certain  privi- 
leges, subordinate  to  the  bishop,  who  was  called 
prince  of  Geneva,  and  was  an  immediate  feu- 
datory of  the  German  empire.  Dissensions  oc- 
curred on  many  occasions  between  the  citizens 
and  the  bishops  on  one  side,  and  the  counts 
of  Genevois,  who  ruled  the  adjoining  province 
of  Savoy  and  claimed  jurisdiction  over  Geneva, 
on  the  other.  After  the  extinction  of  the  line 
of  the  counts  of  Genevois,  the  dukes  of  Savoy 
were  appointed  their  successors  by  the  German 
emperor  Sigismund  (1422).  Hence  the  claim 
of  Savoy  upon  Geneva,  from  which  the  Gene- 
vans could  only  free  themselves  after  several 
centuries  by  alliances  with  other  Swiss  states, 
and  by  the  aid  of  the  reformation.  The  bishop 
of  Geneva  was  expelled  in  1684.  Through 
the  zeal  of  William  Farel,  the  new  service  of 
the  reformed  religion  was  established  in  August, 
1686.  But  the  old  parties,  the  partisans  of 
Savoy  and  the  national  party,  reappeared  un- 
der new  forms  and  fomented  discord.  Farel 
prevailed  upon  Calvin,  who  came  to  Geneva 
in  August,  1686,  to  remain  there,  and  eventu- 


ally made  himself  the  temporal  as  well  as 
spiritual  ruler  of  the  town.  Geneva  became 
the  leader  of  religion  and  the  model  of  morals 
in  Europe,  the  home  of  literature  and  learning, 
and  the  metropolis  of  Calvinism.  An  attack 
of  Charles  Emanuel  of  Savoy  upon  Geneva  (De- 
cember, 1602)  was  gallantly  repelled,  and  the 
victory  then  achieved  is  still  commemorated. 
The  independence  of  Geneva  was  solemnly 
recognized  by  the  house  of  Savoy  in  1764.  The 
government  of  the  city  fell  into  the  hands  of 
patrician  families,  as  everywhere  else  in  Switz- 
erland, and  the  history  of  this  century  becomes 
a  list  of  fierce  and  often  bloody  struggles  to  re- 
gain the  old  rights  and  privileges  belonging  to 
the  people.  In  1782  the  administration  party 
obtained  the  interference  of  France,  Sardinia, 
and  Bern,  who  sent  troops  into  Geneva  and  op- 
pressed the  democrats.  In  consequence,  about 
1,000  Genevese  applied  for  permission  to  set- 
tle in  Ireland,  and  the  Irish  parliament  voted 
£60,000  to  defray  the  expense  of  their  journey, 
and  gave  them  lands  near  Waterford ;  but  they 
soon  abandoned  the  settlement.  Other  fup- 
tives  stirred  up  the  French  republicans  to  unite 
Geneva  to  France,  and  in  1798  the  town  was 
occupied  by  French  troops  and  incorporated 
with  France  as  a  part  of  the  department  of 
L^man.  Afte^  the  overthrow  of  Napoleon  it 
joined  the  renewed  Swiss  confederacy  (March 
20,  1816),  and  several  places  which  had  for- 
merly belonged  to  France  and  Savoy  were 
added  to  its  territory.  A  new  and  more  lib- 
eral constitution  was  adopted  in  May,  1847. 
The  Geneva  convention  of  1864  brought  about 
an  agreement  among  the  European  powers  to 
consider  the  edifices  and  members  of  medi- 
cal departments  strictly  neutral  in  time  of  war. 
In  1868  naval  wars  were  specially  included  in 
this  treaty.  The  United  States,  however,  did 
not  join  in  it.  In  December,  1871,  the  court 
of  arbitration  on  the  Alabama  question,  con- 
sisting of  ^\e  members  appointed  by  the  gov- 
ernments of  the  United  States,  Great  Britain, 
Italy,  Switzerland,  and  Brazil,  met  here.  The 
deposed  duke  of  Brunswick  died  in  Geneva, 
Aug.  19,  1878,  and  left  to  the  city  his  entire 
fortune,  about  100,000,000  francs. 

GENEVA,  Lake  of,  or  Lake  htwum  (anc.  Imcus 
Lemanus),  the  largest  lake  of  Switzerland,  ex- 
tending in  the  form  of  a  crescent,  with  its 
horns  toward  the  south,  between  France,  on 
the  south,  and  the  cantons  of  Geneva,  Vaud, 
and  Yalais.  Its  N.  bank  forms  an  arc  about 
68  m.  long,  exclusive  of  the  sinuosities;  along 
its  S.  shore  it  measures  46  m. ;  and  its  breadth 
varies  from  8  or  9  m.  in  the  middle  to  4  m. 
near  the  E.  and  1  m.  at  the  W.  extremity; 
area,  about  240  sq.  ro.  Its  greatest  depth, 
which  is  on  a  line  between  Evian  and  Ouchy, 
is  about  1,000  ft. ;  its  average  depth  is  400 
ft.  Its  elevation  above  the  sea  is  about  1,280 
ft.,  but  in  summer,  when  the  Alpine  snowa 
melt,  it  sometimes  rises  6  or  8  ft.  higher.  At 
other  periods  it  presents  in  particular  parts 
of  the  lake,  most  commonly  near  Geneva,  the 


GENEVIEVE 


GENGHIS  KHAN 


671 


cnrions  phenomenon  of  a  rise  and  fall  of  ft'om 
2  to  5  ft  in  the  conree  of  26  minntes.  These 
changes  of  level,  called  seiehe$^  have  never  been 
fally  accounted  for,  bat  are  sapposed  to  be  ow- 
ing to  the  unequal  pressure  of  the  atmosphere 
upon  different  parts  of  the  surface.  They  are 
independent  of  the  wind,  and  most  frequent 
when  the  clouds  are  low  and  heayy.  The  lake 
is  never  frozen  over,  though  ice  forms  in  win- 
ter near  its  lower  extremity.  Its  waters  are 
pure  and  bright  blue,  like  those  of  the  Medi- 
terranean. The  Rh6ne  enters  it  at  the  E.  end 
a  dark  muddy  stream,  and  leaves  it  near  Ge- 
neva perfectly  pellucid  and  of  the  finest  azure 
hue.  The  debris  brought  down  by  this  stream 
are  deposited  around  ihe  upper  end,  and  have 
made  considerable  encroachments  upon  its  ba- 
sin. Port  Valais,  1^  m.  inland,  was  formerly 
situated  on  the  shore,  and  the  waters  are  said 
to  have  extended  as  far  as  Bex,  12  m.  up  the 
Rh6ne.  About  40  small  streams  discharge 
themselves  into  this  lake.  It  has  fewer  fish 
than  other  Swiss  lakes,  but  contains  excellent 
trout,  pike,  carp,  and  perch,  and  a  kind  of  sal- 
mon. Steamers  ply  daily  between  Geneva  at 
the  W.  and  Villeneuve  at  the  E.  end.  The 
scenery  is  an  unfailing  theme  of  admiration  to 
travellers.  On  the  north  are  beautiful  vine- 
covered  hills  dotted  with  villages;  opposite, 
the  abrupt  cliffs  of  the  Ohablais  rise  5,000  ft. 
above  the  lake.  The  miyestic  Alps  are  seen 
beyond  them  through  the  openings.  On  the 
east,  between  the  lofty  summits  of  the  Dent  de 
Mercies  and  the  Dent  du  Midi,  about  9,000  ft. 
high,  a  narrow  pass  opens  into  Valais,  while  at 
the  W.  end  the  lake  narrows  almost  to  a  point, 
and  terminates  among  the  pleasant  slopes  on 
which  stand  the  city  and  suburbs  of  Geneva. 
The  lake  is  famous  in  literary  history  as  the 
scene  of  the  Nouvelle  ffSloUSy  and  for  the  abode 
in  its  vicinity  of  many  celebrated  authors. 

CKNEVlKVE.  L  The  patron  saint  of  Paris,  bom 
in  Nanterre  about  422,  died  in  Paris  in  512. 
According  to  the  most  common  tradition,  her 
parents,  Severus  and  Gerontia,  were  very  poor, 
and  Genevieve's  early  occupation  was  tending 
flocks.  On  the  summit  of  Mont  Val^rien  is  a 
field  which  still  bears  her  name,  as  well  as  a 
spring  and  grotto  at  its  foot.  In  her  16th  year 
she  was.  dedicated  to  the  divine  service  by 
St.  Germanus  of  Anxerre.  She  predicted  in 
449  the  invasion  of  the  Huns  under  Attila,  and 
when  in  451  he  threatened  to  attack  Paris,  her 
prayers  were  believed  to  have  saved  that  city. 
Again,  during  the  protracted  siege  of  Paris  by 
the  Franks  under  Glovis,  she  animated  the 
courage  of  the  citizens,  and  contrived  to  in- 
troduce into  the  city  a  supply  of  provisions. 
When  Paris  fell,  Genevieve's  intercession  saved 
the  vanquished  from  harsh  measures.  She  was 
revered  by  Glovis,  and  was  buried  near  him 
in  the  church  of  Sts.  Peter  and  Paul,  which 
he  had  built,  and  which  together  with  the  ad- 
joining abbey  bore  her  name.  Her  shrine, 
said  to  be  the  work  of  St.  £]oi,  was  replaced  in 
the  18th  century  by  one  much  larger  and  richer, 

850  VOL.  VII. — iS 


which  was  long  considered  the  palladium  of 
Paria  It  was  sent  to  the  mint  in  1791,  and  the 
relics  it  contained  were  burned.  A  monumen- 
tal church,  begun  by  the  architect  Soufflot  in 
1767,  was  named  the  Pantheon  in  1791,  and 
restored  to  public  worship  in  1852,  under  the 
title  of  St.  Genevieve.  Tne  stone  sarcophagus 
which  formerly  contained  her  remains  has  been 
transferred  to  the  church  St.  £tienne-du-Mont. 
The  life  of  St.  Genevieve,  written  by  her  con- 
temporary Genesius^^was  restored  to  its  origi- 
nal simplicity  by  the  BoUandists,  and  repub- 
lished in  1648  in  the  Acta  Sanctorum,  Her 
feast  is  celebrated  on  Jan.  8.  Il«  A  daughter 
of  the  duke  of  Brabant,  bom  about  680.  Ha- 
giographers  and  historians  have  spoken  of 
Genevieve  de  Brabant  sometimes  as  a  canon- 
ized saint,  sometimes  as  only  beatified;  the 
BoUandists  say  her  feast  was  kept  in  April; 
but  she  was  never  acknowledged  as  a  saint  by 
Rome.  Her  history,  the  subject  of  so  much 
romance  and  poetry,  may  thus  be  condensed 
from  the  best  sources.  She  was  married  about 
700  to  Sigfrid,  count  palatine  of  Oftendick  in 
the  territory  of  Treves.  He  was  summoned 
to  attend  Charles  Martel  on  his  expedition 
against  the  Saracens,  leaving  his  wife  and  es- 
tates to  the  guardianship  of  one  of  his  knights 
named  Qolo.  The  lady,  whose  pregnancy  was 
not  known  to  her  husband,  had  now  to  resist 
the  criminal  solicitations  of  Golo,  who  after 
the  birth  of  her  boy  accused  her  of  adultery, 
and  obtained  from  Sigfrid  an  order  to  put 
mother  and  child  to  death.  Instead  of  execu- 
ting this  order,  Golo  abandoned  them  in  a  for- 
est, where  they  subsisted  for  several  years, 
until  they  were  discovered  by  Sigfrid  during  a 
hunt,  and  carried  back  in  triumph  to  his  cat- 
tle of  Hohen-Simmem.  Genevidve,  in  thanks- 
giving for  her  preservation,  had  a  chapel  built 
on  the  spot  which  had  sheltered  her  babe  and 
herself.  The  ruins  of  this  chapel,  called  Frau- 
enkirchen,  are  still  visible,  and  contain,  togeth- 
er with  the  despoiled  tombs  of  Genevidve  and 
Sigfrid,  an  altar  on  which  are  rudely  sculp- 
tured the  main  facts  of  their  history. 

GENGHIS  (or  Zlagls)  KHAIT,  an  Asiatic  con- 
queror, bom  about  1160,  died  in  August,  1227. 
His  father  was  the  chief  of  a  horde,  consisting 
of  numerous  families  or  clans,  and  tributary  to 
the  khan  of  eastern  Tartary.  When  bom,  the 
child  had  his  hand  full  of  blood ;  and,  pleased 
by  the  interpretation  of  this  sign  as  a  predic- 
tion of  conquest  and  glory,  th^  father  procured 
for  Genghis,  or,  as  he  was  then  called,  Temud- 
jin,  an  able  teacher,  who  soon  developed  in 
him  a  talent  for  government  and  war.  Te- 
nm^jin  was  only  in  his  14th  year  when  he 
succeeded  his  father,  and  after  some  reverses 
he  made  himself  master  of  the  neighboring 
tribes,  70  of  whose  chiefs  are  said  to  have  been 
thrown  into  kettles  of  boiling  water  at  his 
command.  Against  a  league  of  more  numerous 
tribes  he  was  also  victorious,  but  was  unable 
to  subdue  them,  and  compelled  to  invoke  the 
protection  of  Vang  or  Ung,  the  great  khan  of 


672 


GENGHIS  KHAN 


GENLIS 


the  Keraite  Tartars.  Temndjin  supported  him 
in  his  turn  in  different  wars,  and  received  the 
daughter  of  the  kban  in  marriage.  But  his 
braverj,  liberality^  and  success  soon  made  him 
an  object  of  envy  and  fear ;  a  war  ensued,  in 
which  the  khan  lost  his  army  on  the  battle 
field,  and  his  life  while  in  flight.  Another 
enemy  of  Temu^jin,  Tayan,  khan  of  the  Nai- 
man  Tartars,  met  with  a  similar  fate  in  and 
after  the  battle  of  Altai,  which  gave  Temu^jin 
a  great  part  of  Mongolia  and  the  capital  Kara- 
korum.  In  the  next  spring  he  held  a  great  as- 
sembly of  his  nation  at  Blun-Yuldad,  his  capi- 
tal, where  the  representatives  of  all  the  hordes 
appeared  and  proclaimed  him  their  great  khan. 
Then,  obeying  the  words  of  a  shaman  (inspired 
man),  who  promised  him. the  conquest  of  the 
earth,  he  adopted  the  title  of  Genghis  (great- 
est), and  gave  to  his  people  that  of  Mongols 
(the  bold).  lie  organized  their  civil  and  mili- 
tary system,  and  laid  down  a  code  of  laws 
which  is  still  known  in  Asia  under  his  name, 
and  is  based  upon  the  belief  in  one  God  and 
the  monarchy  of  one  great  khan,  to  be  elected 
from  the  reigning  family  by  the  huraltai,  or 
assembly  of  tlie  nation.  It  grants  great  priv- 
ileges to  the  nobles,  allows  polygamy,  forbids 
to  conclude  peace  except  with  the  vanquished, 
and  commands  the  delivery  of  arms  into  the 
hands  of  the  government  in  times  of  peace,  and 
when  no  national  hunts  are  held.  lie  granted 
equal  rights  to  every  religion,  and  admitted 
men  of  talents  or  merit  to  his  court,  whatever 
their  creed.  Appreciating  the  wisdom  of  other 
nations,  he  caused  many  celebrated  books  to 
be  translated  from  foreign  languages.  Ambi- 
tion soon  prompted  him  to  new  expeditions. 
The  annexation  of  the  Uigur  or  central  Tar- 
tars served  to  complete  the  conquest  of  Tar- 
tary  ;  he  now  commenced  that  of  China,  passed 
the  great  wall,  vanquished  the  opposing  ar- 
mies, plundered  and  destroyed  96  cities,  re- 
duced to  ashes  smaller  towns  and  villages,  and 
carried  away  multitudes  of  children,  who  were 
destroyed  in  the  homeward  march,  besides  a 
vast  spoil  of  cattle,  gold,  silver,  and  silk.  In  a 
second  expedition  he  was  equally  successful. 
He  devastated  the  country,  and  in  1215  took 
Yehking  (now  Peking)  by  assault.  This  great 
city  was  pillaged  and  burned.  Giving  tlie  com- 
mand in  the  east  to  his  son  Tutshee,  Genghis 
now  turned  his  sword  to  the  west,  crushed 
some  revolted  tribes  and  their  allies,  and  took 
a  bloody  revenge  for  the  murder  of  his  am- 
bassadors on  Mohammed,  sultan  of  Kharesmia. 
A  vast  army,  and  the  cities  of  Bokhara,  Sa- 
marcand,  and  others,  opposed  him  in  vain. 
The  Mongols  conquered  and  devastated  the 
whole  country ;  the  cities  were  destroyed,  and 
with  them  immense  treasures  of  eastern  science 
and  art ;  and  numberless  inhabitants  were 
slaughtered  or  carried  away  as  slaves.  An- 
other Mongol  army  marched  against  Kaptchak, 
and  took  Derbend  on  the  shore  of  the  Caspian 
sea ;  another  reduced  Iran  and  Astrakhan, 
and,  after  a  bloody  battle  on  the  Kalka,  south- 


ern Russia;  another  continued  the  conquest 
of  China  and  subdued  Corea.  The  countries 
N.  W.  of  India  were  also  conquered,  and  an 
expedition  against  that  country  was  begun. 
In  this  he  is  said  to  have  shared  the  fate  of 
Alexander  the  Great  in  a  similar  undertaking ; 
after  some  victories,  the  army  refused  to  ad- 
vance further,  and  he  was  compelled  to  return 
amid  terrible  difficulties.  He  then  turned  his 
arms  against  the  kingdom  of  Tangut,  passed 
the  desert  of  Gobi  in  winter,  and  defeated 
800,000  men  on  a  frozen  lake;  the  Tangut 
dynasty  was  extirpated.  He  was  meditating 
new  conquests  when  death  ended  his  career. 
He  was  buried  in  his  native  home,  and  his 
funeral  was  celebrated  with  songs,  and  some 
historians  say  with  a  hecatomb  of  beautiful 
young  girls.  His  empire  was  divided  among 
his  four  sons,  Oglutai,  chosen  great  khan,  Ja- 
gatai,  Tulni,  and  Tutshee,  whose  armies  soon 
completed  the  conquest  of  China,  overthrew 
the  caliph  of  Bagdad,  made  the  sultan  of  Ico- 
nium  ti-ibutary,  and  penetrated  as  far  as  the 
Oder  and  the  Danube. 

GENII*    See  Mttholoot. 

GENUS,  FeUdti  St^phtak  Decrcst  de  SUMt-AiUi^ 
countess  de,  a  French  authoress,  bom  near 
Autun,  Jan.  25,  1746,  died  in  Paris,  Deo.  81, 
1830.  She  had  a  taste  for  music,  acquired 
great  proficiency  on  the  harp,  and  played  seven 
other  instruments ;  but  her  education  was 
almost  entirely  neglected.  When  scarcely  15 
years  of  age  she  was  married  to  Count  Brii> 
lart  de  Genlis,  a  friend  of  her  father  who  had 
fallen  in  love  with  her  on  seeing  her  portrait. 
Full  of  ambition,  she  then  devoted  herself  with 
great  zeal  to  study.  By  the  influence  of  her 
aunt,  Mnie.  de  Montesson,  who  was  subsequent- 
ly secretly  married  to  the  duke  of  Orleans, 
she  was  in  1770  appointed  a  lady  in  waiting 
in  the  household  of  his  daughter-in-law  the 
duchess  de  Chartres,  became  soon  afterward 
governess  of  the  daughter  of  that  princess,  and 
was  formally  nominated  in  1782  by  the  duke 
de  Cliartres  (afterward  duke  of  Orleans)  "gov- 
ernor '*  of  his  three  sons,  the  eldest  of  whom 
was  afterward  King  Louis  Philippe.  Such  a 
title  given  to  a  woman  gave  rise  to  no  little 
scandal,  and  the  influence  slie  subsequently 
exercised  upon  the  political  course  of  her  em- 
ployer, the  notorious  Philippe  £galit6,  seemed 
to  warrant  the  most  injurious  suspicions.  Du- 
ring her  governorship  she  published  several 
works  devoted  to  the  moral  education  of  her 
pupils — ^the  Thedtre  cTedueatian^  Annalea  de  la 
vertu^  AdeU  et  Theodore^  Le9  teillee*  du  chd- 
teau — which  were  generally  well  received  by 
the  public,  and  were  highly  praised  by  Gail- 
lard,  La  Ilarpe,  and  other  eminent  critics. 
During  the  first  years  of  the  revolution  she 
proclaimed  her  liberal  opinions,  and  is  said  to 
have  been  the  principal  adviser  of  Philippe 
£galit6.  She  published  ConseiU  9ur  rSdttca- 
tion  du  dauphin^  and  Lepon$  d*une  gowcemantA, 
written  in  the  spirit  of  the  new  constitution. 
She  was,  however,  obliged  to  emigrate,  and  in 


GENNESARET 

lias  retired  for  a  while  to  SwiUerland,  and 
then  to  Altona.  Amid  all  her  trocblee  she 
Degleoted  no  opportonitf  of  mingling  in  world- 
I;  pleasnrea.  Daring  this  period  she  pQbllshed 
several  works,  among  which  were  hw  Meret 
rivala.  La  petitt  miigri*,  and  Lt  petit  La 
Brvyire.    In  IBOO  she 

returned  to  France,  and  --,-,.- 

was  well  received  by 
the   first  consnl ;    slie 
was  allowed  handsome 
apartments  at  the  arse- 
nal  and  a  pension  of 
fi,000  francs,  to  which 
the  wifoof  Joseph  on  his 
accession  to  the  throne 
of  Naples  added  on  an- 
nuity of  8,000.     In  re- 
turn for  tliis  she  had 
to  write  twice  a  month 
to  Napoleon,  and  com- 
manicate  to    him   her 
opinions   and   observa- 
tions on  politicaand  cur- 
rent events.     It  is  not 
known  what  service  she 
rendered  to  Joseph  Bo- 
naparte.     This   period 
of  comparative   repose 
and  prosperity  was  also 
one  of  literary  activity ;  she  save  to  the  pnb- 
lio,  among  other  works,  MO*,  de   Gltrmont, 
the  best  of  her  performances,  which  ranks 
among  standard  novels  in  the  French  tangnage. 
La  dueheue  d«  La   Valliire,  Mme.  de  Main- 
tenon,  and  Le  tiige  de  La  RoehelU.     Her  HU- 
toire  de  Henri  le  Grand  displeased  Napoleon, 
and  she  lost  her  pension  and  residence.    At 
the  return  of  the  Bourbons  the  Orleans  family 
contented  themselves  with  paying  a  small  pen- 
sion  to  their  old   "governor."     Her  temper 
meanwhile,  which  never  bad  been  very  gentle, 
became  sullen  and  anmanageable ;  her  misan- 
thropy increased  with  years.     Her  wrath  was 
especially  directed  against  the  philosophers  of 
the  last  century;  she  published  amended  edi- 
tions, with  critical  notes,  of  several  works  of 
Ronssean  and  Voltaire,  and  even  contemplated 
a  similar  "  emendation  "  of  the  Encyclopedie, 
bnt,  appalled  at  tbu  magnitude  of  the  under- 
taking, gave  it  up,  ond  turned  her  pen  against 
the  most  pnpnlor  contemporary  authors.    Mme. 
de  Stael,  Byron,  Sir  Walter  Scott,  and  Lamar- 
tine  were  amonft  the  objects  of  her  attacks, 
Sbe  was  60  years  old  when  she  pnblished  her 
historical  novel  Jeanne  de  France,  and  over 
80  when  she  completed  her  personal  Mimoiret, 
in  10  large  Svo  vols. 

CENHEgUter,  or  CCMMKtt,  Uke  vf,  called 
also  the  sea  of  Ohinnereth  (Heb.  Yam  Kinne- 
reth),  the  sea  of  Galilee,  the  sea  of  Tiberias,  and 
by  the  Arabs  Bahr  Tubariyeh,  situated  in  Pal- 
estine, 65  m.  N.  of  the  Dead  sea.  The  lake  is 
pear-shaped  ;  the  greatest  width  is  6}  m.  from 
Mejdel  (llagdala)  to  Kheraa  (Uergesa) ;  the  ex- 
treme lengUi  is  IS  ro.     Tbe  Jordan,  flowing 


GENOA 


673 


through  it  from  north  to  south,  connects  it 
with  the  Dead  sea.  The  water  of  the  lake  is 
clear  and  sweet,  except  near  the  salt  springs 
and  where  it  is  defiled  by  tbe  drainage  of  Ti- 
berias. In  the  basin  o(  the  lake  are  a  number 
of  worm  springB,  which  are  said  to  have  in- 


creased in  volume  and  temperature  after  the 
earthqaake  of  168T,  which  laid  Tiberias  in 
ruins.  The  lake  does  not  appear  to  be  of  vol- 
canic origin,  but  simply  part  of  the  great  Jor- 
dan depression.  The  snrronnding  hills  are  of 
a  uniform  brown  color,  and  are  limestone, 
capped  in  places  with  basalt ;  they  are  recessed 
from  the  shore,  or  rise  very  gradually  from  it, 
and  not  very  high.  Its  level,  which  vnries  at 
different  times  of  the  year,  is  between  BOO  and 
700  ft.  below  that  of  the  Mediterranean.  There 
is  little  variety  or  beauty  in  its  natural  features, 
and  the  interest  connected  with  it  springs  from 
its  associations,  especially  from  the  fact  ibat 
much  of  the  public  life  of  Cbrint  was  spent 
on  its  shores.  The  lake  abounded  with  the 
choicest  kinds  of  fish,  as  it  does  now,  and  the 
south  em  portion  especially  wos  a  noted  fish- 
ing ground.  Populous  cities  and  villages  then 
flourished  around  it,  as  Tiberiss,  Magdala,  Ca- 
pernaum, Chorazin,  the  two  Bethsaidas,  Oama- 
la,  and  Hippos,  almost  all  of  uhich  are  nov 
uninhabited  ruins. 

GEIiOi  (Ital.  Qenota;  Fr.  Genet;  anc.  Ge- 
nua). L  A  N.  W.  province  of  the  kingdom 
of  Italy,  bordering  on  the  provinces  of  Porto 
Maurizio,  Coni,  Alessandria,  Pavla,  Piacenxa, 
Parma,  and  Mas^a  Carrara,  and  the  gulf  of 
Genoa;  area,  1,688  sq.  ra.;  pop.  in  1873,  716,- 
284.  The  province  is  dii'ided  into  tbe  districta 
of  Albenga,  Chiavari,  Genoa,  Lovante,  and 
Savona.  It  forms  a  narrow  coast  land,  called 
Riviera  di  Levante  and  Riviera  di  Ponente, 
around  tbe  gulf  of  Genoa,  and  embraces  the 
former  duchy  of  Genoa.  The  rivers,  niostJy 
springing  from  tbe  Apenuines,  have  but  a  short 


674 

conree  throngh  tLia  province,  either  emptying 

into  the  gulf  or  passing  over  to  the  a4j&<^eiit 
provinceB.  Agnonlture  is  Dnimportuit,  for 
want  of  level  land,  bat  tlie  hilU  are  covered 
with  vines  and  olivea,  and  fumiah  delicate 
fmita  nbicb  are  largely  exported ;  bee-keeping 
is  B  lucrative  industry  of  the  moan  tain  eers. 
There  are  silver,  copper,  lead,  manganese,  and 
coal  mines;  and  the  slate  qnarried  near  La- 
vagna  is  celebrated  for  its  deep,  lastrons  black 
color.  The  Lignrian  Apennines  tonch  tlie  Li- 
gnrian  Alps  near  the  sources  of  the  Bonnida, 
where  the  road  from  HiUewmo  to  Savona 
olimbs  three  mountain  ridges  from  1,600  to 
S,800  n.  high.  From  here  tne  Lignrian  Apen- 
nines extend  along  the  coast  of  the  gnlf  in 
three  distinct  chains,  separated  by  deep  de- 
pressions; the  Monte  8.  Uior^o,  N.  W.  of  Sa- 
vona;  Ermetta  and  Reisa,  N.  W.  of  Voltri; 
Penello,  Orditauo,  and  Secoo,  N.  W.  of  Genoa. 


North  of  this  city  are  the  Monte  del!*  Bochet- 
ta,  2,482  ft  high,  and  tiie  Colli  dei  Giovi,  1,447 
fL,  with  a  double  pass  that  permitted  the  con- 
struction of  a  turnpike  and  a  railway  to  Ales- 
sandria. SaBt  of  these  the  ApenniDci  rise 
mncb  higher.  N.  E.  of  Genoa  is  Monte  An- 
tolo,  4,161  ft.  high.  N,  E.  of  Chiavari,  near 
the  bonndary,  is  Monte  Penna,  S,SSO  ft.  high. 
From  Genoa  to  Antivsri,  end  from  l^vagna  to 
Spezia  and  Porto  Venerc,  close  to  the  coa>^ 
are  mountain  chains  2,000  to  8,000  ft,  high. 
The  mountainons  peninsulas,  Portofino  and 
Castellona,  form  8.  E.  of  Genoa  the  gulfs  of 
Rapallo  and  Spezia,  of  which  the  latter  is  im- 
portant as  a  safe  and  commodious  port  for  the 
Italian  fleet.  A  railway  skirls  the  entire  coast 
of  both  Rivieras,  and  runs  parallel  with  the 
magnifloent  highway  called  the  Cornice  road. 
The  tine  penetrates  numerons  promontories  by 
more  than  SO  eutdngs  and  tunnels,  many  of 


them  of  considerable  length,  in  a  distance  of 
ii  m.,  between  Genoa  and  Chiavari.    Anotiier 

railway  through  the  nrovinoe,  connecting  Ge- 
noa with  Alessandria,  has  nine  tnnnels  between 
Arquata  and  the  cnpilal.  The  last  tunnel  bo- 
fore  reaching  Genoa,  called  the  Gallena  dei 
Giovi,  is  more  than  2  m.  long.  11,  A  city,  the 
capital  of  the  province,  on  the  N.  extremity  of 
the  gulf  of  the  same  name;  lat.  44°  24'  N., 
Ion.  8°  64'  E, ;  pop.  in  1872,  130,268.  It  is 
surrounded  hy  a  double  wall,  the  smaller  en- 
circling the  inner  city,  by  ramparts  and  exten- 
rive  outworks,  detached  forts,  and  redoubts, 
which  make  it  one  of  the  best  fortified  cities 
of  Europe.  Its  large  semicircular  harbor  is 
defended  by  two  converging  moles,  the  east- 
ern or  old,  and  the  western  or  new.  In  the 
height  of  her  power  the  city  was  called  Gene- 
va la  Snperba  (the  prond);  and  the  designa- 
tion has  also  been  used  in  IJie  sense  of  "mag- 


■A  Dorii. 

niflcent,"  on  account  of  her  beautiful  sitnation 
and  numerous  marble  palaces.  On  the  N.  E, 
side  is  the  royal  war  norhor  (dariena  naW), 
with  the  rannne  areeDol.    On  the  E.  side  is 

the  free  harbor  (porlo  franco).  This  is  a  lit- 
tle walled  town  of  itself,  containing  more  than 
SDO  large  storehoases,  and  no  priest,  soldier, 
or  woman  is  allowed  to  enter  it  except  by 
special  permission.  A  high  wall  with  arcades 
separates  tiie  harbor  from  the  honses,  most  of 
them  six  stories  high,  of  the  via  Carlo  Alberto 
and  the  piazza  di  Scoricamento.  The  qnay  is 
connected  by  rail  with  the  railway  station. 
Viewed  from  the  barbor.  the  city,  rising  like 
an  amphitheatre,  with  its  cbnrches,  palacea, 
promenades,  and  gardens,  with  its  encircling 
fortili cations,  and  with  the  bare  summits  of  th« 
Apennines  and  the  ice-covered  peaks  of  tha 
Alps  behind,  offers  one  of  the  grandest  and 
roost  picturesque  sights  in  the  world.     Th« 


GENOA 


675 


streets  are  mostlj  narrow,  irregalar,  and  steep, 
paved  with  smooth  slabs  of  lava,  with  a  path- 
way of  bricks  in  the  centre  for  mules;  but  the 
vie  Balbi,  Naova,  and  Naovissima  are  broad 
and  straight ;  and  the  more  modem  vie  Carlo 
Felice,  Carlo  Alberto,  Carretierra,  and  Gidia 
compare  favorably  with  the  chief  thoroughfares 
of  other  commercial  cities.  The  splendid  archi- 
tecture of  the  palaces,  the  external  frescoes  of 
the  houses,  tlie  imposing  religious  processions, 
and  the  varied  attire  of  the  passengers,  the  an- 
cient attractions  of  the  city,  are  dl  gradually 
disappearing.  ThepezzottOy  the  long  white  veil 
with  which  the  women  formerly  covered  head 
and  shoulders,  is  now  rarely  seen  except  on 
Sunday  when  they  go  to  mass.  The  palaces 
were  once  renowned  for  their  artistic  riches,  but 
the  collections  are  constantly  diminishing,  and 
have  become  very  small.  The  most  striking  of 
the  palaces  is  the  palazzo  Doria,  in  a  conspic- 
uous position  overlooking  the  sea.  It  was  con- 
structed in  1529  by  the  renowned  Doria,  prince 
of  Melii ;  it  is  now  almost  abandoned,  and  re- 
tains but  few  traces  of  its  former  beauty.  The 
ducal  palace,  restored  in  1778  after  designs  by 
Simone  Carlone,  was  formerly  full  of  objects  of 
art,  which  have  been  removed,  some  of  them 
to  the  municipal  palace,  formerly  the  palazzo 
Doria  Turni.  In  the  anteroom  of  the  hall  of 
the  town  council  are  a  bust  and  autograph 
letters  of  Columbus.  The  Carlo  Felice  is  one 
of  the  largest  and  finest  theatres  in  the  king- 
dom. That  of  Sant*  Agostino  is  built  entirely 
of  wood,  and  can  accommodate  2,000  specta- 
tors. A  new  cafi^,  with  a  garden  and  fountains, 
is  one  of  the  most  splendid  establishments  of 
the  kind  in  Europe.  The  dogana^  or  custom 
house,  is  the  ancient  edifice  of  the  bank  of  St. 
George,  and  has  in  the  hall  two  ranges  of 
statues,  larger  than  life,  of  the  Dorias,  Fies- 
chi,  Grimaldis,  and  other  renowned  person- 
ages of  the  old  republic.  Among  the  nume- 
rous churches,  that  of  Santa  Maria  di  Cari- 
gnano  is  nrominent  for  architectural  beauty. 
The  cathearal,  dedicated  to  San  Lorenzo,  pre- 
sents a  strange  mixture  of  styles.  It  was  built 
in  the  11th  century,  and  has  been  restored 
many  times.  The  richest  part  is  the  chapel 
of  St.  John  the  Baptist,  into  which  no  woman 
can  enter  except  on  one  day  in  the  year,  in 
recollection  of  the  daughter  of  Herodias.  In 
it  is  preserved  the  taero  eatino,  affirmed  to  be 
one  of  the  gifts  of  the  queen  of  Sheba  to  Solo- 
mon, and  the  vessel  from  which  Christ  ate  the 
paschal  lamb.  It  was  a  part  of  the  spoil  taken 
at  Cffisarea  in  1101.  It  was  long  supposed  to 
be  cut  from  a  single  emerald,  but  is  now 
known  to  be  glass.  In  the  piazza  di  Acqna,  a 
public  promenade,  stands  a  statue  of  Columbus 
on  a  circular  pedestal  with  protruding  prows 
of  galleys ;  at  the  feet  of  the  statue  kneels  the 
figure  of  America.  Genoa  has  a  university 
with  an  observatory  and  a  library  of  60,000 
volumes,  a  naval  school,  a  lyceum,  technical 
schools,  seminaries,  normal  schools,  and  many 
societies  for  the  proipotion  of  arts  and  sciences. 


The  foundling  hospitals,  orphan  asylums,  hospi- 
tals for  the  sick,  crippled,  insane,  and  deaf,  and 
poorhouses,  are  in  a  praiseworthy  condition. 
About  two  miles  from  the  city  is  the  eampo  santo 
(cemetery),  with  a  magnificent  circular  chapel 
and  many  artistic  monuments  and  vaults.  The 
most  delightful  excursion  in  the  environs  is  to 
the  villa  rallavicini  at  Pegli,  where  Uie  park 
extends  to  a  considerable  height  on  the  slopes 
of  the  coast,  affording  charming  views  of  Ge- 
noa, the  sea,  and  the  mountains.  Luxuriant 
vegetation,  kiosks  in  Pompeian,  Turkish,  and 
Chinese  styles,  a  mausoleum,  the  remains  of  an 
ancient  Roman  burial  place,  and  a  stalactite 
grotto  heighten  the  interest  of  the  place. — ^The 
rulway  to  Alessandria  brings  to  Genoa  a  large 
trade  with  the  provinces  of  northern  Italy, 
Austria,  Germany,  and  Switzerland.  Cotton 
industry  employs  about  3,000  workmen,  and 
about  9,000  are  employed  in  the  manufacture 
of  silk  goods.  There  are  large  establishments 
producing  lace,  embroideries,  and  filigree  work. 
The  hat  factories  export  yeai'ly  about  100,000 
hats  to  South  America.  Other  considerable 
industries  are  the  extraction  of  oil,  the  fabri- 
cation of  soa^,  the  preparation  of  chemicals, 
the  making  of  artificial  flowers,  and  the  pack- 
ing of  candied  fruit.  The  furniture  factories 
employ  several  thousand  workmen,  and  the 
construction  of  boats  and  ships  is  steadily  in- 
creasing. In  1871  vessels  of  the  aggregate 
tonnage  of  60,000  were  launched.  Among 
them  were  two  iron  steamers,  the  first  iron 
vessels  built  in  Italy.  Grenoa  is  a  free  port. 
About  7,000  sailing  vessels  of  700,000  tons,  and 
8,000  steamers  of  600,000  tons,  enter  every 
year.  In  1871  the  entries  of  vessels  engaged 
in  foreign  trade  were  8,009,  with  an  aggregate 
tonnage  of  984,268 ;  the  tonnage  of  coasting 
vessels  entering  in  the  same  year  was  406,265. 
The  total  imports  amounted  to  $51,600,000; 
exports,  $22,250,000.  Numerous  lines  of  steam- 
ers ply  between  Genoa  and  Leghorn,  Civitfl 
Vecchia,  Spezia,  Naples,  Messina,  Nice,  Tunis, 
and  otlier  ports  on  the  Mediterranean.  The 
population  of  Genoa  has  increased  but  little 
during  the  past  ten  years,  on  account  of  the 
excessive  octroi  duties  levied  on  almost  every- 
thing that  passes  the  gates.  To  escape  these, 
many  people  have  settled  in  the  neighboring 
communes,. and  Sampierdarena  and  other  vil- 
lages have  grown  largely  in  consequence. — ^The 
history  of  Genoa  may  be  traced  in  legendary 
traditions  to  a  time  preceding  the  foundation  of 
Rome.  Livy  mentions  it  first,  at  the  beginning 
of  the  second  Punic  war,  as  a  town  in  friendly 
relations  with  the  Romans.  It  was  subdued  and 
partly  destroyed  during  that  war  by  a  Cartha- 
ginian fieet,  which  sailed  from  the  Balearic 
isles  under  the  command  of  Mago ;  the  Romans 
rebuilt  it,  and  it  afterward  became  a  Roman 
munieipium.  In  the  time  of  Strabo  it  was  an 
emporium  for  the  produce  of  the  interior,  ex- 
changed by  the  Lignrians  for  the  wine  and  oil 
of  other  parts  of  Italy.  After  the  fall  of  the 
western  empire  it  steered  greatly  from  the  in- 


676 


GENOA 


vadiDg  Goths,  was  taken  by  the  Lombards  in 
the  7th  century,  and  conquered  from  them  in 
the  8th  by  Charlemagne,  who  appointed  a 
count  for  the  government  of  the  coast  of  Ligu- 
ria.  After  the  dismemberment  of  the  Frank- 
ish  empire,  it  became  independent,  and  shared 
the  fate  of  the  Lombard  cities,  participating 
in  their  bloody  struggles  during  the  long  con- 
test for  the  iron  crown  of  Lorabardy  between 
the  emperors  of  Germany,  the  Berengarii,  and 
others.  After  having  been  pillaged  in  936  by 
the  Saracens,  Genoa  strengthened  its  navy, 
entered  into  an  alliance  with  Pisa,  and  ex- 
pelled the  Mohammedans  from  the  islands  of 
Corsica,  Capraja,  and  Sardinia  (1016-^21),  of 
the  two  former  of  which  it  kept  possession. 
But  the  increasing  maritime  importance  of 
the  Genoese  aroused  the  jealousy  of  their  com- 
mercial neighbors,  and  they  had  to  straggle  for 
the  maintenance  of  their  power  in  the  western 
part  of  the  Mediterranean  against  the  rival  re- 
public of  Pisa,  and  in  its  eastern  part  against 
Venice.  The  hostilities  with  the  former  com- 
menced in  the  year  1070.  The  services  of  the 
Genoese  in  the  first  crusade  were  rewarded 
with  a  strip  of  the  coast  of  Palestine.  After 
the  second  war  with  Pisa  (1118-'32)  they  un- 
dertook an  expedition  against  the  Moors  of 
Spain,  with  a  large  fleet  carrying  a  land  force 
of  12,000  men,  conquered  the  island  of  Minorca 
(1146),  Almeriaril47),  where  they  found  im- 
mense booty,  ana,  in  concert  with  the  Catalo- 
nians,  Tortosa  (1148).  Their  power  was  also 
rapidly  extended  over  the  coast  of  the  Medi- 
terranean ;  before  the  close  of  the  12th  century 
they  were  masters  of  Monaco,  Nice,  Montfer- 
rat,  Marseilles,  and  nearly  the  whole  coast  of 
Provence.  The  third  struggle  with  Pisa  com- 
menced in  1162,  and  lasted  for  nearly  a  cen- 
tury. The  early  part  of  the  fourth  was  marked 
by  a  great  naval  victory  near  Meloria  (1284) 
of  the  Genoese  over  the  Pisans,  who  lost  8,000 
killed  and  18,000  prisoners,  most  of  whom 
were  doomed  by  the  cruelty  of  the  victors  to 
perish  in  chains;  it  was  virtually  ended  by 
the  conquest  of  Elba,  and  the  destruction  of 
the  harbor  of  Pisa,  under  Corrado  Doria  (1290). 
Thus  peace  was  conquered,  and  the  power  of 
the  rival  republic  destroyed.  No  less  severe 
had  been  the  struggle  with  Venice  since  the 
conquest  of  Constantinople  by  the  Franks 
(1204).  Having  assisted  Michael  Paleeologus 
to  reconquer  the  capital  of  the  Byzantine  em- 
pire (1261),  the  Genoese  were  rewarded  with 
the  suburbs  of  Pera  and  Galata,  and  the  port 
of  Smyrna,  which  made  them  masters  of  the 
Black  sea.  This  brought  them  into  collision 
with  the  Venetians,  who  disputed  their  su- 
premacy in  those  seas ;  but  after  several  naval 
battles  a  truce  was  concluded  in  1271.  On  the 
termination  of  the  wars  with  Pisa  a  powerful 
Genoese  fleet  crossed  the  Adriatic,  and  won  a 
great  victory  near  Cnrzola,  where  84  Venetian 
galleys  were  taken  or  burned,  and  7,000  cap- 
tives made,  among  them  the  admiral  Dandolo. 
This  was  followed  by  a  treaty  of  peace  (1299), 


which  surrendered  the  commerce  of  the  Black 
sea  to  the  exclusive  dominion  of  the  Genoese, 
whose  flourishing  colonies  and  factories  de- 
fended by  forts  soon  lined  all  its  coasts.  Eafila, 
or  Feodosia,  in  the  Crimea,  became  one  of  tbe 
finest  commercial  cities  of  Europe.  Favored 
by  the  friendship  and  indolence  of  the  Byzan- 
tines, they  carried  on  the  commerce  of  the  East, 
including  India,  through  the  Black  and  Caspian 
seas.  A  new  war  with  Venice  broke  out  in 
1846,  in  which  the  Genoese  were  victorious  in 
a  sea  fight  in  sight  of  Constantinople,  bat  were 
beaten  in  another  near  the  coast  of  Sardinia. 
To  escape  the  consequence  of  this  defeat  and 
the  perils  of  intestine  commotions,  they  sub- 
jected themselves  to  the  duke  of  Milan,  Gio- 
vanni Visconti,  whose  yoke,  however,  they 
soon  shook  off.  Having  recommenced  the  war 
(1377),  they  took  .Chioggia,  besieged  Venice, 
and  nearly  reduced  it,  when  two  of  its  citi- 
zens, Vettor  Pisani  and  Carlo  Zeno,  revived 
the  spirit  of  the  besieged,  created  a  new  fleet, 
blockaded  Chioggia,  and  compelled  the  Geno- 
ese to  surrender.  The  peace  of  Turin  (1381) 
terminated  the  wars  of  the  two  greatest  mari- 
time republics  of  the  middle  ages ;  it  was  pre- 
served with  slight  interruptions  during  the  de- 
cline of  both,  caused  particularly  by  the  con- 
quests of  the  Turks  in  the  East  and  the  mari- 
time discoveries  in  the  West.  Giustiniani  and 
his  companions  strove  heroically,  but  in  vain, 
to  save  the  great  bulwark  of  Christendom, 
Constantinople,  and  the  interests  of  Genoa 
(1468);  and  Mohammed  I  J.  revenged  himself 
by  stripping  the  republic  of  all  its  possessions 
in  the  East ;  even  the  commercial  access  to 
the  Euxine  was  soon  closed  by  the  Turks^ — Du- 
ring all  this  growth  and  decline  of  the  republic, 
its  internal  commotions,  caused  by  the  parties 
of  the  plebeians  and  patricians,  and  the  sub- 
divisions of  the  latter,  ha4  been  a  source  of 
continual  perils  and  distractions.  Having  been 
governed  by  consuls  till  1190,  then  by  p<>destas 
(annual  magistrates,  who  were  chosen  from 
foreign  cities)  till  1270,  it  fell  under  the  usur- 
pation of  Oberto  Spinola  and  Oberto  Doria, 
the  "  captains  of  liberty,"  who  reconciled  tlie 
lower  classes  and  maintained  their  power  till 
1291.  A  new  change  was  the  institution  of  a 
council  consisting  of  12  members,  subsequentiy 
of  24,  12  nobles  and  12  plebeians.  The  feuds 
and  even  flghts  of  the  democratic  and  aristo- 
cratic parties,  the  Guelphs  and  Ghibellines, 
were  meanwhile  continuous.  The  latter  fac- 
tion, whose  chiefs  were  the  Dorias  and  Spino- 
las,  was  at  last  overcome  and  exiled  by  their 
opponents,  headed  by  the  Fieschi  and  Grimal- 
dis,  but  afterward  found  means  of  returning. 
These  party  struggles  assumed  the  worst  shape 
in  the  first  half  of  the  14th  century.  To  rem- 
edy these  evils  the  dogate  for  life  was  instituted 
(1889),  with  the  exclusion  of  the  nobles  of  both 
parties.  But  neither  this  nor  the  additi<»i  of 
councils  was  sufficient  to  give  peace  to  the  dis- 
tracted state ;  new  contentions  arose  with  new 
families;  there  were  doges  and  anti-doges; 


GENOA 


GENOUDE 


677 


some  were  exiled,  others  forced  upon  the  peo- 
ple. The  Viscontis  of  Milan,  and  at  a  later 
period  the  kings  of  France,  availed  themselves 
of  these  dissensions  to  take  possession  of  the 
repnhlic.  Francis  I.  held  it  during  the  first 
part  of  his  wars  with  Charles  V.,  hat  in  1628 
the  celehrated  admiral  Andrea  Doria  delivered 
the  state  from  the  French,  and  established  a 
new  constitntion,  which  lasted  to  the  end  of 
the  republic.  The  new  form  of  government 
was  strictly  aristocratic ;  a  roll  of  families,  both 
plebeian  and  patrician,  was  formed,  the  nobility 
divided  into  the  old  and  new ;  the  former  com- 
prised the  Grimaldis,  Fieschi,  Dorias,  Spino- 
las,  and  24  others  distinguished  by  age,  hon- 
ors, or  riches,  and  the  latter  437  houses,  to 
which  new  families  could  be  added ;  the  doge 
was  elected  for  two  years,  and  both  branches 
of  the  nobility  could  aspire  to  this  dignity. 
Bat  the  power  of  the  state  had  long  since  de- 
parted; its  conquests,  colonies,  and  maritime 
stations  were  lost  one  after  another ;  the  last 
of  them,  Corsica,  revolted  in  1730,  and  was 
ceded  to  France  in  1768 ;  the  commerce  of  the 
seas  and  of  the  East  passed  successively  through 
the  hands  of  the  Portuguese,  Spaniards,  Dutch, 
and  English ;  the  flag  of  Genoa  was  insulted 
with  impunity  by  the  Mohammedan  pirates 
of  northern  Africa,  and  its  naval  force  was  a 
mere  shadow  of  the  ancient  fleets  which  awed 
all  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean  and  Black 
seas.  The  single  bank  of  St.  George  (eompera 
di  San  OioTgw\  which  had  been  founded  in 
1407,  still  maintained  its  importance  as  an  insti- 
tution for  loans  and  deposits,  to  which  even  for- 
eign states,  and  particularly  Spain,  were  great- 
ly indebted.  When  in  1796  the  French  had 
conquered  the  neighboring  territories,  Genoa 
strove  in  vain  to  sustain  itself  by  neutrality. 
A  rising  of  the  democratic  party  was  sup- 
pressed, after  several  days  of  bloodshed,  by 
the  nobles,  who  were  assisted  by  the  poorest 
of  the  population ;  but  the  French  directory 
took  the  part  of  the  democracy,  and  demanded 
a  change  in  the  constitution.  This  demand 
was  supported  by  an  army,  and  finally  agreed 
to.  The  French  garrison  w^  taken  into  the 
city,  and  the  state  changed  into  the  republic 
of  Liguria,  with  a  constitution  like  that  of 
France,  and  some  additional  territory.  In 
1800  Genoa,  under  Mass^na,  sustained  a  siege 
by  the  Austrians  and  English,  and  was  com- 
pelled to  capitulate  to  the  former,  who  were 
obliged,  however,  to  give  it  up  after  the  battle 
of  Marengo.  Bonaparte,  as  first  consul,  gave 
it  a  new  and  less  democratic  constitution,  which 
was  soon  abolished  on  the  establishment  of  the 
French  empire.  After  the  coronation  of  Na- 
poleon at  Milan,  the  last  of  the  doges,  Duraz- 
zo,  repaired  to  that  city,  and  expressed  the  de- 
sire of  the  people  for  &e  change ;  and  the  de- 
cree of  June  4,  1805,  merged  the  republic  in 
the  empire,  to  form  the  three  new  departments 
of  Genoa,  Montenotte,  and  the  Apennines. 
The  bank  of  St.  George,  whose  credit  had 
suffered  greatly  by  repeated  loans  to  the  state, 


was  abolished,  and  the  debts  of  the  latter  were 
transferred  to  the  account  of  France.  In  1814 
Genoa  was  occupied  by  the  English,  with 
whose  permission  the  ancient  constitution  was 
reestablished.  But  the  congress  of  Vienna 
gave  Genoa  as  a  duchy  to  Sardinia.  In  1821 
it  joined  for  a  moment  the  revolutionary 
movements  of  Italy.  At  the  end  of  March, 
1849,  after  the  defeat  of  Charles  Albert  at 
No  vara,  and  the  conclusion  of  a  truce  with 
the  Austrians,  a  revolutionary  outbreak  took 
place,  the  national  guards  occupied  the  forts, 
and  the  garrison  was  compelled  to  withdraw. 
A  provisional  government,  under  Avezzana, 
Morchio,  and  Reta,  was  formed,  and  the  inde- 
pendence of  the  republic  was  proclaimed.  But 
a  large  body  of  Sardinian  troops,  under  Gen. 
l4imarmora,  soon  appeared  before  Genoa;  a 
bloody  struggle  ensued,  and  the  forts  and 
principal  points  of  the  city  were  taken  by  the 
royal  soldiery.  In  the  mean  while  a  deputa- 
tion was  sent  to  Turin,  which  returned  with 
the  amnesty  of  the  king,  excluding,  however, 
the  chief  leaders  of  the  movement,  who  had 
withdrawn  on  board  the  United  States  steam- 
er Princeton.  On  April  10  Genoa  was  dis- 
armed, and  the  monarchical  government  re- 
stored. Garibaldi  seized  two  steamships  in 
the  port  of  Genoa  in  May,  1860,  and  thence 
sailed  for  the  liberation  of  Sicily.  Early  in 
1861  the  territory  of  Genoa  was  made  a  prov- 
ince of  the  kingdom  of  Italy. 

GENOA,  TsuMM  Alberto  Vittore,  duke  of,  an 
Italian  prince,  bom  Feb.  6, 1854.  He  is  the  son 
of  Victor  Emanuers  late  brother  Ferdinand, 
and  of  a  Saxon  princess,  the  duchess  of  Genoa 
(privately  remarried  in  1866  to  her  former 
secretary.  Marquis  Rapallo).  He  was  educated 
at  Dr.  Arnold^s  school  in  England,  and  was 
brought  forward  in  1870  as  a  candidate  for  the 
throne  of  Spain,  but  his  name  was  withdrawn 
at  the  request  of  Victor  Emanuel.  He  is  an  offi- 
cer of  the  Italian  navy,  and  visited  China  and 
Japan  in  1878,  and  the  United  States  in  1874. 

GENOPDE  (originally  Genoud),  AntoiBe  Eigiie 
de,  a  French  journalist  and  author,  bom  in 
Mont^limart  in  February,  1792,  died  in  Hy- 
^res,  April  19,  1849.  He  was  the  son  of  a 
cabaret  keeper.  He  began  his  career  as  a  po- 
litical writer  for  the  royalist  journal  Le  Con^ 
sertateur.  In  1820  he  founded  the  joumid  Le 
Be/enseury  and  in  1821  he  bought  the  J^toile^ 
which  has  since  borne  the  name  of  La  Gazette 
de  France,  He  abandoned  his  intention  of 
entering  the  priesthood  when,  in  1822,  he  was 
ennobled  by  Louis  XVIII. ;  but  in  1835,  after 
the  death  of  his  wife,  he  took  orders,  and  be^an 
to  preach  in  Paris.  The  arcli bishop  of  Paris 
soon  ordered  him  to  quit  either  preaching  or 
journalism,  and  he  quit  preaching.  In  1846  he 
was  elected  by  the  city  of  Toulouse  to  the 
chamber  of  deputies,  where  he  acted  with  the 
legitimist  opposition.  He  differed,  however,  in 
many  points  from  the  legitimist  party,  defend- 
ing universal  suffrage,  national  representation,, 
and  legitimacy  allied  with  popular  sovereignty. 


678 


GEN0VE8I 


GENSERIO 


In  February,  1848,  at  the  outbreak  of  the  revo- 
Intion,  he  allied  himself  with  the  revolation- 
ary  party  in  order  to  attempt  a  restoration  of 
the  Bourbons  by  a  general  vote  of  the  people. 
When  he  saw  that  his  efforts  were  frniuess  he 
retired  from  public  life.  The  bold  advocacy  of 
his  principles  in  the  Gazette  de  France  involved 
him  in  63  lawsuits,  which  cost  him  more  than 
100,000  francs.  He  wrote  Lepona  et  modules 
de  littSrature  saeree  (1887) ;  HUtoire  de  France 
(16  vols.,  1844-'7);  a  new  French  translation 
of  the  Bible,  with  the  Latin  version,  a  transla- 
tion of  the  works  of  the  fathers  of  the  first 
three  centuries,  of  those  of  St.  Clement  of 
Alexandria,  &c. 
GENO¥ESI,  AntMlo,  an  Italian  philosopher  and 

Solitical  economist,  born  at  Oastiglione,  near 
alemo,  Nov.  1,  1712,  died  in  Naples,  Sept. 
22,  1769.  He  received  priest's  orders  in  Sa- 
lerno in  1786,  and  held  in  succession  the  chair 
of  rhetoric  in  the  seminary  of  Salerno,  and 
that  of  metaphysics  in  the  university  of  Naples. 
He  substituted  the  scientific  doubt  of  Descartes 
and  the  Baconian  laws  of  induction  for  the 
traditional  belief  in  authority.  He  was  threat- 
ened with  persecution,  but  explained  his  views 
in  a  satisfactory  manner,  and  was  protected 
by  Benedict  XIV.  In  1764  a  chair  of  public 
economy  was  established  in  the  university  for 
Genovesi,  by  his  friend  Interi,  a  wealthy  Flor- 
entine, who  prescribed  as  one  of  the  conditions 
of  his  endowment  that  no  monk  should  ever  be 
appointed  professor.  This  chair  was  the  first 
of  the  kind  in  Europe.  On  the  expulsion  of  the 
Jesuits  from  Naples  in  1767,  he  was  requested 
by  the  government  to  propose  a  plan  of  univer- 
sity education.  He  advised  the  establishment 
of  chairs  of  physical  science  and  history,  the 
substitution  of  mathematics  for  scholastic  phi- 
losophy, and  a  chair  for  the  interpretation  of 
Cicero's  Be  OffieiU.  His  favorite  masters  in 
philosophy,  after  Bacon  and  Descartes,  were 
Leibnitz,  Locke,  and  Yico.  As  an  economist 
Genovesi  advocated  the  abolition  of  the  usury 
laws  and  of  convents  and  monasteries,  in- 
culcated the  doctrines  of  free  trade,  and  pro- 
claimed before  Adam  Smith  the  supremacy  of 
labor  in  the  creation  of  the  wealth  of  nations. 
As  early  as  1764  he  predicted  the  emancipation 
of  the  American  colonies,  the  foundation  of 
the  United  States,  and  the  total  failure  of  the 
colonial  system.  He  died  as  his  friends  were 
reading  to  him  the  Phsedo  of  Plato.  His  works 
include  Elementa  Ifetaphysices;  Lezioni  di 
eommercio  o  di  eeanomia  civile  ;  Dioeesina^  re- 
lating to  the  rights  and  duties  of  man  ;  Logica 
pei  giovanetti;  Instutizioni  delle  icienee  metor- 
JUiche;  Meditazioni  JUotofiehe  ;  Elementi  di 
JUiea  sperimentale  ;  Lettere  ad  un  amico  pro- 
einciale;  and  Lettere  accademiehe  sulla  ques- 
tione  »e  Heno  piu  feliei  gli  ignoranti  cm  gli 
acienziati.  His  life  has  been  written  in  Latin 
by  Fabroni.  G.  M.  Galanti,  one  of  his  best 
pupils,  published  in  1771  Elogio  Btorico  delV 
abate  Genovesi;  and  Racciopi's  Genovesi  ap- 
peared in  1871. 


€EN8ERI€  (from   GaUerich^  prince  of  the 
spear),  a  Vandal  conqueror,  bastard  brother 
and  successor  of  Gonderic,  died  in  477.    The 
Vandals  had  passed  the  Alps  and  the  Pyrenees, 
and  devastated  and  conquered  a  large  part  of 
Spain.    In  429,  when  the  weak  and  debauched 
Valentinian  III.  occupied  the  throne  of  the 
crumbling  western  empire,  they  were  called  to 
the  province  of  Africa  by  Boniface,  the  gover- 
nor, who  had  been  induced  by  intrigues  and  the 
fear  of  a  rival  to  betray  his  master.    Eager  for 
conquest,  these  northern  barbarians  prepared  a 
fleet,  and  were  ready  to  embark  when  the  unex- 
pected attack  of  Hermanric,  king  of  the  Suevi, 
and  the  ravages  of  this  people  on  the  posses- 
sions of  the  Vandals,  delayed  their  departure. 
Having  routed  the  Suevi  in  a  bloody  battle 
near  Augusta  Emerita  (Merida),  Genseric  em- 
barked with  about  50,000  men,  crossed  the 
straits  of  Gibraltar,  and  conquered  within  two 
years  all  the  cities  in  Mauritania.    When  Boni- 
face, repenting  of  his  crime,  desired  Genseric 
to  return  to  Spain,  he  refused  and  could  not 
be  expelled ;  but  he  at  last  agreed  in  a  treaty 
(485)  to  be  satisfied  with  Mauritania  and  Nu- 
midia.     But  the   native  inhabitants  of  the 
Atlas  mountains,  so  lonff  oppressed   by  the 
Roman  governors,  and  ttie  Donatists,  driven 
to  despair  by  the  persecutions  of  the  orthodox 
church,  joined  the  standard  of  Genseric,  who 
soon  took  up  arms  again  and  subdued  the  whole 
province  of  Africa.    In  489  he  took  Carthage 
and  made  it  the  capital  of  the  Vandal  empire, 
which  now  extended  over  the  whole  ooast, 
and  by  piratical  expeditions  was  established  in 
parts  of  Italy,  Sardinia,  and  Corsica.    The  at- 
tacks of  the  Huns  in  tiie  north  of  the  Roman 
empire  made  these  aggressions  on  its  southern 
provinces  easier,  and  it  was  Genseric  who  in- 
vited Attila  to  his  fatal  march  to  Gaul  (451). 
Rome  escaped  the  hands  of  the  Huns,  but  fell 
into  those  of  the  Vandals.    Invited,  as  is  said, 
by  Eudoxia,  widow    of  Valentinian  III.,  who 
wanted  to  avenge  the  murder  of  her  husband 
by  Maximus,  Genseric  crossed  the  Mediterra- 
nean, sailed  up  the  Tiber,  took  Rome,  pillaged 
it  for  14  days  (June,  455),  carried  away  Eu- 
doxia and  her  daughters,  one  of  whom  he  gave 
to  his  son  Hunneric,  and  sent  the  Roman 
treasures  and  captives  to  Carthage.    All  the 
shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  from  Ada  Minor 
and  Egypt  to  the  straits  of  Gibraltar,  were  now 
ravaged  by  the  Vandals.    A  fleet,  sent  by  the 
emperor  M^orian  (457)  to  check  these  ravages, 
was  destroyed  in  the  bay  of  Cartagena ;  nor 
was  another  sent  by  the  Byzantine  emperor 
Leo  (468)  more  successful ;  and  Genseric  reigned 
victoriously  until  his  death.    He  was  of  middle 
stature,  lame  of  one  leg  in  consequence  of  a  fall 
from  a  horse,  slow  and  cautious  in  his  speech, 
cunning,  treacherous,  cruel,  an  able  general, 
and  a  skilAil  ruler.    Professing  the  Arian  creed, 
he  compelled  those  who  adhered  to  the  ortho- 
dox faitn  to  leave  his  domains,  and  when  they 
remained  treated  them  as  slaves.    He  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Hunneric. 


GENTIAN 

SUFmS,  in  medicine,  the  root  of  tbe  plant 
gentiaTUt  luUa,  growing  wild  in  the  monntaiu- 
oaa  portions  of  Earope,  and  imported  into  tbe 
United  States  from  German;.  Some  other 
gpecies  are  also  ii»ed  for  medicioal  porposes. 


GENTILES 


679 


One  of  these,  known  as  the  blae  gentian  (&. 
Cat«ib<ti),  is  found  in  tlie  grassy  awamps  of  tbe 
Oarolinas,  and  ao  closely  resembles  in  its  prop- 
erties tbe  officinal  geotitm,  that  it  is  ased  at 
the  eonth,  and  ia  introduced  into  the  catalogue 
.  of theUnitodStatespharmocopoaia.  Itsflowere 
are  blue;  those  of  the  foreign  gentian  are  yel- 
low, wLioli  ia  also  the  color  of  the  powdered 
root  Both  have  at  first  a  sweetish  taste, 
fbllowed  bj  intense  bitterness;  and  both  yield 
their  medicinal  qnalities  to  water  and  alcohol. 
Its  bitter  principle,  called  gentiopicrine,  is  sol- 
uble in  water  and  alcohol,  and  is  neither  an 
acid  nor  an  alkdoid,  but  ranksasagluooaide. 
The  Swiss  and  Tjrolese  macerate  the  plant  in 
cold  wtiter,  and  the  sugar  it  contains  cauung 
it  to  ferment  on  standing,  tliej  distil  from  it  a 
spirituous  liquor,  bitter  and  un|ileasant,  but 
much  used  bj  them.  As  a  tonic  it  has  been 
used  from  remote  times,  and  the  name  is  aaid 
to  have  been  given  to  it  from  Gentiiis,  a 
king  of  Illyria.  It  is  funnd  as  an  ingredient 
in  many  of  the  ancient  receipts  transmitted 
from  the  Greeks  and  Bomans.  Its  effecte 
closely  resemble  those  of  the  other  pure  bitters, 
snch  as  quassia  and  Colombo.  In  small  doses 
and  in  suitable  cases  it  increases  the  appetite, 
and  invigorates  digestion.  In  large  doses,  or 
in  cases  to  which  it  is  not  adapted,  it  is  liable 
to  disagree  with  tbe  stomach,  exciting  nausea 
and  irritating  the  bowels,  and  cannot  Uierefore 
be  administered  without  due  reference  to  the 
condition  of  these  organs.  It  is  given  in  gir- 
der, in  extract,  infusion,  tincture,  or  sirnp. 
The  powder  has  been  used  as  an  external 
opplication  to  ulcers.  In  convalescence  from 
fevers  and  acute  diseases,  when  there  is  little 
appetite  and  a  feeble  digestion,  gentian  often  in- 
creases the  former  and  aids  tbelatter.    It  is  not 


well  bome  when  there  is  any  irritat)<xi  or  in- 
flammation of  the  mncons  membrane  of  the 
stomach.  The  tincture  contains  a  targe  pro- 
portion of  alcohol,  and  its  physiolo^cal  and 
therapeutical  value  is  affected  by  this  ingre- 
dient, whose  presence  should  not  be  forgptten 
by  those  who  take  or  administer  it.  A  cra- 
ving for  ardent  spirits  may  be  engendered  by  tbe 
long  continued  use  of  tincture  of  gentian  and 
similar  tinctures. — Besides  the  native  gentian 
mentioned  above,  there  are  several  others  foond 
in  the  Atlantic  states,  among  the  most  conspic- 
uous of  which  is  the  closed  gentian,  0.  An- 
dreumi;  the  inflated  club-shaped  blue  corolla 
of  this  species  never  opens  at  the  month.  One 
of  the  most  beautiful  of  all  wild  flowers  ia  the 
fringed  gentian,  0.  erinita,  a  much-branched 
annual  or  biennial  species  found  in  low  grounds 
inantnmn;  the  oorollaisabouttwo  inches  long, 
the  tobe  and  its  elegantly  fringed  lobes  of  a 


deep  sky-blue.  The  alpine  gentians,  6.  aeau- 
li»,  0.  vema,  Q.  Pyrtnaiea,  and  others,  which 
are  among  tbe  gems  of  European  flower  gar- 
dens, are  rarely  seen  in  this  country,  as  onr 
soils  become  too  dry  in  summer  to  suit  their 
alpiue  nature. 

CENTlLiS  (the  equivalent  of  the  Heb.  goyim 
and  Or.  W»oi),  the  name  by  which  the  Jews 
distinguished  all  other  nations  or  geatei  from 
themselves.  In  its  religious  bearing  it  nearly 
corresponded  to  our  word  heathen  ;  for  all 
who  were  not  Jews,  and  circumcised,  they 
regarded  as  excluded  from  all  the  religions 
privileges  and  relations  by  which  they  were 
ao  greatly  exalted.  In  the  writings  of  St.  Paul 
the  gentiles  are  generally  denoted  as  Greeks. 
Tbe  court  of  the  gentiles  about  the  temple 
was  the  outer  space,  marked  off  by  a  wall  or 
balustrade  breast  high,  within  which  strangers 
were  forbidden  to  enter,  though  they  might 
come  as  far  as  the  barrier  to  present  their 
ofierings.    This  explains  the  meaning  of  Paul, 


680 


GENTILESCHI 


GEODE 


when  he  speaks  of  '^  the  middle  wall  of  parti- 
tion^^ between  Jews  and  gentiles  as  being 
broken  down  by  the  gospel. 

fiENTILESCm,  Ondo,  an  Italian  painter,  whose 
family  name  was  LoMi,  born  in  Pisa  in  1563, 
died  in  London,  or  according  to  some  authori- 
ties in  Rome,  about  1646.  At  the  invitatioii  of 
Charles  I.  he  took  up  his  residence  at  the  court 
of  England,  and  decorated  the  palace  at  Green- 
wich and  other  buildings.  Vandyke  .included 
him  in  his  portraits  of  100  illustrious  men. 

6ENTRY,  a  N.  W.  county  of  Missouri,  inter- 
sected by  Grand  river  and  drained  by  its  E. 
and  W.  forks ;  area,  about  600  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  11,607,  of  whom  56  were  colored.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  61,765  bushels 
of  wheats  640,951  of  Indian  corn,  135,555  of 
oats,  44,929  of  potatoes,  177,884  lbs.  of  butter, 
52,641  of  wool,  and  11,082  tons  of  hay.  There 
were  5,516  horses,  4,014  milch  cows,  7,553 
other  cattle,  18,756  sheep,  and  20,585  swine ; 
3  flour  mills,  14  saw  mills,  and  a  woollen  fac- 
tory.   Capital,  Albany. 

CrENTZ,  Frlediich  tw^  a  German  diplomatist 
and  publicist,  bom  in  Breslau  in  1764,  died  in 
Vienna,  June  9,  1832.  He  was  considered  a 
dunce  until,  in  his  21st  year,  he.  attended 
Eant^s  lectures  at  Ednigsberg,  when  his  mind 
was  awakened,  and  he  became  familiar  with 
the  Greek  and  Roman  classics,  and  mastered 
French  and  English.  Returning  to  Berlin, 
where  he  had  previously  studied,  he  became  a 
favorite  in  the  highest  circles,  and  commenced 
a  career  of  gallantry,  adventure,  and  author- 
ship. In  1793  he  published  a  translation  into 
German  of  Burke^s  "Essay  on  the  French 
Revolution,"  with  copious  notes.  In  1794  he 
translated  and  annotated  Mallet  du  Pau^s  book 
on  the  same  subject,  and  in  1795  Mounier^s. 
In  1799  he  visited  England,  and  for  20  years 
he  was  in  correspondence  with  leading  mem- 
bers of  the  British  ministries,  for  whom  he  drew 
up  many  papers  on  taxation  and  finance.  In 
1802  he  visited  Vienna,  and  on  Sept.  6  of  that 
year  was  engaged  by  the  emperor  Francis  as  a 
councillor.  He  was  sent  to  England  to  nego- 
tiate an  alliance,  and  drew  up  the  Austrian 
manifesto  of  1805.  Gentz  was  furiously  as- 
sailed in  Napoleon^s  bulletins,  and  as  the  court 
of  Vienna  was  fearful  of  being  compromised  by 
his  further  presence,  he  was  directed  to  leave 
the  capital,  and  for  a  time  he  used  his  skilful 
pen  in  combatinj?  Napoleon  in  Prussia.  He 
was  recalled  to  Vienna  by  Mettemich  in  1809, 
wrote  the  Austrian  manifesto  of  that  year,  and 
subsequently  proved  himself  merely  the  tool  of 
his  employer.  He  took  an  active  part  in  the 
congress  of  Vienna,  assisted  in  framing  the 
treaty  of  the  holy  alliance,  and  acted  as  secre- 
tary at  the  congresses  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  Trop- 
pau,  Laybach,  and  Verona.  He  wasted  his 
talents  in  sophistical  pleas  for  reaction  and  po- 
litical quietism,  and  his  means  in  extravagance 
and  dissipation.  His  diaries  were  found  among 
the  literary  remains  of  Vamhagen  von  Ense 
and  published  in  1861  (complete  ed.,  2  vols., 


Leipsic,  1874).  His  BrUfe  an  Pilat^  a  contri- 
bution to  recent  German  history,  was  edited  by 
Earl  Mendelssohn-Bartholdy,  with  a  biographi- 
cal notice  (2  vols.,  Leipsic,  1868). 

GEBfUS,  a  closely  allied  group  of  animals  or 
plants,  characterized  by  ultimate  structural 
peculiarities.  Great  confusion  prevails  among 
describers  in  the  formation  of  genera,  from 
their  considering  form  and  complication  of 
structure  as  generic  characters,  whereas  the 
former  is  characteristic  of  families,  and  the 
latter  of  orders;  hence  generic,  family,  and 
ordinal  characters  are  mixed  up  in  the  deter- 
minations of  almost  aU  naturalists  from  LinneDus 
to  the  present  time,  and  genera  have  been  un- 
necessarily and  absurdly  multiplied.  Genera 
are  subdivisions  of  families,  and  species  are  sob- 
divisions  of  genera ;  the  former,  as  has  been 
stated,  are  limited  by  ultimate  structural  pecu- 
liarities, while  the  latter  bear  a  closer  relation 
to  each  other  and  to  their  special  localities, 
their  existence  being  also  confined  within  a 
definite  period.  Generic  peculiarities  extend 
to  the  most  minute  details  of  structure  of  teeth, 
hair,  scales,  cerebral  convolutions,  distribution 
of  vessels,  arrangement  of  intestinal  folds  and 
appendages,  and  microscopic  anatomy  of  the 
organs ;  so  complete  is  this  identity  of  structure 
that  (in  the  words  of  Agassiz,  "  Essay  on  Clas- 
sification," part  i.,  chap.  1)  if  an  animal  were 
"submitted  to  the  investigation  of  a  skilful 
anatomist,  after  having  been  mutilated  to  such 
an  extent  that  none  of  its  specific  characters 
could  be  recognized,  yet  not  only  its  class,  or 
its  order,  or  its  family,  but  even  its  genus,  could 
be  identified  as  precisely  as  if  it  were  perfectly 
well  preserved  in  all  its  parts."  Every  species 
of  the  genus  vulpes  (fox),  for  example,  has  the 
same  dental  formula,  toes  and  claws,  and  other 
generic  characters,  whether  arctic,  tropic,  or 
temperate,  American,  European,  or  Asiatic^  in 
its  habitat.  Genera  may  or  may  not  resemble 
each  other  in  form ;  they  usually  have  a  wide 
geographical  range,  and  are  less  modified  in 
their  characters  by  physical  and  external  agen- 
cies. The  generic  distinctions  of  the  tettudu 
natn  or  tortoises,  both  land  and  marine,  found- 
ed principally  on  the  characters  of  the  skuU, 
jaws,  skin,  and  feet  (see  Agassiz,  "  Natural 
History  of  the  United  States,"  vol.  i.),  give  an 
admirable  idea  of  what  constitutes  a  genus^  as 
distinguished  from  families  and  orders. 

6E0DE,  a  hoUow  shell  of  stone,  commonly 
of  quartz,  found  in  various  rocks,  and  usually 
lined  with  crystals  pointing  toward  the  centre. 
These  crystals  are  for  the  most  part  of  quartz, 
often  amethystine.  Among  the  amygdaloids 
of  the  trap  are  found  geodes  of  agate  and  chal- 
cedony, the  shell  made  up  of  concentric  layers 
of  these  variously  colored  silicious  matters.  Be- 
sides quartz  crystals,  others  of  calcareous  spar, 
analcime,  &c.,  are  found  in  the  cavities  of 
geodes.  8ome  of  the  most  remarkable  speci- 
mens of  this  kind  in  the  quartz  geodes  are  found 
in  low  stages  of  water  loose  in  the  rapids  of 
the  upper  Mississippi  river.  ExtemiJly  they  are 


GEODESY 


GEOFFROY  SAINT-HILAIRE     681 


rongb  and  unsightly,  of  light  brown  color,  and 
of  dl  sizes  np  to  12  or  15  inches  in  diameter ; 
when  broken  theypresent  beautiful  groups  of 
quartz  crystals,  water  is  sometimes  found  in 
the  geodes  holding  the  silex  in  solution,  and 
making  with  it  a  milky-looking  mixture.  As 
the  water  evaporates  the  silex  has  been  known 
to  suddenly  form  into  delicate  crystals.  Such 
geodes  were  at  one  time  abundantly  found  on 
Brier  creek  in  Scriven  or  Burke  co.,  Ga.,  in  a 
rock  composed  of  homstone  and  jasper ;  the 
milky  fluid  contained  in  them  was  used  by  the 
inhabitants  as  a  paint  or  whitewash.  (^^  Ameri- 
can Journal  of  Science,"  vol.  viii.,  p.  286.) 

GEODESY  (Gr.  717,  earth,  and  do^'etv,  to  divide), 
the  science  and  art  of  laying  out  divisions  of 
the  earth's  surface  upon  a  large  scale.  It  differs 
from  ordinary  surveying  in  its  measurements, 
being  constantly  referred  to  the  spherical  sur- 
face upon  which  they  are  made,  and  reduced  to 
the  same  horizontal  level.  Oorrections  also  are 
made  for  horizontal  parallax  in  computing  the 
value  of  instrumental  observations,  and  the 
calculus  of  probabilities  is  applied  to  resolve 
their  differences.  Its  object  may  even  be  the 
determination  of  the  spherical  curvature  of 
portions  of  the  surface,  which  is  accomplished 
by  the  aid  of  extended  series  of  astronomical 
observations  made  in  connection  with  the  most 
exact  measurements.  The  methods  of  conduct- 
ing these  operations,  and  contending  with  the 
numerous  causes  of  error  incident  to  the  im- 
perfection of  the  instruments  and  powers  em- 
ployed, are  treated  in  the  article  Coast  Sub- 
vet.  The  most  important  results  in  regard 
to  the  figure  and  dimensions  of  the  earth,  de- 
duced from  a  comparison  of  the  most  extensive 
and  accurate  geodetical  surveys,  are  given  in 
the  articles  Eabth  and  Deobee. 

GEOFFREY  OF  MONMOIITH,  an  old  English 
chronicler,  bom  about  1100,  died  about  1154. 
He  is  supposed  to  have  received  his  education 
in  the  Benedictine  monastery  near  Monmouth, 
where  he  compiled  his  Chronieon  Hve  Jffistaria 
Britonunij  to  which  he  probably  owed  his 
promotion  in  1152  to  the  see  of  St.  Asaph. 
Geoffrey's  chronicle  professes  to  be  a  transla- 
tion from  an  old  Welsh  manuscript  which  one 
Walter  Oalenius,  an  archdeacon  of  Oxford,  dis- 
covered in  Brittany,  and  which  he  requested 
him  to  render  into  Latin.  That  some  part  of 
the  work  is  a  translation  there  seems  to  be  no 
doubt,  as  its  main  features  agree  with  the  his- 
tory of  Nennius,  written  several  centuries  pre- 
vious; but  so  numerous  are  the  legends  and 
fables  interwoven  into  it,  and  so  extensive  is 
the  period  it  embraces  (from  Brut,  the  great- 
grandson  of  ^neas,  to  the  death  of  Cad  wall  a- 
der  or  Ceadwalla,  king  of  Wessex,  in  688),  that 
its  historical  value  is  very  inconsiderable.  If 
historians  are  inclined  to  doubt  the  veracity  of 
Geoffrey,  the  readers  of  romance  are  indebted 
to  him  for  having  preserved  and  perhaps  re- 
constructed the  legends  of  Arthur  and  his 
knights.  The  work  was  originally  divided  into 
eight  books,  to  which  Geoffi*ey  added  the  book 


of  Merlin's  "  Prophecies,"  and  was  first  printed 
at  Paris  in  1508.  The  best  recent  editions  are 
those  of  J.  A.  Giles  (1842)  and  Bohn  (1848), 
both  of  which  are  reprints  from  a  translation 
by  Aaron  Thompson  published  in  1718. 

GEOFFBIN,  Mirle  Th^r^  a  French  lady,  bom 
in  Paris,  June  2,  1699,  died  there  in  Octo- 
ber, 1777.  Her  father,  M.  Rodet,  was  in  the 
service  of  the  dauphiness.  She  was  barely 
15  when  she  married  M.  Geoffnn,  a  manufac- 
turer, who  was  ridiculed  on  account  of  his 
mental  inferiority  to  his  wife,  but  whose  for- 
tune enabled  her  to  dispense  hospitalities  to 
distinguished  persons.  She  became  a  widow 
in  a  few  years,  and  remained  to  the  end  of  her 
life  one  of  the  most  conspicuous  leaders  of 
European  society.  She  counted  among  her 
friends  Diderot,  D'Alembert,  Horace  Walpole, 
Hume,  and  Gibbon.  Count  Stanislas  Poni- 
atowski  was  a  constant  visitor  at  her  house, 
and  she  rescued  him  from  prison  by  paying  his 
debts.  When  elected  king  of  Poland  in  1764, 
he  said  to  her,  Maman^  votre  jfila  est  roi.  On 
her  visiting  him  at  Warsaw  in  1766,  the  lead- 
ing members  of  the  Polish  nobility  came  to 
meet  her  on  the  road,  and  the  king  had  a  resi- 
dence prepared  for  her.  Passing  through  Vi- 
enna, she  was  received  with  great  distinction 
by  the  empress  Maria  Theresa  and  her  son  Jo- 
seph II.  She  was  unceasing  in  her  assistance 
to  literary  men,  especially  to  those  connected 
with  the  Bneyeiapedie,  toward  the  publication 
of  which  she  is  said  to  have  contributed  more 
than  100,000  francs.  Though  intimately  asso- 
ciated with  philosophers  and  free  thinkers,  she 
was  somewhat  of  a  devotee,  and  her  daughter, 
who  became  the  wife  of  the  marquis  de  la  Fert6- 
Imbault,  attempted  to  wean  her  altogether 
from  intercourse  with  her  former  friends.  But 
it  was  only  during  the  last  year  of  her  life 
that  she  was  prevailed  upon  to  deny  her  soci- 
ety to  the  encydopfedists.  Morellet  published 
in  1812  £loges  de  Madame  Geofftin^  compri- 
sing his  eulogy  of  her  and  those  by  D^  Alembert 
and  Thomas,  and  several  of  her  letters. 

GEOFTOOT  SAOrr-HILAIRE.  I.  itteue,  a 
French  zoologist,  born  in  £tampes,  April  15, 
1772,  died  in  Paris,  June  19,  1844.  He  was 
educated  for  an  ecclesiastical  life,  but  evinced 
a  taste  for  natural  philosophy,  and  had  gained 
some  proficiency  as  a  mineralogist  when  the 
revolution  broke  out.  Hafly  having  been  in- 
carcerated as  a  recusant  priest,  his  pupil  man' 
aged  to  procure  his  liberation,  and  at  the  peril 
of  his  life  he  rescued  12  other  priests  from 
prison,  on  the  very  eve  of  the  massacre  of 
September,  1792.  A  few  months  later  he  was 
appointed  to  a  subordinate  office  in  the  jardin 
ae»  plantes,  and  in  1793,  on  the  reorganization 
of  this  establishment  under  the  name  of  muse- 
um of  natural  history,  he  was  made  professor 
of  zodlogy.  Through  his  exertions,  the  old 
specimens  were  put  in  order,  new  ones  were 
procured,  and  the  zoological  collections  became 
the  richest  in  the  world.  In  1795  he  welcomed 
to  Paris  George  Cuvier,  then  entirely  unknown 


682     GEOFFROY  SAINT-HILAffiE 


GEOGRAPHY 


to  fame.  In  concert  thej  pursued  researches 
in  comparative  anatomy,  and  at  that  time  each 
of  them  had  bat  a  fiunt  conception  of  the  op- 
posite systems  upon  which  they  were  to  sepa- 
rate 85  years  later.  In  1798  Geoffroy  was  one 
of  the  scientijSc  commission  that  accompanied 
Bonaparte  to  Egypt ;  remaining  there  until  the 
surrender  of  Alexandria  in  1801,  he  was  one 
of  the  founders  and  most  active  members  of 
the  Egyptian  institute,  thoroughly  explored  the 
country,  gathered  valuable  collections  of  natu- 
ral specimens,  and  carried  them  to  France. 
The  papers  in  which  he  described  these  speci- 
mens attracted  general  attention,  and  resulted 
in  his  election  to  the  academy  of  sciences  in 
1807.  In  1809  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
zo<$logy  in  the  faculty  of  science  at  raris,  which 
post  he  filled  for  years  simultaneously  with 
that  at  the  museum.  From  1812  to  1815  his 
scientific  occupations  were  partly  interrupted 
by  sickness  and  political  activity.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  chamber  of  deputies  during  the 
hundred  days;  but  on  the  second  restoration 
he  returned  to  his  wonted  pursuits.  He  applied 
himself  to  demonstrating  the  principle  of  which 
Bufifon  and  Goethe  had  had  but  a  glimpse,  the 
unity  of  organic  composition  among  the  vari- 
ous kinds  of  animals ;  and  he  founded  what  he 
called  the  '^  theory  of  analogues.*^  The  unity 
of  composition,  according  to  his  idea,  is  the 
law  of  identity  in  the  materials  composing 
the  organs  of  animals  of  different  families,  and 
which,  although  infinitely  varying  in  shape, 
bulk,  and  use,  are  still  the  same  in  all,  and 
discover  a  single  plan;  while  the  theory  of 
analogues  is  the  method  through  which  the 
unity  of  composition  is  demonstrated.  As  to 
the  unequal  sizes  among  the  various  creatures, 
and  monstrosities  in  individuals,  they  are  ex- 
plained by  the  principle  of  arrest  of  develop- 
ment. These  principles,  at  once  bold  and  ori- 
ginal, were  in  direct  contradiction  to  those 
which  Cuvier  had  adopted  as  the  basis  of  his 
comparative  anatomy;  and  this  opposition, 
which  had  been  silentiy  going  on  for  years,  at 
last  broke  out  openly,  July,  1880,  in  the  sittings 
of  the  academy  of  sciences.  The  contest  be- 
tween the  two  illustrious  champions  caused  a 
deep  sensation  throughout  the  scientific  world 
of  Europe.  Notwithstanding  the  superiority 
of  Cuvier  as  an  orator  and  scientific  expound- 
er, the  victory  was  left  undecided,  and  many 
among  the  learned  sided  with  Geofiroy,  whom 
Goethe  hailed  as  an  apostie  of  the  true  syn- 
thetic doctrine*  Whatever  may  have  been 
his  faults,  he  is  incontrovertibly,  after  Cuvier, 
one  of  the  most  important  contributors  to  the 
advancement  of  the  science  and  philosophy 
of  natural  history.  His  views  contain  much 
of  the  transcendental  element  of  the  German 
physio-philosophers,  and,  if  carried  to  their 
legitimate  conclusions,  lead  to  doctrines  di- 
rectly opposed  to  the  prevalent  philosophy  of 
final  causes.  (See  Philosophical  Anatomt.) 
Among  his  numerous  works  and  papers,  which 
embrace  nearly  all  branches  of  zoology,  we 


refer  specially  to  the  following :  Philosophie 
anatomique  (2  vols.  8vo,  1818-^22),  which 
contains  the  exposition  of  his  doctrine ;  Prin- 
eipea  de  la  phUoMphie  eoologigue  (8vo,  1830), 
which  gives  a  synopsis  of  his  discussions  with 
Cuvier;  £tudes  progremvet  dPun  naturalute 
(4to,  1885);  Notions  gynpheUqueidephilosi^hie 
naturelle  (8vo,  1888) ;  FragmenU  hiographiqun 
(8vo,  1888) ;  SUtoire  naturelle  de$mamm\ftre8^ 
in  coi\junction  with  Fr6d6ric  Cuvier  (fol.,  1820- 
^42).  He  also  contributed  to  several  great 
publications,  and  especially  to  the  description 
of  Egypt  by  the  scientific  commission  of  which 
he  was  a  member.  It  was  not  till  1840  that 
he  gave  np  active  life  on  account  of  blindness ; 
a  few  months  later  he  had  a  stroke  of  paraly- 
sis ;  but  he  withstood  his  last  sufferings  with 
admirable  equanimity.  His  eulogy  was  de- 
livered by  M.  Flourens  in  1852  at  the  academy 
of  sciences.  An  excellent  biogri^hy  had  been 
previously  published  by  his  son  under  the  title 
Vie^  tra^aiim  et  doctrine  »eient\/ique  d^£ttenn€ 
Gtoffiroy  Saint-HOaire  (Paris,  1847).  II.  l^ 
dcre,  a  French  zoologist,  son  of  the  preceding, 
born  in  Paris,  Dec.  16,  1806,  died  there,  Nov. 
10,  1861.  Under  the  direction  of  his  father 
he  devoted  himself  to  natural  philosophy,  be- 
came assistant  naturalist  at  tlie  museum  when 
only  19  years  old,  and  in  1880  delivered  zodl<^- 
cal  lectures  in  that  institution  as  his  father^s 
substitute.  Three  years  later  he  was  elected 
to  the  academy  of  sciences.  He  was  then 
publishing  a  great  work  in  which  he  enlarged 
upon  a  branch  of  the  natural  system  outlined 
by  his  father;  this  was  his  Mistoire  generals 
et  partieuli^e  dee  anomaliea  de  Vorganisation 
eheB  Vhomme  et  lee  animauXy  ou  traite  de  tera- 
tologie  (8  vols.  8vo,  with  an  atias,  1832-^6). 
On  its  completion  he  was  appointed  assiatant 
lecturer  to  his  father  at  the  &culty  of  sciences, 
afterward  filled  some  important  offices  in  the 
university,  and  in  1850  resigned  the  post  of 
general  inspector  to  resume  the  chair  of  zoology. 
He  devoted  his  leisure  to  his  Hietoire  naturelle 
g^nerale  dee  rlgnes  organiques,  of  which  but 
two  volumes  were  published  (1854,  1859).  He 
also  paid  much  attention  to  the  domestication 
of  foreign  animals  in  France,  as  appears  from 
his  treatise  Domeetieation  et  naturalieaium 
dee  animaux  utiles  (1854),  and  advocated  the 
use  of  horse  fiesh  as  food  in  his  Lettree  $ur  le9 
euhetancee  alimentairee^  et  partimUi^ement  eur 
la  f>iande  de  eheval  (1856). 

GEOGKAPHT  (Gr.  >f ,  the  earth,  and  jpofetv^ 
to  write),  the  description  of  the  earth.  Tho 
science  comprises  three  principal  divisions; 
mathematical,  physical,  and  political  geogra- 
phy. Mathematical  or  astronomical  geography 
treats  of  the  figure,  magnitude,  and  motion  of 
the  earth ;  of  the  construction  of  globes,  and  the 
solution  of  problems ;  of  the  mode  of  deter- 
mining the  position  of  places  on  the  earth ^s 
surface,  and  of  representing  any  portion  of 
that  surface  on  maps  or  charts.  Most  of  these 
topics  belong  as  much  to  astronomy  as  to  geog- 
raphy.   (See  Astronomy,  and  Eabth.)    Physi- 


GEOGRAPHY 


683 


cal  geography  treats  of  the  earth  and  its  fea- 
tures of  land,  water,  and  air,  its  animal  and 
vegetable  inhabitants,  without  reference  to 
national  or  political  divisions.  (See  Phtsioal 
Gbogbaphy.)  Political  geography  describes 
the  countries  and  nations  of  the  earth  as  they 
are  politically  divided,  and  deals  with  mankind 
in  weir  social  aspect  and  organization.  The 
details  of  this  branch  of  the  science  will  be 
found  under  the  names  of  the  various  coun- 
tries, cities,  and  towns.  The  Phoenicians  were 
the  first  who  made  any  great  progress  in  ex- 
tending the  bounds  of  geographical  knowledge. 
They  explored  all  the  coasts  of  the  Mediterra- 
nean, and  at  an  early  period  passed  the  strait 
of  Gibraltar,  and  visited  the  Atlantic  shores 
of  Europe  and  Africa,  extending  their  voyages 
northward  and  northeastward  as  far  as  Brit- 
ain and  the  Baltic  coasts,  and  southward  to 
the  tropic  of  Oapricorn.  Their  neighbors,  the 
Hebrews,  probably  acquired  from  them  some 
fknowledge  of  distant  lands.  In  the  Scriptures 
the  remotest  regions  mentioned  are,  to  the 
north,  Gomer  (Gen.  x.),  which  probably  desig- 
nated the  Eimraerii  of  Herodotus,  and  Kir,  the 
Caucasian  region  of  the  Kur ;  to  the  east,  India 
(Esther  i.  1),  and  very  probably  China,  called 
the  distant  "  land  of  Sinim  *'  (Isaiah  xlix.  12) ; 
to  the  south,  Cush  (Ethiopia),  Ludim  or 
Lubim  (Libya),  Dedan  (on  the  Persian  gulf), 
Sheba  (8.  W.  Arabia),  and  Ophir,  concerning 
whose  situation  many  conjectures  have  been 
made,  the  most  probable  of  which  seems  to  be 
that  it  was  in  southern  Asia.  To  the  west, 
the  extreme  land  was  Tarshish,  which  was 
probably  Tartessus  in  Spain,  though  various 
other  identifications  have  been  attempted  by 
critics.  The  first  attempt  to  enlarge  the 
bounds  of  geographical  knowledge  by  an  ex- 
ploring expedition  was  made  by  Necho,  king 
of  Egypt,  shortly  before  600  B.  C.  He  sent 
down  the  Red  sea  into  the  Indian  ocean  a 
fleet  manned  by  Phoenicians,  which  in  the 
third  year,  after  circumnavigating  Africa, 
reached  the  pillars  of  Hercules  or  strait  of 
Gibraltar,  and  returned  to  Egypt  by  the  Med- 
iterranean. The  Phoenicians  asserted  that 
during  a  part  of  the  voyage  the  sun  was  in 
the  north.  -  This  statement,  which  shows  con- 
clusively that  they  must  have  sailed  to  the 
south  of  the  equator,  Herodotus,  naturally 
enough,  wholly  discredited.  The  geographical 
knowledge  of  the  ancients  was  greatly  en- 
larged by  the  Carthaginians,  whose  extended 
commerce  led  necessarily  to  long  voyages,  but 
the  only  authentic  account  of  any  of  their 
maritime  expeditions  which  has  reached  us  is 
that  of  Hanno,  the  time  of  which  is  uncer- 
tain, but  is  plausibly  conjectured  to  have  been 
in  the  5th  century  B.  C.  With  60  vessels  he 
passed  the  strait  of  Gibraltar,  and  sailed  down 
the  coast  of  Africa,  as  some  writers  suppose, 
to  the  gulf  of  Benin,  while  according  to  others 
he  proceeded  no  further  than  the  river  Nun. 
About  820  B.  C,  Pytheas,  a  seaman  of  Massilia, 
the  modem  MarseiUes,   sailed  out   into  the 


Atlantic,  coasted  the  shores  of  Spain  and  Gaul, 
visited  Britain,  and  passing  onward  discovered 
an  island,  which  from  that  time  was  famous 
among  the  ancients  as  Ultima  Thule,  Some 
modern  geographers  have  coi^ectured  that 
this  was  Iceland,  others  that  it  was  Jutland, 
and  others  that  it  was  Shetland ;  but  nothing 
certain  is  known  about  it.  In  a  second  voyage 
he  passed  into  the  Baltic.  The  expedition  of 
Alexander  the  Great,  880  B.  C,  greatly  en- 
larged the  knowledge  of  India.  He  penetrated 
to  the  Hyphasis,  the  modem  Sutlej.  The  am- 
bassadors of  Seleucus,  one  of  his  successors, 
reached  the  G^mges  and  visited  the  city  of 
Palimbothra,  which  was  probably  on  or  near 
the  site  of  the  modem  Allahabad.  Beyond  this 
the  Greeks  seem  to  have  known  little  or  nothing 
of  eastern  Asia.  The  first  systematic  attempt 
at  scientific  geography  was  made  by  Eratos- 
thenes, who  fionrished  at  Alexandria  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  8d  century  B.  C.  The  globu- 
lar form  of  the  earth  was  at  this  time  known 
to  the  scientific  schools  of  Alexandria,  and  the 
system  of  Eratosthenes  was  based  upon  its  rec- 
ognition, though  he  disregarded  the  great  pri- 
mal features  of  modem  geographical  science, 
the  equator,  the  poles,  and  the  tropics.  The 
base  line  of  his  geography  was  a  parallel  drawn 
through  all  the  places  where  it  was  supposed 
that  the  longest  day  was  14^  hours.  It  stretch- 
ed from  Cape  St.  Vincent  in  Spain  eastward 
through  Rhodes,  Asia  Minor,  Persia,  and  India, 
till  it  terminated  at  the  city  of  Thinse,  which 
was  supposed  to  be  on  the  shores  of  the  east- 
em  0(%an,  at  the  utmost  extremity  of  the 
earth.  The  length  of  this  line,  according  to 
Eratosthenes,  was  about  70,000  stadia,  or  a 
little  more  than  8,000  English  miles.  At 
right  angles  to  this  Eratosthenes  traced  a  me- 
ridian which  passed  through  Rhodes  and  Alex- 
andria southward,  through  Syene  and  MeroS, 
till  it  reached  what  was  supposed  to  be  the 
uninhabitable  region,  the  northern  bounds  of 
which  were  fixed  at  12  degrees  from  the  equa- 
tor. Thulewas  regarded  by  Eratosthenes  as 
the  extreme  northern  end  of  the  earth,  and  the 
distance  from  there  to  the  habitable  limit 
toward  the  equator  was  computed  at  88,000 
stadia,  or  nearly  4,400  miles.  Beyond  these 
limits  it  was  commonly  supposed  that  nothing 
existed  but  an  impassable  ocean,  though  Era-* 
tosthenes  cautiously  coivjectures  that  conti- 
nents and  islands  might  be  reached  by  sail- 
ing westward.  Hipparchus^  a  Bithynian  who 
lived  at  Rhodes  and  Alexandria  about  the 
middle  of  the  2d  century  B.  C,  carried  still 
further  the  system  adopted  by  Eratosthenes, 
and  subjected  the  whole  science  of  geography 
to  astronomical  principles.  He  made  numerous 
observations  of  latitude  in  addition  to  the  few 
previously  existing,  and  pointed  out  the  mode 
in  which  longitudes  might  be  ascertained  by 
observing  the  eclipses  of  the  sun  and  moon. 
But  his  discoveries  were  neither  appreciated 
nor  applied  to  any  practical  use  till  long  after 
his  time.    About  a  century  and  a  half  after 


684 


GEOGRAPHY 


Hipparchus,  Strabo,  a  Greek  of  Pontas  and  a 
great  traveller,  wrote  a  geography  which  em- 
bodies all  that  was  known  of  the  science  at  the 
beginning  of  the  Christian  era.  The  countries 
immediately  aronnd  the  Mediterranean  were 
known  with  tolerable  accuracy;  but  the  At- 
lantic shores  of  Europe  were  very  erroneous- 
ly comprehended,  while  of  the  northern  and 
eastern  portions  only  the  vaguest  ideas  were 
entertained.  Nothing  whatever  was  positively 
known  of  Scandinavia,  Russia,  or  northern 
Germany.  The  extent  of  Europe  to  the  east 
and  northeast  was  greatly  exaggerated,  while 
that  of  Asia  was  proportionally  underrated. 
Nothing  was  known  of  Siberia,  Tartary,  China, 
Japan,  or  the  great  Asiatic  archipelago.  The 
Ganges  was  thought  to  have  tln*oughout  an 
easterly  course,  and  to  flow  into  the  eastern 
ocean.  The  Caspian  was  supposed  to  be  the 
limit  of  the  earth  to  the  north,  and  to  be  con- 
nected with  the  easterh  ocean  by  a  sea  oc- 
cupying the  space  now  known  to  be  covered 
by  Siberia  and  Tartary.  Of  Africa  only  the 
northern  part  was  known,  south  of  which 
was  thought  to  be  an  uninhabited  and  unin- 
habitable torrid  zone.  The  belief  in  the  prob- 
ability of  circumnavigating  Africa,  which  had 
existed  in  previous  ages,  was  rejected  by  Strabo, 
though  he  held  to  the  theory  of  an  encircling 
ocean.  The  earliest  Roman  geographer  was 
Pomponius  Mela,  who  wrote  about  the  time 
of  the  emperor  Claudius.  In  his  treatise  De 
Situ  OrbUhe  explains  the  division  of  tlie  world 
into  two  hemispheres :  the  northern  that  part 
of  the  earth  which  is  known,  the  southern 
that  which  is  unknown.  The  former  is  divided 
into  three  great  divisions,  Europe  including  all 
N.  of 'the  Mediterranean  and  W.  of  the  Tanais, 
Africa  all  S.  of  the  Mediterranean  and  W.  of 
the  Nile,  and  Asia  all  the  remainder.  A  still 
more  famous  geographer  was  Ptolemy,  who 
lived  at  Alexandria  about  the  middle  of  the 
2d  century  after  Christ.  At  this  period  the 
Roman  empire  had  reached  its  greatest  extent, 
and  all  its  provinces  had  been  surveyed  and 
were  well  known.  Large  advances  had  been 
made  in  the  knowledge  of  the  countries  out- 
side of  the  empire.  The  notion  of  a  circum- 
ambient ocean  had  been  given  up,  and  an  in- 
definite expanse  of  terra  incognita  substitu- 
ted as  the  supposed  boundary  of  the  world. 
Africa  was  represented  as  stretching  indefi- 
nitely south,  and  it  was  even  carried  round 
to  join  the  east  of  Asia,  so  that  the  Indian 
oc^an  was  enclosed  like  the  Mediterranean. 
In  Europe,  Spain  and  Gaul  were  for  the  first 
time  correctly  delineated,  together  with  the 
southern  part  of  Britain.  The  outline  of  Scot- 
land and  the  relative  position  of  Ireland  are 
very  incorrectly  given.  Thule  is  laid  down 
as  an  island  upward  of  100  m.  long.  From 
its  position  it  is  probable  that  some  part 
of  Norway  was  meant.  Northern  Germany 
and  the  southern  line  of  the  Baltic  coast 
were  tolerably  well  known,  as  was  also  some 
portion  of  Russia  in  the  neighborhood  of  the 


Baltic  and  the  southern  part  of  Russia  in 
Europe.  In  Asia,  great  regions  had  become 
known  sufiiciently  to  make  it  certain  that 
tliey  were  inhabited  by  nomad  tribes  called 
Scythians,  while  from  the  far  east  some  vague 
report  of  China  and  of  the  regions  now  known 
as  Chin-India  had  reached  the  geographer. 
From  the  time  of  Ptolemy  till  the  revival  of 
letters  in  Europe  little  progress  was  made  in 
geographical  knowledge.  In  the  9th  century, 
however,  the  Northmen  discovered  Greenland, 
and  in  the  10th,  according  to  their  sagas,  visit- 
ed the  North  American  continent.  In  the  13th 
century  missions  were  sent  by  the  popes  into 
remote  parts  of  Asia.  Father  John  de  Piano 
Carpini,  with  some  Franciscan  monks,  was  sent 
in  1246  by  Innocent  IV.  to  Xayuk  Khan,  the 
Tartar  emperor,  and  penetrated  as  far  as  Thi' 
bet.  In  1258  Rubruquis,  another  Franciscan, 
was  sent  by  Louis  I  A.  of  France  in  search  of 
Prester  John,  and  penetrated  further  into  Asia 
than  any  European  ever  had  before.  But  the 
greatest  discoveries  in  this  quarter  were  made 
by  Marco  Polo,  a  Venetian,  who  in  12T1  set 
out  with  his  father  and  uncle  on  a  journey 
to  the  court  of  Kublai  Khan,  the  Tartar  con- 
queror of  China.  After  travelling  for  more 
than  three  years  they  reached  Yehking,  near 
where  Peking  now  stands.  Marco  Polo  re- 
sided 24  years  in  the  East,  and  on  his  return 
gave  an  account  of  his  travels,  which  first 
made  known  to  Europe  the  existence  of  Ja- 
pan and  many  of  the  East  Indian  islands  and 
countries.  In  the  16th  century  the  spirit  of 
enterprise  and  geographical  exploration  waa 
strongly  aroused  in  Europe.  Portugal  took 
the  lead,  and  made  great  and  systematic  ef- 
forts to  explore  the  unknown  countries  on  the 
W.  coast  of  Africa.  In  the  year  1412  Cape 
Nun  was  doubled,  and  soon  afterw^ard  the 
islands  of  Porto  Santo  and  Madeira  were  dis- 
covered. In  1484  Benin  and  Congo  were  dis' 
covered,  and  the  coast  explored  for  1,500  m. 
S.  of  the  equator.  In  1486  the  cape  of  Good 
Hope  was  reached,  and  11  years  later  doubled 
by  Yasco  da  Gama.  But  the  greatest  of  all 
geographical  discoveries  was  that  of  the  new 
worid  by  Christopher  Columbus  in  1492. 
From  this  time  forward  the  progress  of  geo- 
graphical exploration  was  exceedingly  rapid. 
Within  80  years  from  the  date  of  the  first  voy- 
age of  Columbus  the  whole  E.  coast  of  Amer- 
ica from  Greenland  to  Cape  Horn  had  been 
explored,  and  Spanish  keds  were  floating  on 
the  Pacific  ocean.  In  1520  Magalhaens  passed 
the  strait  which  bears  his  name,  crossed  the 
Pacific,  and  although  he  was  killed  in  the 
Philippine  islands,  his  vessel,  crossing  the  In- 
dian ocean,  returned  to  Europe  by  way  of 
the  cape  of  Good  Hope,  having  been  the  first 
to  circumnavigate  the  globe.  The  W.  coast  of 
America,  with  the  exception  of  that  portion 
N.  of  the  bay  of  San  Francioco,  was  explored 
before  the  middle  of  the  16th  century,  while 
considerable  progress  was  made  by  the  Span- 
iards in  acquiring  a  knowledge  of  the  interior  of 


GEOGRAPHY 


6S5 


South  America.  At  the  some  time  discovery 
in  the  East  advanced  witli  rapid  strides.  With- 
in 20  years  from  the  time  of  Gama's  arrival  in 
India,  the  coasts  of  £.  Africa,  Arabia,  Persia, 
Uindostan,  and  Farther  India  had  been  ex- 
])lored,  and  many  of  the  islands  of  the  great 
archipelago  discovered.  In  the  16th  and  17th 
centuries  the  progress  of  astronomical  science 
led  to  a  general  revision  of  Ptolemy's  tables 
of  latitude  and  longitude,  which  had  for  ages 
been  received  with  implicit  confidence,  but 
which  more  accurate  observations  now  proved 
to  be  generally  erroneous.  In  the  18th  century 
many  learned  and  laborious  writers,  among 
whom  D^Anville  may  be  particularly  men- 
tioned, applied  themselves  to  the  rectification 
of  the  whole  system  of  ancient  geography, 
and  to  the  identification  of  ancient  with  mod- 
em countries,  cities,  rivers,  mountains,  and 
other  features.  The  desire  to  discover  a 
shorter  route  to  India  than  those  by  Gape 
Horn  and  the  cape  of  Good  Hope  led  the 
English  and  the  Dutch  in  the  16th  century  to 
make  daring  and  persevering  efforts  to  effect  a 
N.  E.  and  a  K.  W.  passage.  For  a  long  time  the 
opinion  prevailed  that  the  northern  extremity 
of  America  terminated,  like  the  southern,  in  a 
point  or  cape,  by  sailing  around  which  the 
mariner  could  enter  the  Pacific  ocean  and 
make  his  way  to  India.  The  expeditions  of 
Sir  Hugh  Willoughby  and  Richard  Chancellor 
in  1568,  of  Frobisher  in  1676-'8,  of  Davis  in 
1685-'7,  of  Barentz  in  1594-'6,  in  search  of 
ihis  northern  route,  greatly  enlarged  the 
knowledge  of  the  arctic  regions,  and  es- 
pecially of  the  N.  E.  part  of  North  America. 
So,  too,  in  the  succeeding  century,  a  similar 
result  followed  from  the  voyages  of  Henry 
Hudson  in  1607-'ll,  and  of  William  BafiSn  in 
1612~'16.  It  was  not  till  the  latter  part  of  the 
18th  century,  however,  that  the  great  breadth 
of  the  upper  part  of  North  America  became 
fully  known  from  the  investigations  of  Capt. 
Cook  in  his  voyages  to  the  Pacific.  The  de- 
termination of  the  distance  from  Behring 
strait  to  the  E.  coast  of  North  America  dis- 
pelled for  a  time  all  expectation  of  a  N.  W. 
passage;  it  was  supposed  that  the  continent 
stretclhed  in  one  imbroken  mass  to  the  pole. 
The  discoveries  of  Hearne  in  1771  and  of 
Mackenzie  in  1789,  by  showing  that  an  ocean 
bounded  America  on  the  north,  dispelled  these 
ideas,  and  in  1818  the  attempt  to  effect  the 
N.  W.  passage  was  revived  by  an  expedition 
commanded  by  Capt.  Ross.  This  was  the  be- 
ginning of  a  series  of  English  and  American 
expeditions  to  the  arctic  regions  which  have 
greatly  advanced  our  knowledge  of  that  part 
of  the  world,  though  without  attaining  the  ob- 
ject for  which  they  were  commenced.  (See 
Abctio  Discovebt.)  Early  in  the  17th  century 
the  Dutch,  while  seeking  for  a  southern  conti- 
nent whose  existence  was  supposed  necessary 
to  balance  the  northern,  discovered  Australia, 
which  they  called  New  Holland,  and  explored 
a  considerable  portion  of  its  coasts.    In  1642 


Tasman  discovered  Van  Diemen^s  Land,  or  Tas- 
mania, as  it  is  now  called.  Soon  afterward 
he  discovered  New  Zealand  and  several  of  the 
Polynesian  groups.  His  explorations  proved 
that  New  Holland  was  an  island,  and  not  a  part 
of  the  southern  continent.  The  famous  Capt. 
Cook  in  his  voyages,  1768-^79,  made  strenuous 
efforts,  without  success,  to  discover  the  southern 
continent ;  but  he  added  largely  to  geographical 
knowledge  by  his  survey  of  the  Pacific  ocean 
and  its  innumerable  islands.  An  expedition 
sent  out  by  the  United  States  in  1888,  under 
command  of  Lieut.  Wilkes,  in  1842  discovered 
a  continent  within  the  antarctic  circle,  por- 
tions of  which  had  been  seen  shortly  before 
by  the  French  and  English  navigators  Dumont 
d^Urville  and  Sir  James  Ross.  (See  Antabo- 
Tio  DiBoovEBT.)  Our  acquaintance  with  the 
interior  of  Asia  has  been  greatly  advanced 
within  the  last  two  centuries  by  Russian,  Eng- 
lish, and  French  conquests,  and  by  a  multitude 
of  travellers,  prominent  among  whom  have 
been  the  Jesuit  missionaries,  so  that  our  gene- 
ral knowledge  of  that  continent  is  tolerably 
complete.  No  great  terra  incognita  remains, 
though  fuller  and  more  precise  information 
about  the  vast  regions  known  as  Tartary  is 
much  to  be  desired.  The  travels  of  Humboldt, 
of  Lewis  and  Clarke,  and  of  Fremont  have  en- 
larged our  acquaintance  with  the  interior  of 
the  American  continent ;  and  during  the  last 
few  years  much  light  has  been  thrown  upon 
it  by  the  various  exploring  expeditions  sent 
out  by  the  government,  and  especially  by 
companies  of  professors  and  students  from 
our  colleges.  The  interiors  of  Australia  and 
of  Africa  are  still  only  partially  known. 
Much  has  been  done  for  the  exploration  of 
the  former  by  Sturt,  Eyre,  Leichardt,  Stuart, 
McEinlay,  Landsborough,  Burke,  the  brothers 
Gregory,  and  others;  while  in  Africa  a  host 
of  travellers  have  struggled  for  a  century  past 
to  penetrate  the  mystery  which  envelops  that 
great  division  of  the  globe.  Foremost  among 
the  African  explorers  have  been  James  Bruce, 
Mungo  Park,  H^jor  Denham,  Lieut.  Clapper- 
ton,  Richard  Lander,  Captains  Burton  and 
Speke,  Dr.  Livingstone,  Dr.  Barth,  Heuglin, 
and  Sir  Samuel  Baker.  Great  additions  to 
our  knowledge  of  the  countries  on  the  upper 
Nile  have  been  made  by  expeditions  sent  by 
the  pasha  of  Egypt,  which  have  penetrated 
far  beyond  the  region  so  long  assigned  on 
our  maps  to  the  mountains  of  the  Moon. 
These  expeditions  and  the  researches  of  Barth, 
Burton,  Livingstone,  Baker,  and  the  mission- 
aries Rebmann  and  Krapt^  have  left  in  ob> 
scurity  only  a  portion  of  that  part  of  Africa 
which  lies  between  Int.  10°  N.  and  10^  S.,  and 
Ion.  12°  and  27°  E.  Dr.  Livingstone  at  the  time 
of  his  death  was  endeavoring  to  penetrate  this 
region. — ^The  remarkable  progress  of  geograph- 
ical discovery  during  the  present  century  may 
be  thus  briefiy  summed  up:  Northern  Asia 
has  been  traversed  by  the  expeditions  sent  out 
by  the  Russian  government;  the  great  fields 


686 


GEOGRAPHY 


GEOLOGY 


of  loentral  Asia  have  been  crossed  in  various 
directions ;  our  knowledge  of  China  has  been 
vastly  increased ;  the  newly  awakeiied  desire 
of  the  Japanese  to  participate  in  the  advan- 
tages of  European  civilization  has  broken  down 
much  of  their  ancient  prejudice  against  foreign- 
ers, and  bids  fair  to  introduce  us  to  an  intimate 
and  exact  knowledge  of  their  country ;  Pales- 
tine has  been  explored  with  wonderful  minute- 
ness ;  the  interior  of  Arabia  has  been  penetra- 
ted ;  the  sites  of  many  of  the  most  renowned 
cities  of  antiquity  have  been  determined ;  the 
Niger  and  the  Benoowe  or  Tchadda  have  been 
traced  almost  throughout  their  extent;  the 
Nile  has  been  traced  to  the  great  lakes  in  the 
equatorial  regions  of  Africa ;  Madagascar  and 
Australia  have  been  crossed  in  various  direc- 
tions from  sea  to  sea ;  the  icy  continent  about 
the  south  pole  has  been  discovered ;  the  delin- 
eation of  the  N.  shore  of  the  North  American 
continent  has  been  completed;  the  principal 
features  of  the  geography  of  that  vast  portion 
of  our  own  territory  lying  between  the  Missis- 
sippi and  the  Pacific  have  been  ascertained, 
and  its  sublime  scenery  has  been  described; 
and  the  river  systems  of  Bouth  America  have 
been  explored.  With  the  exception  of  the  re- 
gions about  the  poles  and  in  the  centre  of 
Africa,  the  general  outhoee  of  every  part  of 
the  earth's  surface  are  known  to  civilized  man. 
— The  literature  of  geography,  to  which  the 
school  of  Carl  Hitter  has  given  its  highest 
degree  of  scientific  development,  has  within 
a  few  years  undergone  a  marked  change.  In- 
stead of  the  formal,  r^^lar  descriptions  of 
the  earth  and  its  inhabitants,  which  were  once 
in  vogue,  gazetteers  and  geographical  diction- 
aries are  now  popular.  The  progress  of  geog- 
raphy has  been  much  aided  during  this  cen- 
tury by  the  efforts  of  zealous  geographical  so- 
cieties. Their  transactions,  issued  periodically, 
contain  a  vast  and  constantly  increasing  mass 
of  information.  Among  the  best  works  on  ge- 
ography are :  Glographie  unwenelle^  by  Malte- 
Brun  (6  vols.  8vo,  Paris,  1810-'29;  revised  by 
Th.  Lavallde,  6  vols.  8vo,  1866-'62),  the  Eng- 
lish translation  of  which  was  revised  by  J.  G. 
Percival,  who  added  notes  (3  vols.  4to,  Boston, 
1884) ;  Die  Oesehiehts  der  Erdhunde,  by  Lttdde 
(1840) ;  Oesehiehte  der  Erdhunde  und  der  EnU 
dechungen,  by  Carl  Ritter  (1861);  Geechichte 
der  Erdhunde  his  auf  Alexander  van  Humboldt 
und  Ca/rl  Ritter,  by  O.  Peschel  (1866);  and 
tiie  works  of  De  Rougemont,  Von  Roon,  Berg- 
haus,  Volger,  Merleker,  Meinicke,  Kldden 
(ffandhuch  d&r  Erdhunde,  1858-'62;  2d  ed., 
1865  et  9eq\  Wapp&us  {Handbuch  der  Geo- 
graphie  und  Statistih,  4  vols.,  1856-71),  and 
Daniel  (ffandbuck  der  Erdhunde,  4  vols.,  3d 
ed.,  1869-72).  For  ancient  geography,  see 
Handbuch  der  alten  Geographie,  by  Forbiger 
(3  vols.,  1842) ;  Smith's  "  Dictionary  of  Greek 
and  Roman  Geography  "  (2  vols.  8vo,  London, 
1864-'7);  Buchholz's  ffamerische  Kornnogror 
phie  und  Geographie  (1871) ;  and  Deutsche 
Alterthumshunde :  SteUung  dee  Fythecu  .  .  . 


in  der  Geeehiehte  der  Erdhunde,  by  K.  MllDen- 
hoff  (1870).  The  principal  geographical  gazet- 
teers and  dictionaries  are:  '* Encyclopiedia  of 
Geography,"  by  Hugh  Murray  (London,  1884; 
Amer.  ed.  revised,  8  vols.  8vo,  Philadelphia, 
1848;  new  ed.,  1867);  "A  Dictionary,  Geo- 
graphical, Statistical,  Historical,*'  &c.,  by  J.  R. 
McCulloch  (4  vols.  8vo,  London,  1841 ;  new  ed., 
1866) ;  Fullarton's  "  Gazetteer  of  the  World  " 
(7  vols.  8vo,  Edinburgh,  1860-'67) ;  "  The  Im- 
perial Gazetteer,"  by  "W.  G,  Blackie  (2  vols,, 
London,  1866;  3d  ed.,  1878);  Ritter's  Geogra- 
phiech'Btatistieehee  Lexihon  (Leipsic,  1865); 
Lippincott's  "Gazetteer  of  the  World"  (Phila- 
delphia,  1866;  new  ed.,  1866);  Keith  John- 
ston's "  Dictionary  of  Geography  "  (revised  ed., 
London,  1867) ;  Dietionnaire  de  geographie  uni- 
verselle,  aneienne  et  modeme,  by  L.  N.  Beeche- 
relle  (4  vols.  4to,  Paris,  1866-'8 ;  new  ed.,  1865) ; 
and  Dietionnaire  vnivereel  d^hietoire  et  de  g^ 
ographie,  by  M.  N.  Bouillet  (1  vol.,  Paris,  1842 ; 
22d  ed.,  1871).  Most  of  the  geographical  socie- 
ties publish  periodicals,  the  principal  of  which 
are  those  of  Paris  (Bulletin,  1822  et  seq.X 
London  ("Journal,"  1831  et  eeq, ;  "Proceed- 
ings," 1856  et  seq.),  Berlm  {ZeitachHft,  1840  et 
seq), '  St.  Petersburg  (1848  et  eeq.),  Geneva 
{Journal,  1861  et  eeq.\  and  Florence  {BollH- 
tino,  1867  et  seq.),  OUier  valuable  geographi- 
cal periodicals  are  Petermann's  Geographieehs 
Mittheilungen  (Gotha,  1865  et  seq,),  and  its  Er- 
gdngzungsh^fte  or  supplements;  Saint-Martinis 
VAnnee  gSographique  (Paris,  1863  et  eeqS); 
and  "Ocean  Highways"  (London,  1871;  new 
series,  1873  et  seq,), 

GEOLOGY  (Gr.  y^,  the  earth,  and  Uyoc^  dis- 
course), the  science  which  treats  of  the  strac- 
ture  of  the  earth,  and  of  the  methods  by  which 
its  materials  have  been  arranged.  Under  this 
term  are  confounded  two  distinct  branches 
of  study,  the  one  being  that  of  the  chemical, 
physical,  and  biolo^c^  laws  which  have  pre- 
sided over  the  development  of  the  globe,  and 
the  other  the  natural  history  of  the  earth  as 
displayed  in  its  physical  structure,  its  strati- 
graphy, mineralogy,  and  paleontology.  The 
name  of  geognosy,  employed  by  some  authors, 
may  be  very  appropriately  retained  for  ihe  lat- 
ter, while  that  of  geogeny  maybe  restricted  to 
the  first  or  theoretical  division  of  geology.  A 
knowledge  of  physical  geography,  of  the  dis- 
tribution of  land  and  water  in  past  and  present 
times,  and  of  the  laws  of  winds,  currents,  and 
climates,  is  one  of  the  first  requisites  in  the 
study  of  geology.  Then  comes  the  investiga- 
tion of  the  various  kinds  of  rocks,  their  ar- 
rangement and  structure,  their  succession  and 
relative  antiquity,  their  chemical  and  mineralo- 
gical  history.  The  investigation  of  the  chemi- 
cal agencies  which  have  presided  over  the 
formation  of  the  various  kinds  of  rocks  and 
minerals  belongs  to  chemical  geology,  while 
the  laws  which  have  regulated  their  de]>osition, 
structure,  and  arrangement  constitute  dynami- 
cal geology.  The  student  finds  that  organic 
life  in  past  time  played  a  part  in  the  earth  not 


GEOLOGY 


687 


less  important  than  it  does  to-da^,  and  the 
Btadj  of  the  organic  remains  found  in  the 
various  rocky  strata,  and  known  as  fossil 
plants  and  animals,  gives  rise  to  departments 
of  botany  and  zoology  which  are  sometimes 
called  palaaobotany  and  palesozodlogy,  bat  are 
more  generally  included  under  the  common 
term  of  paleeontology.  The  changes  that  have 
taken  place  in  the  inorganic  and  organic  world 
introduce  in  their  study  considerations  of  time 
and  progress,  and  the  science  is  found  to  be 
largely  of  a  historical  character;  the  geolo- 
gist, as  Cnvier  remarked,  being  an  antiquary 
of  a  new  order.  Its  historical  element  is  re- 
garded by  Lyell  as  so  prominent  that  he  de- 
fines geology  simply  as  *'  the  science  which 
investigates  the  successive  changes  that  have 
taken  place  in  the  organic  and  inorganic  king- 
doms of  nature."  In  the  present  article  little 
more  will  be  attempted  than  to  present  a  gen- 
eral sketch  of  the  history  and  progress  of  geo- 
logical  science,  a  reference  to  some  principal 
objects  of  its  pursuit,  and  the  system  of  classi- 
fying the  groups  of  rooks  generally  adopted. 
The  history  of  the  science  as  developed  in 
Europe  is  minutely  traced  in  the  familiar  work 
of  Lyell,  "Principles  of  Geology,"  in  which 
the  whole  subject  may  also  be  most  advantage- 
ously studied. — From  the  earlier  times  the 
structure  of  the  earth  has  been  an  object  of 
interest  to  man,  not  merely  on  account  of  the 
useful  materials  he  obtained  from  its  rocky  for- 
mations, but  also  for  the  curiosity  awakened  by 
the  strange  objects  it  presented  to  his  notice. 
The  south  and  west  of  Asia  and  much  of  the 
country  bordering  the  Mediterranean  were  par- 
ticularly favorable  for  directing  attention  to 
geological  phenomena.  Earthquakes  were  fre- 
quent, changing  the  relative  positions  of  sea 
and  land;  volcanoes  were  seen  in  operation, 
adding  layers  of  molten  rock  to  those  of  sand 
and  mud  filled  with  the  shells  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean; the  strata  in  the  hills  abounded  m 
evidences  of  similar  collections  of  vestiges  of 
marine  life  far  removed  from  access  of  the  sea, 
and  yet  unchanged  during  the  period  of  human 
observation  and  tradition ;  the  Ganges  and  the 
Nile,  pouring  forth  their  vast  sedimentary  accu- 
mulations, were  plainly  building  up  the  deltas 
at  their  mouths,  and  the  broad  valleys  reaching 
far  up  their  course  were  unmistakable  produc- 
tions of  the  same  series  of  operations  in  remote 
periods.  These  phenomena  could  not  escape 
the  attention  of  the  philosophers  among  the 
ancient  Egyptians  and  Indian  races ;  and  their 
infiuence  is  perceived  in  the  strange  mixtures 
of  correct  observation  and  extravagant  conceit 
which  make  up  their  cosmogonies  or  universal 
theories  of  the  creation.  In  the  first  chapter 
of  the  ordinances  of  Manu  alternating  periods 
of  destruction  and  of  renovation  are  distinct- 
ly recognized,  extending  in  eternal  succession 
throughout  the  whole  assemblage  of  locomo- 
tive and  immovable  creatures,  each  period 
comprehending  a  duration  of  many  thousand 
ages.  The  Greek  schools  of  philosophy  rec- 
861  VOL.  VII.— 44 


ognized  these  phenomena,  which  were  clearly 
enunciated  by  Ovid  in  presenting  the  doctrines 
of  Pythagoras.  Remarkably  free  from  ex- 
travagant statements,  they  were  applied  to 
prove  a  system  of  perpetual  change  slowly 
modifying  the  surface  of  the  earth.  Aristotle 
recognized  the  interchanges  constantly  taking 
place  between  land  and  sea  by  the  action  of  run- 
ning water  and  of  earthquakes,  and  remarked 
how  little  man,  in  the  short  span  of  his  life,  can 
perceive  of  operations  extending  through  the 
eternity  of  time.  Strabo  distinctly  applied  the 
raising  up  of  land,  not  merely  of  small  tracts, 
but  of  continents  also,  by  earthquake  convul- 
sions, to  account  for  the  perplexing  phenom- 
enon of  beds  of  marine  shells  contained  in  the 
interior  of  hills  far  distant  from  the  sea.  Ara- 
bian philosophers  of  the  10th  century  are  also 
cited  who  entertained  similar  views  of  the 
changes  going  on  and  their  causes. — The  Ital- 
ian philosophers  in  the  early  part  of  the  16th 
century  were  the  first  to  engage  in  systematic 
investigations  concerning  the  true  nature  of 
fossil  shells.  Their  abundance  in  the  strata  of 
the  sub-Apennine  range  could  not  fail  to  arrest 
attention  and  excite  inquiries,  which  were  the 
more  perplexing  from  the  limited  time  allowed 
in  popular  belief  to  the  past  duration  of  the 
earth,  and  from  the  general  persuasion  that  no 
great  catastrophe  except  the  Noachian  deluge 
could  have  occurred  to  modify  its  surface.  Va- 
rious fanciful  explanations  were  therefore  adopt- 
ed in  the  spirit  of  the  scholastic  disputations, 
and  for  three  centuries  argumentations  were 
sustained  with  much  spirit  on  the  questions; 
first,  whether  fossil  remains  had  ever  belonged 
to  living  creatures ;  and  secondly,,  admitting 
this,  whether  all  the  phenomena  could  not  be 
explained  by  the  deluge  of  Noah.  Among  those 
distinguished  for  the  soundness  qf  their  views- 
in  the  commencement  of  this  controversy  are 
Leonardo  da  Vinci,  the  celebrated  painter,  who 
died  in  1619,  and  Fracastoro,  whose  attention 
was  engaged  by  the  multitude  of  curious  petri- 
factions which  were  brought  to  light  in  1517  in 
the  mountains  of  Verona,  in>  quarrjring  mate- 
rials for  repairing  the  city.  He  exposed  the 
absurdities  of  the  theories  which  referred,  the 
petrifactions  to  a  certain  plastic  force  in  nature 
that  could  fashion  stones  into  organic  forms, 
and  showed  the  inadequacy  of  the  traditions^' 
deluge  to  bring  together  the  marine  fossils  that: 
form  solid  strata  of  the  earth.  About  this* 
time  collections  of  these  curiosities  were  made 
for  public  museums  and  private  cabinets ;  they 
were  deposited  in  the  museum  of  the  Vatican 
at  Rome,  and  that  of  Oanceolarius  at  Veronn 
became  famous  for  them.  Descriptive  cata- 
logues of  these  collections  were  published ;  and 
as  early  as  1565  appeared  one  of  tlie  collection 
of  J.  Keutman  in  Gesner's  work  De  Berum 
Foasilium,  Lapidum  et  Oemmarum  FiffurU. 
In  1580  Palissy  was  the  first  who  dared  assert 
in  Paris  that  fossil  remains  of  testacea  and  fishes 
had  once  belonged  to  marine  animals.  The 
truth  made  but  slow  progress  in  the:  face  o£ 


688 


GEOLOGY 


estabKshed  prejudices.  In  1669  Steno,  pro- 
fessor of  anatomy  at  Padno,  pablished  his  work 
De  Solido  intra  Solidum  naturaliUr  Contento^ 
in  which  he  proved  the  identity  of  the  fossil 
teeth  foand  in  Tuscany  with  those  of  living 
sharks,  and  the  close  similarity  of  the  fossil 
testacea  to  living  species ;  he  traced  their  pro- 
gressive change  from  unaltered  shells  to  solid 
petrifactions,  and  recognized  the  distinction 
between  formations  deposited  by  salt  and  by 
fresh  water,  and  that  some  were  of  an  earlier 
period  than  the  introduction  of  plants  and  ani- 
mals upon  the  earth.  But  neither  he  nor  Scil- 
la,  the  Sicilian  painter,  who  in  his  Latin  treatise 
on  the  fossils  of  Oalabria,  illustrated  by  good 
engravings  (1670),  ably  maintained  the  organic 
nature  of  fossil  shells,  ventured  to  refer  their 
occurrence  in  the  strata  to  any  other  cause  than 
the  Mosaic  deluge.  Leibnitz,  the  great  mathe- 
matician, in  his  Protogaa  (1680),  first  proposed 
the  theory  of  the  earth  having  originally  been 
a  burning  luminous  mass,  which  since  its  crea- 
tion has  been  cooling  down,  and  as  it  cooled 
received  the  condensed  vapora  which  now  com- 

Eose  its  crnst.  In  one  stage  of  its  formation 
e  believed  it  was  covered  with  a  universal 
ocean.  From  these  materials  I^eibnitz  traced 
two  classes  of  primitive  formations,  the  one  by 
refHgeration  from  igneous  fusion,  the  other  by 
concretion  from  aqueous  solution.  The  first 
recognition  of  the  arrangement  of  the  earthy 
materials  in  strata,  continuous  over  large  areas, 
and  resembling  each  other  in  different  coun- 
tries, appears  to  have  been  by  Dr.  Lister,  who 
sent  to  the  royal  society  of  London  in  1683  a 

Proposal  for  maps  of  soils  or  minerals.  He  also 
elieved  that  species  had  in  past  ages  become 
extinct.  Dr.  Robert  Hooko  near  the  close  of 
the  17th  century  prepared  a  "Discourse  on 
Earthquakes,^^  which  contains  the  most  philo- 
sophical views  of  the  time  respecting  the  nature 
of  fossils  and  the  effects  of  earthquakes  in  rais- 
ing up  the  bed  of  the  sea.  William  Woodward 
was  a  distinguished  observer  of  the  geological 
formations  of  Great  Britain,  and  perceived  that 
the  lines  of  outcrop  of  the  strata  were  parallel 
with  the  ranges  of  the  mountains.  About  1695 
he  formed  a  collection  of  specimens,  which  he 
systematically  arranged  and  bequeathed  to  the 
university  of  Cambridge.  •  For  this  he  pur- 
chased the  original  specimens  and  drawings 
of  fossil  shells,  teeth,  and  corals  of  Scilla.  But 
his  geological  system  was  cramped  by  the  at- 
tempt to  make  it  conform  to  the  received  in- 
terpretation of  the  Scriptural  account  of  the 
creation  and  deluge.  The  Italian  geologists 
Vallisneri  in  1721,  Moro  in  1740,  and  Generelli 
in  1749,  advanced  the  most  philosophical  views 
yet  presented  respecting  the  fossiliferons  strata, 
and  sustained  them  by  original  observations 
made  by  the  first  two  throughout  Italy  and 
among  the  Alps.  Moro  endeavored  to  make 
the  i)roduction  of  strata  correspond  in  time 
to  the  account  of  the  creation  of  the  world 
in  six  days,  and  hence  was  compelled  to  refer 
them  to  volcanic  Sections,  which  by  floods,  he 


imagined,  were  distributed  over  the  surfiiKse 
of  the  earth  and  piled  up  in  strata  with  mar- 
vellous celerity.  Buffon  advanced  views  re- 
specting the  formation  and  modification  of 
mountains  and  valleys  by  the  action  of  water, 
in  his  "  Natural  History ''  (1749),  a  portion  of 
which,  contained  in  fourteen  propositions,  he 
was  required  by  the  fiiculty  of  theology  in  Paris 
to  renounce.  This  he  did  in  his  n«zt  work, 
accompanying  the  formal  abandonment  of  what 
he  haa  written  contrary  to  the  narration  of 
Moses  with  a  declaration  of  belief  of  all  con- 
tained in  the  Scripture  about  the  creation,  both 
as  to  order  of  time  and  matter  of  fact. — Geology 
did  not  begin  to  assume  the  rank  of  an  impor- 
tant science  until  its  application  to  the  practical 
{mrposes  of  mining  was  first  pointed  out  in  the 
ast  quarter  of  the  18th  century  by  Werner, 
professor  of  mineralogy  in  the  school  of  mines 
at  Freiberg  in  Saxony.  This  distinguished  man 
attracted  pupils  from  distant  countries,  and  sent 
them  forth  enthusiastic  geologists  and  advocates 
of  the  views  he  had  conceived  from  his  imper- 
fect observation  of  the  geology  of  a  small  por- 
tion of  Germany.  He  taught  the  systematic 
order  of  arrangement  of  the  strata,  adopting 
nearly  the  same  divisions  that  had  been  ])ro- 
posed  fifty  years  previously  by  Lehmann,  a  Ger- 
man miner.*  He  explained  their  production  as 
the  result  of  precipitation  from  a  common 
menstruum  or  ^^  chaotic  finid,''  which  he  snp- 
posed  had  once  covered  the  whole  sur&ce  of 
the  earth.  As  expounded  by  Jameson  in  1808, 
the  first  precipitates  from  tliis  ocean  were 
chemical,  and  produced  the  crystalline  rocks 
which  lie  at  the  base  of  all  the  others,  and 
which  he  designated  as  the  primitive  clasa. 
They  included  the  granitic  rocks  and  those 
called  crystalline  schists,  such  as  gneiss,  mica 
slate,  clay  slate,  serpentine,  &c.  The  second 
class  comprised  the  rocks  he  calls  transition, 
certain  limestones,  flinty  slate,  gypsum,  gray- 
wacke,  and  trap,  most  of  which  are  probably 
now  included  in  the  palsoozoic  formations. 
They  were  supposed  to  have  been  formed  du- 
ring the  transition  of  the  earth  from  its  chaotic 
to  its  habitable  state,  and  to  have  been  partly 
chemical  and  partly  mechanical  in  their  origin, 
and  due  to  the  action  of  the  waves  and  cur- 
rents. The  third  class  contained  the  rocks  de- 
nominated FloU,  because  as  observed  in  Ger- 
many they  wore  disposed  in  horizontal  or  fiat 
strata.  In  this  were  the  coal  formation,  various 
sandstones,  the  chalk,  rock  salt,  gypsums,  va- 
rious limestones,  and  certain  traps.  They  were 
supposed  to  have  been  formed  while  animnltf 
and  vegetables  existed  in  numbers,  and  to  have 
been  partly  chemical  and  partly  mechanical  in 
their  origin.  The  fourth  class  contained  the 
alluvial  rocks,  those  produced  on  the  land,  as 
peat,  sand  and  gravel,  loam,  bog  iron  ore,  calc 
tuff,  &c.,  being  understood  to  comprise  all  above 
the  chalk  excepting  the  volcanic.  The  fifth 
class  comprised  the  volcanic  rocks,  the  pseudo- 
volcanic,  and  the  true  volcanic;  the  former 
beuig  the  supposed  products  of  the  combustioo 


GEOLOGY 


689 


of  ooal  and  salphnroas  matters,  the  latter  of  real 
Toloanoes.  These  formatlooB  were  supposed 
to  be  systematically  arranged ;  the  later  formed 
either  entirely  covering  the  older,  or,  when 
these  form  a  central  mountain  mass,  encircling 
this,  so  that  the  *^  outgoings"  of  the  strata 
(meaning  their  upper  edges  or  lines  of  outcrop) 
form  circles ;  those  of  the  later  formed  groups 
being  successively  larger.  The  basin  and  trough- 
shaped  deposits  were  also  recognized,  in  which 
the  outgoings  of  the  newer  strata  became  suc- 
cessively smaller.  Tlie  strata,  it  was  under- 
stood, were  subject  to  local  disturbances  from 
portions  sinking  into  subterranean  cavities,  and 
members  might  be  wanting  in  some  localities, 
but  whenever  present  must  be  found  in  their 
proper  position  in  relation  to  the  others.  Ba- 
salt, which  in  Saxony  and  Hesse  was  seen  cap- 
ping the  hills  of  stratified  rocks,  he  inferred 
must  be  of  the  same  series  of  precipitated  for- 
mations, although  many  other  geologists  of 
Werner ^s  time  had  fully  established  the  anal- 
ogy between  this  rock  and  modern  lavas. 
The  observations  of  Desmarest,  especially  in 
the  district  of  extinct  volcanoes  in  Auvergne, 
made  in  1768,  are  referred  to  by  Lyell  as 
most  clearly  tracing  the  origin  of  the  basalts 
to  the  craters  of  the  volcanoes.  A  new  con- 
troversy now  arose,  which  for  many  years  was 
waged  with  animosity  and  bitterness  unprece- 
dented in  disputes  of  this  class.  Geologists 
throughout  Europe  were  divided  into  the  tvvo 
classes  of  Neptunists,  who  advocated  the  pro- 
duction of  the  rocks  by  aqueous  deposition 
alone,  and  Vulcanists,  who  attributed  the  ori- 
gin of  many  of  them  to  the  action  of  fire. 
They  were  also  called,  from  the  names  of  their 
respective  leaders,  Wemerians  and  Button i- 
ans.  Dr.  Hutton  of  Edinburgh  had  studied 
geology  for  himself  in  different  parts  of  Scot- 
land and  England,  and  formed  his  own  con- 
clusions, which  he  ably  sustained.  He  was 
the  first  to  announce  that  geology  had  no  con- 
cern with  questions  as  to  the  origin  of  things, 
but  that  the  true  field  of  its  investigations  was 
limited  to  the  observation  of  phenomena  and 
the  application  of  natural  agencies  to  explain 
former  changes.  His  friend  Sir  James  Hall 
showed  by  actual  experiment  that  the  prismatic 
stmctare  of  basalt  might  result  in  cooling  from 
a  state  of  igneous  fusion  ;  and  Hutton  himself 
found  in  the  Grampian  hills  the  granite  branch- 
ing out  in  veins,  which  extended  from  the 
main  body  through  the  contiguous  micaceous 
slates  and  limestone,  thus  indicating  its  having 
been  in  a  fused  state  at  a  time  subsequent  to 
the  production  of  Werner^s  primitive  rocks. 
This  discovery  soon  led  to  questioning  the  ex- 
istence of  any  primitive  class  of  rocks  the 
origin  of  which  lay  beyond  the  reach  of  the 
present  order  of  things ;  and  the  announcement 
made  by  Hutton,  ^^  In  the  economy  of  the 
world  I  can  find  no  traces  of  a  beginning,  no 
prospect  of  an  end,"  may  well  have  startled 
men  of  science  and  shocked  the  religious  public 
in  the  sensitive  condition  to  which  it  had  been 


bronght  by  the  infidel  doctrines  promulgated  in 
the  latter  part  of  the  last  century,  especially  by 
men  of  letters  in  France.  The  Vulcanists  came 
to  be  classed  with  the  enemies  of  Scripture,  the 
true  object  of  investigation  was  lost  sight  of, 
and  the  controversy  was  continued  with  such 
animosity  that  the  party  names  at  last  became 
terms  of  reproach,  and  many  geologists  avoid- 
ed being  involved  in  it.  Workers  in  the  field, 
however,  were  collecting  new  and  valuable  data 
that  were  to  give  to  the  science  a  more  exact 
character.  William  Smith,  a  civil  engineer, 
prepared  in  1793  a  tabular  view  of  the  strata 
near  Bath,  tracing  out  their  continuity  over 
extensive  areas,  and  recognizing  them  by  the 
fossils  they  contained.  This  me^od  of  identi- 
fication and  of  arranging  strata  in  their  true 
positions  he  taught  himself^  and  was  the  first 
to  promulgate  in  England.  With  extraordinary 
perseverance  he  continued  to  prosecute  his 
work  alone,  travelling  on  foot  over  all  England, 
freely  communicating  his  observations,  and  in 
1815  he  completed  a  geological  map  of  the 
whole  country.  In  France  the  importance  of 
fossils  as  characteristic  of  formations  was  also 
beginning  to  be  appreciated.  Lamarck  and 
Defrance  earnestly  engaged  in  the  study  of  fos- 
sil shells,  and  the  former  in  1802  reconstructed 
the  system  of  conchology  to  introduce  into  it 
the  new  species  collected  by  the  latter  in  the 
strata  underlying  the  city  of  Paris.  Six  years 
previous  to  this  Guvier  had  established  the 
difTerent  specific  character  of  fossil  and  living 
elephants,  which  opened  to  him,  as  he  said, 
views  entirely  new  respecting  the  theory  of  the 
earth,  and  determined  him  to  devote  himself 
to  the  researches  which  occupied  the  remain- 
der of  his  life.  In  1807  the  geological  society 
of  London  was  established,  with  the  professed 
object  of  encouraging  the  collection  of  data, 
multiplying  and  recording  observations,  with 
no  reference  to  any  "  theories  of  the  earth." 
Its  active  members  completed  the  classification 
and  description  of  the  secondary  formations  of 
Great  Britain,  so  well  commenced  by  William 
Smith ;  while  at  the  same  time  the  tertiary 
formations  were  thoroughly  investigated  by 
Guvier,  Brongniart,  and  others  in  Paris.  Thus 
each  country  contributed  to  the  advancement 
of  geological  science  in  the  department  connect- 
ed with  its  most  prominent  formations :  Ger- 
many in  that  of  the  lower  stratified  and  crystal- 
line rocks,  and  especially  in  the  mineralogical 
structure  of  these,  while  in  Scotland  the  char- 
acter of  the  granitic  rocks  had  been  more 
particularly  elucidated,  in  England  that  of  the 
secondary  strata  and  their  order  of  arrange- 
ment, and  in  France  the  tertiary.  The  great 
principles  gradually  developed  by  these  obser- 
vations were :  that  the  materials  of  the  stratified 
rocks  were  sedimentary  deposits  that  had  slow- 
ly accumulated  in  the  beds  of  ancient  seas  and 
lakes ;  that  each  stratum  represented  a  certain 
period  during  which  its  materials  were  gath- 
ered, and  that  this  period  was  characterized 
by  its  peculiar  group  of  organized  beings,  the 


690 


GEOLOGY 


vestiges  of  which  were  huried  and  remaiiied 
with  it  as  records  of  the  condition  of  this  por- 
tion of  the  earth  during  this  time.  The  piles 
of  strata  of  varioos  kinds  indicated  changes  in 
the  character  of  the'  deposits  introduced,  sand- 
stones formed  from  sand,  alternating  with  shales 
formed  from  muddy  and  clayey  deposits,  and 
with  calcareous  strata,  whose  origin  may  have 
been  m  marl  beds  or  the  remains  of  calcareous 
organisms.  The  long  succession  of  these  strata, 
in  connection  with  the  evidences  of  their  slow 
accumulation,  observed  in  the  undisturbed  con- 
dition of  the  fossil  remains  which  they  con- 
tained, bore  witness  to  long  periods  occupied 
in  the  production  of  a  single  group  of  strata 
constituting  but  a  minor  division  of  one  of 
the  formations.  The  lapse  of  long  periods  was 
also  indicated  by  the  fossils  found  in  beds  of 
older  date  becoming  constantly  more  and  more 
nnlike  existing  species.  The  same  localities, 
too,  presented  in  their  successive  beds  some 
that  were  filled  with  marine  vestiges  alone,  cor- 
allines and  sea  shells,  in  layers  of  such  thick- 
ness that  ages  must  have  passed  while  they 
were  quietly  accumulating;  and  above  or  be- 
low these  were  found  other  strata  indicating 
that  the  surface  at  another  period  was  covered 
with  fresh  water,  the  organic  remains  which 
they  contained  bein^  only  of  the  character  of 
those  belonging  to  ponds  and  rivers ;  and  yet 
again  these  localities  became  dry  land,  and 
were  covered  with  the  forests  of  tropical 
dimes,  and  peopled  with  numerous  strange 
species  of  animids,  whose  nearest  living  ana- 
logues are  met  with  only  in  hot  countries. 
Such  changes  as  these  dso  plainly  marked 
slowly  progressing  revolutions,  the  period  of 
which  no  one  could  compute  by  years.  It  was 
apparent  that  the  sediments  bad  collected  as 
beds  of  sand  and  clay  now  collect  in  seas  and 
lakes,  and  especially  about  the  mouths  of  large 
rivers ;  but  it  was  only  in  such  as  were  evident- 
ly the  product  of  the  streams  of  the  present 
day  that  the  organic  vestiges  were  recognized 
as  belonging  entirely  to  familiar  species.  In 
these  alone  were  discovered  any  relics  of  man 
or  any  indications  of  his  existence ;  and  here 
they  were  not  wanting,  for  in  the  calcareous 
strata  in  process  of  formation  and  filled  with 
recent  species  of  shells  human  remains  have 
been  found.  But  with  the  first  step  backward 
the  bones  of  extinct  gigantic  mammalia  intro- 
duce us  to  strange  groups  of  animals,  and  no 
satisfactory  evidence  is  afforded,  either  in  the 
strata  or  in  tradition,  that  man  was  their  con- 
temporary. Thus  in  the  closest  connection, 
geologically  speaking,  are  we  presented  with 
the  most  striking  examples  of  other  great 
principles  developed  by  geological  research, 
viz.,  the  extinction  of  old  and  the  introduction 
of  new  species. — In  consequence  of  the  system 
of  observation  and  close  investigation  now  es- 
tablished, geology  lost  its  highly  speculative 
character,  and  rapid  progress  continued  to  be 
made  in  acquiring  correct  information  of  the 
arrangement  of  the  strata  of  different  coun- 


tries. While  the  defects  of  Wemer^s  daanfi- 
cation  were  exposed,  the  general  plan  of  it 
was  seen  to  be  founded  in  nature,  and  atten- 
tion was  directed  to  collecting  everywhere  the 
materials  for  filling  out  the  vertical  oolumn  of 
the  rocks,  as  well  as  mapping  them  throngh- 
ont  their  horizontal  range.  In  eveTj  conntry 
some  formations  could  be  recognized,  fi-om 
which  as  a  base  a  local  classification  might 
proceed  to  contiguous  groups,  and  thus  at  last 
the  whole  be  included  in  one  system  of  classi- 
ilcation.  So  the  work  of  descriptive  geologj 
has  ever  since  been  going  on,  new  discov- 
eries continually  adding  to  its  completeneHS 
and  helping  to  the  compilation  of  a  perfect 
system,  which  in  this  cose  should  present  a 
full  chart  of  the  rocks  from  the  lowest  or 
oldest  to  the  uppermost  or  newest.  Strata 
lying  in  juxtaposition  in  one  region,  when 
identified  in  another,  are  found  to  be  sep- 
arated by  the  interpolation  of  a  new  series; 
and  again,  in  tracing  out  over  broad  areas  a 
group  of  sedimentary  strata,  they  are  found 
gradually  to  assume  new  features,  and  even 
to  undergo  an  entire  change  of  chemical  com- 
position. The  deposits  over  different  parts  of 
the  ocean^s  bed  are  found  to  be  here  sands  and 
gravels  brought  by  currents,  and  there  soft  cal> 
careoas  muds,  the  remains  of  minute  animal 
organisms  accumulated  in  still  waters.  The 
organic  remains  as  well  as  the  mineral  char- 
acter of  these  contemporary  deposits  present 
wide  differences.  From  the  mode  of  their  for- 
mation it  is  evident  that  all  stratified  forma- 
tions must  be  of  limited  area,  and  must  thin 
away  at  their  edges,  presenting  the  shape  of 
lenticular  sheets  lapping  upon  each  other. — In 
1819  the  geological  society  of  London,  through 
the  labors  of  Mr.  Greenough  and  his  friends, 
published  a  map  of  England  which  was  a  great 
improvement  upon  that  of  Smith.  About  the 
same  time  Leopold  von  Buch  prepared  a  simi- 
lar map  of  a  large  part  of  Germany.  A  geo- 
logical survey  of  France  was  ordered  in  1822 
bv  the  French  government,  by  which  a  com- 
plete geological  map  of  France  was  finally 
constructed  in  1841.  M.  Bronchant  de  Villiera, 
professor  in  the  school  of  mines,  was  appointed 
to  take  charge  of  the  work,  and  with  him 
were  associated  £lie  de  Beaumont  and  Dnfr6- 
noy.  The  attention  of  these  geologists  was 
first  given  to  an  examination  of  the  strata  above 
the  coal  formation  of  England,  where  thej  had 
been  most  carefully  studied  and  particularly 
described  by  Conybeare  and  Phillips  in  their 
treatise  on  *^The  Geology  of  England  and 
Wales  "  (1821).  The  secondary  strata  of  Ger- 
many also  were  familiar  to  geologists;  and 
both  countries  consequently  furnished  impor- 
tant points  of  reference  for  the  arrangement 
of  the  CTOups  of  France.  The  chalk  forma- 
tion of  Paris,  the  upper  member  of  the  sec- 
ondary, served  as  the  starting  point,  and  pro- 
ceeding from  this  they  examined  in  detail  the 
lower  strata  as  they  appeared  successively 
emerging  from  beneath  it,  and  identified  tbem^ 


GEOLOGY 


691 


as  tbej  could,  with  the  corresponding  gronps 
of  other  coantries.  Such  is  the  method  ever 
since  pursued,  hy  which  oar  knowledge  of  the 
strata  which  make  up  the  outer  crust  of  the 
earth  has  been  systematically  extended.  The 
importance  of  the  organic  remains  found  itf 
the  rocks  has  been  more  and  more  appreciated, 
and  the  shells  constituting  the  chief  portion 
of  these  have  been  most  thoroughly  studied ; 
for  while  the  different  formations  or  groups  of 
strata  may  contain  numerous  similar  beds  of 
limestone,  sandstone,  slates,  and  shales,  not  to 
be  distinguished  by  their  mineral  characters, 
and  which  frequently  cannot  be  traced  to  their 
meeting  with  other  known  formations  by  which 
their  place  or  relative  positions  may  be  deter- 
mined, the  fossils  show  no  such  indiscriminate 
distribution.  Each  period  was  characterized 
by  its  peculiar  group  of  animated  beings,  and 
if  their  arrangement  is  understood  it  follows 
that  the  position  of  any  stratum  in  whicli  the 
fossils  are  recognized  must  also  be  determined. 
A  single  species  may  in  some  cases  be  peculiar 
to  one  member  of  a  geological  formation,  and 
serve  wherever  the  fossil  is  found  to  identify 
the  rock;  but  usually  in  different  countries 
their  identification  by  fossils  is  dependent  upon 
characteristic  genera  and  the  order  of  succes- 
sion of  their  principal  groups.  This  branch 
of  the  subject  will  be  more  particularly  treated 
in  the  article  Pal^bontologt. — In  the  latter 
part  of  the  last  and  early  part  of  the  present 
century  papers  upon  geological  subjects  occa- 
sionally appeared  in  the  transactions  of  the 
American  philosophical  society  of  Philadelphia, 
the  transactions  of  the  American  academy,  and 
in  other  scientific  journals.  The  character 
of  these  papers  is  idmost  exclusively  descrip- 
tive. There  is,  however,  a  theory  of  the  earth 
proposed  by  Franklin  in  the  *^  Philosophical 
Transactions ''  of  1793 ;  and  in  vol.  vi.  appeared 
the  memorable  essay  of  William  Maclure,  read 
Jan.  20,  1809,  entitled  **  Observations  on  the 
Geology  of  the  United  States,  explanatory  of 
a  Greological  Map."  The  author  of  this  paper 
had  undertaken  a  more  arduous  and  gigantic 
work  even  than  that  which  was  occupying 
William  Smith  of  England ;  it  was  no  less  than 
a  geological  survey  of  the  United  States  alone 
and  at  his  sole  expense— b  work  which  entitled 
him  to  the  appellation  he  has  received  of  the 
father  of  American  geology.  In  this  pursuit 
he  crossed  the  Alleghanies  fifty  times,  visited 
almost  every  state  and  territory  in  the  Union, 
and  for  years  continued  his  labors  mostly  among 
those  who  could  have  no  appreciation  of  his 
objects.  He  had  visited  nearly  all  the  mining 
districts  of  Europe,  and  thus  was  well  qualified, 
for  one  of  that  period,  to  recognize  the  cor- 
responding formations  of  the  two  continents. 
He  traced  out  the  great  groups  of  strata  then 
designated  as  the  transition,  secondary,  and 
alluvial,  in  their  range  from  the  St.  Lawrence 
to  the  gulf  of  Mexico.  The  tertiary,  however, 
he  did  not  recognize,  owing  to  the  absence  of 
the  chalk  formation,  the  upper  member  of  the 


secondary,  which  in  Europe,  being  largely  de- 
veloped and  most  conspicuous,  marks  the  strata 
of  more  recent  ori^n  lying  above  it  as  tertiary. 
He  continued  his  explorations  after  this  report, 
and  in  May,  1817,  presented  another  to  the 
philosophical  society,  accompanied  by  a  color- 
ed map  and  sections.  His  observations  were 
also  extended  in  1816  and  1817  to  the  Antilles^ 
and  a  paper  upon  the  geology  of  these  islands 
was  published  in  the  first  volume  of  the  *'  Jour- 
nal of  the  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences." 
Prof.  Silliman  of  New  Haven,  educated  to  the 
profession  of  the  law,  was  induced  by  Presi- 
dent D wight  of  Yale  college  to  qualify  himself 
for  the  departments  of  natural  science,  par- 
ticularly chemistry;  and  with  this  view  he 
spent  some  time  previous  to  1806  in  England 
and  Scotland,  in  Edinburgh  he  became  fa- 
miliar with  the  discussions  of  the  Wernerians 
and  Huttonians  in  that  transition  period,  as  he 
styles  it,  between  the  epoch  of  geological  hy- 
pothesis and  dreams  and  the  era  of  strict  phil- 
osophical induction  in  which  the  geologists  of 
the  present  day  are  trained.  The  interest  ex- 
cited by  this  controversy  could  not  fail  to  di- 
rect his  tastes  toward  the  new  science,  and  he 
returned  to  become  it6  zealous  promoter,  for 
half  a  century  or  more  aiding  to  elucidate  the 
geology  of  his  country,  inspiring  the  enthusiasm 
of  others,  and  furnishing  in  the  **  American 
Journal  of  Science "  an  organ  for  the  diffu- 
sion of  scientific  knowledge.  At  that  period 
(1804-*6),  he  says,  geology  was  less  known  in 
the  United  States  than  mineralogy.  Most  of 
the  rocks  were  without  a  name,  except  so  far 
as  they  were  quarried  for  economical  purposes, 
and  classification  of  the  strata  was  quite  un- 
known. Dr.  Archibald  Bruce  of  New  York 
commenced  in  1810  the  publication  of  a  jour- 
nal devoted  principally  to  mineralogy  and  ge- 
ology, the  earliest  purely  scientific  Journal  sup- 
f sorted  by  original  American  communications, 
t  was  well  received  at  home  and  abroad,  but 
appeared  only  at  wide  intervals,  and  ended 
with  the  fourth  number.  The  mineralogical 
collections  at  the  principal  colleges,  and  others 
belonging  to  scientific  men  mostly  in  New 
York,  promoted  inquiry  and  observation  con- 
cerning the  geological  relations  of  the  miner- 
als and  their  distribution.  The  admirable  trea- 
tise on  mineralogy  by  Prof.  Parker  Oleaveland^ 
published  in  1816,  fostered  while  it  gratified 
this  spirit  of  inquiry.  In  1818  the  brothers 
Prof.  J.  F.  Dana  and  Dr.  Samuel  L.  Dana  pub- 
lished a  detailed  report  on  the  mineralogy  and 
geology  of  the  vicinity  of  Boston.  In  the  same 
year  was  first  published  the  **  American  Jour- 
nal of  Science,"  which  has  continued  ever  since 
to  be  the  chief  periodical  American  recorder 
of  the  progress  of  the  sciences.  The  next  year 
the  American  geological  society  held  its  first 
meeting  at  New  Haven,  where  it  continued  to 
meet  annually  for  several  years.  The  impor- 
tance of  geological  explorations,  with  the  view 
of  thereby  ascertaining  the  agricultural  and 
minerd  capacities  of  large  districts,  was  be- 


69^ 


GEOLOGY 


ginning  to  be  appreciated  by  communities  and 
public  bodies.  In  1820  a  geological  Burvej  of 
the  count  J  of  Albany,  N.  Y.,  was  made  under 
the  direction  of  the  agricultural  society  of  the 
county  by  Prof.  Amos  Eaton  and  Dr.  T.  R. 
Beck.  Two  years  afterward  Rensselaer  and 
Saratoga  counties  were  also  thus  explored. 
Prof.  Eaton  was  also  engaged  by  Gen.  Stephen 
Yan  Rensselaer  to  make  at  his  expense  a  geo- 
logical survey  of  the  country  a^acent  to  the 
Erie  canal.  The  result  of  this  was  published 
in  1824  in  a  report  of  160  pp.  8vo,  with  a  profile 
section  of  the  rock  formations  from  the  Atlantic 
ocean  through  Massachusetts  and  New  York 
to  Lake  Erie,  the  Rev.  Edward  Hitchcock  fur- 
nishing many  of  the  details  through  Massachu- 
setts. The  first  geological  survey  made  by  state 
authority  was  that  of  North  Carolina  in  1824 
and  1825,  by  Denison  Olmsted.  Since  that 
time  there  have  been  various  surveys  by  the 
different  states  or  by  the  federal  government, 
of  which  we  shall  notice  the  most  important 
historically.  Beginning  at  the  northeast,  early 
surveys  were  made  of  Maine,  New  Hampshire, 
and  Rhode  Island,  by  Dr.  0.  T.  Jackson,  in 
1885-41 ;  of  Massachusetts,  by  Edward  Hitch- 
cock, in  1830-'40;  of  Connecticut,  by  J.  G. 
Percival  and  0.  U.  Shepard,  in  1836,  and  of 
Vermont  in  1845-'6,  a  work  which  was  con- 
tinued by  Edward  Hitchcock  and  his  son,  0. 
H.  Hitchcock,  in  1858-60,  the  latter  of  whom 
is  now  (1874)  engaged  in  a  resurvey  of  New 
Hampshire.  In  1836  was  commenced  the  sur- 
vey by  II.  D.  Rogers  and  his  assistants  of  the 
state  of  Pennsylvania,  which  was  not  com- 
pleted till  1855,  The  survey  of  New  York  in 
1886-'42,  by  Vanuxem,  Emmons,  Mather,  and 
Hall,  may  be  said  to  have  opened  a  new  era 
in  American  geology  by  giving  a  complete  and 
systematic  classification  of  the  palaeozoic  rocks 
within  its  borders,  which  has  served  as  a  basis 
for  all  subsequent  work  to  the  east  of  the 
Rocky  mountains.  The  description  of  the  or- 
ganic remains  of  the  state  by  Prof.  James  Hall 
is  still  incomplete,  but  five  large  quarto  vol- 
umes have  been  published.  The  surveys  of 
Michigan  in  1887-^46  by  Houghton,  and  of  the 
Lake  Superior  region  in  1847-9  by  Jackson, 
and  subsequently  by  J.  D.  "Whitney  and  J.  W. 
Foster,  served  to  extend  our  knowledge  of  the 
paleozoic  rocks  to  the  westward.  From  that 
time  to  the  present  systematic  surveys  of  the 
various  states  of  the  great  Mississippi  valley 
have  been  or  still  are  in  progress,  and  have 
already  given  us  a  pretty  accurate  knowledge 
of  the  geology  of  the  whole  of  this  vast  region. 
The  history  of  this  work  is  too  long  for  the 
present  occasion,  and  it  may  seem  invidious  to 
mention  names  among  workers  in  this  great 
field ;  but  a  prominent  place  should  be  given, 
in  addition  to  those  just  mentioned,  to  D.  D. 
Owen,  B.  F.  Shumard,  Swallow,  J.  T.  Hodge, 
Worthen,  Newberry,  Safford,  E.  W.  Hilgard, 
Cox,  and  Tuomey.  Nor  should  the  important 
labors  of  Oscar  Lieber  in  South  Carolina  and 
of  Emmons  in  North  Carolina  be  forgotten, 


nor  the  elaborate  survey  of  Virginia  by  Wil- 
liam B.  Rogers,  of  which  only  partial  reports 
have  been  published.  The  geology  of  the  west- 
em  portion  of  our  continent  presents  charac- 
ters widely  different  from  that  already  noticed, 
and  is  now  attracting  great  attention.  Much 
important  information  was  gathered  by  the  la- 
bors of  W.  P.  Blake  and  J.  S.  Newberry  in  the 
course  of  the  gi'eat  railroad  surveys  undertaken 
by  the  national  government ;  and  the  geologi- 
cal work  has  been  continued  iii  the  important 
survey  of  the  40th  parallel  under  Clarence 
King,  and  that  of  the  Rocky  mountain  region 
by  J.  V.  Hay  den.  These  labors  are  still  in 
progress,  as  is  ialso  a  geological  survey  of  Cali- 
fornia under  J.  D.  Whitney,  and  the  great  geo- 
logical features  of  this  region  are  being  rapidly 
made  known.  Much  progress  has  also  been 
made  in  the  study  of  the  geology  of  British 
North  America.  A  geological  survey  of  Can- 
ada, embracing  the  present  provinces  of  Onta- 
rio and  Quebec,  was  begun  in  1842  under  Sir 
W.  E.  Logan,  with  whom  were  associated  for 
many  years  Mr.  Alexander  Murray  and  Dr.  T. 
Sterry  Hunt.  In  1870  Mr.  A.  R.  C.  Selwyn 
succeeded  Logan  in  the  present  Dominion  of 
Canada,  including  the  British  territory  west 
to  the  Pacific,  the  field  of  the  survey  being 
thus  greatly  extended.  The  provinces  of  Nova 
Scotia  and  New  Brunswick  were  early  exam- 
ined by  Gesner,  since  which  time  Matthew 
Bailey,  Hartt,  Hind,  Hunt,  and  Dawson  have 
done  much  to  develop  their  geology.  The  last 
named  has  especially  studied  the  carboniferous 
rocks  of  that  region.  A  survey  of  Newfound- 
land is  in  progress  under  Alexander  Murray. 
The  labors  of  the  late  Sir  John  Richardson, 
Hector,  Hind,  and  others,  have  done  much  to 
elucidate  the  structure  of  the  great  region 
north  of  Canada,  until  lately  known  as  the 
Hudson  Bay  territory, — With  this  brief  sketch 
of  the  progress  of  geological  research  in  North 
America,  we  may  now  proceed  to  discuss  the 
general  principles  of  geological  classification, 
and  to  illustrate  them  by  especial  reference  to 
American  geology.  The  great  groups  intro- 
duced by  Werner  remain  essentially  unchanged, 
but  many  alterations  in  nomenclature  and  va- 
rious subdivisions  and  reclassifications  have 
since  been  adopted,  some  of  which  require  no- 
tice. Besides  the  great  distinction  between 
crystalline  and  uncrystalline  rocks  is  that  of 
stratified  and  unstratified  rocks,  having  refer- 
ence not  to  their  intimate  structure,  bat  to 
their  geognostical  relations.  The  stratified 
rocks  include  all  those  which  appear  to  be  ar- 
ranged in  beds  or  strata,  whether  crystalline 
or  not;  and  the  unstratified,  those  which,  like 
granites,  traps,  basalts,  and  voloanio  lavas,  oc- 
cur in  masses  which  are  destitute  of  snch  ar- 
rangement, and  appear  to  have  been  forced 
into  their  present  position  while  in  a  mope  or 
less  softened  or  molten  condition.  These  are 
often  spoken  of  as  eruptive,  irruptive,  or  in- 
trusive rocks.  They  are  with  a  few  exceptions 
crystalline,  and  in  certain  cases  are  not  readily 


GEOLOGY 


693 


distinguished  from  those  crystalline  stratified 
rooks  in  which  the  bedding  is  ill  defined,  either 
from  having  been  obscore  from  the  first  or 
else  obliterated  by  subseoaent  crystallization. 
There  are  strong  reasons  for  believing  that  the 
stratified  crystalline  rooks,  by  a  process  of  soft- 
ening and  subsequent  displacement  or  erup- 
tion, gave  rise  to  the  unstratified  rocks  with 
which  they  are  often  mineralogically  identical ; 
and  hence  the  names  of  indigenous  and  exotic 
crystallines  have  been  proposed  by  Dr.  Hunt 
to  designate  respectively  the  stratified  and  the 
eruptive  rocks.  A  third  class  of  crystalline 
rooks  is  also  to  be  distinguished,  viz.:  those 
which  occur  as  veinstones  in  the  fissures  of  other 
rooks,  and  have  probably  been  deposited  from 
watery  solutions.  Such  are  the  quartz  and 
spars  which  form  the  gangue  of  many  metallic 
ores,  and  a  large  part  of  the  so-called  granite 
veins.  The  rocks  of  this  third  class,  from  their 
mode  of  formation,  are  designated  by  Dr.  Hunt 
as  endogenous  crystallines.  It  is  in  some  cases 
imposuble  to  determme  from  its  mineralogical 
characters  to  which  of  these  three  classes  a 
given  crystalline  rock  belongs.  The  unstratified 
crystalline  or  eruptive  rocks  include  the  mod- 
em volcanic  lavas,  which  are  evidently  the  pro- 
ducts of  igneous  fusion,  and  the  whole  class 
is  therefore  sometimes  designated  as  igneous 
rocks.  It  is  supposed  however  that  many  of 
these  rocks,  as  for  example  the  exotic  granites, 
have  never  been  in  a  state  of  igneous  fusion, 
but  have  assumed  a  plastic  condition  by  the  in- 
tervention of  water  under  great  pressure  and  at 
a  temperature  far  below  that  of  fused  lavas. 
They  have  hence  been  called  by  some  geologists 
plutonic  and  by  others  hypogene  rocks,  the  lat- 
ter name  signifying  rocks  generated  beneath, 
in  allusion  to  their  obvious  subterranean  source. 
The  distinctly  stratified  and  sedimentary  char- 
acter of  the  great  formations  of  crystalline 
rocks,  and  the  obvious  analogies  which  they 
present  in  this  respect  to  the  uncrystalline  for- 
mations, early  attracted  the  attention  of  geol- 
ogists. In  both  occur  intercalated  layers  of 
limestones,  argillites,  and  conglomerates;  and 
the  question  naturally  arose  as  to  the  origin 
of  the  gneisses,  mica  schists,  diorites,  serpen- 
tines, chlorite  schists,  and  talc  schists,  which 
are  the  characteristic  rocks  of  these  crystalline 
stratified  formations.  That  the  elements  of 
these  had  in  some  way  been  deposited  from 
water,  like  the  beds  of  sand,  mud,  and  carbo- 
nate of  lime  of  uncrystalline  strata,  seemed 
obvious;  and  hence  the  conclusion  that  they 
were  once,  like  the  latter,  uncrystalline  strata, 
which  had  subsequently  changed  their  form. 
In  accordance  with  this  notion,  they  were  des- 
ignated metamorphic  strata,  and  this  term  is 
by  many  geologists  used  as  synonymous  with 
stratified  crystalline  rocks.  It  was  noticed  that 
in  s(«ie  instances  uncrystalline  sediments  had 
assumed  a  crystalline  character  in  the  imme- 
diate vicinity  of  certain  erupted  rocks ;  the  ef- 
fect of  heat,  or  more  probably  of  the  heated  so- 
lutions impregnating  the  last,  having  generated 


in  the  midst  of  the  contiguous  sediments  crys- 
talline mineral  species.  It  was  then  possible 
that  a  formation  uncrystalline  in  one  part  of  its 
distribution  should  elsewhere  become  crystal- 
line, or  in  other  words  metamorphic ;  and  it 
was  conjectured  that  great  areas  of  such  rocks 
might  be  the  stratigraphical  equivalents  of 
formations  which  are  elsewhere  uncrystalline 
sediments.  In  the  Alps,  for  example,  it  was 
supposed  that  the  gneisses  and  other  crystalline 
schists  were  of  mesozoic  and  even  of  cenozoio 
age,  and  similar  rocks  in  other  regions  were 
declared  to  be  palieozoic ;  till  at  length  it  seem- 
ed, such  was  the  extension  of  the  doctrine  of 
rock  metamorphism,  that  the  sediments  of  any 
age  might  assume  the  characters  of  the  primi- 
tive crystalline  schists.  In  fact,  the  crystalline 
schists  of  the  Alps,  the  British  islands,  and  the 
Appalachians  have  all  in  turn  been  claimed  as 
altered  strata  of  palffiozoic  or  more  recent  times. 
But  these  views  have  been  controverted,  and 
it  has  been  shown  that  the  crystalline  strata 
which  are  now  found  in  the  Alps,  superposed 
upon  the  uncrystalline  fossiliferous  sediments,  / 
are  really  ancient  strata  which  were  crystal* 
line  before  the  deposition  of  the  latter,  and  in 
their  normal  position  underlie  them,  but  by 
great  foldings  and  diversions  have  been  brought 
to  overlie  them.  In  some  instances  in  this  re- 
gion beds  of  apparently  crystalline  rocks  are 
met  with  in  which  occur  fossils  like  those  of 
the  uncrystalline  sediments.  These  were  re- 
garded as  further  evidences  of  the  metamor- 
phic process  which  hod  proceeded  so  far  as  to 
develop  a  crystalline  structure  in  the  newer 
beds,  without  however  obliterating  their  or- 
ganic remains.  But  it  has  been  shown  that 
these  pseudo-crystalline  rocks  are  really  sedi- 
ments of  the  newer  periods,  made  up  of  the 
ruins  of  the  older  ana  truly  crystalline  rocks. 
In  many  other  cases,  as  in  Wales  and  in  eastern 
North  America,  it  is  found  that  the  broken-up 
materials  of  the  crystalline  schists  enter  into 
the  composition  of  the  oldest  palsBozoic  schists, 
which  are  themselves  uncrystalline.  While, 
therefore,  it  is  clear  that  the  crystalline  schists 
were  deposited  from  water,  and,  as  will  sub- 
sequently be  seen,  under  conditions  which, 
although  chemically  somewhat  diflTerent  from 
those  of  later  times,  did  not  prevent  the  de- 
velopment of  organic  life,  it  is  now  affirmed  by 
one  school  of  geologists  that  the  great  bodies 
of  crystalline  schists  do  not  result  from  the  al- 
teration of  any  known  series  of  uncrystalline 
strata;  so  that  the  division  between  the  two 
established  by  Werner  may  still  be  retained  as  a 
fundamental  one.  This  view  is  now  sustained 
by  Favre  of  Geneva,  Sterry  Hunt,  Gdmbel, 
Credner,  and  others;  but  the  opposite  view, 
which  maintains  a  wide-spread  metamorphism 
of  palsDOZoic  and  more  recent  rocks,  has  been 
taught  by  very  eminent  names,  and  is  still 
maintained  in  the  principal  geological  text 
books  and  treatises.  The  partisans  of  tlie  latter 
view,  while  asserting  the  comparatively  recent 
ori^n  of  many  crystalline  schists,  have  always 


694 


GEOLOGY 


admitted  the  existence  of  an  underlying  or  ba- 
sal system  of  stratified  crystalline  rocks,  which 
were  supposed  to  be  anterior  in  their  formation 
to  the  appearance  of  life  upon  the  earth,  and 
from  the  apparent  absence  of  fossils  were  called 
azoic  rocks  (signifying  without  life).  In  ac- 
cordance with  this  nomenclature,  the  forma- 
tions containing  the  fossil  remains  of  plants 
and  animals  have  been  divided  into  palseozoic, 
mesozoic,  and  cenozoio  rocks  (signifying  an- 
cient, middle,  and  recent  life);  while  subse- 
quent discoveries,  indicatmg  that  life  had  al- 
ready made  its  Appearance  in  the  so-called  azoic 
period,  have  led  to  the  substitution  of  the  name 
eozoic  (signifying  the  dawn  of  life).  These 
four  great  divisions  are  made  the  basis  of  the 


accompanying  tabular  view  of  geological  for- 
mations. The  subordinate  divisions  of  Cam- 
brian, Silurian,  Devonian,  «Sec.,  are  of  local  ori- 
gin, which,  as  will  be  seen,^  is  also  true  of  the 
names  of  most  of  the  formations  into  which 
these  in  their  turn  are  divided.  In  regard  to 
the  palssozoic  rooks,  which  have  been  most 
minutely  studied  in  Great  Britain  and  America, 
the  names  of  the  subdivisions  recognized  in 
these  countries  are  given  side  by  side.  For  the 
details  of  the  mesozoic  and  cenozoio  rocks, 
which  have  been  made  the  subject  of  not  less 
careful  analysis  and  subdivision  in  Europe,  the 
reader  is  referred  elsewhere.  A  complete  table 
of  them  is  given  on  page  109  of  LyelFs  **  Stu- 
dent's Elements  of  Geology"  (1871). 


§§ 

#5  CD 
M 

o 


i 


as  H 


i 


Pbx- 

MIAK. 


M  5  ^ 


e 

OQ 


•a 

& 

•s 

<n 

>.• 

M 

H 
PQ 


^ 

"« 

:§ 
§ 


i 


BElTISn  BUBDXnUONS. 


Recent 

Poet-pliocene '. 

Pliocene ) 

Miocene > 

Eooene. ) 

Upper  cretaceous ) 

Lower  cretaceous  or  Neo-  > 
oomian ) 

Upper,  middle,  and  lower ) 

oottte >- 

Lias ( 

Upper,  middle,  and  lower  ) 
trias f 

Ma^eaian  limestone 

Goal  measures 

MlOstone  (prit. 

Carboniferous  limestone 

Upper,  middle,  and  lower 
t)evonlan 


Upper  and  lower  Ludlow.  •} 


Wenloek 

Llandoveiy  or  May  Hill . .  -I 


Oaradocor  Bala. 
Llandello 


Tremadoc. 


LtngnkdagB. 


Menevian . 
Harieeh  .. 
Uanbenls. 


Primitlye  errstalline  echistsj 
iVrtcM^tr) i 

PrimitiTe  gneiM  ( UrffnHm) . '  Laurentian 


AMSBIOAIV  BUBDXTISIOm,  WITH  BIMABKS. 


AUuvIaI  deposits,  peat  bogs*  Jko. 
Unstratifled  gladal  drift,  modified  drift,  Ac 

Widely  distributed  alonff  the  eastern  and  southern  coasts  from  Massacihnsetta 
to  Texas,  and  fttim  Nebraska  acroaa  the  continent  to  the  Fadfle. 


Occurs  in  New  Jersey,  Geoivla,  Mississippi,  Arkansas,  Ac,  and  ftom  Texas 
and  the  upper  Missouri  in  many  locantles  westward  to  the  Fadfie. 


Widely  developed  la  the  western  states  in  various  localities  from  Dakota  and 
Kansas  to  the  Pacific. 


Bed  sandst<nies  of  the  Connecticut  valley.  New  Jersey,  Penn^lvanla,  the  coal 
fields  of  Riehmond,  Va.,  and  Chatham,  N.  C. 


Pennian Known  in  Dlinola,  Iowa,  and  Kansas. 


Cool  measures 1  To  this  horizon  belong  the  coal  formatloas  of 

Lower  carboniferous >•      New  Brunswick,  Rhode  Island,  Mtchinn,  II- 

Waverley )      llnoia,  and  tiie  great  Appalachian  ooal  field. 


Oatskin. 

Portage  and  Chemung. . . . 

Upper  Helderberg 

Sonoharle  and  Caudft-galli 


;} 


The  Erie  division  of  the  New  York  series.  Hence 
Dawson  uses  Brian  as  synonymous  with  De- 
vonian. 


Oriakany 

Lower  Helderbeiig. 


Water-lime 

Onondaga  or  Salina. 

Niagara 

Clinton 

Oneida  and  Medina. 


The  upper  Silurian  of  Murchison,  the  third  Iknna 
ofBarrande.  The  stratigraphlcal  and  palcoD* 
tologlcal  break  at  the  top  of  the  Waiei^Kme 
makes  two  great  divisions  of  the  Amezicsn 
BUurian. 


Hudson  River )fj^^  lower  SOurlan  of  Murchison,  or  the  second 

U  net >■  A.«..    A#  •DM^mm^wA^ 

Trenton ) 


ftiuna  of  Barrande. 


Chazy 

Levis 

CalcUbrous. 
Potsdun... 


Braintree  and  6t  John^s. . 
? 


Tliese  Indnde  the  primordial  8ilnriaa  and  the 
Cambrian  of  Murchison,  the  primal  and  auro- 
ral of  Rogers,  the  Taoontc  of  Emoiona  and  the 
Quebec  group  of  Logan,  and  correspond  to  the 
fint  fluma  or  primoraJal  aone  of  BarraadSh 


M^lSn'iwhSeMi:::  UbovetheIaurentian,andpn.babIyintbao«l« 

Huionian  or  Qroen  Mt. . . .         **•"  «*^^- 

Dana  usee  the  name  Aiduean  as  ^ynonymou 
with  Eoaoio. 


It  should,  however,  he  horne  in  mind  that  all  I  artifioial.    From  the  mode  in  which  sediments 
such  divisions  of  the  rocks  are  arbitrary  and  I  have  been  deposited,  and  from  the  altenuitioos 


GEOLOGY 


695 


of  flea  and  land,  it  follows  that  there  are  breaks 
in  the  saccession  of  the  rocks,  which  are  often 
marked  bj  a  want  of  conformity  in  the  ar- 
rangement of  the  snccessive  formations.  The 
sea  retires  from  an  uplifted  continent,  the  strata 
become  more  or  less  disturbed,  and  perhaps  in 
the  course  of  ages  partially  broken  down  and 
swept  away.  When  a  new  movement  of  the 
earth^s  crust  brings  this  region  once  more  be- 
neath the  sea,  anew  series  of  beds  resting  hori- 
zontally upon  the  older  formation  is  deposit- 
ed, and  we  have  evidence,  both  from  the  rela- 
tions of  the  strata  and  from  the  changes  in  the 
organic  remains,  of  a  break  in  the  succession. 
Yet  it  is  clear  that  elsewhere  in  the  region 
occupied  by  the  sea  during  this  interval  would 
be  deposited  sediments  which  fill  up  the  in- 
terval. The  process  of  deposition  of  sedi- 
ments in  the  sea  has  never  been  interrupt- 
ed, though  the  area  of  deposition  has  changed, 
and  all  breaks  in  the  succession  are  local  and 
accidental  interruptions.  Our  divisions  into 
systems  and  groups  have  been  based  in  great 
part  upon  these  interruptions,  corresponding 
to  omitted  leaves  in  the  succession,  which  the 
progress  of  investigation  is  now  gradually  sup- 
plying, so  that  the  record  when  completed  will 
show  no  breaks  and  no  interruption  either  in 
the  deposition  of  strata  or  in  the  succession  of 
the  forms  of  life.  The  disturbances  or  cata- 
clysms which  in  the  theories  of  the  older  school 
of  geologists  were  looked  upon  as  universal 
are  really  local,  and  are  dependent  upon  the 
disturbances  due  to  slow  movements  and  the 
transfer  of  the  process  of  sedimentation  to 
other  regions.  But  it  is  precisely  where  these 
breaks  have  been  noticed  that  geologists  have 
established  horizons  or  lines  of  demarcation 
upon  which  the  systems  of  classification  have 
been  built.  From  time  to  time  we  find  out  the 
formations  which  in  other  regions  correspond 
to  these  interruptions,  and  serve  to  show  the 
transition  from  one  of  the  periods  to  another. 
These  limits  between  hitherto  separated  for- 
mations are  designated  beds  of  passage.  It  is 
proposed  to  give  a  brief  sketch  of  the  succes- 
sive geological  groups  enumerated  in  the  pre- 
ceding table,  commencing  with  the  lowest  or 
eozoic  period,  and  to  notice  the  principal  facts 
in  their  history,  more  especially  as  seen  in 
North  America. — The  rocks  which  we  have 
called  eozoic  include  the  crystalline  strata, 
which  are  regarded  in  the  present  state  of 
our  knowledge  as  forilning  four  great  groups 
marked  by  lithological  differences.  At  the 
base  we  have  placed  the  Laurentian,  which 
consists  in  great  part  of  granitoid  gneiss,  in 
which,  but  for  the  interposed  strata  of  quartzite, 
crystalline  limestone,  &c.,  there  would  in  many 
parts  be  found  small  evidence  of  its  stratified 
origin.  This  ancient  group  is  what  is  called  in 
Scandinavia  the  primitive  gneiss,  and  corre- 
sponds to  the  fundamental  granite  which  is 
often  spoken  of  as  underlying  all  other  rocks. 
It  is  the  oldest  series  of  rocks  known,  and  in 
North  America  forms  a  large  part  of  the  Lau- 


rentides,  the  Adirondacks,  the  Highlands  of 
the  Hudson,  and  their  continuation  south- 
ward. The  thickness  of  this  great  series  is  un- 
known, but  Sir  William  Logan  has  estimated 
that  at  least  20,000  ft.  of  strata  belonging  to  it 
are  expo.4ed  on  the  Ottawa  river.  It  there  in- 
cludes three  great  limestone  formations,  which 
are  associated  with  iron  ore,  plumbago,  and 
phosphate  of  lime,  and  contain  the  remains 
of  a  foraminiferous  organism  to  which  Daw- 
son has  given  the  mime  of  eozoon  Canademe, 
To  the  Laurentian  succeeds  what  has  been 
named  the  Huronian,  a  group  of  crystalline 
rocks  much  more  schistose  than  the  Lauren- 
tian, and  consisting  of  imperfect  gneisses,  with 
micaceous,  chloritic,  and  talcose  schists,  and 
beds  of  hornblende  and  serpentine  rocks,  as- 
sociated with  argillites  and  magnesian  lime- 
stones. This  series  is  widely  spread  along 
both  the  N.  and  S.  shores  of  Lake  Superior, 
and  the  N.  shore  of  Lake  Huron,  and  consti- 
tutes the  Green  mountain  range  of  eastern 
Canada  and  New  England,  stretching  thence 
northeastward  into  Newfoundland  and  south- 
westward  along  the  Appalachians.  Rocks  ap- 
parently belonging  to  this  series  fringe  portions 
of  the  E.  coast  of  New  England,  and  are  seen 
in  a  wider  development  in  the  coast  range  of 
southern  New  Brunswick.  In  some  parts  of 
the  Lake  Superior  region  the  Huronian  rocks 
are  found  to  rest  unconformably  upon  the 
Laurentian,  and  to  be  made  up  in  part  of  its 
ruins,  thus  indicating  a  break  between  the  two 
series.  The  third  great  group  noticed  in  our 
table  is  that  of  the  White  mountains,  or,  as  it 
may  be  called,  the  Montalban  series.  It  con- 
sists in  great  part  of  gneisses,  which,  how- 
ever, are  lithologically  dissimilar  from  those 
of  the  liaurentian,  and  are  associated  with  large 
bodies  of  highly  micaceous  schists,  abounding 
in  kyanite,  stanrolite,  andalusite,  and  garnet. 
This  series  of  rocks  is  traced  from  the  White 
mountains  northeastward  across  the  state  of 
Maine  and  southwestward  throughout  the  Ap- 
palachians. The  facts,  so  for  as  known,  seem 
to  show  that  it  is  newer  than  the  Huronian, 
resting  unconformably  upon  it,  and  in  some 
places  probably  upon  the  Laurentian  in  the 
absence  of  the  former.  The  fourth  group  is 
what  has  been  called  the  Norian  or  Labra- 
dorian,  which  consists  in  great  part  of  grani- 
toid or  gneissoid  varieties  of  the  rock  called 
norite,  consisting  chiefiy  of  Labrador  feldspar. 
With  this  are  associated  gneisses,  quartzites. 
and  orvstalline  limestones  not  unlike  those  or 
the  Laurentian.  This  series  in  various  parts 
of  Canada  and  in  northern  New  York  appears 
to  rest  unconformably  on  the  Laurentian,  and 
was  hence  called  by  Sir  William  Logan  the  up- 
per Laurentian ;  but  according  to  recent  obser- 
vations by  Hitchcock,  it  occurs  in  New  Hamp- 
shire, apparently  overlying  the  White  moun- 
tain series.  Dr.  Sterry  Hunt,  who  is  the  author 
of  this  attempt  to  group  and  classify  the  eozoio 
rocks,  remarks :  **  The  distribution  of  the  crys- 
talline rocks  of  the  Norian,  Huronian,  and 


696 


GEOLOGY 


Montalban  series  suggests  that  thej  are  re- 
maining fragments  of  great  formations  once 
widely  spread  over  an  anoient  floor  of  granitic 
(Lauren tian)  gneiss;  but  that  these  four  series 
mentioned  include  the  whole  of  the  stratified 
crystalline  rocks  of  North  America  is  by  no 
means  certain.  How  many  more  formations 
may  have  been  laid  down  over  this  region  and 
subsequently  swept  away,  leaving  only  isola- 
ted fragments,  we  may  never  know ;  but  it  is 
probable  that  a  careful  tl;udy  may  establish 
the  existence  of  many  besides  the  four  series 
above  enumerated/*  Notwithstanding  the  dis- 
tinction which  lias  been  drawn  between  crys- 
talline and  uncrystalline  rocks,  there  is  proba- 
bly to  be  found  somewhere  a  series  of  beds 
marking  the  passage  from  these  crystalline 
schists  to  the  uncrystalline  sediments  of  the 
pal»ozoic,  although,  so  far  as  yet  studied,  the 
oldest  known  strata  hitherto  referred  to  the 
latter  are  completely  uncrystalline,  and  rest 
unconformably  upon  crystaUine  eozoic  rocks. 
There  appears  to  be  a  close  similarity  between 
the  latter  in  widely  separated  countries,  the 
great  series  already  indicated  being  recognized 
with  their  typical  characters  in  remote  {larts  of 
the  globe. — The  palsozoio  rocks  have  been  divi- 
ded into  five  great  groups,  sometimes  called  sys- 
tems ;  but  these  divisions,  as  already  remarked, 
are  local,  and  the  breaks  in  stratification  and 
in  the  succession  of  organic  remains  are  in 
some  parts  filled  by  beds  of  passage.  As  will  be 
seen  in  the  table,  there  is  some  difference  in  the 
nomenclature  of  the  lower  pal»ozoic  rocks,  a 
portion  of  the  Cambrian  of  Sedgwick  being  in- 
cluded by  Murcbison  in  the  Silurian.  In  the 
present  account  we  shall  use  these  terms  in  the 
sense  in  which  they  were  applied  by  the  former. 
The  lower  portions  of  the  paleBozoic  show  no 
evidence  of  terrestrial  forms  of  life,  their  vege- 
table remuns  consisting  of  alg»,  and  their 
animals  of  raollusks,  corals,  and  crustaceans. 
At  the  summit  of  the  Silurian,  however,  fishes 
and  amphibians  appear,  while  an  abundant  land 
vegetation  of  acrogens  and  gymnosperms  begins 
to  make  its  appearance.  The  palreozoio  rocks 
are  of  especial  interest  to  the  student  of  Ameri- 
can geology,  as  they  form  the  surface  of  the 
greater  portion  of  the  United  States  east  of  the 
Rocky  mountains.  The  succession  of  the  mem- 
bers of  the  palaaozoic  series  in  this  country  was 
first  clearly  defined  by  the  geological  survey  of 
New  York,  which  in  its  reports  in  1842  inclu- 
ded under  the  name  of  the  New  York  system 
the  whole  of  the  known  palsozoio  rocks  to  ti^e 
base  of  the  coal  formation.  The  subdivisions 
then  established  have  since  been  generally 
adopted  in  the  United  States,  and  their  rela- 
tions to  those  recognized  in  Great  Britain  will 
be  seen  in  the  table.  The  names  Cambrian, 
Silurian,  and  Devonian  found  their  way  into 
American  nomenclature  some  years  later.  For 
an  account  of  the  progress  of  discovery  in  these 
rocks,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  third  part 
of  a  paper  on  **  The  History  of  Cambrian  and 
Silurian, '*  by  Dr.  Hunt^  in  the  **  Canadian  Nat- 


uralist "  for  July,  1872.  The  lower  and  mid- 
dle Cambrian  is  represented  in  the  New  York 
series  by  the  Potsdam  sandstone,  and  the  cal- 
oiterous  sand  rock,  having  a  combined  thickness 
of  less  than  1,000  ft.  To  the  eastward  along 
the  confines  of  New  England,  and  thence  north- 
eastward along  the  base  of  the  Green  monntain 
range,  however,  a  series  of  10,000  ft  or  more  of 
sandstones,  argillites,  and  limestones  (including 
the  Levis  formation),  is  regarded  as  the  rep- 
resentative of  the  lower  and  middle  Cambrian, 
and  has  received  the  names  of  the  Taconic 
system  and  the  Quebec  group.  Still  farther 
east,  along  the  £.  const,  in  Massachusetts,  New 
Brunswick,  and  Newfoundland,  are  found  stra- 
ta of  lower  Cambrian  age,  referred  to  the  Me- 
nevian  of  Great  Britain.  Between  the  middle 
and  the  upper  Cambrian  in  New  York  is  a 
break  marked  by  a  change  in  the  fauna,  and  in 
some  localities  by  a  want  of  conformity  between 
the  strata.  The  Chazy  limestone,  which  in  some 
places  is  wanting,  shows  the  passage  between 
the  two.  The  upper  Cambrian  is  represented 
by  the  limestones  of  the  Trenton  group,  followed 
by  the  Utica  slates  and  the  shales  and  sand- 
stones of  the  Hudson  river  group;  the  last 
three  divisions  being  known  in  Ohio  as  the 
Cincinnati  group.  Succeeding  this  occurs  the 
Oneida  conglomerate,  followed  by  the  Medina 
sandstone  rocks,  which  are  in  part  derived  from 
the  ruins  of  the  underlying  formations,  and 
which  mark  a  period  of  disturbance  and  a  break 
in  the  succession.  They  are  succeeded  by  the 
Clinton,  Niagara,  and  Onondaga  formations. 
The  latter,  sometimes  known  as  the  Salina  for- 
mation, is  characterized  by  beds  of  rock  aalt 
and  of  gypsum,  and  is  succeeded  by  tlie  water- 
lime  beds,  which,  as  well  as  the  other  strata 
of  this  division,  from  the  Medina  sandstone  up- 
ward, consist  chiefiy  of  dolomite  or  inagneaian 
limestone.  This  upper  part  of  the  American 
Silurian  represents  the  deposits  in  a  basin  sep- 
arated from  the  open  ocean,  and  depositing  by 
its  gradual  evaporation  strata  of  salt  and  gyp- 
sum, the  strata  associated  with  which  are  al- 
most destitute  of  organic  remains.  They  attain 
a  considerable  thickness  in  Ontario  and  in  cen- 
tral New  York,  but  thin  out  to  the  eastward 
and  disappear  before  reaching  the  Hudson  river. 
To  this  division  succeed  the  lower  Helderberg 
limestones,  characterized  by  an  abundant  fauna, 
and  marking  by  their  distribution  a  change  in 
the  geographical  conditions  of  the  region,  hj 
which  a  deposit  of  marine  limestone  was  spread 
alike  over  all  the  preexisting  rocks,  to  the  east- 
ward, resting  nnconformably  upon  the  Cam* 
brian  and  the  eozoic  rocks,  and  attaining  in 
eastern  Canada  a  thickness  of  2,000  ft.  or  more, 
where  it  is  overlaid  by  a  great  aeries  of  sand- 
stones, representing  the  Oriskany  and  the  sub* 
sequent  Devonian.  This,  in  the  New  York 
series,  is  marked  by  but  a  smfdl  amount  of 
sandstones,  followed  by  the  corniferoas  lime- 
stone and  the  Hamilton  group,  which  together 
make  up  the  upper  Helderberg,  and  are  suc- 
ceeded by  a  series  of  aandstonea,  the  whole 


GEOLOGY 


697 


constitating  the  Erie  division  of  the  New  York 
series,  the  equivalent  of  the  English  Devonian 
or  old  red  sandstone,  and  characterized  hy  an 
ahnndant  terrestrial  fanna,  the  precursor  of 
that  of  the  carhoniferous  series,  into  which  it 
passes  by  such  transitions  that  it  is  a  matter 
of  discussion  where  to  draw  the  line.  The 
carhoniferous  series  is  so  named  because  it  is 
the  earliest  and  most  important  coal-bearing 
series  of  strata,  and  includes  great  beds  of  fossU 
fuel,  interstratitied  with  sandstones  and  shales. 
At  the  base  of  the  carboniferous  in  Michigan, 
Pennsylvania,  and  western  Virginia,  and  also  in 
Kova  Scotia  and  New  Brunswick,  deposits  of 
gjpsum  and  salt  are  met  with.  In  the  western 
part  of  its  distribution,  toward  the  Mississip- 
pi, the  carboniferous  formation  includes  great 
thicknesses  of  marine  limestone,  which  are 
wanting  in  the  east.  Overlying  the  carbonif- 
erous in  Kansas  and  Iowa  are  beds  which  are 
the  equivalent  of  the  magnesian  limestones  of 
the  north  of  England,  and  of  the  rocks  called 
Permian  in  Russia.  They  are  regarded  as  the 
summit  of  the  palssozoic  series. — ^The  palteozoic 
rocks  correspond  to  the  transition  rocks  of 
Werner,  to  the  lower  part  of  which  the  name 
of  the  graywacke  series  was  very  generally 
given  until  the  labors  of  Sedgwick  and  Mur- 
ohison  classified  them  and  established  the  great 
divisions  of  Cambrian,  Silurian,  and  Devonian. 
The  thickness  of  these  groups  varies  greatly 
in  different  parts  of  their  distribution.  Thus, 
while  the  entire  pal»ozoic  series  in  Pennsyl- 
vania is  estimated  at  40,000  ft.,  it  is  reduced  to 
4,000  in  the  valley  of  the  Mississippi.  This 
is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  great  sandstones, 
apparently  derived  from  the  erosion  of  rocks 
to  the  eastward,  thin  out  in  the  opposite  di- 
rection. In  a  similar  manner  the  Cambrian 
and  Silurian  rocks,  which  attain  in  Great  Brit- 
ain a  thickness  of  80,000  ft.,  are  represented 
by  less  than  2,000  ft.  in  Scandinavia. — Under 
the  name  of  mesozoic  or  secondary  rocks  are 
included  the  triassic,  Jurassic,  and  cretaceous 
series.  The  former  has  received  its  name 
from  the  threefold  division  of  it  in  Europe  into 
sandstones,  overlaid  by  fossiliferous  limestones, 
which  are  succeeded  by  sandstones  and  shales. 
At  the  base  of  the  trias  in  the  Tyrol,  at  St. 
Oassian  and  Haltstadt,  occurs  a  series  of  fossil- 
iferous beds  in  which  the  characteristic  animal 
remains  of  the  trias  are  found  mingled  with 
those  of  the  palesozoic,  thus  showing  a  passage 
between  the  palsaozoic  and  the  mesozoic  rocks. 
The  tnaSy  both  in  England  and  on  the  continent 
of  Europe,  is  characterized  by  beds  of  rock 
salt  and  gypsum,  like  the  Silurian  and  the  lower 
carboniferous  in  North  America.  The  sand- 
stones of  the  trias  in  En^and  are  often  red, 
and  constitute  what  is  there  named  the  new 
red  sandstone.  The  same  name  is  applied  to 
sandstones  of  similar  age  which  are  found  in 
Prince  Edward  island  and  Nova  Scotia,  in  the 
▼alley  of  the  Connecticut,  and  in  New  Jersey, 
Pennsylvania,  Yirgmia,  and  North  Carolina. 
To  this  series  belong  the  coal  fields  of  Rich- 


mond, Ya.,  and  Chatham,  N.  C.    It  is  not  im- 

{>robable  that  these  beds  may  include  strata  be- 
onging  to  the  subsequent  or  Jurassic  period,  so 
named  because  it  is  greatly  developed  in  the 
Jura  mountains.  This  includes  both  the  lias  and 
the  odlite  of  England,  which  two  on  the  conti- 
nent are  connected  by  beds  of  passage  known 
as  the  Eoessen  or  Rhstic  strata.  Tlie  oolite  of 
England  consists  of  highly  fossiliferous  strata, 
chiefiy  marine,  but  in  part  fresh -water  depos- 
its, and  through  the  Neocomian  (Neufch&tel) 
beds  passes  into  the  cretaceous  or  chalk  forma- 
tion, the  upper  part  of  which  is  characterized 
in  northern  Europe  by  that  pure  uncrystal- 
line  limestone  known  as  the  chalk,  a  deep-sea 
deposit  many  hundred  feet  in  thickness,  made 
up  almost  entirely  of  the  remains  of  minute 
animal  organisms. — The  rocks  of  the  cenozoio 
or  tertiary  period  are  closely  connected  with 
the  present  time,  and  even  in  their  lower  por- 
tions contain  some  species  of  fossil  shells  iden- 
tical with  those  now  living.  Lyell  has  conve- 
niently divided  the  tertiary,  in  ascending  order, 
into  eocene,  miocene,  and  pliocene;  to  these 
are  added  a  postpliocene  division  which  includes 
the  period  of  glacial  drift.  (See  Diluvium.) 
The  tertiary  rocks  attained  a  great  thickness 
in  some  parts  of  their  distribution.  Thus  in 
the  Alps  the  miocene  sandstones  and  conglom- 
erates, known  as  the  molasse,  have  in  parts 
a  thickness  of  more  than  6,000  ft.,  while  the 
nummulitic  limestone,  a  subdivision  belong- 
ing to  the  base  of  the  tertiary,  attams  in  the 
Mediterranean  basin  a  thickness  of  more  than 
2,000  fL — We  have  already  spoken  of  the  trias 
of  the  eastern  part  of  North  America.  The  cre- 
taceous is  also  represented  in  New  Jersey  and 
along  the  southern  border  of  the  paledozoic 
from  Georgia  to  Tennessee.  Triassic,  Jurassic, 
and  cretaceous  rocks  are  also  widely  spread 
between  the  Mississippi  and  the  Rocky  moun- 
tiuns,  from  Texas  to  Dakota,  and  westward 
over  large  areas  to  the  Pacific  coast.  Deposits 
like  the  English  chalk  are  unknown  in  this  for- 
mation in  North  America.  Tertiary  rocks  of 
various  ages  skirt  the  Atlantic  coast  from  the 
Rio  Grande  to  New  Jersey,  and  are  even  met 
with  off  the  coast  of  Massachusetts.  They 
stretch  from  the  gulf  of  Mexico  to  Kentucky, 
and  like  the  mesozoic  rocks  occupy  large  areas 
to  the  westward,  where  on  the  Pacific  coast 
they  attain  great  thickness. — The  succession  of 
organic  life  in  these  various  groups  constitutes 
a  study  by  itself,  which  will  be  considered  un- 
der the  head  of  pAXiEONTOLOOY.  The  palteozoio 
age  is  preeminently  the  period  of  mollusks,  cor- 
als, and  crustaceans,  the  most  important  olaaa 
of  which  last  in  the  early  times  were  the  trilo- 
bites,  which  appear  in  their  greatest  develop- 
ment in  theORmbrian  and  Silurian,  and  die  out 
in  the  carboniferous.  Fishes,  the  earliest  rep- 
resentatives of  vertebrate  life,  make  their  ap- 
pearance near  the  summit  of  the  Silurian,  and 
abound  in  the  upper  palssozoio ;  reptiles  first  ap- 
pear in  the  carboniferous,  and  reach  their  great- 
est development  in  the  mesozoic,  in  which  rep- 


698 


GEOLOGY 


GEOMETRY 


tili&n  forms  of  immense  dimensions,  and  having 
curious  resemblances  to  bifds,  are  met  with ; 
while  the  birds  themselves,  which  then  first 
appeared,  had  remarkable  reptilian  affinities. 
The  earliest  evidences  of  mammals  appear  in 
the  trias ;  throughout  the  mesozoio  they  were 
insignificant  in  size,  and  chiefly  marsupial.  In 
the  eocene  and  miocene  divisions  of  the  tertia- 
ry we  And  the  greatest  development  of  mam- 
malian forms.  The  deposits  of  these  strata 
to  the  west  of  the  Mississippi  have  within  the 
last  few  years  afibrded  a  great  number  of 
remarkable  species  of  mammals,  which  have 
been  described  by  Leidy,  Marsli,  and  Cope. 
The  flora  of  the  tertiary  period  is  not  less 
remarkable  than  its  fauna.  The  geographical 
and  climatic  conditions  of  the  northern  hemi- 
sphere were  then  widely  different  from  those 
of  the  present  day.  Not  only  over  Europe,  but 
in  North  America,  and  northward  as  far  as 
Greenland  and  Spitzbergen,  a  mild  and  equa- 
ble climate  prevailed,  and  the  abundant  plant 
remains  preserved  in  the  tertiary  beds  of  those 
arctic  regions  show  a  luxuriant  vegetation  like 
that  of  the  warmer  parts  of  the  temperate 
zone  of  to-day.  This  condition  of  things  had 
been  of  long  continuance ;  for  in  western 
America  great  beds  of  coal  or  lignite  are 
found  both  in  the  cretaceous  and  the  eocene 
strata.  It  was  continued  far  into  the  plio- 
cene ;  but  as  this  went  on,  a  cold  climate  like 
that  which  now  characterizes  the  northern 
hemisphere  prevedled,  and  gave  rise  to  the  gla- 
cial phenomena  which  have  been  described 
under  the  head  of  DiLUvirn.  This  change  of 
climate  is  one  of  the  most  perplexing  problems 
of  geology.  That  a  different  distribution  of 
land  and  water  and  of  the  oceanic  currents 
may  have  contributed  in  some  degree  to  this 
former  climatic  condition  of  the  arctic  regipns 
is  probable.  Astronomical  conditions  connect- 
ed with  changes  in  the  eccentricity  of  the 
earth^s  orbit  have  also  been  suggested  as  a 
cause ;  and  finally  it  has  been  6U]>posed  that  a 
somewhat  different  chemical  composition  of  the 
earth^s  atmosphere  prevailing  up  to  that  time 
may  have  codperated  with  geographical  con- 
ditions to  maintain  the  peculiarly  mild  cli- 
mate which,  so  far  as  we  can  judge,  prevailed 
throughout  the  arctic  regions  in  palaeozoic  times, 
and  perhaps  without  interruption  nearly  to  the 
dose  of  the  tertiary. — ^The  aistribntion  of  me- 
tallic ores  and  other  economic  materials  in  the 
various  geological  series  is  a  point  of  much 
interest,  and  demands  a  brief  notice  in  this 
place,  although  the  subject  is  discussed  more  in 
detail  under  Mikebal  Veins,  and  in  the  arti- 
cles on  the  different  metals.  Metallic  ores  are 
met  with  both  in  beds  interstratified  with  the 
rocky  layers  and  in  veins  cutting  these.  The 
eozoic  rooks  are  remarkable  for  their  great  de- 
posits of  crystalline  iron  ores,  of  which  those 
of  the  Laurentian  on  Lake  Champlain  and 
those  of  the  Huronian  on  Lake  Superior  are 
remarkable  examples,  as  are  also  those  of  Mis- 
souri.   Similar  deposits  occur  in  the  eozoic 


rocks  of  Scandinavia  and  Russia.  It  is  in 
these  rocks  also  that  titanic  and  chromic  iron 
and  emery  occur ;  and  to  them  belong  graphite 
and  beds  of  iron  pyrites  and  copper  pyrites, 
often  associated  with  gold  and  with  silver. 
Oxide  of  tin  also  appears  to  be  characteristic 
of  these  crystalline  rocks.  These  various  ores 
are  found  not  only  in  contemporaneous  layers, 
but  also  in  veins  and  beds  cutting  the  crystal- 
line strata.  But  the  metallic  ores  are  not  con- 
fined to  these  more  ancient  rocks,  for  beds  of 
oxide  and  carbonate  of  iron  are  met  with  at 
various  horizons  from  the  Cambrian  up  to  re- 
cent times,  while  under  the  heads  of  Coppxb 
and  Gold  the  distribution  of  those  metals  and 
their  ores  is  described.  Besides  these  con- 
temporaneous deposits,  veins  or  lodes  carry- 
ing the  ores  of  various  metals  are  found  cut- 
ting rocks  of  all  ages,  and  are  probably  even 
now  in  process  of  formation. — The  question 
of  eruptive  or  exotic  rocks  has  already  been 
briefly  alluded  to,  but  from  its  intimate  con- 
nection with  volcanic  phenomena,  from  which 
it  cannot  well  be  separated,  it  is  proposed  to 
consider  the  whole  subject  in  the  article  Vol- 
cano, in  which  connection  the  various  the- 
ories with  regard  to  the  nature  of  the  earth's 
interior,  the  sources  of  subterranean  heat  and 
of  ancient  and  modem  eruptive  rocks,  as  well 
as  of  the  gaseous  products  of  volcanic  erup- 
tions, will  be  discussed.  (See  also  Gbanite.) 
Under  the  head  of  Mountain  will  be  consid- 
ered some  of  the  most  important  questions  of 
geological  dynamics,  namely,  those  relating  to 
the  elevation  of  continents,  the  phenomena  of 
denudation,  and  the  origin  of  mountains.  The 
chemical  history  of  the  globe,  or  what  may  be 
called  chemical  geology,  will  be  discussed  un- 
der the  titles  Rocks  and  Wateb. 

GEOMETRY  (Gr.  yeiffitrpia,  from>f,  the  earth, 
and  fuTpelVj  to  measure),  the  science  of  rela- 
tions in  space.  As  its  name  indicates,  it  origi- 
nally denoted  the  measurement  of  land,  and 
was  equivalent  to  what  is  known  in  modem 
times  as  surveying.  As  at  present  understood, 
surveying  is  but  a  subordinate  application  of 
the  science,  and  although  geometry  retains  its 
ancient  name,  it  has  by  the  labors  of  many 
succeasive  generations  grown  to  be  a  vast  and 
comprehensive  system,  forming  the  basis  of 
many  of  the  most  important  arts  and  sciences. 
It  has  been  defined  as  ^Hhe  science  which 
treats  of  forms  in  space ;"  and  if  we  give  a 
sufficiently  extended  meaning  to  the  word 
^^forrn,"  the  definition  is  perhaps  as  good  as 
any  other.  It  regards  material  objects  only  in 
so  far  as  they  occupy  space.  With  their  other 
physical  qualities,  tiieir  color,  weight,  hardness, 
&c.,  geometry  has  nothing  to  do.  Assuming 
that  a  billiard  ball  and  the  sun  are  each  a  per- 
fect sphere,  then  the  only  geometrical  differ- 
ence between  them  is  the  difference  in  size. 
Neither  has  geometry  anything  to  do  with  the 
nature  of  space  abstractly  considered.  It  as- 
sumes the  notion  of  space  as  it  is  assumed  by  all 
men  in  practical  life,  and  leaves  to  philosophy 


GEOMETRY 


699 


the  discussion  of  its  nature.  It  assumes  that 
space  is  infinite  in  extent ;  that  is,  it  assumes 
as  undeniable,  and  therefore  as  re<}uiring  no 
proof^  that  we  can  neither  in  fact  nor  m  thought 
set  any  boundary  to  space  and  rightfully  say 
there  is  no  space  beyond.  It  assumes  that 
space  is  infinitely  divisible;  that  is,  that  no 
portion  of  space  is  so  small  that  we  cannot 
oonoeive  it  as  being  divided.  Finally,  it  as- 
sumes that  space  is  continuous;  that  is,  that 
which  separates  any  two  definite  portions  of 
space  is  itself  space.  Any  definite  portion  of 
space,  whether  occupied  by  a  body  or  not,  is 
in  geometry  called  a  solid  or  volume,  and  the 
property  of  a  body  by  virtue  of  which  it  oc- 
cupies space  is  called  extension.  Extension  is 
said  to  have  three  dimensions,  length,  breadth, 
and  thickness.  The  limits  of  a  solid  are  called 
surfaces,  and  are  said  to  have  length  and  breadth 
without  thickness.  The  limits  of  a  surface 
are  called  lines,  and  are  said  to  have  length 
without  breadth  or  thickness.  The  limits  of  a 
line  are  called  points,  and  are  said  to  have 
neither  length,  breadth,  nor  thickness,  but  po- 
sition only.  A  point  may  be  considered  inde- 
pendently of  any  line,  a  line  independently  of 
any  surface,  and  a  surface  independently  of 
any  solid.  The  definitions  of  these  fundamental 
notions  of  geometry  have  always  been  matters 
of  controversy  among  geometers  and  philoso- 
phers, but  practically  all  men  are  agreed  as  to 
its  nature.  The  idea  of  space  involves  three 
notions  which  are  indissolubly  connected,  viz. : 
position,  direction,  and  magnitude.  Starting 
from  any  given  point,  we  can  suppose  lines  to 
be  drawn  in  an  infinity  of  different  directions. 
The  difference  in  the  direction  of  any  two  of 
these  lines  is  called  an  angle.  A  line  whose 
direction  is  everywhere  the  same  is  called  a 
straight  or  right  line;  a  line  which  changes 
its  direction  at  every  point  is  called  a  curved 
line.  When  the  word  line  is  used  alone,  and 
there  is  nothing  to  indicate  the  contrary,  a 
straight  lino  is  always  meant,  and  a  curved  line 
is  usually  called  simply  a  curve.  In  treating 
of  forms  in  space,  straight  lines,  angles,  and 
curves,  and  their  mutual  relations,  are  the 
principal  things  which  the  geometer  has  to 
consider.  The  object  of  geometry  is  the  in- 
direct measure  of  magnitude.  To  measure  a 
magnitude  is  to  find  how  many  times  it  con- 
tains a  known  magnitude  of  like  nature  with 
itself,  which  is  assumed  as  a  unit.  Thus,  to 
measure  a  line  is  to  find  how  many  times  it 
contains  a  line  of  known  length,  as  an  inch,  a 
foot,  a  yard,  a  metre ;  to  measure  a  surface  is 
to  find  how  many  times  it  contains  a  known 
surfiftce,  as  a  square  inch,  a  square  foot,  a  square 
yard,  a  square  metre,  an  acre,  a  square  mile ; 
to  measure  a  solid  is  to  find  how  many  times  it 
contains  a  known  solid  or  volume,  as  a  cubic 
inch,  a  cubic  foot,  a  cubic  yard,  a  cubic  metre, 
a  cubic  mile.  To  measure  a  straight  line,  the 
most  obvious  method  is  to  apply  to  it  the 
assumed  unit,  for  example,  a  foot,  and  count 
the  number  of  times  the  line  to  be  measured 


contains  it.  This  method  of  measurement  is 
purely  mechanical,  and  geometry  has  nothing 
to  do  with  it ;  it  is  a  question,  not  of  geometry, 
but  of  physics  and  arithmetic.  In  many  cases^ 
as  in  measuring  the  height  of  a  mountain,  this 
method  is  impracticable;  in  many  others,  as 
the  distance  of  the  moon  from  the  earth,  it 
is  impossible.  And  when  we  pass  from  the 
measurement  of  straight  lines  to  the  measure- 
ment of  curves,  surfaces,  and  solids,  we  find 
that  in  almost  all  cases  the  mechanical  method 
is  either  impracticable  or  impossible.  Thus  the 
every-day  problem,  to  find  how  many  acres 
there  are  in  a  farm,  would,  in  the  absence  of 
all  geometrical  knowledge,  remain  for  ever 
insoluble.  It  is  evidently  necessary  to  find 
some  method  of  measuring  indirectly  that 
which  we  cannot  measure  directly.  Thus  in 
the  case  of  a  farm  we  can  measure  by  me- 
chanical means  the  length  and  directions  of 
its  boundary  lines,  and  then  geometry  teaches 
how,  knowing  these,  we  can  find  the  num- 
ber of  acres  it  contains.  Let  us  take  as 
another  example  a  problem  of  a  higher  kind. 
From  the  observation  of  certain  physical  facts 
men  long  ago  concluded  that  the  earth  was 
a  spherical  body.  A  great  number  of  inter- 
esting questions  immediately  presented  them- 
selves. What  was  its  diameter?  How  many 
square  miles  did  its  surface  contain?  Were  all 
its  diameters  equal  ?  To  answer  these  (jues- 
tions  by  direct  measurement  was  impossible ; 
all  that  coald  be  done  was  to  measure  here 
and  there  a  line  upon  its  surface.  Yet  with 
the  aid  of  a  few  direct  measurements  and  of 
the  principles  of  geometry  all  these  questions 
have  been  answered.  It  is  evident  that  the 
attainment  of  these  results  would  be  hopeless, 
and  that  geometry  would  be  impossible,  unless 
the  different  magnitudes  of  space  and  the  ele- 
ments of  which  each  magnitude  is  composed 
were  related  to  each  other  according  to  cer- 
tain fixed  and  definite  laws.  The  number  of 
different  forms  in  space  is  infinite,  and  unless 
their  relations  to  each  other  were  fixed  and 
definite,  and  they  were  susceptible  of  classifi- 
cation and  comparison,  there  could  be  no  sci- 
ence of  geometry.  The  same  would  be  the 
case  if  the  different  magnitudes  which  are  the 
elements  of  every  form  were  not  connected  by 
definite  relations.  Geometry  shows  that  they 
are  so  related,  and  explains  the  nature  of  those 
relations. — According  to  the  different  points 
of  view  from  which  it  is  regarded,  geometry 
is  variously  divided.  Its  primary  division  is 
into  elementary  and  higher  geometry.  Ele- 
mentary geometry  treats  of  angles,  straight 
lines,  planes  bounded  by  straight  lines,  solids 
bounded  by  planes,  circles,  cylinders,  cones, 
and  spheres.  The  treatment  of  all  curves  ex- 
cept the  circle,  and  of  all  surfaces  and  solids 
which  involve  the  consideration  of  any  curve 
other  than  the  circle,  belongs  to  higher  geom- 
etry. The  only  instruments  necessary  for  the 
construction  of  the  figures  employed  in  treat- 
ing of  elementary  geometry  are  the  rule  and 


700 


GEOMETRT 


compasses.  If  the  solution  of  a  problem  re- 
qaires  in  its  graphic  representation  a  line  which 
cannot  be  drawn  by  means  of  these  two  in- 
strnments,  it  was  not  considered  by  the  an- 
cient Greek  geometers  a  geometrical  solution. 
Elementary  geometry  is  sometimes  subdivided 
into  planimetry  and  stereometry,  the  former 
treating  only  of  such  lines  and  figures  as  lie 
in  a  plane,  the  latter  of  solids  bounded  by 
planes,  and  of  the  sphere,  cone,  and  cylinder, 
which  are  usually  designated  as  the  three 
round  bodies.  That  part  of  planunetry  which 
treats  of  the  measurement  of  triangles,  and 
shows  how,  tlie  magnitude  of  certain  parts  of 
a  triangle  being  given,  the  magnitude  of  the 
other  parts  can  be  found,  is  called  trigonome- 
try, and,  on  account  of  the  peculiarity  of  the 
methods  which  it  employs,  is  usually  treated 
as  a  separate  branch  of  geometry.  Geometry 
again  is  divided  into  synthetic  and  analytic, 
or  ancient  and  modern,  or  special  and  gene- 
ral ;  divisions  which  all  signify  the  same  thing, 
and  are  based  upon  the  difference  between  the 
methods  which  are  employed  in  them  respec- 
tively. Synthetic,  ancient,  or  special  geometry 
is  founded  upon  the  direct  observation  of  the 
forms  or  figures  themselves,  and  all  its  reason- 
ings are  conducted  with  direct  reference  to 
those  figures.  Thus,  in  treating  the  ellipse, 
the  first  thing  to  be  done,  according  to  this 
method,  is  to  draw  an  ellipse  upon  a  plane,  or 
to  draw  a  representation  of  a  cone  with  a 
plane  passing  tH rough  it  obliqnely  to  its  axis, 
or  in  any  other  convenient  way  to  bring  before 
the  mind  the  actual  figure;  next,  to  draw 
such  other  lines  as  the  coarse  of  the  reasoning 
may  require ;  and  lastly,  to  demonstrate,  in  ac- 
conlance  with  the  rules  of  logic  and  previously 
established  propositions,  the  different  propor- 
tions of  the  figure.  This  method,  when  com- 
pared with  tlie  analytic,  modem,  or  general 
method,  of  which  we  shall  presently  speak, 
p'ossesses  great  advantages  and  disadvantages. 
Among  the  former  we  mention  that  it  is  evi- 
dently the  natnrid  method,  that  is,  the  method 
to  which  the  human  mind  naturally  would  and 
must  resort  in  its  first  attempts  to  investigate 
the  relations  of  space.  It  keeps  not  only  be- 
fore the  mind  but  before  the  eyes  the  actual 
thing  whose  nature  we  are  investigating,  and 
constantly  calls  upon  the  hands  to  do  what 
the  mind  has  conceived.  As  a  mental  disci- 
pline, geometry  studied  in  this  manner  is  not 
surpassed,  perhaps  not  ea nailed,  by  any  other 
science.  Especially  in  tne  solution  of  prob- 
lems reason,  ingenuity,  and  imagination  are 
all  called  into  exercise.  This  method  was  the 
only  one  known  to  the  ancient  Greeks,  and 
they  regarded  geometry  as  holding  the  highest 
rank  among  the  sciences.  Plato  is  said  to 
have  inscribed  over  his  door,  "  I^et  no  one  en- 
ter here  who  is  unacquainted  with  geometry.^' 
The  analytic  or  modern  method  is,  as  to  its 
form,  characterized  by  the  application  of  the 
processes  of  algebra  and  the  calculus  to  the 
discussion  of  the  relations  of  ttpnoe.    But  its 


true  nature  consists  in  its  generality.  The  an- 
cient geometry  was  essentially  speciaL  Thus 
the  study  of  one  curve  was  of  little  or  no 
advantage  in  the  study  of  another,  except  in 
so  far  as  it  had  trained  and  strengthened  the 
mental  powers.  The  problem  to  draw  a  tan- 
gent to  any  point  of  a  curve  affords  striking 
example  of  the  difference  between  the  two 
methods.  When  the  ancient  geometer  had 
discovered  a  method  of  drawing  a  tangent  to 
any  point  of  the  circle  or  the  elliiise,  this 
did  not  aid  him  in  drawing  a  tangent  to 
the  curves  called  the  conchoid  and  the  cis- 
Boid.  Whenever  a  new  curve  was  discov- 
ered, the  problem  of  drawing  a  tangent  to  it 
had  to  be  solved  anew,  and  independently  of 
its  solution  in  the  case  of  any  other  curve. 
Modem  geometry  substitutes,  in  place  of  the 
consideration  of  the  geometrical  magnitudes 
themselves,  the  consideration  of  equations  rep- 
resenting them  according  to  a  general  system ; 
and  after  the  discovery  of  the  differential  cal- 
culus the  problem  above  mentioned  was  solved 
with  the  greatest  ease  and  simplicity  by  a 
formula  applicable  to  every  known  curve  and 
to  every  curve  that  may  hereafter  be  discov- 
ered or  invented.  (See  Avalttioal  Geoms- 
TBY.)  Considered  as  a  method  of  arriving  at 
results,  the  modem  is  infinitely  superior  to  the 
ancient ;  considered  as  a  means  of  mental  dis- 
cipline, its  superiority  is  dbputable. — The  hia- 
tory  of  geometry  may  be  conveniently  divided 
into  five  periods.  The  first  extends  from  the 
origin  of  the  science  to  about  A.  D.  650,  fol- 
lowed by  a  period  of  about  1,000  years  du- 
ring which  it  made  no  advance,  and  in  Europe 
was  oishrouded  in  the  darkness  of  the  mid- 
dle ages;  the  second  began  about  1650,  with 
the  revival  of  the  ancient  geometry;  the  third 
in  the  first  half  of  the  17th  century,  with  the 
invention  by  Descartes  of  analytical  or  mod- 
em geometry;  the  fourth  in  1684,  with  the 
invention  of  the  differential  calculus ;  the  fifth 
with  the  invention  of  descriptive  geometipr 
by  Monge  in  1795.  The  quaternions  of  Sir 
William  Rowan  Hamilton,  the  Au^dehnunf^ 
lehre  of  Dr.  Hermann  Grassmann,  and  various 
other  publications,  indicate  the  dawn  of  a  new 
period.  Whether  they  are  destined  to  remain 
merely  monuments  of  the  ingenuity  and  acute- 
ness  of  their  authors,  or  are  to  become  mighty 
instruments  in  the  investigation  of  old  and 
the  discovery  of  new  truths,  it  is  perhaps  im- 
possible to  predict.  According  to  a  tradition 
handed  down  by  the  Greek  historians  of  ge- 
ometry, the  science  took  its  rise  among  Qie 
Egyptians.  The  inundations  of  the  Nile  an- 
nually obliterated  their  landmarks,  and  efforts 
to  restore  theip  gave  rise  to  geometry.  From 
them,  about  600  B.  0.,  Thales  of  Miletus,  one 
of  the  *^  seven  wise  men "  of  Greece,  is  said 
to  have  derived  a  knowledge  of  the  elements 
of  geometry,  and  to  have  introduced  it  into 
Greece.  Pythagoras  is  also  said  to  have  de- 
rived his  first  notions  of  geometry  from  the 
same  source,  and  to  him  is  ascribed  the  dis- 


GEOMETRY 


701 


eoverj  of  the  proposition,  which  still  bears  his 
name,  that  the  sqaare  described  on  the  hy- 
pothenuse  of  a  right-angled  triangle  is  eqnal  to 
the  sum  of  the  squares  described  on  the  other 
two  sides.  His  disciples  are  said  to  have  de- 
monstrated the  incommensurability  of  the  di- 
agonal and  side  of  a  sqaare,  and  to  have  in- 
vestigated the  ^ve  regalar  solids.  They  were 
also  possibly  acquainted  with  the  transcen- 
dental definition  of  the  circle,  viz.,  that  it  is 
the  figure  which  within  a  given  perimeter  eon- 
tains  the  greatest  area;  and  with  the  analo- 
gous proposition  in  regard  to  tlie  sphere,  that 
it  is  the  body  which  within  a  given  surface 
contains  the  greatest  volume.  About  a  cen- 
tury after  Py&agoraa,  Plato  and  his  disciples 
commenced  a  coarse  of  rapid  and  astonish- 
ing discoveries,  through  the  study  of  the  analy- 
tic method,  conic  sections,  and  geometric  loci. 
The  ancient  analytic  mode  consisted  in  as- 
suming the  truth  of  the  theorem  to  be  proved, 
and  then  showing  that  this  iinnlied  the  truth 
only  of  those  propositions  which  were  already 
known  to  be  true.  In  modern  days  the  aige- 
braic  method,  since  it  allows  the  introduction 
of  unknown  quantities  as  data  for  reasoning, 
has  usurped  the  name  of  analytic.  Conic  sec- 
tions embrace  the  study  of  the  curves  genera- 
ted by  intersecting  a  cone  by  a  plane  surface. 
Within  150  years  after  Plato^s  time  this  study 
had  been  pushed  by  Apollonius  and  others  to 
a  degree  which  has  scarcely  been  surpassed  by 
any  subsequent  geometer,  and  his  works,  em- 
bracing his  predecessors'  discoveries  as  well  as 
his  own,  proved  19  centuries  afterward  the 
foundation  of  a  new  system  of  astronomy  and 
mathematics.  Geometrical  loci  are  lines  or 
surfaces  defined  by  the  fact  that  every  point 
in  the  line  or  the  surface  fulfils  one  and  the 
same  condition  of  position.  The  investigation 
of  such  loci  has  been  from  Plato's  day  to  the 
present  one  of  the  most  fruitful  of  all  sources 
of  geometrical  knowledge.  Just  before  the 
time  of  Apollonius,  Euclid  introduced  into 
geometry  a  device  of  reasoning  which  was 
exceedingly  useful  in  cases  where  neither 
synthesis  (i.  «.,  direct  proof)  nor  the  analytic 
mode  is  readily  applicable;  it  consists  in  as- 
suming the  contrary  of  your  proposition  to 
be  true,  and  then  showing  that  this  implies 
the  truth  of  what  is  known  to  be  false.  Con- 
temporary with  Apollonius  was  Archimedes 
(died  in  212  B.  C),  who  introduced  into  geom- 
etry the  fruitful  idea  of  exhaustion.  By  calcula- 
ting circumscribed  and  inscribed  polygons  about 
a  curve,  and  increasing  the  number  of  sides 
until  the  difference  between  the  external  and 
internal  polygons  becomes  exceedingly  small, 
it  is  evident  that  the  difference  between  the 
curve  and  either  polygon  will  be  less  than  that 
between  the  polygons  themselves;  and  the 
process  may  oe  continued  by  increasing  the 
number  of  sides,  until  the  difference  between 
the  curve  and  the  polygon  is  as  small  as  we 
please.  Thia  method  is  generally  regarded  as  the 
germ  of  the  differential  caloulas.    Hipparchus 


in  the  2d  century  before  Christ,  and  Ptolemy 
in  the  2d  century  after  Christ,  applied  mathe* 
matics  to  astronomy ;  at  the  date  of  the  latter 
writer  the  doctrine  of  both  plane  and  spherical 
triangles  had  been  well  discussed  by  Theodosius 
and  MeneLaus.  Vieta  (1540-1608),  to  whom 
we  principally  owe  the  perfecting  of  algebra, 
enlarged  Plato's  analytic  method  by  applying 
algebra  to  geometry.  Kepler  (1571-1630)  in- 
troduced into  geometry  tiie  idea  of  the  infini- 
tesimal, thus  perfecting  the  Archimedean  ex- 
haustion ;  he  also  first  made  the  important  re- 
mark which  leads  to  the  solution  of  questions 
of  maxima,  that  when  a  quantity  is  at  its  high- 
est point  its  rise  becomes  zero.  To  Kepler  we 
owe  also  one  of  the  first  examples  of  a  problem 
of  descriptive  geometry,  in  the  graphic  solu- 
tion of  an  eclipse  of  the  sun.  Soon  after  Kep- 
ler, Cavalieri  published  (1685)  his  GeometHa 
Indivii^iUbui,  a  further  step  in  the  road  from 
Arohimedes's  exhaustions  to  Newton's  flux- 
ions. Roberval  gave  a  method  of  drawing 
tangents  identical  in  its  philosophy  with  flux- 
ions. Fermat  (who  shares  with  Pascal  the  cred- 
it of  inventing  the  calculus  of  probabilities) 
introduced  the  infinitesimal  into  algebraical 
cfdculation,  and  applied  it  with  great  success 
to  geometrical  questions.  Pascal  anticipated 
some  of  the  latest  inventions  by  his  famous 
theorem  concerning  the  relation  of  six  points 
arbitrarily  chosen  in  a  conic  section.  But  most 
wonderful  of  all  the  geometrical  inventions  of 
the  17th  century  was  that  of  Descartes,  pub- 
lished in  1687;  it  consisted  simply  in  consid- 
ering every  line  as  the  locus  of  a  point  whose 
position  is  determined  by  a  relation  between 
its  distances  from  two  fixed  lines  at  right  angles 
to  each  other.  The  relation  between  these 
distances,  being  expressed  in  algebraical  lan- 
guage, constitutes  the  equation  of  the  curve. 
By  later  geometers  this  method  has  been  gen- 
eralized so  that  the  distances  may  be  measured 
from  any  fixed  point  or  line,  and  measured 
in  a  strcught  line  or  in  a  given  curved  line ;  or 
instead  of  some  of  the  distances,  durections  or 
angles  may  be  introduced.  For  a  m^ority  of 
the  most  important  cases,  however,  Desoartes's 
coordinates  are  still  the  best.  Huygens,  whose 
treatise  on  the  pendulum  is  ranked  by  Chasles 
with  Newton's  Prineipia^  making  a  combina- 
tion of  Descartes's  methods  with  tliose  of  his 
predecessors,  added  to  geometry  the  beautiful 
theory  of  evolutes,  which  are  the  curves  formed 
by  the  intersection  of  straight  lines  at  right 
angles  to  a  given  curve ;  and  he  applied  it  not 
only  to  the  pendulum,  but  to  the  theory  of 
optics.  Boon  after  (1686)  Tschimhausen  pub- 
lished a  wider  conception  of  the  generation 
of  curves  by  8trai|?ht  lines.  His  famous  caus- 
tics were  made  by  the  intersection  of  reflected 
or  refracted  rays  of  light;  and  he  proposed 
other  curves  made  by  a  pencil  point  stretching 
a  thread  whose  ends  were  fastened,  and  which 
also  wrapped  and  unwrapped  from  given  curves. 
About  the  same  time  also  De  la  Hire  and  Le 
Poivre  invented,  independently  of  each  other, 


702 


GEOMETRY 


modes  of  transforming  one  plane  curve  into 
another,  by  making  the  given  curve  a  peculiar 
basis  for  the  locus  of  a  new  curve.  They 
thus  transformed  the  circle  into  all  the  conic 
sections,  without  any  reference  to  a  cone. 
The  great  Newton  also  invented  a  means  to 
tiie  same  end,  so  that  the  consideration  of 
the  ellipse  and  parabola  became  independent 
of  that  of  any  solid.  Thus  these  methods,  es- 
pecially that  of  Le  Poivre,  anticipated  descrip- 
tive geometry,  and  perhaps  prepared  the  way 
for  it.  In  1700  Parent  generalized  the  method 
of  Descartes  from  representing  a  line  to  repre- 
centing  a  curve  surface  by  an  equation  be- 
tween the  distances  of  a  point  in  the  surface 
from  three  given  planes,  at  right  angles  to  each 
other ;  but  this  was  not  methodically  arranged, 
and  it  was  left  for  Clairaut,  in  1781,  to  finish 
this  great  step.  Meanwhile  Newton^s  fluxions 
and  Leibnitz^s  differential  calculus  had  come 
into  use,  and  Newton,  Maclaurin,  and  Cotes  had 
made  the  most  exhaustive  investigation  into 
curves  of  the  third  degree,  and  many  tine  dis- 
coveries in  regard  to  curves  in  general.  The 
enthusiasm  which  Newton's  example  aroused 
in  England  and  Scotland  for  pure  geometry  was 
followed  by  a  lull  of  about  a  century,  when 
Monge  by  his  "Descriptive  Geometry"  gave 
the  whole  study  new  life.  The  essence  of  de- 
scriptive geometry  lies  in  the  transmutation 
of  figures,  the  reduction  of  geometry  of  three 
dimensions  to  geometry  in  a  plane.  One  beau- 
tiful example  of  this  branch  of  science*  may 
be  found  in  linear  perspective,  which  simply 
projects  the  points  of  a  solid  upon  a  plane,  by 
straight  lines  of  light  from  the  eye.  Gamot, 
at  the  beginning  of  this  century,  in  his  "Ge- 
ometry of  Position"  and  "Theory  of  Trans- 
versals," also  introduced  valuable  methods ;  in 
the  first  showing  how  to  indicate  the  direction 
of  lines  more  exactly  by  the  use  of  positive  and 
negative  signs,  and  how  to  use  the  idea  of  mo- 
tion more  effectively  than  before  in  geometry ; 
in  the  second  introducing  that  general  fonn  of 
the  theory  of  transversals,  i,  e,,  of  the  intersec- 
tions of  a  system  of  lines  by  one  not  belonging 
to  the  system,  which  Ohasles  employs  so  hap- 
pily in  his  Geometrie  svpirieure  (1852).  This 
writer  develops  two  principles  in  the  corre- 
spondence of  figures:  one,  the  principle  of 
duality,  by  which  for  a  given  figure  a  second 
is  found  such  that  points,  planes,  and  straight 
lines  in  one  correspond  to  planes,  points,  and 
lines  in  the  other ;  the  second,  the  principle  of 
homography,  by  which  for  any  figure  a  second 
is  drawn  such  that  points,  planes,  and  lines  in 
one  correspond  to  points,  planes,  and  lines  in 
the  other ;  the  utility  of  each  being  to  trans- 
fer the  demonstrations  of  truth  in  one  figure 
to  the  problems  of  another  figure.  We^  have 
alluded  to  the  difficulty  of  appreciating  the 
value  of  some  of  the  new  methods  of  treating 
geometry  which  have  been  discovered  or  in- 
vented in  recent  times,  more  especially  the 
"  Quaternions"  of  Sir  W,  R.  Hamilton  and  the 
'*  clootrine  of  extension"  of  Dr.  H.  Grassmann. 


From  a  somewhat  protracted  study  of  both 
systems,  the  present  writer  is  satisfied  that  any 
attempt  to  give  a  condensed  account  of  them 
would  only  serve  to  perplex  the  reader.  Es- 
pecially is  it  difficult  to  comprehend  either 
system  without  a  more  than  ordinary  acquaint- 
ance with  the  history  of  mathematical  science 
during  the  present  century,  and  particularly 
with  the  efforts  to  give  a  geometrical  interpre- 
tation of  what  are  called  m  algebra  imaginary 
quantities. — The  beginner  in  geometry  will  find 
many  text  books,  of  which  none  is  more  popu- 
lar than  the  "Elements  of  Geometry  and 
Trigonometry,"  by  Prof.  Charles  Daviea,  from 
the  works  of  A.  M.  Legendre  (New  York, 
1858).  Much  more  condensed  and  suggestive 
is  an  "  Elementary  Treatise  on  Plane  and  Solid 
Geometry,"  by  Prof.  Benjamin  Peirce  (Boston, 
1858).  An  easier  treatise  than  either  of  these, 
by  Prof.  G.  R.  Perkins,  has  been  published  in 
New  York,  The  true  style  of  Greek  ge- 
ometry may  be  found  in  Playfair's  "  Euclid." 
For  advanced  studies  the  following  list  of 
works  is  recommended :  "  Modem  Geometry," 
by  Mulcahy  (London,  1859),  giving  some  idea 
of  the  new  methods,  but  not  employing  analyt- 
ical geometry ;  "  Elementary  Treatise  on  Plane 
and  Spherical  Trigonometry,"  and  "Element- 
ary Treatise  on  Curves,  Functions,  and  Forces," 
by  Benjamin  Peirce  (Boston,  1858),  giving  in 
its  most  condensed  form  the  necessary  intro- 
ductory knowledge  of  the  notation  of  trigo- 
nometry, analytical  geometry,  and  the  calculus; 
"Analytical  Geometry,"  by  Charles  Davies 
(New  York,  1855),  giving  a  more  popular  ex- 
pression of  the  same  knowledge ;  a  "  Treatise 
on  Conic  Sections,  containing  an  Account  of 
some  of  the  most  important  Modem  Algebraic 
and  Geometric  Methods,"  by  G.  Salmon  (Lon- 
don, 1855) ;  a  "Treatise  on  the  Higher  Plane 
Curves,"  by  the  same  author ;  Sir  Isaac  New- 
ton^s  Enumeratio  Linearttm  Tertii  Ordinis', 
Sir  W.  R.  Hamilton's  "Lectures  on  Quater- 
nions" (Dublin,  1853)  and  "Elements  of  Qua- 
ternions" (London,  1866);  "An  Elementary 
Treatise  on  Quaternions,"  by  P.  G.  Tait  (Ox- 
ford, 1867)  ;  Chasles's  Traite  de  glametrie  mc- 
perietire  (Paris,  1852),  Memoire  de  geometrie 
9ur  lee  proprietee  geomeMquee  dee  coniq^ee 
spheriques  (Brussels,  1881 ;  soon  after  trans- 
lated into  English),  and  Aperffu  hietoriqve  $ur 
Vorigine  et  le  developpement  dee  methodet  en 
geometrie  (Brussels,  1887;  translated  into  Ger- 
man, Halle,  1889;  a  work  which  will  richly 
repay  a  close  study) ;  Camot^s  GiomStrie  de 
position  (Paris,  1808),  De  la  correlation  dee 
figures  de  geometrie  (1801),  and  Mimoire  sur 
la  relation  qui  existe  entre  lee  distances  respec- 
tives  de  cinque  points  queleonques  prie  aans 
Vespaee^  suivi  d^un  essai  sur  la  tkeorie  dee  trans- 
versales  (1806,  and  4to,  1815);  Mongers  Gio- 
metric  descriptive  (Paris,  7th  ed.,  1846,  inclu- 
ding Application  de  Valg^e  d  la  geomHrie) ; 
Systematische  Entwickelung  dor  Aohdngigtoit 
geometriseher  Gestalten  von  einander^  mit  Be^ 
rUcksichtigung  der  Arheitcn  alter  und  neuer 


GEORGE  L 


703 


OsoTMter  uher  Porum&n^  projective  Methoden^ 
Geametrie  der  Lage^  Transversalen,  Dualit&t 
und  Reeiprocitdt^  by  Steiner  (Berlin,  1832); 
four  books  of  Plflcker  of  great  merit,  the  Ana- 
lytische  geometrische  Entwichelungen  (2  vols., 
Essen,  1828-'31),  System  der  analytisehen  Geo- 
metrie  ai^rieue  Betrachtungsweisen  gegrundet 
(Berlin,  1833),  Theorie  der  algebrauehen  Cur- 
v^  gegrundet  at{f  eine  jieue  Behandlungsweiee 
der  analytisehen  Geometrie  (Bonn,  1839),  and 
System  der  Geometrie  des  Haumes  in  netier 
analytiseher  Behandlungsweise  (2d  ed.,  DQssel- 
dorf,  1862) ;  Lehrhuch  der  Geometrie^  by  Karl 
Snell  (Leipsic,  1841) ;  Grundlinien  der  neiteren 
Geometrie,  by  Dr.  Benjamin  Witzschel  (Leip- 
sic, 1858);  and  Die  Ausdehnungslehre  aolU 
stdndig  und  in  strenger  Form  hearbeitetj  by 
Dr.  Hermann  Grassmann  (Berlin,  1862). 

GEORGE  (Lewis)  I.,  king  of  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland,  first  sovereign  of  the  Hanoverian 
line,  born  in  Osnnbrack,  May  28,  1660,  died 
near  that  place,  June  10,  1727.  He  was  the 
eldest  son  of  the  elector  Ernest  Augustus  of 
Hanover  and  the  eleotress  Sophia,  granddaugh- 
ter of  James  I.  In  1681  he  went  to  England 
to  pay  his  addresses  to  the  princess  (afterward 
queen)  Anne;  but  immediately  upon  landing 
he  received  his  father^s  orders  not  to  proceed 
in  the  business,  and  returning  home,  he  mar- 
ried in  the  following  year  his  cousin  Sophia 
Dorothea,  daughter  of  the  duke  of  Gelle.  He 
served  in  the  armies  of  the  empire  against 
both  the  Turks  and  the  French,  and  succeeded 
to  the  electorate  in  1698.  In  1700  he  led  a 
force  to  the  aid  of  the  duke  of  Holstein  against 
the  king  of  Denmark,  and  raised  the  siege  of 
Tonningen.  He  held  to  the  English  alliance 
throughout  the  war  of  the  Spanish  succession, 
and  in  1707-^9  commanded  the  imperial  forces 
against  the  French;  but  he  did  not  approve 
the  treaty  of  Utrecht  in  1713,  standing  out 
with  the  emperor  till  the  peace  of  Rastadt  in 
1714.  By  acts  of  convention  and  parliament 
of  1689  and  1701  the  succession  of  the  Eng- 
lish crown  had  been  fixed  as  follows :  James 
11.  and  his  son  being  excluded,  the  next  heirs 
were :  1,  the  princess  Mary  of  Orange,  eldest 
daughter  of  James  II. ;  2,  the  princess  Anne  of 
Denmark,  his  younger  daughter ;  3,  William  of 
Orange,  son  of  Mary,  eldest  daughter  of  Charles 
I.  After  the  decease  of  Mary  and  William  with- 
out issue,  the  crown  should  descend  to  the 
princess  Anne,  and  on  her  decease  without  is- 
sue to  the  heirs  of  William.  In  the  failure  of 
such  heirs  the  succession  was  further  limited 
to  the  electress  Sophia  of  Hanover,  passing 
over  nearer  heirs  who  were  Roman  Catholics. 
By  the  treaty  of  union  with  Scotland  in  1707 
the  same  succession  was  secured  for  the  crown 
of  Scotland.  The  Hanoverian  succession  was 
guaranteed  by  treaty  with  Holland  in  1706, 
1709,  and  1713,  and  by  the  treaty  of  Utrecht 
in  l7l8.  The  electress  Sophia  died  May  28, 
1714,  and  her  son  George  Lewis  became  heir 
apparent,  and  succeeded  Queen  Anne  at  her 
death  on  Aug.  1  of  the  same  year.  In  spite 
852  VOL.  VII. — 45 


of  schemes  to  place  upon  the  throne  the  son 
of  James  II.,  the  accession  of  George  I.  was 
without  disturbance.  He  arrived  with  his 
eldest  son  at  Greenwich  in  September,  and  was 
crowned  the  next  month.  The  ministers  of 
Queen  Anne,  Bolingbroke,  Oxford,  and  their 
associates,  were  impeached,  and  a  whig  minis- 
try came  into  power.  Viscount  Townshend 
and  Sir  Robert  Walpole  being  its  most  influen- 
tial members.  The  opposition  broke  out  into 
rebellion  in  Scotland  and  the  north  of  Eng- 
land, but  was  overcome  in  the  battle  of  Pres- 
ton, Nov.  12-13,  1715;  and  although  the  pre- 
tender landed  in  Scotland  in  December,  1715, 
his  presence  did  not  strengthen  his  cause,  and 
he  soon  fied.  The  leading  rebels  were  cap- 
tured, and  some  of  them  punished  with  se- 
verity. The  dangers  of  this  rebellion  led  to 
the  repeal  of  the  triennial  act,  and  an  act  was 
passed  allowing  parliament  to  sit  for  seven 
years  unless  dissolved  by  the  crown.  On  Jan. 
4,  1717,  a  triple  alliance  was  formed  with 
France  and  Holland  against  Sweden  and  Rus- 
sia. The  Swedish  ambassador  was  arrested, 
and  among  his  papers  were  found  evidences  of 
a  plot  for  an  insurrection  in  England,  and  an 
invasion  of  Scotland  by  the  king  of  Sweden. 
In  the  preparations  for  defence,  jealousy  of 
Sunderland  led  to  a  schism  in  the  ministry, 
and  Walpole  and  others  resigned.  Stanhope 
now  took  the  lead  of  the  ministry.  In  1718 
a  quadruple  alliance  was  formed  with  Hol- 
land, France,  and  the  emperor.  In  the  short 
war  that  followed  Admiral  Byng  annihilated 
the  Spanish  fleet  at  Cape  Passaro,  Aug.  11. 
There  had  long  been  hostility  between  the 
king  and  the  prince  of  Wales,  on  account  of 
the  prince's  mother,  the  unhappy  Sophia  of 
Celle.  This  lady  had  been  suspected  of  an 
intrigue  with  Count  Konigsmark,  who  sud- 
denly disappeared  and  was  supposed  to  have 
been  assassinated,  while  the  princess  was  di- 
vorced in  1694  and  imprisoned  from  that  time 
till  her  death  in  1726.  The  prince  of  Wales 
was  attached  to  his  mother,  and  the  enmity 
with  his  father  broke  out  into  open  hostility 
at  the  end  of  1717.  The  prince  left  St.  James's 
palace,  and  his  residence,  Leicester  house,  be- 
came a  rival  court.  An  important  event  of 
1718  was  the  passing  of  a  bill  for  the  relief  of 
Protestant  dissenters.  At  this  time  arose  the 
financial  enterprises  which  culminated  in  the 
South  sea  company,  of  which  the  king  was 
elected  governor.  Among  the  companies  of 
the  time  were  many  of  real  value,  but  the 
principle  of  financial  combination  was  extrava- 
gantly overrated ;  and  when  in  1720  the  great 
Bouth  sea  bubble  burst,  the  general  panic  was 
overwhelming.  The  ministry  was  held  re- 
sponsible, and  it  was  even  expected  that  the 
king  would  abdicate.  Lord  Stanhope,  in  re- 
plying to  an  attack  in  the  house  of  lords,  was 
seized  with  a  fit  and  died;  on  the  following 
day  (Feb.  5,  1721)  Craggs,  secretary  of  state, 
died  of  the  smallpox,  and  Sunderland  left  the 
treasury.     Walpole  came  to  the  front  again, 


704 


GEORGE  II. 


supported  hj  a  house  of  commons  strongly 
whig.  In  1722  a  new  Jacobite  plot  was  formed^ 
bat  was  detected,  and  Bishop  Atterbury  was 
banished  for  complicity  in  it.  A  patent  was 
granted  to  William  Wood,  a  proprietor  and 
renter  of  copper  mines  in  England,  enabling 
him  to  coin  fai'things  and  halfpence  for  Ire- 
land. This  lucrative  privilege  was  secured 
through  the  duchess  of  Kendal,  the  king^s 
mistress  ;  Walpole  guarded  against  fraud,  and 
Sir  Isaac  Newton,  as  master  of  the  mint,  ap- 
proved the  contract ;  but  the  issue  caused 
immense  disturbance  in  Ireland.  Dean  Swift 
wrote  a  pamphlet  which  raised  a  furious  popu- 
lar clamor,  and  the  patent  had  to  be  with- 
drawn. In  1723  the  regium  donum,  the  grant 
to  Presbyterians  and  other  dissenters,  was 
increased,  and  in  1724  the  king  founded 
professorships  of  modern  history  at  Oxford 
and  Oambridge.  In  1725  the  lord  chancellor 
Macclesfield  was  impeached  for  malversaljon. 
There  were  many  schemes  for  the  overthrow 
of  Walpole;  but  that  sagacious  statesman  show- 
ed as  much  ability  in  disconcertiug  his  private 
enemies  as  in  his  management  of  the  nation- 
al affairs.  He  kept  the  nation  at  peace,  and 
secured  a  season  of  prosperity  and  progress. 
War  was  rekindled  in  1725  by  the  alliance 
between  the  king  of  Spain  and  the  emperor, 
and  the  treaty  of  Hanover  between  England, 
France,  and  Prussia,  and  subsequently  Swe- 
den. The  siege  of  Gibraltar  was  begun  by 
Spain  in  January,  1727;  and  a  British  fleet 
was  sent  to  the  West  Indies,  but  accomplished 
nothing.  Preliminary  articles  of  peace  were 
signed  at  Paris,  May  81,  1727.  In  1726  the 
Eing^s  unhappy  wife  died  at  her  place  of  im- 
prisonment. He  is  said  to  have  been  warned 
that  he  would  survive  her  only  a  year.  On 
June  8,  1727,  immediately  upon  the  agree- 
ment for  peace,  he  set  out  for  his  beloved  Han- 
over, accompanied  by  the  duchess  of  Kendal 
and  Lord  Townshend.  On  the  10th  he  was 
taken  with  a  fit  in  his  carriage,  and  died  before 
he  could  reach  Osnabrtick.  He  was  buried  in 
Hanover.  He  was  a  man  of  moderate  facul- 
ties, a  cruel  husband  and  a  bad  father,  with 
gross  vices,  yet  by  no  means  a  bad  sovereign. 
He  did  not  attempt  to  interfere  with  the  liber- 
ties of  England ;  the  ministry  of  Walpole  was 
singularly  able ;  and  the  policy  of  union  with 
France,  upheld  by  the  same  party  which  had 
been  the  war  party  of  the  preceding  reign, 
was  wise  and  statesmanlike  beyond  the  time, 
it  being  for  the  interest  of  the  nation  as  well 
as  of  the  house  of  Hanover  that  the  union  be- 
tween France  and  the  house  of  Stuart  should 
be  broken  up.  By  his  queen  Sophia  of  Celle 
George  I.  left  a  son,  George  Augustus,  who 
succeeded  him,  and  a  daughter,  Sophia  Doro- 
thea, who  was  married  in  1706  to  Frederick 
William  I.  of  Prussia. 

GEOEGE  (Aignstis)  II.,  son  of  the  preceding 
and  of  Sophia  Dorothea,  bom  in  Hanover,  Oct. 
80,  1683,  died  in  Kensington  palace,  Oct.  25, 
1760.    Little  is  known  of  his  early  history. 


except  that  he  was  neglected  by  his  father,  and 
was  brought  up  by  his  grandmother,  the  elec- 
tress  Sophia.  He  visited  Holland  in  1699,  and 
in  1705  married  Wilhelmina  Dorothea  Caroline, 
daughter  of  the  margrave  of  Brandenburg- 
Anspach,  a  woman  of  marked  character  and 
superior  talent.  The  next  year  he  was  made 
a  peer  of  England,  his  chief  title  being  duke  of 
Cambridge,  with  precedence  over  the  peerage. 
He  made  the  campaign  of  1708  under  the  duke 
of  Marlborough,  and  conducted  himself  with 
great  bravery  at  the  battle  of  Oudenarde,  having 
his  horse  shot  under  him.  In  the  opposite 
ranks,  and  showing  equal  valor,  was  the  pre- 
tender, son  of  James  II.  He  accompanied  his 
father  to  England  in  1714,  and  was  proclaimed 
prince  of  Wales  on  Sept.  22.  The  quarrel  be- 
tween father  and  son  broke  out  soon,  and  ther 
hated  each  other  cordially.  The  prince  had 
been  preferred  by  the  electress  Sophia  to  her 
own  son,  and  was  attached  to  his  mother,  two 
causes  that  sufficed  to  increase  his  father^s  ori- 
ginal dislike  of  him.  He  was,  moreover,  seized 
upon  as  an  instrument  of  political  intrigue 
against  his  father.  The  king  also  hated  the 
princess  of  Wales,  and  was  jesdous  of  her  popu- 
larity. So  vindictive  was  his  feeling  that  he 
entertained  a  proposition,  made  by  the  earl  of 
Berkeley,  to  carry  oflT  the  prince  to  America, 
there  to  be  so  disposed  of  as  never  to  trouble 
his  father  again.  When  the  prince  left  St. 
Jameses  palace,  at  the  close  of  17I7,  the  king 
sought  to  deprive  him  of  all  control  of  his 
children ;  and  the  matter  being  referred  to  the 
judges,  10  of  the  12  decided  in  his  favor.  A 
sort  of  reconciliation  was  effected  in  1720, 
through  Walpole's  influence.  When  he  as- 
cended the  throne,  George  II.  endeavored  to 
transfer  power  to  the  hands  of  Sir  Spencer 
Compton,  but  his  incapacity  was  so  evident 
that  Walpole  retained  his  place,  the  more  easilj 
as  he  was  supported  by  Queen  Caroline.  The 
coronation  took  place  Oct.  11,  1727.  The  his- 
tory of  the  first  14  years  of  the  reign  of  George 
II.  is  that  of  the  struggle  of  Walpole  and  the 
opposition,  the  fiercest  civil  political  contest, 
unstained  by  blood,  that  England  has  ever 
known.  The  hopes  that  had  been  entertained 
of  Walpole^s  overthrow  as  a  consequence  of 
the  death  of  George  I.  had  been  disappointed, 
and  that  great  minister's  power  was  now  fixed 
on  a  firm  basis.  The  new  parliament  contained 
an  overwhelming  ministerial  migority,  and  the 
king  soon  became  strongly  attached  to  the  min- 
ister both  on  personal  and  political  grounds. 
The  royal  avarice  was  gratified  and  the  royal 
ease  consulted  by  the  minister,  and  hence  the 
king  supported  the  latter  with  all  his  influence; 
but  the  support  he  received  from  the  queen, 
who  governed  her  husband  without  his  knowing 
it,  was  of  greater  importance.  George  II.  was 
as  fond  of  Hanover  as  his  father  had  been,  and 
visited  it  often,  to  the  disgust  of  his  Enghsh 
subjects.  He  hated  his  son  Frederick,  prince 
of  Wales,  as  bitterly  as  he  had  himself  been 
hated  by  his  father,  and  the  queen  shared  his 


GEORGE  n. 


705 


feelings  in  that  respect.  Frederick  was  not 
allowed  to  visit  England  till  1728.  The  prince 
long  bore  the  king's  parsimony  and  harsh  treat- 
ment without  complaint,  and  perhaps  would 
have  done  so  to  the  last  if  it  had  not  been  for 
the  interest  of  the  opposition  to  make  him  ac- 
quainted with  his  political  importance,  and  to 
stir  him  to  resentment,  because  the  king  sup- 
ported Walpole  personally.  The  first  great  act 
of  this  reign  was  the  treaty  of  Seville,  concluded 
in  1729,  between  England,  France,  Spain,  and 
Holland,  which  was  very  advantageous  to  Eng- 
land, and  by  which  Spain  silently  acquiesced 
in  the  English  possession  of  Gibraltar.  Walpole 
quarrelled  with  his  colleague  Townshend  in 
1730,  and  the  latter  resigned  office  and  retired 
altogether  from  public  life.  Walpole  was  su- 
preme in  the  cabinet,  and  appears  to  have  been 
disposed  to  make  some  improvements  in  the 
laws  and  to  correct  abuses ;  but  the  virulence 
with  which  all  his  measures  were  opposed  in 
parliament  compelled  him  to  be  cautious.  In 
1729  and  1730  a  committee  of  parliament  in- 
vestigated the  condition  of  prisons,  and  secured 
some  important  reforms.  In  1731  the  use  of 
Latin  in  the  courts  of  justice  was  discontinued, 
and  English  substituted.  The  sinking  fund, 
which  Walpole  himself  had  aided  to  establish, 
was  so  encroached  upon  that  it  soon  ceased  to 
be  of  any  value.  The  great  contest  on  the  ex- 
cise question  was  the  most  remarkable  incident 
of  the  first  half  of  the  reign.  The  mere  report 
of  the  intention  to  introduce  a  scheme  of  gen- 
eral excise  caused  alarm,  and  the  opposition, 
which  had  been  reduced  very  low,  immediately 
became  vigorous.  The  battle  was  fought  with 
ability  and  courage  on  both  sides,  and  though 
in  some  of  its  stages  the  ministerial  majorities 
were  60,  they  finally  fell  to  16,  in  a  hoase  of 
commons  which  had  given  Walpole  almost  200 
m^ority  on  other  questions.  The  bill  was  then 
withdrawn,  greatly  to  the  satisfaction  of  the 
people.  The  king  was  as  much  beaten  as  the 
minister,  and  they  revenged  themselves  by  dis- 
missing from  ofiSce,  or  from  sinecure  places,  a 
number  of  distinguished  noblemen  who  had 
been  prominent  in  opposing  the  measure,  the 
chief  of  whom  was  Lord  Chesterfield.  A  new 
quarrel  broke  out  in  Europe  in  1733  in  regard 
to  the  Polish  succession.  Walpole  maintained 
the  neutrality  of  England  even  in  spite  of  the 
king's  preference  for  war,  and  finally  won  the 
king  to  his  policy;  and  under  the  mediation 
of  England  peace  was  concluded  in  1735.  The 
election  of  1734  resulted  in  the  return  of  a 
strong  Walpolian  minority.  The  opposition 
sought  the  repeal  of  the  test  act,  and  were 
beaten  by  128  mi^jority.  The  gin  act,  which 
sought  to  do  something  to  lessen  drunkenness, 
was  passed  in  1736.  The  prince  of  Wales  was 
married  in  1736,  and  the  question  of  his  income 
afforded  the  opposition  means  to  annoy  the 
ministry,  and  caused  the  quarrel  between  father 
and  son  to  become  bitterer  than  ever.  At  the 
birth  of  his  first  child  the  prince  left  Hampton 
court  and  took  up  his  residence  at  Norfolk  house. 


The  queen  died  in  1737,  recommending  her  hus- 
band to  Walpole  with  her  last  breath.  In  1738 
a  son  (afterward  George  III.)  was  born  to  the 
prince  of  Wales ;  and  about  this  time  the  king 
gave  notice  that  no  visitor  of  the  prince  should 
be  admitted  to  the  court  of  St.  James's.  The 
opposition  gathered  more  and  more  about  the 
prince,  and  William  Pitt  became  one  of  the  gen- 
tlemen of  his  bedchamber.  The  opposition 
endeavored  to  have  the  army  reduced  in  1788, 
but  failed.  They  then  assailed  the  ministry 
because  of  its  indifference  to  the  outrages  per- 
petrated by  the  Spaniards  in  America  on  Eng- 
lishmen there  trading.  An  arrangement  made 
with  Spain  was  unpopular.  Pittas  fame  may 
be  dated  from  his  speech  against  it.  The  min- 
isterial majority  was  greatiy  reduced,  but  the 
minister  was  saved  by  the  folly  of  his  enemies, 
a  number  of  whom  seceded.  The  troubles  w  ith 
Spain  went  on,  and  war  was  declared  against 
that  country,  Oct.  19,  1739.  The  ministerial 
strength  now  diminished,  and  the  hopes  of  the 
Jacobites  revived.  The  war  was  by  no  means 
brilliantly  conducted.  Anson's  cruise  in  the 
Pacific  and  Indian  seas  revived  the  recollec- 
tions of  the  Elizabethan  age,  and  Vernon  took 
Portobello;  but  the  English  failed  at  Carta- 
gena, and  also  at  Santiago  de  Cuba.  The  war 
of  the  Austrian  succession  began  soon  after, 
and  England  was  drawn  into  it.  Parliament 
was  dissolved,  and  the  new  elections  took  place 
under  circumstances  unfavorable  to  Walpole. 
When  parliament  assembled,  the  opposition 
found  themselves  in  a  minority,  and  after  a  hard 
battle  Walpole  gave  way,  much  to  the  grief 
of  the  king,  who  continued  to  take  his  advice 
to  the  last  days  of  his  life.  Sir  Robert  was 
created  earl  of  Orford,  and  the  attempts  made 
to  prosecute  him  fell  through.  Lord  Wilmington 
became  premier,  and  Carteret  secretary  of  state. 
Success  was  ruinous  to  the  opposition,  which 
showed  it  could  not  administer  affairs,  though 
so  eloquent  in  fault-finding.  The  public  was 
greatly  disappointed,  and  the  refusal  of  the  vic- 
tors to  repeal  the  septennial  act,  which  had 
been  the  object  of  their  especial  indignation 
when  out  of  office,  caused  much  disgust.  Eng- 
land had  now  become  actively  engaged  in  the 
Austrian  war,  supporting  the  settlement  called 
the  pragmatic  sanction,  by  which  the  Austrian 
succession  devolved  upon  the  late  emperor's 
eldest  daughter,  Haria  Theresa  of  Hungary, 
while  France  and  Spain  maintained  the  claims 
of  Charles  Albert,  elector  of  Bavaria.  A  large 
force  was  sent  to  Flanders,  which  did  nothing.. 
Some  success  was  achieved  by  the  navy,  and  a 
British  squadron  compelled  Naples  to  observe 
neutrality.  The  king,  brave  and  fond  of  mili- 
tary life,  was  desirous  of  placing  himself  at 
the  head  of  an  army,  and  a  large  German  force 
was  taken  into  English  pay.  This  added  to  the 
hatred  of  Hanover  already  felt  in  England.  The 
king  joined  the  allied  army  in  June,  1743,  and 
a  few  days  later  was  fought  the  battle  of  Det- 
tingen,  in  which  the  French  were  beaten,  the 
monarch  showing  much  courage.    The  death  of 


706 


GEORGE  II. 


GEORGE  ni. 


Lord  Wilmington  led  to  Henry  Pelham's  eleva- 
tion to  the  premiership,  the  king  acting  nnder 
the  advice  of  Walpole.  Carteret  continued  to 
manage  foreign  affairs,  and  was  much  liked  hy 
tiie  king.  The  Hanoverian  policy  was  still 
vigorously  opposed,  hut  the  resolute  conduct 
of  France,  the  fear  of  invasion,  and  the  revival 
of  the  Jacohite  party,  caused  some  remission 
of  party  feeling,  and  the  adoption  of  strong 
measures  by  government,  the  whigs  of  all  views 
uniting  in  their  support.  The  French  govern- 
ment called  Charles  Edward  Stuart  to  France, 
and  extensive  preparations  were  made  to  in- 
vade England,  which  failed  through  the  occur- 
rence of  a  storm,  the  fleet  being  destroyed  or 
dispersed,  February,  1744.  "War  was  declared 
against  France  a  few  weeks  later,  but  little  suc- 
cess attended  it,  and  Carteret,  now  Earl  Gran- 
ville, was  compelled  to  leave  the  ministry.  Pel- 
ham  forced  the  king  to  admit  Chesterfield  and 
some  others  of  the  old  opposition  to  office,  and 
Pitt  gave  his  support  to  the  government.  The 
Hanoverian  policy  was  kept  up  despite  these 
changes,  and  England  entered  on  an  extensive 
system  of  German  subsidies.  Great  prepara- 
tions for  the  campaign  of  1746  were  made,  but 
w  ith  no  gain  to  England.  Th e  all ies,  command- 
ed by  the  earl  of  Cumberland,  were  beaten 
by  the  French  at  Fontenoy.  Charles  Edward 
landed  in  Scotland,  was  joined  by  many  high- 
landers  and  others,  and,  after  occupying  much 
of  the  ancient  kingdom  of  his  race,  marched 
into  England  as  far  as  Derby,  when  his  lead- 
ing supporters  compelled  him  to  retrace  his 
steps.  He  was  proclaimed  at  Perth  and  at 
Edinburgh.  He  won  the  battle  of  Gladsmuir 
or  Preston  Pans,  and  if  he  had  pressed  for- 
ward to  London  the  capital  would  probably 
have  fallen  into  his  hands.  George  II.,  though 
very  brave,  and  prepared  to  place  himself  at 
the  head  of  his  guards  for  a  last  fight,  made 
preparations  to  fly.  The  rebels  defeated  the 
royal  troops  at  Falkirk,  but  three  months 
later  their  army  was  annihilated  at  Culloden 
(April  16,  1746).  From  that  time  dates  the 
extinction  of  the  Stuart  party.  The  rest  of 
the  war  was  inglorious,  and  it  was  terminated 
by  the  treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  in  1748.  For 
some  years  there  was  but  little  political  discus- 
sion, and  the  opposition  dwindled  into  a  small 
faction,  headed  by  the  prince  of  Wales,  which 
became  extinct  soon  after  his  death  in  1751. 
Private  bills  excited  more  interest  in  parlia- 
ment than  public  ones.  An  increase  in  the 
stringency  of  the  mutiny  bill,  and  the  passage 
of  a  regency  bill,  caused  some  discussion.  The 
reformation  of  the  calendar  was  effected  by 
statute  in  1751,  providing  that  the  year  should 
commence  on  January  1  instead  of  March  25, 
and  11  days  be  dropped  out  of  the  month  of 
September,  1752,  thus  bringing  the  year  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  Gregorian  calendar.  The 
bill  for  the  naturalization  of  the  Jews,  passed 
in  1758,  though  one  of  the  most  creditable 
acts  of  EngliBh  legislation,  caused  so  much 
popular  excitement  that  it  was  immediately 


repealed.  In  the  same  year  was  passed  the 
marriage  act,  requiring  the  publication  of  the 
banns  and  a  proper  license,  which  was  exceed- 
ingly unpopuiar,  but  is  thought  to  have  been 
a  great  blessing  to  the  nation.  The  premier 
died  March  6,  1754,  and  was  succeeded  by  liis 
brother,  the  duke  of  Newcastle,  who  found 
himself  compelled  to  share  power  with  others. 
His  first  ally  was  Henry  Fox,  afterward  Lord 
Holland,  and  at  a  later  day  William  Pitt.  In 
1754  the  French  aggressions  in  America  be- 
came troublesome,  and  in  July,  1755,  occurred 
Braddock's  defeat  at  Fort  Duquesne.  The 
seven  years'  war  began  in  1756,  and  England 
was  involved  in  a  contest  of  the  severest  char- 
acter with  France,  while  at  the  same  time 
she  was  the  ally  of  Prussia,  which  was  at  war 
with  the  empire,  France,  Russia,  and  lesser 
powers.  The  contest  extended  over  the  world, 
and  was  marked  by  great  actions  in  Europe,  in 
Korth  America,  and  in  the  East  Indies.  The 
early  part  of  the  war  was  inglorious  to  Eng- 
land. In  June  Calcutta  was  taken  by  Sura- 
jah  Dowlah,  and  his  prisoners  were  confined 
m  the  Black  Hole.  But  shortly  after  the  for- 
mation of  the  Pitt  and  Newcastle  ministry  in 
1757,  the  genius  of  Pitt  changed  the  fortune 
of  the  contest,  and  the  English  were  triumph- 
ant in  every  quarter.  Ample  subsidies  were 
furnished  to  Frederick  of  Prussia,  so  that  be 
was  enabled  to  make  head  against  the  coali- 
tion formed  for  his  overthrow.  An  army  of 
English  and  Germans  defeated  the  French  in 
Germany,  at  Crefeld,  Minden,  and  elsewhere. 
North  America  was  the  scene  of  great  opera- 
tions, which  ended  in  the  expulsion  of  the 
French.  An  expedition  to  France,  twice  re- 
newed, inflicted  considerable  damage  on  that 
country,  destroying,  among  other  things,  the 
works  at  Cherbourg.  The  success  of  Clive  laid 
the  foxmdation  of  the  British  Indian  empire ; 
Senegal  and  Goree  were  conquered ;  and  the 
victory  of  Admiral  Hawke  over  Conflans,  in 
the  naval  battle  of  Quiberon,  established  Eng- 
lish supremacy  on  the  ocean.  Never  had 
England  stood  so  high  as  she  stood  in  1760. 
In  the  midst  of  these  successes,  forming  so 
striking  a  contrast  to  most  of  his  reign,  George 
II.  suddenly  died  at  the  age  of  77.  He  was  a 
man  of  ordinary  character,  and  never  had  been 
popular  with  his  English  subjects ;  but  he  had 
governed  constitutionally,  and  in  his  reign  the 
liberal  polity  was  established,  and  the  indus- 
trial system  of  England  began  to  display  itself. 
GEORGE  (WiUiam  Frederiek)  III.,  grandson  of 
the  preceding,  and  son  of  Frederick,  prince  of 
Wales,  and  of  Augusta  of  Saxe-Gotha,  bom 
June  4,  1788,  died  in  Windsor  castle,  Jan.  29, 
1820.  He  was  not  likely  to  be  well  educated 
in  the  court  of  his  father,  nor  did  the  death  of 
that  parent  improve  his  prospects  in  that  way. 
His  mother  confined  his  early  associations  to  a 
small  circle,  wishing  to  preserve  him  from  the 
profligacy  of  the  day,  in  which  she  was  suc- 
cessful ;  but  he  was  brought  up  more  as  a  Stu- 
art prince  might  have  been  than  as  the  heir 


GEORGE  III. 


707 


apparent  to  the  throne  of  a  constitutionally 
governed  state.  His  disposition  was  arbitrary 
and  crafty,  and  the  whole  of  his  long  reign,  until 
he  lost  his  intellect,  was  passed  in  a  continual 
combat  against  liberal  ideas  and  institutions. 
At  first  he  was  popular.  Young,  a  native  of 
the  country,  and  but  little  known  to  the  people, 
his  accession  (Oct.  25,  1760)  was  hailed  with 
loud  rejoicings.  His  first  speech  in  parliament 
contained  a  sentence,  originated  by  himself,  ex- 
pressing pride  in  his  English  birth  and  confi- 
dence in  the  people,  which  excited  great  en- 
thusiasm. He  married,  Sept.  8,  1761,  the  sis- 
ter of  the  duke  of  Mecklenburg-Strelitz,  Char- 
lotte Sophia,  who  shared  his  throne  for  67 
years,  and  bore  him  15  children,  all  but  two  of 
whom  grew  up.  The  fact  that  he  had  offered 
himself  in  1761  to  Lady  Sarah  Lennox  seems 
to  be  proved  by  the  statement  of  her  brother- 
in-law,  the  first  Lord  Holland,  and  her  son, 
Capt  Henry  Napier,  contained  in  ^^  Holland 
Honse,"  by  Princess  Marie  Liechtenstein  (Lon- 
don, 187t3).  The  new  king  was  resolved  upon 
being  a  king  in  fact  as  well  as  in  name.  To 
afford  an  opportunity  to  attempt  the  inaugura- 
tion of  the  new  system,  it  was  necessary  that 
peace  should  be  restored,  though  the  war  was 
very  popular,  and  Pitt,  the  war  minister,  was 
at  the  height  of  his  power.  Tbe  earl  of  Bute, 
long  connected  with  the  king^s  father  and 
mother,  was  introduced  into  the  cabinet,  and 
ultimately  became  premier,  and  put  an  end  to 
the  war,  though  not  until  a  new  war  had  been 
made  in  consequence  of  Spain  having  joined 
France.  When  the  family  compact  was  made 
between  France  and  Spain,  Pitt  was  for  antici- 
pating the  latter  and  commencing  the  war,  but 
was  overruled  in  the  cabinet,  where  almost 
every  man  hated  him  because  of  his  inordinate 
egotism  and  arrogance.  He  resigned  his  office 
Oct.  5,  1761 ;  but  the  event  showed  the  wis- 
dom of  his  advice,  for  the  conduct  of  Spain 
was  such  that  Fngland  was  compelled  to  de- 
clare war  against  her,  Jan.  4,  1762.  This  war 
was  a  series  of  successes  on  the  part  of  Eng- 
land. Havana  was  captured  with  a  large  part 
of  the  island  of  Cuba,  the  Philippines  were 
reduced,  treasure  ships  of  immense  value  were 
taken  from  the  Spaniards,  and  the  naval  and 
colonial  supremacy  of  England  was  established. 
The  effect  was  to  make  the  premier  more  de- 
termined than  ever  upon  peace,  which  was 
finally  brought  about  at  Paris  in  1763,  on  terms 
that  were  honorable  to  England,  though  party 
spirit  caused  them  to  be  denounced  as  treach- 
erous, insecure,  and  disgraceful.  The  king  be- 
came unpopular,  and  the  minister  was  the  ob- 
ject of  violence.  Lord  Bute  resigned  in  April, 
and  was  succeeded  by  George  Grenville,  whose 
administration  commenced  with  the  famous 
contest  with  Wilkes  and  the  "North  Briton." 
The  restoration  of  peace  enabled  the  king  to 
seek  the  development  of  his  political  plans, 
and  for  many  years  he  was  engaged  in  a  war- 
fare against  those  principles  to  uphold  which 
his  house  had  been  called  to  the  British  throne. 


While  George  Grenville  was  minister,  in  1765, 
the  stamp  act  was  passed,  which  threw  the 
North  American  colonies  into  a  blaze,  and  was 
the  first  in  that  series  of  acts  which  in  their  en- 
tirety make  up  the  American  revolution.  The 
same  year  the  first  indications  appeared  of 
that  mental  malady  which  clouded  the  king^s 
latter  days.  In  July  the  Grenville  ministry 
was  dismissed,  and  the  new  ministry  of  Rock- 
ingham repealed  the  stamp  act.  In  1766 
Pitt  was  made  earl  of  Cliatham,  and  formed 
a  new  ministry;  and  during  this  administra- 
tion the  taxation  was  renewed  which  ultimate- 
ly led  to  American  independence,  although 
Chatham  had  little  or  nothing  to  do  with  this 
measure.  He  resigned  in  October,  1768.  In 
1769  appeared  the  famous  letters  of  Junius 
attacking  the  policy  of  the  ministry,  and  espe- 
cially the  duke  of  Grafton,  who  resigned  in 
January,  1770,  and  Lord  North,  who  had  been 
chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  became  premier, 
and  held  the  place  for  12  years.  The  modem 
tory  party  dates  from  that  time  as  a  power- 
ful and  efficient  organization.  Tlie  king  ruled 
as  well  as  reigned,  and  the  attacks  on  Ameri- 
can liberty  were  his  acts,  the  guilt  of  the  min- 
ister consisting  in  his  being  the  tool,  against 
his  own  convictions,  of  a  master  who  was  not 
always  in  possession  of  his  reason.  The  year 
1771  is  memorable  for  the  successful  assertion 
by  the  newspaper  press  of  the  right  of  report- 
ing the  debates  of  parliament.  The  printer  of 
the  debates  was  arrested  on  the  king^s  procla- 
mation, but  released  by  the  London  magis- 
trates. In  1772  the  king's  message,  provoked 
by  the  marriage  of  his  brother  in  a  manner  he 
did  not  approve,  secured  the  passage  of  the 
act,  still  in  force,  making  the  sovereign's  con- 
sent necessary  to  marriages  in  the  royal  family. 
The  American  war  began  in  the  spring  of  1775, 
and  for  seven  years  the  most  desperate  efforts 
were  made  to  conquer  the  colonies,  which  in 
1776  declared  themselves  independent.  Be- 
sides large  bodies  of  English  troops,  and  tories 
and  Indians  recruited  in  America,  thousands 
of  German  mercenaries  were  employed  in  the 
war,  which  was  marked  by  just  enough  of  suc- 
cess to  encourage  the  king  to  persevere.  Grad- 
ually other  countries  were  drawn  into  the  con- 
test, until  it  had  assumed  a  European  charac- 
ter. War  between  France  and  England  began 
in  1778,  and  Spain  and  Holland  were  soon 
ranked  among  England's  active  enemies.  The 
northern  powers  formed  the  armed  neutrality. 
The  combined  fleets  of  France  and  Spain  ob- 
tained command  even  of  the  English  channel. 
Gibraltar  was  beleaguered  by  an  immense  fleet. 
Lord  Chatham  urged  a  conciliatory  policy  with 
the  Americans  in  1777.  The  same  year  Bur- 
goyne's  army  surrendered,  and  four  years  later 
Cornwallis  capitulated.  The  fortunes  of  Eng- 
land were  never  before  so  low ;  and  though 
the  successful  defence  of  Gibraltar,  and  the 
naval  victory  won  by  Rodney  over  De  Grasse, 
closed  the  war  with  some  flashes  of  glory,  the 
contrast  between  the  state  of  things  then  and 


708 


GEORGE  III. 


20  years  before  was  most  humiliating  to  all  re- 
flecting Englishmen.  The  king  was  compelled 
to  submit  to  a  whig  ministry,  headed  by  the 
marqais  of  Rockingham  and  Charles  James 
Fox  (March,  1782).  Lord  Rockingham's  death 
(July  1)  caused  the  new  ministry  to  fall  to 
pieces,  and  power  passed  into  the  hands  of  the 
earl  of  Shelbume  and  the  younger  William  Pitt. 
American  independence  was  acknowledged, 
and  peace  restored,  though  the  king  was  even 
then  resolute  to  continue  the  contest,  and  talked 
of  retiring  to  Hanover  because  of  the  coercion 
to  which  he  was  sabjected.  The  Shelbume 
ministry  was  driven  from  power  by  the  famous 
coalition  of  the  Foxite  whigs  wiUi  the  tories 
who  followed  Lord  North  (April,  1783).  The 
king  hated  this  ministry  intensely,  and  talked 
of  going  to  Hanover  more  than  ever,  and  prob- 
ably refrained  from  going  because  of  the  hint 
that  while  it  would  be  easy  to  reach  that  coun- 
try, it  would  not  be  so  easy  to  get  back  to 
England.  His  submission  was  short-lived.  The 
coedition  broke  down  in  an  attempt  to  put  a 
stop  to  the  misgovemment  of  India.  Its  India 
bill  passed  the  commons,  but  was  thrown  out 
by  the  lords  in  consequence  of  royal  influence 
having  been  brought  to  bear  on  the  minds  of 
some  of  the  peers.  The  king  then  dismissed 
the  ministry,  and  placed  Pitt  at  the  head  of 
his  councils  (December).  After  the  new  minis- 
try had  carried  on  a  conflict  with  the  coalition 
party  in  the  commons  until  the  latter  had  lost 
its  majority,  parliament  was  dissolved,  and  in 
the  elections  that  followed  the  coalition  was 
annihilated.  The  king,  with  the  Pitt  ministry, 
was  now  as  popular  as  formerly  he  had  been 
odious,  and  the  tory  party  commenced  a  reign 
of  nearly  half  a  century.  The  prince  of  Wales 
was  now  of  age.  His  loose  life  was  all  the 
more  distasteful  to  the  king  because  his  asso- 
ciates were  mostly  whigs.  As  George  I.  had 
hated  his  eldest  son,  and  George  II.  followed  his 
father's  example,  so  did  George  III.  hate  the 
heir  apparent.  Public  affairs,  however,  went 
on  smoothly,  save  that  the  impeachment  of 
Hastings,  who  was  patronized  by  the  king,  was 
brought  about  by  the  aid  of  Pitt.  In  August, 
1786,  an  attempt  upon  the  king's  life  was  made 
by  an  insane  woman  named  Margaret  Nichol- 
son. The  labors  of  John  Howard  had  led  to 
legislation  for  prison  reform.  Various  expe- 
dients were  tried,  and  in  1787  the  first  convicts 
were  transported  to  New  Soutli  Wales.  In 
1788  the  king  was  severely  assailed  by  that 
illness  which  finally  rendered  him  incapable 
of  attending  to  business.  A  fierce  struggle 
was  commenced  between  parties,  the  object  of 
the  whigs  being  to  have  the  prince  of  Wales 
made  king  under  the  title  of  regent  should  the 
royal  illness  continue,  while  tibe  tories  were 
determined  to  abridge  materially  the  powers 
of  the  regent.  The  recovery  of  the  king  put 
an  end  to  the  contest,  and  was  the  subject  of 
great  national  rejoicing.  Immediately  afterward 
occurred  the  commencement  of  the  French 
revolution,  which  arrested  his  attention ;  and 


that  great  movement  found  in  him  the  meet 
determined  of  its  enemies.  Before  the  break- 
ing out  of  the  war  with  France,  a  dispute  took 
place  with  Russia,  the  object  beii^  to  prevent 
the  conquest  of  Turkey  by  Catharine  11.  The 
opposition  rallied  and  gained  strength,  but 
Turkey  was  saved.  Another  dispute  occurred 
with  Spain,  but  did  not  lead  to  war.  The  war 
with  revolutionary  France  began  in  1793;  and 
though  the  English  nmintained  their  naval 
character,  defeating  the  French  off  Brest  on 
June  1,  1794^  at  the  Nile  of  Aug.  1,  1798,  and 
elsewhere,  the  Spaniards  at  Cape  St.  Vincent, 
Feb.  14,  1797,  and  the  Dutch  at  Cainperduin, 
Oct.  11,  their  nulitary  character  was  not  raised 
by  its  events.  The  most  arbitrary  rule  was 
maintained  at  home,  and  nothing  but  the  firm- 
ness of  English  juries  prevented  the  establish- 
ment of  as  complete  a  reign  of  terror  in  Great 
Britain  as  existed  in  France.  Ireland  was 
goaded  into  rebellion,  which  was  suppressed 
by  measures  as  cruel  and  bloody  as  any  perpe- 
trated by  the  French  republicans  in  La  Vendue 
and  Brittany.  The  union  between  Great  Brit- 
ain and  Ireland  was  effected  in  1800,  the  par- 
liament of  the  latter  ceasing  to  exist,  while  she 
was  allowed  to  send  100  members  of  the  house 
of  commons  and  80  representative  peers  to  the 
imperial  parliament.  Peace  was  made  with 
France  in  1802,  though  against  the  king^s 
wishes,  his  opinion  being  always  in  favor  of 
bloodshed,  unless  his  enemy  should  uncondi- 
tionally submit.  The  French  had  been  driven 
out  of  Egypt,  and  Malta  captured  from  them. 
The  peace  was  but  a  hoUow  truce,  and  the  re- 
fusal of  the  English  to  give  up  Malta  led  to 
the  renewal  of  the  war  in  1808.  The  Pitt 
ministry  had  broken  down  in  1801,  really  on 
the  question  of  peace  with  France,  but  osten- 
sibly because  of  the  king^s  bigotry,  he  refusing 
relief  to  the  Catholics,  though  it  had  been  un- 
derstood that  it  was  to  be  granted  as  one  of 
the  conditions  of  the  Irish  union.  Henry  Ad- 
dlngton  became  premier,  and  kept  his  post 
until  after  the  renewal  of  the  war,  when  Pitt 
returned  to  office.  The  threats  of  Napoleon 
to  invade  England,  and  the  vast  preparations 
he  made  for  that  purpose,  caused  the  people 
to  rally  around  the  throne,  and  an  immense 
force  was  on  foot,  of  regulars,  militia,  and  vol- 
unteers, while  the  navy  was  much  increased. 
Spain  was  drawn  into  the  war  on  the  side  of 
France,  and  their  united  fleets  were  destroyed 
in  Nelson^s  victory  at  Trafalgar  (1805),  which 
made  England  irresistible  on  the  ocean,  and 
settled  the  invasion  question  for  that  genera- 
tion. For  some  time  the  war  on  the  part  of 
England  was  chiefly  confined  to  the  ocean, 
though  she  assisted  the  enemies  of  France 
with  money.  Such  military  expeditions  as  she 
fitted  out  were  on  a  small  scale,  and  mostly 
failed.  In  South  America,  in  Egypt,  in  the 
north  of  Europe,  her  armies  either  were  beaten 
or  accomplished  nothing;  and  it  was  not  un- 
til the  breaking  out  of  the  Peninsular  war  in 
1808  that,  under  the  command  of  Moore  and 


GEORGE  m. 


GEORGE  IV. 


709 


Wellesley,  they  performed  anything  worthy  of 
the  high  name  of  their  country.  Pitt  died  in 
1806,  and  the  government  passed  into  the  hands 
of  a  coalition  ministry,  of  which  Lord  Grenville 
and  Mr.  Fox  were  the  chiefs.  The  object  of 
the  latter  was  the  restoration  of  peace  with 
France,  but  he  died  before  anything  conld  be 
done.  The  coalition  endeavored  to  grant  some 
relief  to  the  Catholics,  bnt  the  king  got  rid  of 
them,  and  a  ministry  of  tories  was  formed, 
headed  by  the  duke  of  Portland  (end  of  March, 
1807).  This  ministry  was  probably  the  worst 
England  ever  had,  and  though  it  succeeded  in 
the  attack  on  Denmark,  taking  possession  of 
the  Danish  fleet,  the  immorality  of  that  attack 
more  than  balanced  its  success.  Operations 
in  Spain  and  Portugal  were  badly  conducted ; 
and  the  Walcheren  expedition  in  1809,  which 
might  have  struck  a  deadly  blow  at  Napoleon^s 
power  while  he  was  combating  Austria  on  the 
Danube,  was  probably  the  worst  managed  un- 
dertaking even  in  English  history.  This  fail- 
ure led  to  the  breaking  up  of  the  Portland 
ministry,  for  which  the  Perceval  ministry  was 
substituted,  an  improvement  on  its  predecessor, 
inasmuch  as  Marquis  Wellesley  took  the  for- 
eign office.  The  commencement  of  the  60th 
year  of  tlie  king's  reign,  October,  1809,  was 
observed  as  a  jubilee.  There  was  little  occa- 
sion for  reloicing.  The  war  had  failed  utter- 
ly on  land;  France  ruled  almost  the  whole 
of  continental  Europe ;  the  disputes  with  the 
United  States  threatened  to  add  a  new  enemy 
to  those  England  already  had ;  while  the  con- 
duct of  some  of  the  king's  sons  was  flagrantly 
profligate.  His  second  son,  the  duke  of  York, 
was  compelled  to  resign  the  post  of  commander- 
in-chief,  in  consequence  of  the  exposures  made 
by  Mrs.  Clarke.  In  1810  died  the  princess 
Amelia,  the  king's  youngest  and  favorite 
daughter,  and  the  king  suffered  so  much  from 
anxiety  during  her  illness  that  he  lost  his  rea- 
son for  ever.  More  than  once  he  had  been 
raving  mad.  The  first  indication  of  his  disease 
appeared  on  the  very  day  of  the  completion  of 
the  60th  year  of  his  reign,  Oct.  26,  1810.  His 
reign  ceased  in  fact  from  that  date,  although 
in  law  it  lasted  more  than  nine  years  longer. 
The  prince  of  Wales  became  prince  regent  by 
act  of  parliament  on  Feb.  6,  1811.  The  na- 
tional events  of  the  regency  will  be  found  un- 
der the  title  Geobge  IY.  The  care  of  the 
king's  person  was  given  first  to  the  queen, 
and  in  1819  to  the  duke  of  York.  To  his 
early  education  George  III.  owed  a  want  of 
frankness  and  a  moodiness  when  angry  which 
did  him  much  harm.  But  though  he  began 
his  reign  ignorant  and  ill  educated,  he  learned 
much,  and  his  last  years  of  rule  were  as  pop- 
ular as  the  first  had  been  unpopular.  His 
original  purpose  to  make  himself  an  arbitrary 
monarch  yielded  to  the  rebuffs  of  his  many 
defeats,  and  his  personal  morality  and  manly 
integrity  and  piety  caused  him  to  be  respect- 
ed and  even  beloved.  A  weak  man  natural- 
ly, and  perhaps  never  strictly  sane,  he  reigned 


60  years,  and  left  a  memory  in  refreshing  con- 
trast with  that  of  his  immoral  and  un-English 
predecessors.- 

GEORGE  (Aignstas  Frederiek)  IT.,  son  of  the 
preceding  and  of  Queen  Charlotte,  bom  Aug. 
12,  1762,  died  June  26,  1880.  He  was  edu- 
cated with  great  care,  and  closely  restrained 
until  18  years  of  age,  when  he  commenced  a 
career  of  extravagance  and  profligacy  that  con- 
trasted painfully  with  the  upright  life  of  his 
father.  He  early  formed  a  connection  with 
Mrs.  Mary  Robinson,  an  actress,  and  the  wife 
of  an  attorney,  who  afterward  became  well 
known  from  her  novels,  verses,  and  autobiog- 
raphy. He  became  intimate  with  Fox,  Sherir 
dan,  and  other  whig  leaders,  who  were  his 
companions  in  dissipation,  and  whose  politics  he 
adopted,  in  open  opposition  to  his  father.  In 
1788  his  friends  came  into  power  as  the  famous 
coalition  ministry,  and  on  Nov.  11  he  took  his 
seat  in  the  house  of  lords  as  duke  of  Corn- 
wall, and  as  a  supporter  of  the  new  adminis- 
tration, while  they  immediately  demanded  for 
him  an  augnmented  establishment  and  allow- 
ance, and  Carlton  house  was  assigned  to  him 
as  a  residence.  When  his  friends  fell  from 
office  he  stood  by  them,  and  tried  to  restore 
them.  In  1786  the  debts  of  the  prince  were 
brought  before  parliament  by  Sheridan,  bnt 
the  king  would  not  sanction  a  bill  of  relief.  In 
the  preceding  year  the  prince  had  privately 
married  Mrs.  Fitzherbert.  There  is  no  doubt 
about  the  marriage,  but  it  was  illegal  as  being 
without  the  consent  of  the  king;  and  Mrs. 
Fitzherbert  being  a  Roman  Catholic,  the  mar- 
riage, if  valid,  would  have  excluded  the  prince 
from  the  succession.  When  it  was  referred  to  in 
the  debate  on  the  prince's  debts,  Fox  denied 
it,  as  he  said,  by  the  highest  authority.  In 
1791  a  difierence  arose  between  the  prince  and 
his  sporting  companions,  and  he  sold  nis  horses, 
shut  up  Carlton  house,  and  devoted  himself  to 
the  payment  of  his  creditors,  and  in  a  speecli 
in  the  house  of  lords  separated  himself  from 
his  old  politick  friends.  In  1796  he  espoused 
his  cousin,  Caroline  of  Bi'unswick,  in  order  to 
get  his  debts  paid.  After  they  had  lived  to- 
gether for  a  year,  during  which  their  only  child, 
the  princess  Charlotte,  was  born,  they  separated 
by  common  consent.  Anxious  for  a  complete 
divorce,  the  prince  endeavored  to  prove  his 
wife  unfaithful.  At  this  time  he  had  returned 
to  associations  with  Fox  and  his  old  friends, 
and  was  made  a  rallying  centre  by  the  whigs, 
while  the  tories  naturally  clung  to  the  prin- 
cess, who  had  the  sympathy  of  the  king.  Un- 
der these  circumstances  took  place  the  flrst 
investigation  by  parliament  into  her  conduct. 
The  main  decisions  of  the  investigation,  which 
alone  were  made  public,  acquit  the  princess 
fully,  although  the  matter  was  made  a  subject 
of  political  dispute.  It  seems  that  at  most 
she  was  guilty  while  in  England  only  of  im- 
prudent acts,  and  her  father-in-law  always 
protected  her,  not  only  because  he  had  caused 
the  marriage,  but  because  he  hated  her  bus- 


710 


GEORGE  IV. 


band.  It  was  not  until  he  became  regent  in 
1811  that  the  prince  of  Wales  assumed  political 
importance,  and  he  then  gave  himself  up  to  the 
tories.  The  years  1810  and  1811  were  the 
period  of  Napoleon's  greatest  power.  By  con- 
quest or  hj  alliance  continental  Europe  was 
under  his  control,  although  Sicily  and  Portugal 
were  under  the  protection  of  England.  In 
1811  coolness  arose  between  Napoleon  and  the 
czar  Alexander.  Early  in  1812  Sweden  be- 
came allied  with  Russia  in  resistance.  The 
memorable  Russian  campaign  followed.  Wel- 
lington had  taken  Badtyoz  and  Ciudad  Ro- 
drigo,  and  won  the  battle  of  Salamanca,  and 
England  rejected  Napoleon's  overtures  for 
peace.  War  broke  out  this  year  with  the  Uni- 
ted States,  and  success  at  first  attended  the 
English  arms  on  the  borders  of  Canada,  while 
the  frigate  Constitution  captured  the  British 
frigate  Guerriere.  In  1813  the  war  con- 
tinued with  varying  fortune  in  America,  and 
Wellington  entered  France  in  October.  Na- 
poleon was  driven  by  the  discontent  at  home 
to  the  campaign  of  1814,  be^ning  in  January ; 
but  while  by  a  bold  movement  he  placed  him- 
self in  the  rear  of  his  allied  enemies,  the  lat- 
ter marched  upon  Paris,  which  they  entered 
March  81,  and  Napoleon  abdicated  and  was 
taken  to  Elba.  In  America  the  city  of  Wash- 
ington was  taken,  Aug.  24,  but  peace  was 
signed  with  the  United  States  at  Ghent,  Dec. 
24.  On  March  1,  1815,  Napoleon  landed  at 
Cannes,  and  an  army  was  at  once  formed  to 
oppose  him  in  the  Netherlands,  of  which  Wel- 
lington took  command  on  April  6.  The  vic- 
tory of  Waterloo,  June  18,  made  England  the 
most  important  power  of  Europe.  The  only 
wars  of  England  now  were  in  India,  while  the 
attention  of  the  country  was  mainly  given  to 
the  development  of  home  industry  and  the 
agitation  for  parliamentary  reform.  An  at- 
tempt was  made  in  1817  to  assassinate  the 
prince,  and  there  was  much  discontent  at  his 
extravagance  and  vice.  His  daughter,  the 
princess  Charlotte,  ^ied  in  1817.  He  became 
king,  Jan.  29,  1820.  The  Cato  street  con- 
spiracy for  the  assassination  of  the  ministry 
absorbed  attention  at  the  beginning  of  his 
reign.  The  king  soon  commenced  an  open 
persecution  of  his  wife  which  agitated  the 
whole  country.  A  bill  of  pains  and  penalties 
was  introduced  into  the  house  of  lords,  charg- 
ing the  queen  with  adultery.  The  trial  lasted 
for  many  weeks,  and  the  bill  passed  to  a  third 
reading  Nov.  10 ;  but  the  majority  for  it  was 
so  small  and  public  opinion  so  decidedly  pro- 
nounced against  the  prosecution,  that  the  gov- 
ernment withdrew  it.  Nominally  victorious, 
the  queen  was  really  beaten,  and  died  of  cha- 
grin in  less  than  a  year.  The  king  visited 
Ireland,  Scotland,  and  Hanover,  and  apparently 
was  popular.  He  was,  however,  greatly  per- 
plexed by  politics.  The  progress  of  liberal 
opinions  was  making  itself  felt  in  England,  and 
the  ministry  had  to  go  with  the  world.  Oastle- 
reagh's  suicide  and  Canning's  promotion  were 


sources  of  much  trouble  to  him.  The  foreign 
policy  of  Canning,  decidedly  opposed  to  the 
policy  of  the  holy  alliance,  was  eminently  dis- 
tasteful to  him.  When  a  French  army,  at  the 
bidding  of  the  holy  alliance,  entered  Spain  to 
restore  absolutism  (1828),  England  was  great- 
ly moved,  and  probably  nothing  but  financial 
considerations  prevented  war  with  France. 
When  Portugal  appealed  for  English  aid  against 
Spain,  that  aid  was  promptly  given.  The  inr 
dependence  of  the  Spanish  American  countries 
was  effectually  promoted.  The  Greek  revolu- 
tion added  to  the  interest  which  the  English 
felt  in  foreign  affairs,  from  classical  associa- 
tions. Internal  policy  was  liberalized.  Peel 
led  the  way,  through  a  tory  minister,  in  meli- 
orating the  criminal  law;  Huskisson's  com- 
mercial ideas  began  to  make  head ;  Brougham 
labored  in  the  cause  of  education ;  and  the 
work  of  Catholic  emancipation  went  vigorously 
forward.  The  year  1824  was  a  period  of  great 
material  prosperity,  and  was  followed  by  a 
crash  in  1825.  The  Burmese  war,  begun  in 
1824,  ended  in  1826  with  a  considerable  acces- 
sion to  the  British  territory  on  the  eastern 
coast  of  the  bay  of  Bengal.  Early  in  1827 
the  duke  of  York,  heir  presumptive  to  the 
crown,  died,  and  the  title  was  transferred  to 
the  duke  of  Clarence,  while  his  ofiice  of  com- 
mander-in-chief was  given  to  the  duke  of  Wel- 
lington. Lord  Liverpool,  who  had  been  prime 
minister  since  1812,  was  incapacitated  from 
further  attention  to  business  by  illness.  The 
contest  that  followed  for  the  premiership  ended 
in  the  triumph  of  Canning,  whereupon  seven 
of  his  associates  rengned,  and  he  was  com- 
pelled to  reconstruct  the  cabinet,  which  he  did 
on  a  liberal  basis.  He  died,  however,  before 
he  could  accomplish  anything.  His  successor 
was  Lord  Goderich,  whose  ministry  lasted  but 
a  few  months,  during  which  the  Turkish  fleet 
at  Navarino  was  destroyed  by  the  combined 
squadrons  of  England,  France,  and  Russia ;  an 
event  which  the  king  called  "untoward"  in 
his  speech  at  the  opening  of  parliament.  The 
ministry  of  Goderich  was  followed  by  that  of 
Wellington,  January,  1828,  with  the  duke  as 
first  lord  of  the  treasury  and  Peel  as  home 
secretary.  The  return  of  the  tories  to  power 
was  the  signal  for  the  revival  of  the  emanci- 
pation agitation,  and  the  Catholics  proved  suc- 
cessful in  1829.  The  ministry  had  to  choose 
between  civil  war  and  giving  up  their  princi- 
ples, and  they  made  the  sacrifice  required  of 
them.  Tlie  king,  whose  bigotry  and  dread  of 
popular  ideas  increased  with  his  years,  stood 
out  to  the  last  against  the  current  of  opinion, 
but  was  forced  to  give  way.  The  dissenters 
had  previously  been  freed  from  disabilities. 
These  acts,  noble  though  they  were,  proved 
the  ruin  of  the  tory  party,  and  so  demoralized 
it  that  it  could  not  stand  before  the  feeling  that 
was  soon  after  roused  over  Europe  by  the 
French  revolution  of  1880.  The  king  was 
taken  seriously  ill  early  in  that  year,  and  died 
in  midsummer.    The  duke  of  Wellington,  who 


GEORGE  I.  (Grebob) 


SAINT  GEORGE 


711 


was  QO  flatterer,  said  of  him  after  his  death : 
"  He  was  the  most  extraordinary  componnd 
of  talent,  wit,  hulibonery,  obstinacy,  and  good 
feeling — ^in  short,  a  medley  of  the  most  oppo- 
site qualities,  with  a  great  preponderance  of 
good — that  I  ever  saw  in  any  character  in  my 
life/'  His  short  reign  had  been  remarkable 
for  the  advance  made  in  liberal  sentiments,  and 
for  the  many  prac.tical  reforms  which  it  had 
witnessed ;  changes  with  which  the  sovereign 
had  little  to  do.  The  England  of  1880  bore 
but  small  resemblance  to  the  England  of  1820, 
and  still  less  to  that  of  1810,  when  as  regent 
George  IV.  had  commenced  the  life  of  a  sov- 
ereign. He  left  no  legitimate  children^  and 
was  succeeded  by  the  duke  of  Clarence,  third 
son  of  George  III.,  as  William  lY. 

GEORGE  !•,  king  of  Greece,  born  in  Oopen- 
hagen,  Dec.  24, 1845.  He  is  the  second  son  of 
Christian  IX.,  king  of  Denmark,  and  brother 
of  the  princess  of  Wales.  On  June  6,  1868, 
he  accepted  the  crown  of  Greece  under  the 
title  of  king  of  the  Hellenes,  relinquishing 
(Sept.  12)  his  rights  of  precedence  in  Den- 
mark in  favor  of  his  younger  brother  Walde- 
mar,  and  was  permitted  to  remain  a  Lutheran 
on  condition  of  his  children  being  brought  up 
in  the  Greek  faith.  In  1866  bis  sister  the 
princess  Dagmar  married  the  Russian  cezare- 
vitch;  and  on  Oct.  27,  1867,  he  married  the 
grand  duchess  Olga,  a  daughter  of  the  grand 
duke  Oonstantine  and  a  niece  of  the  reigning 
czar,  who  has  borne  him  a  son  (Aug.  2,  1868), 
the  crown  prince  Oonstantine,  duke  of  Sparta, 
and  three  other  children.  The  principal  event 
of  his  reign  was  the  Cretan  insurrection  of 
1866-^9,  which  led  to  serious  complications  with 
Turkey.    (See  Gbbeob.) 

GEOkCE  T*,  ez-king  of  Hanover,  bom  in 
Berlin,  May  27,  1819,  died  Juno  12,  1878.  He 
was  a  son  of  King  Ernest  Augustus  and  of  a 
sister  of'  Queen  Louisa  of  Prussia,  and  mar- 
ried in  1848  the  princess  Mary  of  Saxe-Alten- 
bnrg.  Although  he  became  totally  blind  in  his 
youth,  he  succeeded  to  the  throne  on  the 
death  of  his  father,  ^ov.  18,  1851,  and  soon 
created  dissatisfaction  by  his  affiliations  with 
eccentric  and  unpopular  courtiers,  and  by  his 
nltra-conserrative  principles.  Although  he 
was  a  Protestant  and  a  grand  master  of  free- 
masons, his  Roman  Catholic  minister  Windt- 
horst  persuaded  him  to  favor  ul tramontanes, 
while  he  engaged  a  tutor  of  the  same  faith 
for  his  elder  son,  and  the  ex-queen  was  report- 
ed in  1871  to  have  joined  the  church  of  Rome. 
His  nnstable  policy  resulted  in  a  perpetual 
change  of  ministers,  and  in  1865  he  restored 
a  reactionary  cabinet  under  Bacmeister.  De- 
spite his  relationship  with  the  Prussian  dynas- 
ty, and  the  remonstrances  of  his  most  influ- 
ential favorite,  the  secretary  general  Ziramer- 
mann,  he  showed  a  deep  aversion  for  Prussia ; 
and  as  he  ostentatiously  sided  with  Austria 
at  the  outbreak  of  the  war  of  1866,  his  territo- 
ry was  invaded  by  the  Prussians  in  June,  and 
annexed  by  King  William  Sept.  20.    He  fled  to 


Vienna,  where  he  kept  up  an  incessant  agita- 
tion against  Prussia ;  and  as  even  after  he  had 
agi'eed,  in  February,  1868,  to  accept  16,000,000 
thalers  as  an  indemnity  for  his  lost  kingdom, 
he  persisted  in  his  spiteful  attitude,  the  Prussian 
government  ordered  (March  2)  the  provisional 
suspension  of  the  payment  of  that  amount. 

GEOKGEy  prince  of  Denmark,  born  April  21, 
1658,  died  Oct.  28,  1708.  He  was  the  second 
son  of  Frederick  III.  and  Sophia  of  LtLneburg. 
On  the  death  of  his  father  in  1670  war  was  re- 
newed with  Sweden,  and  ^he  prince  took  part 
in  the  campaign  of  his  brother  Christian  V. 
against  Charles  XL,  when  the  rival  kings  com- 
manded and  fought  in  person.  On  July  28, 
1688,  he  married  the  princess  Anne  of  Eng- 
land, second  daughter  of  the  duke  of  York,  af- 
terward James  II.  She  bore  him  17  children, 
all  of  whom  died  before  their  mother^s  acces- 
sion to  the  throne.  The  prince  was  wholly  de- 
void of  talent,  as  of  ambition.  '^  I  have  tried 
him  drunk,"  said  Charles  II.,  ^'  and  I  have  tried 
him  sober ;  and  drunk  or  sober,  there  is  noth- 
ing in  him."  But  he  was  brave,  good-natured, 
and  humane ;  taking  no  part  in  politics,  and 
deserting  his  unhappy  father-in-law  in  the 
hour  of  need,  chiefly  by  the  desire  and  after 
the  example  of  his  wife.  He  had  been  brought 
into  the  conspiracy  through  her  subserviency 
to  Churchill,  the  future  duke  of  Marlborough, 
but  his  extreme  insignificance  rather  excitea 
the  raillery  of  the  king,  even  on  this  sad  oc- 
casion. ^^  After  all,"  said  James,  hearing  of 
his  defection,  **a  good  trooper  would  have 
been  a  greater  loss."  After  the  triumph  of  the 
prince  and  princess  of  Orange,  Prince  George 
was  naturalized  by  act  of  parliament  and  cre- 
ated by  the  new  king  duke  of  Cumberland, 
in  acknowledgment  of  his  cooperation  in  the 
great  measure  which  had  been  achieved.  He 
accompanied  the  king  to  Ireland,  and  was 
present  at  the  battle  of  the  Boyne.  On  the 
accession  of  his  wife,  the  '*  good  Queen  Anne," 
to  the  throne,  in  1702,  he  was  made  lord  high 
admiral  of  England.  He  had  previously  been 
invested  with  the  title  of  generalissimo  of  all 
the  queen^s  forces.  As  admiral  he  was  assisted 
by  a  council  consisting  of  four  members.  The 
legality  of  this  board  was  much  doubted,  but 
parliament  was  so  obsequious  to  the  queen, 
that  it  was  suffered  to  act  without  question. 

GEORGE.  I.  The  patron  saint  of  England, 
bom,  it  is  supposed,  at  Lydda  or  at  Ramleh  in 
Palestine  in  the  latter  half  of  the  3d  century, 
said  to  have  died  in  Nicomedia,  April  23,  808. 
He  appears  to  have  been  brought  up  in  Cappa- 
docia  and  to  have  embraced  the  military  pro- 
fession. It  is  the  prevailing  opinion  of  critics 
that  Eusebius  refers  to  him  in  his  ^'  Ecclesias- 
tical History  "  (B.  viii.,  c.  5),  in  speaking  of  "  a 
man  of  no  mean  origin,  but  highly  esteemed 
for  his  temporal  dignities,"  who,  when  Dio- 
cletian^s  edict  against  the  Christians  was  post- 
ed up  in  Nicomedia,  "  took  it  down  and  tore  it 
in  pieces."  As  the  emperor  was  then  present 
in  the  city,  this  deed  of  one  of  his  officers  en- 


712 


SAINT  GEORGE 


LAKE  GEORGE 


tailed  od  the  ofiFender  the  most  cruel  ponish- 
ment.  Reverence  for  the  safferer  soon  ex- 
tended through  Phoenicia,  Palestine,  and  the 
whole  East.  A  Greek  inscription  dated  846, 
on  a  very  ancient  church  at  Ezra,  in  Syria, 
mentions  George  as  a  holy  martyr.  Constan- 
tine  the  Great  huilt  a  church  over  the  tomb 
of  the  saint  between  Lydda  and  Ramleh ;  and 
the  latter  place,  which  claimed  also  to  be  his 
birthplace,  was  then  called  Georgia.  In  Con- 
stantinople a  temple  of  Juno  was  converted  by 
the  same  emperor  ii}to  a  church  of  St.  George, 
to  which  his  remains  were  translated.  About 
the  same  time  the  name  of  "St.  George^s 
arm^'  was  bestowed  upon  the  Hellespont. 
In  Rome,  Palermo,  and  Naples  churches  also 
bore  his  name  from  a  very  early  date.  Queen 
Clotilde  in  509  founded  in  his  honor  a  convent 
at  Ghelles,  and  01  o vis  II.  a  convent  at  Baralle 
in  Normandy.  St.  George  was  honored  in 
England  during  the  Anglo-Saxon  period.  Un- 
der Canute  a  monastery  of  St.  George  was 
founded  at  Thetford ;  St.  George^s,  Southwark, 
was  built  a  little  later;  and  in  the  reign  of 
the  Conqueror  there  was  a  collegiate  church 
of  St.  George  in  Oxford.  England,  Aragon, 
Portugal,  and  Genoa  chose  him  as  their  patron. 
In  1222  a  council  held  at  Oxford  ordained 
that  St.  George^s  day  should  be  a  national 
holiday.  In  1470  Frederick  of  Austria  insti- 
tuted an  order  of  knighthood  called  after  him. 
About  1350  Edward  III.  made  him  the  patron 
of  the  order  of  the  garter.  St.  George  is  also 
the  patron  saint  of  Russia.  St.  George  slaying 
the  dragon  was  the  cognizance  of  the  grand 
dukes  until  the  marriage  of  Ivan  III.  with  the 
Greek  princess  Sophia,  when  the  two-headed 
eagle,  the  Byzantine  emblem,  was  adopted. 
It  is  still  the  emblem  of  Moscow.  The  Rus- 
sian order  of  St.  George  was  founded  by 
Catharine  II.  in  1769.  Besides  the  universal 
veneration  in  which  he  is  held  by  Christians 
in  the  East,  especially  in  Georgia,  the  Moham- 
medans revere  him  under  the  appellations  of 
Ghergis  and  El-Ehouder.  The  historian  John 
Cantacuzenus  enumerates  several  shrines  erect- 
ed by  them  in  his  honor;  and  Dean  Stanley 
found  a  chapel  on  the  seashore  near  Sarafend 
(ancient  Sarepta)  dedicated  to El-Khouder.  The 
George  whose  relics  are  shown  in  St.  Germain- 
des-Pr6s,  Paris,  is  a  Syrian  deacon  martyred  in 
Spain  in  852 ;  but  his  name  is  not  in  the  Roman 
martyrology.  The  honor  paid  to  St.  George 
the  martyr  was  sanctioned  by  Pope  Gelasius  I. 
in  494,  in  a  council  at  Rome ;  but  the  "  acts  '* 
were  rejected  as  unworthy  of  credit.  The 
crusaders  found  him  honored  by  the  Greeks 
with  the  surname  of  Tropceophoros  or  Victori- 
ous. He  is  generally  represented,  according 
to  a  comparatively  modem  legend,  as  slaying 
a  dragon  sent  by  a  magician  Athanasius  to 
devour  a  princess  Alexandria.  This  came 
from  his  being  confounded  with  George  of 
Cappadocia.  IL  Called  the  Fuller,  the  Arian, 
and  George  of  Cappadocia,  bom  in  Epipha- 
neia,  Cilicia,  about  800,  died  in  Alexandria 


toward  the  close  of  861.  From  the  fuller^s 
shop  kept  by  his  father,  he  is  said  by  Ammia- 
nus  to  have  raised  himself  to  opulence  by  un- 
worthy means.  He  collected  a  valuable  libra- 
ry, became  the  leader  of  the  Arians  in  Ana 
Minor,  and  through  the  influence  of  Constan- 
tius  was  chosen  in  856  bishop  of  Alexandria, 
while  Athanasius  was  still  living.  He  and  his 
military  supporters  persecuted  tiieir  religious 
opponents,  pillaged  the  pagan  temples,  rained 
commerce  by  monopolizing  all  trade,  and  pro- 
posed the  impost  of  a  heavy  tax  on  boase- 
nolds.  Driven  from  the  city  by  the  revolted 
inhabitants,  he  was  restored  by  military  force ; 
but  on  the  accession  of  Julian  he  and  his  two . 
principal  followers  were  imprisoned  by  the  pa- 
gans, and  after  24  days  were  taken  out  and 
butchered.  Gibbon  and  other  writers  con- 
found George  of  Cappadocia  with  St.  Greorge 
the  martyr;  but  Heylin  and  Milner,  with 
whom  MUman  agrees,  have  shown  them  to  be 
distinct  personages. 

GEORCE,  EBMh,  a  bishop  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  church  in  the  United  States,  bom 
in  Lancaster  oo.,  Ya.,  in  1767  or  1768,  died  at 
Staunton,  Ya.,  Aug.  23,  1828.  After  preach- 
ing one  year  at  the  head  waters  of  the  Catawba 
and  Broad  rivers,  in  North  Carolina,  be  was 
received  into  the  conference  on  trial  in  17SK), 
and  sent  to  Pamlico  circuit.  For  four  years  he 
travelled  over  extensive  circuits  in  the  atates 
of  Yirginia,  North  Carolina,  South  Carolina, 
and  Georgia,  when  he  was  obliged  to  retire 
from  active  ministerial  labor  on  account  of 
physical  debility.  In  1799  be  resumed  the 
itinerant  work  in  Rockingham  circuit,  Yir- 
ginia. In  1800  he  had  charge  of  an  immense 
district  extending  from  Ches^eake  baj  to 
the  AUeghanies,  but  again  his  health  failed, 
and  for  two  years  he  taught  a  school  in  IFin- 
ch ester,  Ya.  In  1808  he  resumed  his  ministe- 
rial labors,  acting  as  pastor  of  churches  in 
Frederick,  Alexandria,  Montgomery,  and  Bal- 
timore, and  as  presiding  elder  of  the  Baltimore, 
Alexandria,  and  Georgetown  districts  till  1816, 
when  he  was  elected  to  the  episcopacy.  He 
continued  to  labor  effectively  in  this  oflSce  to 
the  date  of  his  death.  He  was  remarkable  for 
a  peculiar  and  powerful  style  of  preaching, 
and  for  great  humility. 

CiEORCiE}  Lake,  a  picturesque  sheet  of  water 
in  Warren  and  Washington  cos.,  New  York, 
36  m.  long  from  N.  E.  to  S.  W.,  from  }  m.  to 
4  m.  wide,  and  in  some  places  400  ft.  deep, 
discharging  into  Lake  Champlain  on  the  north. 
It  is  remarkable  for  the  transpai-ency  of  its 
water,  its  multitude  of  little  islands,  popularly 
supposed  to  correspond  in  number  with  the 
days  of  the  year,  and  the  beautiful  scenery  of 
its  banks.  Black  mountain,  on  the  E.  shore, 
has  an  elevation  of  2,200  ft.  above  the  sur- 
face of  the  lake;  and  12  m.  distant  from  it 
is  a  very  steep  rock  rising  200  ft.  from  the 
water,  down  which  it  is  said  Migor  Rogers, 
when  pursued  by  Indians  during  the  French 
war,  slid  and  landed  safely  on  the  ioe.    Not 


GEORGE  OF  TREBIZOND 


GEORGETOWN 


713 


far  from  this  spot  is  the  place  where  the  Engtish 
under  Lord  Howe  landed  previous  to  their  at- 
tack on  Fort  Ticonderoga.  The  ruins  of  that 
fort  can  he  seen  at  the  £.  end  of  the  narrow 
channel  through  which  the  waters  of  Lake 
George  are  conveyed  to  Lake  Champlain. 
Steamers  ply  upon  the  lake  in  summer,  be- 
tween Caldwell  and  Fort  Ticonderoga,  con- 
▼ejing  large  numbers  of  tourists  attracted  by 
its  b^utiful  scenery.  Caldwell,  Bolton,  and 
other  places  on  its  banks,  are  favorite  summer 
resorts. — Lake  George  was  discovered  by  the 
French  from  Canada  early  in  the  17th  century. 
Champlain  knew  of  its  existence  in  1609,  and 
saw  it  some  time  between  that  year  and  1613. 
It  was  named  by  Father  Jogues  Lake  St.  Sa- 
crement,  from  the  festival  of  Corpus  Christi  on 
which  he  reached  it,  May  27,  1646.  The  Eng- 
lish subsequently  named  it  at^r  Kin^  George 
II.  By  the  Indians  it  was  called  Andiatarocte, 
or  "  the  j>1ace  where  the  lake  closes.'^  Cooper 
in  his  "  Last  of  the  Mohicans  "  called  it  Hori- 
con,  the  name  Horicoui  being  given  on  some 
old  maps  as  that  of  an  Indian  tribe  in  the 
vicinity^  probably  by  a  misprint  for  Horicoui, 
that  is,  Iroquois.  It  bears  a  conspicuous  place  in 
American  history.  For  more  than  a  century  it 
was  a  channel  of  communication  between  Can- 
ada and  the  settlements  on  the  Hudson.  In  the 
French  and  Indian  war  it  was  repeatedly  oc- 
cupied by  large  armies,  and  was  the  scene  of 
several  battles.  On  Sept.  7,  1755,  oeenrred 
engagements  between  the  French  and  English, 
near  the  S.  end  of  the  lake,  in  which  Col.  Wil- 
liams of  Massachusetts,  the  founder  of  Williams 
college,  was  killed,  Baron  Dieskau,  the  French 
commander,  severely  wounded,  and  the  French 
totally  defeated.  In  1 757  Fort  W  illiam  Henry, 
at  the  same  end  of  the  lake,  was  besieged  by 
the  French  general  Montcalm,  at  the  head  of 
10,000  men.  The  garrison,  after  a  gallant  de- 
fence, capitulated,  and  were  barbarously  mas- 
sacred by  the  Indian  allies  of  the  French.  In 
July,  1758,  the  army  of  Gen.  Abercrombie,.  about 
15,000  strong,  passed  up  the  lake  in  1,000  boats, 
and  attacked  Ticonderoga  without  success.  In 
July,  1759,  Gen.  Amherst  with  an  almost  equal 
force  also  traversed  the  lake  and  took  Ticon- 
deroga and  Crown  Point.  The  head  of  Lake 
George  was  the  depot  for  the  stores  of  the 
army  of  Gen.  Burgoyne  before  he  began  his 
march  to  Saratoga. 

GEORGE  OF  TREBIZOND,  a  Greek  scholar, 
bom  in  the  island  of  Crete  in  1896,  died  in 
Rome  in  1486.  He  arrived  in  Italy  in  1430  at 
the  invitation  of  Francesco  Barbaro,  a  noble 
Venetian,  and  became  professor  of  Greek  lite- 
rature and  philosophy  at  Venice.  Pope  Euge- 
nius  IV.  invited  him  to  Rome  in  the  same  ca- 
pacity, and  made  him  his  secretary;  and  he 
was  continued  in  these  functions  by  Nicholas 
V.  Though  he  was  famous  throughout  Italy, 
some  of  his  hasty  translations  of  the  Greek  au- 
thors into  Latin  drew  upon  him  attacks  from 
Lorenzo  Valla  and  Theodore  Gaza,  and  his  eu- 
logies of  Aristotle  and  attacks  upon  Plato  pro- 


voked the  enmity  of  the  Florentine  admirers 
of  Plato,  and  particularly  of  Cardinal  Bessa- 
rion.  His  subsequent  life  was  a  series  of  dis- 
putes, and  his  writings  are  remarkable  for  vio- 
lent personalities. 

GEORGES,  Maigmerlte  JM^phlne,  mademoiselle, 
a  French  actress,  born  at  Bayeux,  Feb.  23, 
1787,  died  at  Passy,  Jan.  12,  1867.  She  was 
a  daughter  of  an  actress  and  of  a  military  tailor, 
Wemmer  (long  erroneously  called  Weymer). 
Some  juvenile  performances  of  hers  at  Amiens 
attracted  the  notice  of  the  actress  Raucourt,  by 
whose  influence  she  was  brought  to  Paris  and 
educated.  Her  imposing  beauty  and  powerful 
acting  produced  a  great  sensation  at  her  first 
appearance  in  1802  as  Clytemnestra ;  but  as 
she  desired  to  shine  also  in  less  austere  char- 
acters, in  which  Mile.  Duchesnois  excelled,  a 
contest  arose  which  subsequently  resulted  in 
her  clandestine  departure  for  Vienna,  and  soon 
afterward  for  Russia.  The  emperor  Alexander 
I.  became  so  infatuated  with  her  that  he  would 
not  consent  to  her  returning  to  France,  and 
in  1808  she  played  before  him  and  Napoleon 
in  Dresden  and  at  Erfurt.  Napoleon,  one  of 
her  warmest  admirers,  and  Hortense,  one  of 
her  earliest  patronesses,  procured  her  read- 
mission  at  the  Th64tre  Fran^ais  in  1813,  and 
the  payment  of  her  salary  from  the  time  of 
her  entrance  in  1808.  Here  Talma  imparted 
great  finish  to  her  style ;  but  in  1816  she  again 
broke  her  engagement.  Excepting  occasional 
performances  in  England  and  Germany  and 
the  French  provinces,  slie  was  subsequently 
connected  with  the  Od6on  and  the  Porte  St. 
Martin  theatres  from  1821  to  1847,  sustaining 
her  reputation  as  a  most  impassioned  and  ma- 
jestic tragedian.  She  gave  farewell  perform- 
ances in  1849,  and  despite  increasing  stout- 
ness she  appeared  once  more  in  1855.  She 
was  most  admired  as  Semiramis,  Merope,  Di- 
do, Agrippina,  Lucrezia  Borgia,  Mary  Tudor, 
and  Catharine  de*  Medici.  She  received  costly 
presents  from  emperors  and  princes,  and  from 
a  host  of  other  admirers  and  lovers ;  yet  on  re- 
tiring from  the  stage  her  poverty  impelled  her 
to  become  a  teacher  at  the  conservatory. 

GEORGirrOWN,  an  E.  county  of  South  Caro- 
lina, bordering  on  the  Atlantic,  bounded  S.  W. 
by  Santee  river  and  intersected  by  the  Great 
Pedee,  Black,  and  Waccamaw,  which  unite 
just  above  the  seat  of  justice  and  enter  the 
ocean  through  the  estuary  called  Winyaw  bay ; 
area,  818  sq.  m.;  pop.  in  1870,  16,161,  of 
whom  18,888  were  colored.  The  surface  is 
level  and  partly  occupied  by  marshes  and  pine 
forests.  The  soil  is  generally  fertile.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  14,094  bushels  of  In- 
dian corn,  7,644  of  sweet  potatoes,  5,324,970 
lbs.  of  rice,  and  61  bales  of  cotton.  There 
were  4  manufactories  of  barrels  and  casks,  5 
of  tar  and  turpentine,  1  saw  mill,  and  1  planing 
mill.     Capital,  Georgetown. 

GEORGETOWN.  I.  A  port  of  entry  of  the 
District  of  Columbia,  situated  at  the  head  of 
navigation  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Potomac, 


714 


GEORGETOWN 


125  m.  from  its  mouth,  and  2^  m.  N.  W.  of 
the  oapitol,  Washington,  from  which  it  is  sepa- 
rated by  Rock  creek,  which  is  spanned  by  four 
handsome  iron  bridges ;  pop.  in  1850,  8,366 ; 
in  1860,  8,733  ;  in  1870, 11,884,  of  whom  3,217 
were  colored  and  1,020  foreigners.  On  the 
north  and  west  it  is  overlooked  by  heights, 
commanding  a  magnificent  view  of  Washing- 
ton and  the  Potomac,  and  a  vast  expanse  of 
country,  and  crowned  by  villas  and  country 
seats.  It  is  a  quiet  but  thriving  place,  noted 
for  its  refined  society  and  educational  advan- 
tages. The  custom  house  and  post  office  build- 
ing is  near  the  centre.  On  the  N.  W.  slope  of 
the  heights  is  Oak  Hill  cemetery,  encompass- 
ed by  an  iron  fence,  and  beautified  by  original 
forest  trees;  it  was  laid  out  in  1849.  Exten- 
sive street  improvements  are  in  progress.  The 
Chesapeake  and  Ohio  canal  has  its  termuius  at 
Georgetown,  where  a  branch  is  carried  across 
the  Potomac  by  an  aqueduct  1,446  ft.  long, 
and  86  ft  above  the  ordinary  tide,  over  which 
is  an  elevated  roadway.  Georgetown  is  the 
only  port  of  the  District,  and  is  connected  by 
steamship  lines  with  New  York,  Philadelphia, 
Boston,  Baltimore,  and  Norfolk,  and  carries  on 
a  considerable  coasting  trade.  The  value  of 
foreign  commerce  for  the  year  ending  June  80, 
1873,  was  $29,655.  The  canal  furnishes  excel- 
lent water  power,  which  is  utilized  by  a  num- 
ber of  extensive  fiour  mills,  and  brings  down 
large  quantities  of  bituminous  coal  from  the 
Oumberland  mines.  The  principal  literary  insti- 
tution is  Georgetown  college,  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  Jesuits,  which  was  founded  as  a 
college  in  1789  and  chartered  as  a  university 
in  1815.  It  consists  of  a  classical,  a  medical, 
and  a  law  department.  The  classical  depart- 
ment has  a  senior  division  (corresponding  to 
the  ordinary  college  course),  divided  into  four 
classes;  a  junior  division,  divided  into  two 
classes ;  and  a  preparatory  department,  with 
two  classes ;  the  whole  covering  seven  years. 
There  is  also  a  post-graduate  course  of  two 
years.  Besides  more  than  8,000  volumes  in  the 
students^  libraries,  the  college  possesses  a  li- 
brary of  some  80,000  volumes,  among  which 
are  many  rare  and  curious  works.  There  are 
100  volumes  prmted  between  the  years  1460 
and  1520;  three  manuscripts  anterior  to  the 
year  1400,  and  one  of  the  year  1280.  The 
faculty  consists  of  the  president  and  20  profes- 
sors and  instructors.  The  number  of  students 
in  1872-'3  was  187,  viz.:  senior  division,  58; 
junior  division,  65 ;  preparatory,  69.  The  num- 
ber of  graduates  was  11.  The  medical  depart- 
ment was  organized  in  1851,  and  a  school  of 
pharmacy  has  recently  been  established  in  con- 
nection with  it,  in  which  diplomas  are  given  for 
proficiency.  In  1872-'3  there  were  10  profes- 
sors and  56  students,  of  whom  24  graduated  in 
medicine  and  one  in  pharmacy.  The  law  de- 
partment was  established  in  1870,  and  in  1872- 
^8  had  4  professors  and  56  students,  of  whom 
28  graduated.  These  two  departments  are  in 
Washington.    The  college  buildings,  which  are 


spacious,  are  at  the  W.  end  of  Georgetown,  and 
are  surrounded  by  handsome  grounds.  Near 
the  college  is  a  convent  of  Visitation  nuns, 
founded  in  1799,  and  attached  to  the  latter  a 
female  academy,  with  a  library  of  2,500  vol- 
umes. Georgetown  institute  is  an  English  and 
classical  school  for  boys.  The  whole  number 
of  private  schools  in  1872  was  21  (including  6 
for  secondary  instruction),  with  869  pupils. 
There  were  4  public  school  houses  and  17 
separate  schools,  including  7  for  colored  chil- 
dren, having  19  teachers  and  an  average  at- 
tendance of  705  children.  The  principal  char- 
itable institutions  are  the  aged  women^s  home 
and  the  industrial  home  school  for  juvenile 
vagrants.  There  are  a  national  bank,  an  in- 
surance company,  a  weekly  newspaper,  a 
monthly  periodical  (published  by  the  college 
students),  and  18  churches. — Georgetown  was 
laid  out  in  pursuance  of  an  act  of  the  colo- 
nial government  of  Maryland  dated  June  8, 
1751,  and  was  incorporated  as  a  city  Dec.  25, 
1789.  The  charter  was  abolished  upon  the 
organization  of  the  territory  of  the  District 
of  Columbia  in  1871,  but  the  locality  is  still 
known  as  the  "city  of  Georgetown."  (See 
DiSTBiOT  OF  Columbia.^  II.  A  town,  port 
of  entry,  and  the  capital  of  Georgetown  co.. 
South  Carolina,  situated  on  the  W.  shore  of 
Winyaw  bay,  near  the  confluence  of  the  Black 
and  Great  Pedee  rivers,  15  m.  from  the  sea 
and  110  m.  E.  S.  E.  of  Columbia;  pop.  in 
1870,  2,080,  of  whom  1,879  were  colored. 
The  entrance  to  the  harbor  is  obstructed  by  a 
bar.  The  neighboring  country  produces  large 
quantities  of  rice.  The  value  of  foreign  com- 
merce, consisting  wholly  of  exports,  for  the 
year  ending  June  80,  1878,  was  $64,587 ;  en- 
tered, 6  vessels  of  907  tons ;  cleared,  21  ves- 
sels of  8,813  tons.  In  the  coastwise  trade  80 
vessels  of  19,387  tons  entered,  and  14  vessels  of 
2,250  tons  cleared.  There  were  7  sailing  ves- 
sels of  767  tons,  and  9  steamers  of  778  tons, 
belonging  to  the  port.  IIL  A  town  and 
the  capital  of  Scott  co.,  Kentucky,  built  on 
high  ground  in  the  midst  of  the  fertile  section 
known  as  the  ^^blue  grass  region,"  on  the 
North  Elkhorn  river,  17  m.  E.  of  Frankfort; 

fop.  in  1870,  1,570,  of  whom  728  were  colored. 
t  contains  two  factories,  two  banks,  and  a 
weekly  newspaper.  It  is  the  seat  of  George- 
town college  (Baptist),  founded  in  1829,  occu- 
pying three  large  buildings,  and  having  in  1872 
8  professors,  135  students  (41  preparatory), 
and  a  library  of  7,000  volumes.  The  western 
Baptist  theological  institute,  founded  at  Cov- 
ington in  1840,  was  removed  to  Georgetown 
in  1854,  and  is  conducted  in  connection  with 
Georgetown  college.  In  1872  it  had  2  profes- 
sors and  24  students.  Georgetown  female 
seminary  (Baptist)  in  1872  had  7  instructors 
and  110  students.  Warrendale  female  college 
(Reformed)  had  4  instructors  and  70  students. 
GEOEGETOWir  (Dutch,  Stahroek),  the  capital 
of  British  Guiana,  and  of  the  county  of  Dem- 
erara,  situated  on  the  E.  bank  of  Demerara 


1.  wide;  lat. 
;  pop.  abont 


river,  at  ito  inoDth,  here  abont  1 
6°  49' 24"  N.,  Ion.  SS"  11' 30"  Tl 
27,000,  of  whom  one  quarter  are  whites, 
is  re^iart;  bailt,  with  broud,  clean  streets,  in- 
terseoting  at  right  angles,  and  neat  wooden 
hoDses  having  open  verandas  in  front,  tliicklj 
shaded  and  sarrounded  bj  gardens.  Canals 
commanicating  with  each  other  and  with  the 
river  rnn  throcgh  the  middle  of  most  of  the 
streets,  and  are  oroaaed  hj  naoierous  bridges. 
The  great  business  thoronghfare  is  Water 
street,  facing  the  river,  and  inhabited  exclu- 
eively  by  Europeans.  The  principal  edifice  is 
the  town  hall,  a  large  stone  building,  with 
marble-paved  galleries  sapported  b;  iron  col- 
nmns.  The  Episcopal  oatnedral  is  a  handsome 
stone  boildini;,  besides  which  there  are  one 
Episcopal  and  ten  other  ohurches,  a  coUe^, 
man;  schools,  two  hospitals,  a  lunatic  asylum, 
two  banks,  two  theatres,  a  handsome  prome- 
nade, several  artesian  wells,  and  a  market 
place  Rurroundedby  well  supplied  shops.  Be- 
low the  town  is  Fort  Frederick  William,  and 
near  it,  at  the  month  of  the  river,  a  lighthouse. 
Georgetown  is  anhealth;,  owing  to  its  low, 
marshy  situation.  By  way  of  security  against 
dampness  the  houses  ore  raised  on  piles  three  or 
four  feet  above  the  ground.  Diarrhcea,  dysen- 
tery, dropsy,  and  yellow  and  intermittent  fe- 
vers are  prevalent  diseases.  There  is  a  bar 
at  the  mouth  of  the  river,  on  which  is  16  feet 
of  water.  The  principal  exports  are  coffee, 
sugar,  and  rum.  The  value  of  imports  for  the 
year  ending  Dec.  SI,  18T1,  was  (6,604, M9  68; 
amount  of  dntiea  collected,  $609,719  43;  value 
of  exports,  $13,080,943  12.  Entered,  72  steam- 
ers of  9,21fi  tons,  and  854  sailing  vessels  of 
216,166  tons;  cleared,  72  steamers  of  9,216 
tons,  and  906  sailing  vessels  of  192,758  tons. 

CBOKfilA,  one  of  the  thirteen  original  states 
of  the  American  Union,  situated  between  lat. 


30°  21'  and  85°  N.,  and  Ion.  80°  4S'  and  85°  40' 
W.,  having  an  extreme  length  N.  and  S.  of  320 
m.,  and  an  extreme  breadth  E.  and  W,  of  264 
ra. ;  area,  58,000  sq,  m.  It  is  bounded  N.  by 
Tennessee  and  North  Carolina,  N,  E,  by  Soutli 
Carolina,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  the 
Savannah  river,  E.  by  the  Atian.tio  ocean,  S. 
by  Florida,  and  W.  by  Alabama,  from  which 
it  is  partly  separated  by  the  Chattahoochee 
river.  It  ia  divided  into  136  counties,  viz.: 
Appling,  Baker,  Baldwin,  Banks,  Bartow,  Ber- 
rien, Bibb,  Brooks,  Bryan,  Bullock,  Burke, 
Butts,  Calhoun,  Camden,  Campbell,  Carroll, 
Catoosa,  Charlton,  Chatham,  Chattahoochee, 
Chattooga,  Cherokee,  Clarke,  Clay,  Clayton, 
Clinch,  Cobb,  Coffee,  Colquitt,  Columbio,  Cow- 
eta, Crawford,  Dade,  Dawson,  Decatur,  De 
Ealb,  Dodge,  Dooly,  Dougherty,  Douglas, 
Early,  Echols,  Effingham,  Elbert,  Emanuel, 
Fannin,  Fayette,  Floyd,  Forsyth,  Franklin, 
Fulton,  Gilmer,  Glascock,  Glynn,  Gordon, 
Greene,  Gwinnett,  Habersham,  Haii,  Hancock, 
Haralson,  Harris,  Hart,  Heard,  Henry,  Hous- 
ton, Irwin,  Jackson,  Jasper,  Jefferson,  John- 
son, Jones,  Laurens,  Lee,  Liberty,  Lincoln, 
Lowndes,  I.nmpkin,  Macon,  Madison,  Marion, 
McDuffie,  Mcintosh,  Meriwether,  Miller,  Hil- 
ton, Mitchell,  Monroe,  Montgomery,  Morgan, 
Murray,  Mnscogee,  Newton,  Oglethorpe,  Paal- 
ding,  Pickens,  Pierce,  Pike,  Polk,  Pulaski,  Put- 
nam, Quitman,  Kabun,  Randolph,  Richmond, 
Rockd^e,  Schley,  Scriven,  Spalding,  Stewart, 
Sumter,  Talbot.  Taliaferro,  Tatnall,  Taylor,  Tel- 
fair, Terrell,  Thomas,  Towns,  Tronp,  Twiggs, 
Union,  Upson,  Walker,  Walton,  Ware.  Warren, 
Washington,  Wayne,  Webster,  White,  Whit- 
field, Wilcox,  "Wilkes,  Wilkinson,  and  Worth. 
The  counties  are  subdivided  into  1,136  militia 
districts,  and  contain  184  incorporated  towns. 
There  are  eight  cities,  viz. ;  Savannah  (pop.  In 
1870,  28,235),  the  chief  port,  on  the  river  of 


SUla  Beil  of  Georstii. 


th»  same  name,  18  tn.  from  the  sea;  Atlanta  I  vannah,  248  m.  from  its  mouth;  Macon  (pop. 

(pop.  21,789),  the  capital,  in  the  N.  W.  part    10.810);   Colnnibas  (7,401);   Athena  (4,251); 
ofthastate;  Augn9ta(pop.l5,389),o- "-'=-    I  >•:■■-'—■!"-'■>  ■'"'>'  •«■"*■ — !*■■'■  — ^ 


I  Milledgeviile  (2,760),  the  former  capital;  and 


716 


GEORGIA 


Rome  (2,748).  Among  the  towns  are  Albany, 
Americas,  Bainbridge,  Bronswick,  Cartersville, 
Oovington,  Outhbert,  Dalton,  Dawson,  Eaton- 
ton,  Fort  Valley,  Griffin,  La  Grange,  Marietta, 
Newnan,  Thomasville,  Valdosta,  Washington, 
and  West  Point,  having  each  more  than  1,000 
]nhabitant8.-7-The  population  of  the  state  in 
1790  and  at  subsequent  decennial  periods  was 
as  follows : 


U.  8.  CENSUS. 


1790 
1800 
1810 
1820 
1880 
1840 
1800 
1860 
1870 


WUto. 


68,886 
101,678 
145,414 
189,564 
294,806 
407,695 
521,572 
591,060 
688,926 


FrM 

eolorad. 


898 
1,019 
1,801 
1,767 
2.484 
2,768 
2,981 
8,500 
545,142 


SUt*. 


29,264 
60,404 
105,218 
149.656 
217,581 
280,944 
881.682 
462,198 


Total. 


82,548 
162,101 
258,488 
840,488 
576,828 
691,892 
906,165 
1,057,286 
1,164,109 


Included  in  the  last  total  are  1  Chinaman  and 
40  Indians.  Georgia  ranked  12th  among  the 
states  in  1870  in  total  population,  a  gain  since 
1860  of  12  per  cent. ;  16th  in  the  number  of 
white  inhabitants,  gain  8*01  per  cent. ;  and 
1st  in  colored  population,  gain  17*06  per  cent. 
There  were  1,172,982  natives  and  11,127  for- 
eigners, 678,955  males  and  605,154  females. 
Of  the  natives,  933,962  were  born  in  the  state, 
54,987  in  South  Carolina,  26,858  in  North  Car- 
olina, 19,034  in  Virginia  and  West  Virginia,  12,- 
280  in  Alabama,  9,894  in  Tennessee,  and  4,781 
in  Florida.  There  were  874,142  persons  born 
in  the  state  living  in  other  states  and  territo- 
ries. Of  the  foreigners,  5,098  were  natives  of 
Ireland,  2,761  of  Germany,  and  1,088  of  Eng- 
land. Of  the  colored,  501,814  were  blacks, 
and  48,328  mulattoes.  The  number  of  male 
citizens  of  the  United  States  21  years  old  and 
over  was  284,919.  There  were  237,850  fami- 
lies, having  an  average  of  4*98  persons  to  a  fam- 
ily, and  236,486  dwellings,  averaging  5*01  to  a 
dwelling.  There  were  418,553  persons  10  years 
old  and  over  unable  to  read,  and  468,593  un- 
able to  write,  of  whom  848,687  were  colored 
and  1,070  foreigners,  220,070  males  and  248,- 
528  females ;  101,114  were  between  10  and  15 
years  of  age,  92,120  from  15  to  21,  and  275,842 
21  and  over.  Of  the  last  number,  21,899  were 
white  males  and  100,551  colored  males.  The 
number  of  blind  persons  was  740;  deaf  and 
dumb,  326 ;  insane,  634 ;  idiots,  871 ;  paupers, 
1,816,  of  whom  507  were  colored  and  39  for- 
eigners; persons  convicted  of  crimes  during 
the  year,  1,775.  There  were  444,678  persons 
10  years  old  and  over  engaged  in  occupations, 
viz. :  336,145  in  agriculture,  64,083  in  profes- 
sional and  personal  services,  14,410  in  trade 
and  transportation,  and  27,040  in  manufactures 
and  mining.  Included  in  these  numbers  were 
264,605  agricultural  laborers,  70,468  farmers 
and  planters,  958  clergymen,  87,027  domestic 
servants,  14,976  laborers,  851  lawyers,  1,637 
physicians  and  surgeons,  2,225  teachers,  5,429 
traders  and  dealers,  8,545  clerks,  salesmen,  &c., 


5,105  officials  and  employees  of  railroad  com- 
panies, 1,279  carmen,  draymen,  &c.,  2,262 
blacksmiths,  1,875  boot  and  shoe  makers,  1,005 
masons  and  stone  cutters,  4,723  carpenters  and 
joiners,  8,519  cotton  and  woollen  mill  opera- 
tives, 1,206  millers,  1,215  saw-mill  operatives, 
and  2,604  tailors,  seamstresses,  &c, — Oeorizia 
presents  a  great  variety  of  surface.  Along  the 
coast  and  the  Florida  line  it  is  low  and  swampy, 
while  a  little  further  back  occur  parallel  ranges 
of  sand  hills,  40  or  50  ft.  high.  Near  the  S. 
E.  comer  is  the  Okefinokee  swamp,  or  rather 
series  of  swamps,  about  180  m.  in  circuit,  filled 
with  pools  and  islands,  covered  with  vines,  bay 
trees,  and  underwood,  and  teeming  with  alli- 
gators, lizards,  and  other  reptiles.  The  eleva- 
tion for  20  m.  inland  rarely  exceeds  40  ft.,  and 
averages  10  to  12  ft.  above  the  sea.  Then  the 
land  suddenly  rises  by  a  terrace  70  ft.  higher, 
and  this  table  land  continues  nearly  level  about 
20  m.  further  inland,  when  another  rise  of  70 
ft.  leads  to  a  third  tract,  which  continues  to 
ascend  toward  the  north,  till  at  Milledgeville, 
about  150  m.  from  the  sea,  the  elevation  is 
about  575  ft.  From  the  central  portion  of  the 
state  the  surface  becomes  more  elevated,  the 
hills  increasing  in  size  toward  the  north.  The 
southern  spurs  of  the  Appalachians,  .which 
cross  the  N.  portion  of  the  state  from  N.  E. 
to  S.  W.,  are  reached  in  the  Etowah  hills  of 
Bartow  and  Cherokee  counties,  and  the  Ami- 
colola  hills  of  Gilmer  and  Lumpkin ;  and  the 
Blue  Ridge,  ranging  with  these  between  Lump- 
kin, White,  and  Habersham  counties  on  the 
south,  and  Union  and  Towns  on  the  north,  con- 
stitutes the  great  watershed.  These  mountains 
attain  an  elevation  of  from  1,200  to  4,000  ft. — 
The  coast  of  Georgia  extends  S.  S.  W.  from 
Tybee  sound  to  Cumberland  sound,  a  distance 
of  about  100  m.,  with  a  shore  line  estimated  at 
480  m.  Though  generally  uniform  as  to  course, 
it  is  very  irregularly  indented,  and  is  skirted  by 
numerous  low  islands  which  extend  parallel  to 
the  shores.  The  principal  of  these  from  N.  to 
S.  are  Cabbage,  Ossabaw,  St.  Catharine^s,  Sa- 
pelo,  St.  Simon^s,  Jykill,  and  Cumberland.  The 
inlets  and  sounds  which  divide  the  islands  from 
one  another  and  from  the  mainland  are  gener- 
ally navigable,  but  too  shoal  to  admit  vessels 
of  more  than  100  tons.  Vessels  of  larger  di- 
mensions can  enter  only  four  harbors :  Savan- 
nah, Darien,  Brunswick,  and  St.  Mary's.  The 
bar  of  the  Tybee  entrance  of  the  Savannah  has 
19  ft.  of  water ;  that  of  the  Sapelo  entrance 
of  the  Altamaha,  14  ft. ;  that  of  St.  Simon^s 
sound  (entrance  of  Brunswick  harbor),  17  ft.; 
and  that  of  St.  Mary's  river,  14  ft.  These 
figures  represent  the  least  water  in  the  chan- 
nel ways  at  low  water  of  mean  tides ;  the  mean 
rise  of  tides  on  this  part  of  the  coast  varies 
from  7  ft.  in  the  Savannah  to  5*9  ft.  in  the 
St.  Mary's. — The  Savannah,  the  largest  river 
of  Georgia,  and  the  boundary  toward  South 
Carolina,  rises  by  two  head  streams,  the  Tuga- 
loo  and  Keowee,  in  the  Appalachian  chain,  and 
near  the  sources  of  the  Tennessee  and  Hiawas- 


GEORGIA 


717 


BM  on  the  one  side  and  of  the  Chattahoochee 
on  the  other.  From  the  junction  of  these  con- 
flnents  (lat.  W*  28')  the  river  has  a  S.  S.  £. 
course  of  450  m.  to  the  sea,  which  it  meets 
near  lat  82°  and  Ion.  81*".  It  is  navigahle  for 
large  ships  to  Savannah,  18  m.,  and  for  steam- 
boats of  150  tons  to  Augusta,  230  m.  further ; 
and  by  means  of  a  canal  round  the  falls  navi- 
gation for  small  steamboats  is  prolonged  for 
150  m.  above.  The  Chattahoochee  rises  near 
the  W.  constituent  of  the  Savannah,  pursues 
at  first  a  S.  W.  course,  but  at  West  Point  (lat. 
32°  520  on  the  Alabama  line  turns  S.  and  en- 
tors  Florida  (lat.  80^  41')  under  the  name  of 
the  Appalachicola.  Its  whole  length  to  the 
gulf  is  about  550  m.,  and  steamboats  ascend 
it  300  m.  to  the  falls  at  Columbus.  Flint  river 
rises  in  the  hillj  country  S.  of  the  Chattahoo- 
chee, and  joins  that  river  in  the  S.  W.  comer 
of  the  state  after  a  com'se  of  800  m. ;  it  is  navi- 
gable for  steamboats  to  Albany.  The  Ock- 
lockonnee,  Withlacoochee,  and  AUapaha  drain 
the  S.  section  of  the  state,  and  pass  through 
Florida  to  the  gulf  of  Mexico.  The  Withlacoo- 
chee and  Allapaha  by  their  junction  in  Florida 
form  the  Suwanee.  Next  to  the  Savannah, 
the  Altamaha  is  the  largest  river  falling  into 
the  Atlantic.  It  is  formed  by  the  junction  of 
the  Oconee  and  Oomulgee,  which  rise  in  the 
hilly  region  S.  of  the  Chattahoochee  and  fiow 
for  about  250  m.  nearly  parallel  to  each  other, 
when  the  latter  bends  to  the  east  and  unites 
its  waters  with  those  of  the  former.  The  main 
river  is  navigable  for  sea-going  vessels  to  Da- 
rien,  and  steamboats  ascend  the  Ocmulgee  to 
Macon  and  the  Oconee  to  Milledgeville.  The 
Ogeechee  drains  the  country  between  the  Sa- 
vannah and  Altamaha,  and  has  a  S.  £.  course 
of  200  m.,  with  80  or  40  m.  of  sloop  navigation ; 
its  southern  branch,  the  Cannouchee,  is  navi- 
gable for  50  m.  The  Santilla  and  St  Mary^s 
drain  the  S.  E.  section  of  the  stato ;  both  are 
navigable  for  sloops  about  40  m.,  and  for  boats 
much  further;  the  St.  Mary's  forms  the. boun- 
dary toward  Florida.  The  N.  and  N.  W.  sec- 
tions of  the  state  are  drained  by  the  Tacoah,  the 
Notley,  and  other  tributaries  of  the  Hiawas- 
see ;  and  by  the  Oostonaula  and  Etowah,  which, 
uniting  at  Rome,  form  the  Coosa,  one  of  the 
tributaries  of  the  Alabama.  The  Tallapoosa, 
also  a  tributary  of  the  Alabama,  has  its  sources 
in  this  stato  between  the  Coosa  and  Chattahoo- 
chee.— Georgia  is  naturally  divided  into  two  re- 
gions distinguished  by  their  geological  struc- 
ture, as  well  as  by  their  topography,  climate, 
and  vegetable  productions.  The  line  of  the  first 
falls  which  are  met  with  in  ascending  the 
streams  marks  here,  as  well  as  further  N.,  the 
ascent  upon  the  platform  of  granitic  and  pa- 
l»ozoic  rocks,  which  stretohes  on  to  the  Ap- 
palachian monnt^ns.  This  line  crosses  the 
central  portion  of  the  stato  from  Augusta  on 
the  Savannah,  by  Macon  on  the  Oomulgee,  to 
Columbus  on  the  Chattahoochee.  It  is  nearly 
parallel  with  the  range  of  the  AUeghanies, 
which  crosses  in  a  N.  E.  and  S.  W.  direction 


the  northern  portion  of  the  state ;  but  it  is  so 
distant  from  these  mountains  that  the  inter- 
vening hilly  region  of  the  metamorphic  and 
lower  Silurian  rocks  is  here  much  broader 
than  elsewhere  along  the  eastern  slopes  of  the 
AUeghanies.  The  width  of  the  belt  is  not  far 
from  150  m.  On  the  south  it  is  succeeded  im- 
mediately by  the  lowest  tertiary,  the  eocene, 
whose  sands,  clays,  and  calcareous  and  sili- 
cious  strata  are  seen  reposing  upon  the  an- 
cient metamorphic  slates  and  gneiss  along  the 
line  of  contact  with  these.  The  cretaceous  for- 
mation only  intervenes  from  a  point  almost  in 
the  centre  of  the  state,  near  Macon,  gradually 
widening  in  its  outspread  toward  the  west  and 
pushing  the  outorop  of  the  overlying  eocene 
further  to  the  south.  The  cretaceous  group  is 
also  seen  at  a  few  isolated  points  rising  through 
the  tertiary  near  the  Ogeechee  river.  S.  of 
the  line  designated  above,  the  whole  country 
toward  the  gulf  of  Mexico  and  the  Atlantio 
ocean  is  occupied  by  the  eocene  and  the  mod- 
ern tertiaries  of  the  coast ;  a  belt  wider  even 
than  that  of  the  ancient  formations  of  the  N. 
half  of  the  state.  In  the  alluvium,  which  at- 
tains an  elevation  of  only  a  few  feet  above  the 
water,  skeletons  of  the  mastodon,  mylodon, 
megatherium,  an  extinct  species  of  elephant, 
and  of  the  ox,  have  been  found ;  and  beneath 
the  muddy  peaty  soil  in  which  they  lie  the 
sands  and  clays  are  of  the  post-tertiary  forma- 
tion, containing  fossil  shells,  all  of  the  same 
species  that  now  live  in  the  neighboring  salt 
water.  In  Bartow  co.  the  limestones  of  the 
lower  Silurian  are  met  with  just  N.  of  the 
Etowah  river,  and  the  formation  extends  to- 
ward Tennessee,  till  in  the  N.  E.  corner  of  the 
state  it  is  overlaid  by  later  members  of  the  pa- 
IsBozoic  rocks,  which  finally  are  capped  by  the 
coal  formation.  Near  the  junction  of  the  lime- 
stone with  the  metamorphic  rocks  immense 
deposits  of  iron  ore  are  found,  in  the  latter  rang- 
ing N.  E.  from  the  S.  E.  corner  of  Bartow 
through  Cherokee  co.  Gold  was  discovered  in 
1829  in  Habersham  co.  It  occurs  in  veins  and 
alluvial  deposits  in  almost  every  county  N.  of 
the  central  line  of  the  state,  the  W.  limit  being 
the  W.  base  of  the  mountains.  The  chief  de- 
posits are  in  a  belt,  15  to  20  m.  wide,  extend- 
ing across  the  state  on  the  E.  slope.  The  pro- 
duction from  1829  to  1888  is  estimated  at 
800,000  ounces;  from  1888  to  1849,  at  200,- 
000  ounces;  and  it  has  gradually  diminished 
until  in  1870  only  five  mines  were  in  operation, 
the  product  being  valued  at  $29,780.  The 
amount  of  gold  deposited  at  the  United  States 
mint  and  branches,  from  Georgia,  to  June  80, 
1878,  was  $7,267,784  76.  The  copper  veins 
worked  in  Polk  co.,  Tenn.,  are  traced  across 
the  line  into  Gilmer  co.  The  other  mineral 
productions  of  the  state,  except  the  limestones, 
and  in  the  eocene  region  the  marls  and  buhr- 
stone  of  this  formation,  are  of  little  impor- 
tence. — ^Among  objects  of  interest  are  the  falls 
of  Tallulah,  in  a  branch  of  the  Tugaloo,  in 
Habersham  co. ;  Toccaco  falls   in  the  same 


718 


GEORGIA 


stream,  185  ft.  high ;  Amicolah  falls  in  Lump- 
kin CO.,  with  a  descent  of  400  ft.  in  as  many 
yards ;  Towallgo  falls  in  Monroe  co. ;  the  falls 
in  Raban  co.,  and  a  series  of  falls  in  the  Hia- 
wassee.  8tone  mountain  in  De  Kalb  co.,  7  m. 
in  circuit,  and  2,220  ft.  high,  abounds  in  fine 
scenery,  and  Track  rock  and  Pilot  mountain 
(1,200  ft.  high)  in  Union  co.  are  worthy  of  men- 
tion. Nicojack  cave  extends  into  the  Rac- 
coon mountains,  near  the  N.  W.  extremity  of 
the  state,  for  several  miles,  with  a  portal  160 
ft.  wide  and  60  ft.  high,  through  which  flows  a 
stream,  up  which  boats  can  pass  for  8  m.  to  a 
cataract.  In  Hancock  and  Bartow  cos.  and 
near  Macon  are  artificial  mounds,  containing 
ruins  of  fortifications,  articles  of  pottery,  and 
human  remains. — In  the  low  lands  and  swamps 
along  the  coast  the  climate  is  hot  and  un- 
healthy, malarious  fevers  being  prevalent, 
while  in  the  pine  lands  further  back  the  air  is 
salubrious.  In  the  N.  portion  of  the  state  the 
climate  is  cooler  and  healthful.  The  following 
table  embodies  the  results  of  meteorological 
observations  made  at  Augusta  and  Savannah, 
under  the  direction  of  the  chief  signal  officer 
of  the  United  States,  for  the  year  ending  Sept 
80,  1872 : 


XSAK  THKB- 
XOMBTEB. 

TOTAL  RAIN- 
FALL,  INCHX8. 

pBBvAiLina 

WIND. 

MONTHS. 

• 

Aq- 

Satbh- 
nah. 

An. 
gusto. 

Sateq- 
uh. 

Aa- 
Ruita. 

Suvan- 
Dab. 

October 

66" 

64 

47 

41 

40 

50 

66 

74 

79 

81 

80 

75 

68« 

59 

51* 

46 

50 

68* 

67 

76 

80 

88 

84 

76 

1-62 
7-78 
4-98 
5-20 
6-87 
10-88 
2-95 
5-86 
4-77 
6-87 
4- 10 
1-88 

8-55  ,  S. E. 

N.E. 

November 

Deoember 

Janaary 

2-22 
1-69 
2-09 
4-65 

10-18 
2-75 
6-22 
9-62 
4-86 

12-81 
8-52 

w. 

N.W. 

N.W. 

W. 

N.W. 

B. 

W. 

8.E. 

8. 

E. 

W. 

8.  W. 
8.  W. 
N.W. 

Febrnary  

March 

N.W. 
N.W. 

April 

E. 

Mav 

8.  W. 

June 

8.  W. 

July 

8.  W. 

AoguBt 

September 

E. 
8.  E. 

Year 

68-8 

66*2 

61-76 

61-96 

Vf   •             1    f»-     Vlr  _ 

• 

The  number  of  deaths  in  1870  was  13,606,  in- 
cluding 8,923  from  general  diseases,  1,519  from 
diseases  of  the  nervous  system,  445  of  the  cir- 
culatory, 2,247  of  the  respiratory,  2,280  of  the 
digestive,  and  241  of  the  integumentary  sys- 
tem ;  741  deaths  were  caused  by  enteric,  405 
by  intermittent,  and  800  by  remittent  fever, 
875  by  consumption,  248  by  dropsy,  270  by 
measles,  145  by  cerebro-spinal  fever,  277  by 
encephalitis,  879  by  meningitis,  116  by  apo- 
plexy, 165  by  paralysis,  214  by  convulsions, 
856  by  croup,  1,863  by  pneumonia,  288  by  hy- 
drothorAx,  289  by  enteritis,  827  by  dysentery, 
448  by  diarrhoBa,  844  by  cholera  infantum,  and 
100  by  ascites. — ^The  soil  of  the  coast  islands  is 
light  and  sandy,  but  productive  of  long-staple 
or  "  sea  island  *'  cotton.  The  mainland  possess- 
es a  rich  alluvial  soil,  producing  corn  and  cot- 
ton, while  the  tide  swamps  of  the  rivers  are  fer- 
tile in  rice.  Back  from  the  coast  is  a  stretch 
of  sandy  land,  chiefly  valuable  for  its  timber 
and  naval  stores,  but  capable  of  being  made 


productive.  The  8.  W.  portion  of  the  state  is 
light  and  sandy,  but  yields  good  crops  of  cot- 
ton, and  the  middle  region,  possessing  a  red 
loamy  soil,  produces  cotton,  corn,  tobacco,  6cc. 
These  two  portions  of  the  state  have  been  much 
exhausted  by  unscientific  cultivation.  The  N. 
region  contains  much  fertile  land,  particularly 
in  the  valleys,  yielding  grain,  fruits,  potatoes, 
and  other  vegetables,  but  is  not  so  well  suited 
to  cotton.  Near  the  coast,  the  growth  along 
the  banks  of  the  streams  is  of  canes,  cypress, 
magnolia  glauca  and  ffrandiflora,  gum  of  dif- 
ferent species,  including  the  liquidamber  tree, 
oaks,  tulip,  tLshy  sweet  bay,  and  many  other 
genera ;  while  back  upon  the  sandy  lands  pines 
and  scrub  oaks  are  almost  the  only  trees.  Sev- 
eral species  of  palmetto  give  a  tropical  aspect 
to  the  sea  islands,  and  the  magnificent  live 
oaks  largely  obtained  in  the  vicinity  of  Bruns- 
wick fiimish  the  most  valuable  ship  timber 
grown  in  the  United  States.  In  1870  Georgia 
produced  more  cotton  than  any  other  state  ex- 
cept Mississippi ;  more  rice  than  any  other  ex- 
cept South  Carolina ;  and  more  sweet  potatoes 
than  any  except  North  Carolina.  The  num- 
ber of  acres  of  improved  farm  land  was  6,881,- 
856 ;  value  of  farms,  $94,559,468 ;  of  farming 
implements  and  machinery,  $4,614,701 ;  wages 
paid  during  the  year,  including  the  value  of 
board,  $19,787,086;  estimated  value  of  all 
farm  productions,  including  betterments  and 
additions  to  stock,  $80,890,228 ;  value  of  or- 
chard products,  $852,926 ;  of  produce  of  mar- 
ket gardens,  $198,266;  of  forest  products, 
$1,281,628;  of  home  manufactures,  $1,113,080; 
of  animals  slaughtered,  or  sold  for  slaughter, 
$6,854,882 ;  of  live  stock,  $30,156,817.  The 
productions  were  808,890  bushels  of  spring  and 
1,818,127  of  winter  wheat,  82,549  of  rye,  17,- 
646,459  of  Indian  corn,  1,904,601  of  oats,  6,640 
of  barley,  402  of  buckwheat,  410,020  of  peas 
and  beans,  197,101  of  Irish  potatoes,  2,621,562 
of  sweet  potatoes,  148  of  clover  and  540  of 
grass  see<^  48  of  fiaxseed,  22,277,880  lbs.  of 
rice,  288,596  of  tobacco,  846,947  of  wool, 
4,499,572  of  butter,  4,292  of  cheese,  2  of  hops, 
988  of  flax,  14  of  silk  cocoons,  81,288  of  wax, 
610,877  of  honey,  473,984  bales  of  cotton, 
21,927  gallons  of  wine,  109,189  of  milk  sold, 
553,192  of  cane  and  874,027  of  sorghum  mo- 
lasses, 644  hogsheads  of  sugar,  and  10,518  tons 
of  hay.  The  live  stock  consisted  of  81,777 
horses,  87,426  mules  and  asses,  281,810  mUeh 
cows,  54,882  working  oxen,  412,261  other  cat- 
tle, 419,465  sheep,  and  988,566  swine.  There 
were  in  addition  28,460  horses  and  111,764  cat- 
tle not  on  farms. — The  number  of  manufac- 
turing establishments  was  8,886,  having  405 
steam  engines  of  10,826  horse  power  and  1,729 
water  wheels  of  27,417  horse  power,  employ 
ing  17,871  hands,  of  whom  15,078  were  males 
above  16,  1,498  females  above  15,  and  1,295 
youth;  capital  invested,  $13,930,125;  wages 
paid,  $4,844,508;  value  of  materials,  $18,588,- 
781 ;  of  products,  $81,196,115.  The  principal 
branches  are  shown  in  the  following  table : 


GEORGIA 


719 


INDUSTRIia. 


Aj^eoltoral  implementa  . . . . 

Boots  and  shoes 

Brick 

Guriages  and  wagons 

Oar  repairing 

Cara,  freight  and  passenger. . 

Cotton  goods 

Cotton  tliruad,  twine,  and 
yam 

FertUixers 

Flooring  and  grist-mUl  pro- 
ducts   

Fnmitore 

Iron,  forged  and  rolled 

Iron,  pigs 

Iron,  eastings 

Leather,  tanned 

Leather,  carried 

Lomber,  planed 

Lnmber,  sawed 

Machinery 

Marble  and  stone  work 

Pfeper 

Prutlng  and  pablishlng 

Baddlery  and  harness 

Bash,  doors,  and  bliuds 

Tar  and  turpentine 

Tin,  copper,  and  sheet-iron 
ware 

Tobacco  and  cigars 

Wool  carding  and  cloth  dress- 
ing   

Woollen  goods 


No.  of 
MUbliih- 


O^ittaL 


10 

244 

41 

178 

2 

8 

25 

0 
6 


$89,550 
118,606 
182,500 
267.295 
122,050 
91.0iH) 
8,004,000 

869,216 
51,600 


VsltMof 

pvododi* 


1,097 

8,108,918 

77 

6^UO0 

8 

215.860 

4 

12,200 

28 

179,500 

100 

118328 

86 

72,924 

7 

89,500 

682 

1,718,478 

42 

80«,700 

9 

122,800 

8 

170,000 

45 

416,798 

CO 

92,188 

14 

104,070 

4 

68,000 

66 

76,680 

20 

118,700 

85 

42,160 

11 

694,485 

$77,450 
498,862 
420,109 
664,512 
805,960 
160,880 
8^88,647 

815,826 
168,950 

11,202,029 

214,208 

856,b56 

47,212 

442,287 

288,960 

28^346 

571,200 

4,044376 

1,624,622 

160,760 

184,028 

929,161 

176,066 

188,800 

96,970 

812,919 
475874 

118,940 
862,668 


There  are  three  ports  of  entry,  SaTannah, 
Bmnswick,  and  St.  Marj^s.  The  imports  from 
and  exports  to  foreign  countries,  with  the  ship- 
ping belonging  to  the  several  ports,  for  the 
year  ending  June  80,  1878,  are  shown  in  the 
following  table : 


PORTS. 

Valtw  of 
importa. 

TbImoT 
txporta. 

TKSSSLa  BSGIBTKKBD, 
BKBOLLSD,  AITO   LI- 
OBMBED. 

No. 

Tom. 

Savannah 

Brunswick 

»t.  Mary's 

$820,258  182,675.500 

4.096        987,027 

795        172,087 

7» 

16 
6 

18,587 

2,211 

895 

Total 

$826,149188,684,614 

100 

21,198 

The  exports  consist  almost  wholly  of  cotton 
and  lumber,  the  cotton  being  shipped  from  Sa- 
vannah. The  quantity  of  the  former  was  876,- 
481  bales,  valued  at  $82,169,060;  of  the  latter, 
48,425,000  feet  of  boards,  clapboards,  deals, 
&c.,  and  8,176,457  cubic  feet  of  timber,  to- 
gether valued  at  $1,609,140.  Of  the  vessels, 
27  of  9,009  tons  were  steamers.  The  entrances 
and  clearances  were  as  follows : 

ENTERED. 


FBOM  FOSXION  POBTS. 

OOASTWISS. 

PORTS. 

Aawrkaa 
Tcueli. 

Fortign 

TWMlr. 

Sailing 

TCCSOU. 

StMUDcn. 

No. 

84 

17 

8 

Tont. 

No. 

Tom. 

NoJ    Tou. 

1 

No. 
882 

•  • 

882 

Tont. 

Barannah... 
Bninswick. . 
BtMaxy's... 

16,140 

Mil 

676 

218 

109 

19 

119,816 

59.882 

7,102 

185.750 

181    50,160 
224,  61,767 

241    6,860 

1 

881,485 

Total 

6? 

22,827 

841 

879  118,796 

881,485 

CLEARED. 


FOB  FonnoN 

P0BT8. 

COASTWIBS. 

PORTS. 

Amorlean 
vcMola. 

Foro{(cii 

TOMvll. 

Salliog 
rtwteh. 

Stoamon, 

No. 

65 
84 
14 

Ton*. 

No. 

224 

144 

26 

Ton. 

No. 

Tom. 

No. 

414 

■  ■ 
•  • 

Tons. 

Savannah... 
Bmnswick. . 
Bt  Mary's... 

80,102 

10.804 

4,060 

129,164 

76,161 

8,618 

62' 22  4^9 

168  42,778 
8i    1,£86 

875,561 

Total 

118 

44,966 

894  218,828 

22S 

67.203 

414  876,661 

853 


VOL.  vu,— 46 


— The  mileage  of  railroads  in  the  state  at  dif- 
ferent  periods  has  been  as  follows:  in  1841, 
271;  in  1851,  796;  in  1861,  1,420;  in  1871, 
2,108.  The  Central  railroad  of  Georgia,  which 
extends  from  Savannah  to  Macon,  leases  and 
operates  the  Augusta  and  Savannah  railroad, 
from  Millen  to  Augusta ;  the  Milledgeville  and 
Eatonton,  from  Gordon  to  Eatonton;  the 
Southwestern,  which  extends  from  Macon  to 
Eufaula,  Ala.,  144  ro.,  with  branches  from 
Fort  Valley  to  Columbus  (72  m.),  Smithville  to 
Albany  (28i  m.),  Guthbert  to  Fort  Gaines  (20 
m.).  Fort  Valley  to  Perry  (18  m.),  and  Albany 
to  Arlington  (86  m.) ;  the  Macon  and  Western, 
fh>m  Macon  to  Atlanta ;  and  the  Upson  Oounty 
railroad,  from  Barnes viJle  to  Thomaston.  The 
Georgia  railroad,  from  Augusta  to  Atlanta, 
with  branches  from  Gamak  to  Warrenton  (4 
m.).  Union  Point  to  Athens  (40  m.),  and  Bar- 
nett  to  Washington  (18  m.),  operates  the  Ma- 
oon  and  Augusta  line,  which  connects  Warren- 
ton and  Macon.  The  Western  and  Atlantic 
railroad,  from  Atlanta  to  Chattanooga,  Tenn., 
188  m.,  was  built  by  the  state.  The  other  lines 
are  the  Alabama  and  Chattanooga,  from  Chat- 
tanooga, Tenn.,  to  Meridian,  Miss.,  295  m. ;  the 
Atlanta  and  West  Point,  between  those  places; 
the  Atlantic  and  Gulf,  from  Savannali  to  Bain- 
bridge,  with  branches  from  Thomasville  to  Al- 
bany (58^  m.),  and  from  Lawton  to  Live  Oak, 
Fla.,  48^  m. ;  the  Brunswick  and  Albany,  be- 
tween those  points ;  the  Cherokee,  from  Car- 
tersville  on  the  Western  and  Atlantic  to  Rock- 
mart,  to  be  extended  to  Pry  or,  Ala.,  22  m. 
further;  the  Maoon  and  Brunswick,  between 
those  places,  with  a  branch  from  Cochran  to 
Hawkmsville  (10  m.) ;  the  North  and  South  (in 
progress),  from  Columbus  to  Home,  185  m.; 
the  Rome,  from  that  point  to  Kingston;  the 
Savannah  and  Charleston,  between  those  cities, 
104  m. ;  the  Savannah,  Griffin,  and  North  Ala- 
bama (operated  by  the  Macon  and  Western), 
from  Griffin  to  Newnan,  to  be  extended  to 
Guntersville,  Ala.,  116  m.  further;  the  Selma, 
Rome,  and  Dalton,  from  Selma,  Ala.,  to  Dal- 
ton,  286  m. ;  the  Atlanta  and  Richmond  Air 
Line,  from  Atlanta  to  Charlotte,  N.  C,  268  m. ; 
and  a  branch  of  the  East  Tennessee,  Virginia, 
and  Georgia  railroad,  from  Cleveland,  Tenn., 
to  Dalton,  27  m.  The  mileage  of  these  roads 
and  branches  in  operation  in  Georgia  in  1878, 
with  the  capital  stock  and  cost  as  far  as  report- 
ed of  those  lying  wholly  or  chiefly  in  the  state, 
is  shown  in  the  following  table : 


720 


GEORGIA 


RAILROADS. 


Alabama  and  Chattanooga 

Atlanta  and  Richmond  Air  Line 

Atlanta  and  West  Point 

Atlantic  and  Gulf 

Augusta  and  Savannah 

Brunswick  and  Albany 

Central 

Cherokee 


E.  Tenn.,  Virginia,  and  Georgia 

Georgia 

Maoon  and  Augusta 

Macon  and  Brunswick 

Macon  and  Western 

MllledgeviUe  and  Eatonton .... 


NcMrth  and  Bonth 


Mlto- 


Borne 

Savannah  and  Charleston 

Savannah,  Griffin,  and  N.  Ala. 

Belma,  Borne,  and  Dalton 

Southwestern 

Upson  County 

Westem  and  Atlantic 


Total 


26 
105 

86^ 
822^ 

&8 
172 
192 

28 

16 
288 

74 
197 
lQ2i 

89 

80 

20 
8 

86 

68 
806i 

16 
120 


Ooflof  road 

•ad 
cqnlpmanta. 


2,290 


11,200,129 
8,10{Vd68 
1,088,200 

10,878,000 
6,000,000 


4,166,000 
2,401,000 
7,260,000 
2,600,000 
608,880 

690,668 

88^286 

"499,1^ 

4^687,81*8 

200,000 

4,600,000 


Gapltel 
itock. 


$1,282,200 

8,688,200 

788.700 

4,898,000 

6,000,000 

(      12,500 

f  per  mile. 

4,200,666 
1,681,000 
2,000,000 
2,600,000 

( 6.'6()0,666 

■{(1886,819 

(  paid  in.) 

250,844 

"419,668 

ii2lV,666 


The  canals  of  this  state  have  been  constructed 
for  local  convenience :  that  around  the  falls  of 
the  Savannali,  at  Augusta,  is  9  m.  long ;  an- 
other (16  m.)  connects  the  Savannah  and  Ogee- 
chee  rivers,  and  another  (12  m.)  connects 
Brunswick  and  the  Altamaha,  making  a  total 
length  of  87  not.  All  the  chief  towns  are  con- 
nected by  telegraph.  The  number  of  national 
banks  in  1878  was  12,  having  an  aggregate 
capital  of  $2,725,000 ;  of  state  banks  (including 
8  savings  banks  and  2  trust  companies),  16, 
with  $4,082,000  capital.  There  were  7  in- 
surance companies  in  1872,  of  which  2  were 
life  companies,  having  a  capital  of  $1,785,418. 
— ^The  government  is  administered  under  the 
constitution  of  1868,  which  ordains  that  there 
shall  be  neither  slavery  nor  involuntary  servi- 
tude except  as  a  punishment  for  crime,  that  the 
social  status  of  the  citizen  shall  never  be  the 
subject  of  legislation,  that  there  shall  be  no 
imprisonment  for  debt,  and  declares  that  every 
citizen  owes  paramount  allegiance  to  the  con- 
stitution and  government  of  the  United  States, 
and  that  the  state  shall  ever  remain  a  member 
of  the  American  Union.  All  elections  are  by 
ballot,  and  the  right  of  suffrage  is  conferred 
upon  every  male  person  21  years  old  and  up- 
ward who  is  a  citizen  of  the  United  States,  or 
has  legally  declared  his  intention  to  become 
such  (except  idiots,  insane  persons,  and  those 
who  have  been  convicted  of  heinous  crimes), 
who  shall  have  resided  in  the  state  six  months 
before  the  election,  and  80  days  in  the  county 
in  which  he  offers  to  vote,  "and  shall  have  paid 
all  taxes  which  may  have  been  required  of  him, 
and  which  he  may  have  had  an  opportunity  of 
paying,  agreeably  to  law,  for  the  year  next  pre- 
ceding the  election.^'  No  one  convicted  of  fel- 
ony or  larceny,  unless  pardoned,  nor  any  de- 
faulter in  public  funds,  is  eligible  to  office ;  nor 
can  any  resident  of  the  state  who  sends  or  ac- 


cepts a  challenge,  or  engages  in  or  aids  or  abets 
a  duel,  vote  or  hold  office.  General  elections 
commence  on  the  Tuesday  after  the  first  Mon- 
day of  November,  unless  otherwise  provided  bj 
law.  The  legislative  power  is  vested  in  a  gen- 
eral assembly,  consisting  of  a  senate  and  house 
of  representatives.  For  senatorial  purposes  the 
state  is  divided  into  44  districts,  each  return- 
ing one  senator.  The  senators  are  elected  for 
four  years,  one  half  retiring  biennially,  and 
must  be  citizens  of  the  United  States,  26  years 
of  age,  and  have  resided  two  years  in  the  state 
and  one  year  in  the  district  from  which  thej 
are  elected.  The  house  of  representatives 
consists  of  175  members  apportioned  among 
the  counties,  who  are  elected  for  two  years, 
and  must  be  citizens  of  tiie  United  States,  21 
years  of  age,  and  have  resided  one  year  in  the 
state  and  six  months  in  the  county  from  which 
they  are  elected.  The  legislature  meets  an- 
nuidly  on  the  second  Wednesday  in  January ; 
no  session  can  continue  more  than  40  days, 
unless  prolonged  by  a  vote  of  two  thirds  of 
each  house.  Appropriations  to  "sectarian 
corporations  or  associations"  are  prohibited. 
No  town  or  city  can  be  granted  permission  to 
become  a  stockholder  in  or  to  contribute  to 
any  railroad  or  work  of  public  improvement, 
unless  a  mi^jority  of  the  voters  desire  it ;  and 
restrictions  are  placed  upon  the  power  of  the 
state  to  become  a  stockholder  in  or  to  pledge 
its  credit  to  any  company.  The  executive 
power  is  vested  in  a  governor,  elected  by  a 
minority  vote  of  the  people,  who  holds  office 
for  four  years  or  until  his  successor  is  quali- 
fied. If  no  candidate  receives  a  minority,  the 
general  assembly  chooses  one  of  the  two  who 
have  the  highest  number  of  votes.  The  gov- 
ernor must  be  80  years  of  age,  for  15  years  a 
citizen  of  the  United  States,  and  for  six  years 
of  the  state.  He  is  the  commander-in-chief 
of  the  army  and  navy  of  the  state  and  of  the 
militia,  may  grant  reprieves  and  pardons  ex- 
cept in  cases  of  impeachment,  and  has  a  veto 
upon  acts  of  the  legislature  which  can  only  be 
overcome  by  a  two-thirds  vote  of  each  hooae. 
In  case  of  the  death,  resignation,  or  inability 
of  the  governor,  the  president  of  the  senate, 
and  in  case  of  the  latter^s  inability,  the  speak- 
er of  the  house  of  representatives,  acts  as 
governor  until  the  disability  is  rcnoioved  or  a 
successor  is  elected.  There  are  also  a  secretary 
of  state,  comptroller  general,  treasurer,  and 
surveyor  general,  elected  by  the  general  as- 
sembly, an  attorney  general,  and  a  state 
school  commissioner,  appointed  by  the  gover- 
nor with  the  consent  of  the  senate,  each  hold- 
ing office  for  four  years.  The  power  of  im- 
peachment is  vested  in  the  house  of  represen- 
tatives. The  senate,  presided  over  by  one  of 
the  judges  of  the  supreme  court,  constitutes 
the  court  for  the  trial  of  impeachments,  but 
no  person  can  be  convicted  without  the  con- 
currence of  two  thirds  of  the  members  pres- 
ent. The  supreme  court  consists  of  three 
judges,  who  hold  office  for  12  years,  one  reti- 


OEOBGIA 


721 


ring  every  four  years,  and  has  appellate  juris- 
diction only  of  cases  from  the  superior  courts 
and  the  city  courts  of  Savannah  and  Augusta. 
There  is  a  judge  of  the  superior  court  for 
each  of  the  19  judicial  circuits,  who  holds 
office  for  eight  years.  These  courts,  except  in 
matters  of  prohate,  have  general  original  juris- 
diction hoth  civil  and  criminal,  at  law  and  in 
equity,  issue  writs  of  eertiorckri  to  inferior  tri- 
bunals, and  may  have  appellate  jurisdiction 
conferred  upon  them  by  Law.  A  session  is 
held  twice  a  year  in  each  county.  The  judges 
are  appointed  by  the  governor  with  the  con- 
sent of  the  senate,  and  may  be  removed  by 
him  upon  the  address  of  two  thirds  of  each 
branch  of  the  legislature,  or  upon  impeach- 
ment and  conviction.  The  judges  of  the  su- 
preme and  superior  courts  and  the  attorney 
general  must  be  30  years  of  age,  for  three 
years  citizens  of  the  state,  and  must  have 
practised  law  seven  years.  There  is  an  ordi- 
nary for  each  county,  elected  by  the  people 
thereof  for  four  years,  who  holds  a  court  of 
ordinary  and  probate ;  from  his  decisions  there 
may  be  an  appeal  to  the  superior  court.  A 
justice  of  the  peace  is  elected  by  the  qualified 
voters  of  each  militia  district  for  four  years. 
Justices  have  jurisdiction  in  civil  cases  in 
which  the  sum  claimed  does  not  exceed  $100 ; 
when  the  amount  is  more  than  $50,  an  appeal 
may  be  taken  to  the  superior  court.  A  notary 
public  {ex  officio  a  justice  of  the  peace)  for 
each  militia  district  may  be  appointed  by  the 
governor  for  four  years.  County  courts  pre- 
sided over  by  a  single  judge  in  each  county 
were  established  by  the  act  of  Jan.  19,  1872, 
in  most  of  the  counties.  The  judges,  who 
have  the  same  jurisdiction  as  justices  of  the 
peace,  are  appointed  by  the  governor  with 
the  consent  of  the  senate  for  four  years,  and 
must  be  25  years  of  age  and  residents  of  the 
county  for  which  they  are  appointed.  Each 
head  of  a  family  is  entitled  to  exemption 
from  execution  on  a  homestead  of  realty  to 
the  value  of  $2,000  in  specie,  and  personal 
property  to  the  value  of  $1,000  in  specie,  ^^  ex- 
cept for  taxes,  money  borrowed  and  expended 
in  the  improvement  of  the  homestead,  or  for 
the  purchase  money  of  the  same,  and  for  labor 
done  thereon  or  material  furnished  therefor, 
or  removal  of  encumbrances  thereon."  The 
militia  consists  of  all  able-bodied  males  18  to 
45  years  of  age,  except  those  conscientiously 
opposed  to  bearing  arms,  who  may  purchase 
exemption.  Amendments  to  the  constitution 
may  be  proposed  by  a  two-thirds  vote  of  each 
house  of  two  successive  legislatures,  after  which 
they  must  be  ratified  by  the  people.  No  con- 
vention of  the  people  shall  be  called  by  the  le- 
gislature in  the  election  of  delegates  to  which 
any  person  qualified  to  vote  by  this  constitution 
is  disqualified,  nor  unless  the  representatives 
therein  shall  be  based  on  population.  Georgia 
is  entitled  to  nine  representatives  in  the  lower 
house  of  congress.  The  rate  of  interest  is  7 
per  cent.    All  property  owned  by  a  married 


woman  at  the  time  of  marriage,  and  all  that 
may  be  given  to  and  inherited  or  acquired  by 
her,  is  her  separate  property,  and  not  liable  for 
the  debts  of  her  husband.  A  married  woman 
may  sue  and  be  sued  in  matters  pertaining  to 
her  separate  estate  as  though  single,  and  with 
the  consent  of  her  husband  may  trade  as  a 
feme  sole.  No  total  divorce  can  be  granted 
except  on  the  concurrent  verdict  of  two  juries. 
The  j^ounds  of  total  divorce  are  intermarriage 
withm  the  prohibited  degrees,  mental  or  phy- 
fflcal  incapacity  at  the  time  of  marriage,  add- 
tery,  wilful  and  continued  desertion  for  three 
years,  conviction  of  crime  and  sentence  to  the 
penitentiary  for  two  years  or  more,  force, 
menace,  duress,  or  fraud  in  procuring  the  mar- 
riage, and  pregnancy  at  the  time  of  marriage 
unknown  to  the  hasband.  For  cruel  treatment 
or  habitual  drunkenness  the  jury  may  grant 
either  a  partial  or  a  total  divorce.  Treason  in 
the  first  degree,  murder,  arson  of  an  occupied 
dwelling  or  of  a  house  in  a  city,  town,  or  vil- 
lage, castration,  and  rape  may  be  punished 
with  death.  Other  punishments  are  fines,  im- 
prisonment, and  whipping,  not  more  than  89 
lashes. — According  to  the  federal  censuses,  the 
valuation  of  property  has  been  as  follows : 


ml  and  per* 


18S0.. 
18<»  .. 
1870.. 


AMBBKD  TALUK. 

RnL 

FUmoU« 

Both. 

11*79,801,441 
148,948,816 

$488,4)90^946 
88,271^ 

i6i8,'^'i67 
227,219,619 

|S85,426,n4 
e4fi,89&,287 
268,169,207 


The  diminution  in  the  value  of  personal  prop- 
erty is  chiefly  owing  to  the  emancipation  of 
the  slaves.  In  1870  the  taxation  not  national 
amounted  to  $2,627,029,  of  which  $945,894 
was  state  tax,  $906,270  county  tax,  and  $775,- 
865  town,  city,  &c.,  tax.  The  public  debt  was 
$21,758,712,  of  which  $6,544,500  (funded,  but 
not  including  bonds  issued  subsequently  to 
1868)  was  state  debt;  $561,785,  of  which 
$800,886  was  funded,  connty  debt ;  and  $14,- 
647,477  town,  city,  Ac,  debt,  of  which  all 
but  $264,162  was  funded.  The  total  receipts 
into  the  state  treasury  during  the  fiscal  year 
amounted  to  $1,164,804,  of  which  $782,898 
was  from  general  taxes,  $85,924  from  liquor 
tax,  $5,778  from  licenses,  $21,446  from  cor- 
porations, $45,000  from  state  railroad,  $10,- 
292  from  interest,  $810,000  from  loans,  and 
$2,966  from  miscellaneous  sources.  The  dis- 
bursements amounted  to  $1,444,817,  of  which 
$17,085  was  for  the  executive  department, 
$526,891  for  legislative  expenses,  $85,280  for 
the  judiciary,  $2,547  for  penitentiary  expenses, 
$114,647  for  institutions  for  deaf  and  dumb, 
blind,  and  insane,  $20,000  for  educational  pur- 
poses, $57,821  for  printing,  $495,608  for  pay- 
ments and  interest  on  public  debt,  and  $175,- 
488  for  miscellaneous  expenses.  The  treasurer 
in  his  report  for  the  year  ending  Dec.  81, 1878, 
gives  the  outstanding  debt  of  the  state,  Jan.  1, 
1874,  asfoUows: 


722 


GEORGIA 


BONDS. 


WHEN  ISSUED. 


When  da0. 


Amoonta. 


1844  and  184$. 

1878 

1878 

18T8 

1858 
1859 
1860 
1861 

18T8 

1878 

1878 

1878 

1866  ADd  1S78 

1S70 

1872 


and  1878 
and  1878 
and  1878 
aod  18TS 


Total. 


1874 

$287,000 

1ST5 

100,000 

lb7G 

100,000 

15*77 

100.000 

1878 

200,000 

1679 

800,000 

1880 

800,000 

lo81 

200,000 

18s2 

100,000 

1888 

100,000 

1884 

100,000 

I8t)5 

100,000 

18S6 

4.000,000 

1S90 

2,098,000 

18931 

807,600 

$8,842,000 


The  issue  of  1870  is  gold  bonds ;  the  rest,  cor- 
rency.  Tbe  total  annual  interest  is  $586,460. 
During  the  administration  of  Gov.  Bullock, 
1668-71,  bonds  to  the  amount  of  $8,860,000 
were  issued,  and  the  state  indorsed  bonds  of 
various  railroad  companies  to  the'  amount  of 
$7,923,000.  It  having  been  charged  that  the 
greater  part  had  been  illegally  and  fraudu- 
lently issued  or  indorsed,  a  committee  was 
appointed  by  an  act  of  Dec.  9,  1871,  to  in- 
vestigate the  subject,  which  sat  at  Atlanta 
during  March  and  April,  1872.  Of  the  state 
bonds  $2,280,000  were  returned  and  cancelled, 
$3,482,000  were  declared  nuU  and  void  by  the 
legislature  in  accordance  with  the  report  of  the 
committee,  and  $2,598,000  were  recognized  as 
valid,  $2,098,000  of  this  amount  being  included 
in  the  preceding  table.  Of  the  indorsed  bonds 
$240,000  were  returned  and  cancelled,  with 
respect  to  $4,475,000  all  obligation  is  disclaim- 
ed, while  $194,000  of  the  Alabama  and  Chat- 
tanooga railroad,  $464,000  of  the  South  Geor- 
gia and  Florida  railroad,  and  $2,550,000  of  the 
Macon  and  Brunswick  railroad,  in  all  $3,208,- 
000,  are  admitted  to  be  binding  upon  the  state. 
This  amount  being  added  to  &e  aggregate  of 
the  table,  the  total  recognized  debt  at  the  be- 
ginning of  1874  becomes  $11,550,500.  The 
receipts  during  1872,  with  the  balance  onhnnd 
at  the  beginning  of  the  year,  are  shown  in  the 
following  table : 

Cash  on  hand,  Jan.  1, 1872 $186.767  01 

lieoelyed  ftom  general  tax 946,814  75 

^       from  rent  of  Western   and   Atlantic 

raUrwd 800.000  00 

"       from  sale  of  bonds 188^79  65 

"       frompolltax 128,97248 

"       fromschooltax 103,706  20 

**       from  sale  of  United  States  land  scrip. .  90.202  17 

"       from  temporary  loans 47,782  60 

**       from  tax  on  insurance  companies 25,711  98 

**       ftom  nilroad.  bank,  and  express  tax. .  21,482  14 

"       from  restitution  money 19,674  21 

"       from  pay  for  convict  labor 9.577  26 

*♦       from  ftquor  tax 9.888  80 

**       from  balance  from  Fourth  Kat'nal  bank  7,558  48 

**       ftt)m  tax  on  circuses 8,20125 

^       fit>m  dividends  on  Georgia  railroad 

stock 8,081  80 

"       teom  special  reciprocity  tax   on  in- 
surance    2.888  88 

«       from  rent  of  capltol 1,966  88 

^       ftvm  miscellaneous  sources 4,401  10 

Total $2,101,840  84 


The  disbursements  were  $1,835,207  14,  viz. : 
$692,892  paid  on  public  debt,  $295,227  78  on 
special  appropriation,  $172,251  92  on  legisla- 
tive pay  rolls,  $99,403  49  on  civil  establish- 
ment, $89,628  72  on  contingent  fund,  $26,977 
23  on  printing  fund,  $5,261  32  on  educational 
fund,  and  $8,564  73  on  overpayment  of  taxes ; 
cash  on  hand  Jan.  1,  1873,  $776,183  70,  of 
which  $100,000  was  set  apart  to  pay  coupons 
maturing  on  that  day,  and  $108,706  20  be- 
longed to  the  special  and  $184,277  46  to  the 
general  school  fund.     The  total   receipts  in 
1873  were  $2,406,655  04;  total  disbursements, 
$2,250,282  49.    The  state  owns  the  Western 
and  Atlantic  railroad,  valued  at  $7,000,000; 
10,000  shares  of  stock  in  the  Atlantic  and 
Gulf  railroad  company  (par  value  $1,000,000), 
worth  $200,000 ;  and  186  shares  in  the  Georgia 
railroad  and  banking  company,  $18,600 ;  total, 
$7,218,600.    It  also  owns  1,883  shares  in  tbe 
bank  of  the  State  of  Georgia  and  890  shares 
in  the  bank  of  Augusta,  but  they  have  no  mar- 
ket value.    The  Western  and  Atlantic  railroad 
was  leased  to  a  company  for  20  years  in  De- 
cember, 1870,  at  the  monthly  rent  of  $26,000. 
The  assessed  value  of  property  in  1872  was 
$243,620,466,  of  which  $226,633,263  waa  tax- 
able.   The  taxable  property  in  1873  amounted 
to  $242,487,382.    The  rate  of  taxation  was  50 
cents  per  $100 ;  40  cents  for  general  purposes, 
and  10  cents  for  school  purposes.    The  instatn- 
tion  for  the  deaf  and  dumb,  at  Cave  Spring, 
Floyd  CO.,  in  1873  had  5  instructors  and  63  pu- 
pils, of  whom  29  were  males  and  34  femalesw 
The  academy  for  the  blind,  at  Macon,  had  4  in- 
structors (2  blind)  and  47  pupils.    The  state 
lunatic  asylum,  near  Milledgeville,  has  10  offi- 
cers (2  non-resident) ;  number  of  patients,  Dec. 
1,  1873,  576.    The  penitentiary  is  at  Milledge-  • 
ville.    The  convicts,  664  in  number  (93  white 
and  571  colored),  are  all  leased  to  a  corpora- 
tion, and  employed  on  public  works  in  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  state.    The  state  has  only 
one  officer,  the  principal  keeper,  under  pay, 
and  derives  a  revenue  from  the  lease. — Before 
the  civil  war  no  common  school  system  ex- 
isted in  the  state,  although  certain  funds  had 
been  set  apart,  and  were  distributed  to  the 
various  counties,  for  the  education  of  indigent 
children.    The  constitution  of  1868  required 
the  legislature  to  establish  a  system  of  com- 
mon schools,  and  to  carry  this  provision  into 
effect  an  act  was  passed  in  1870,  which  hss 
been  superseded  by  the  general  school  law 
of  Aug.  23,  1872.    This  law  constitutes  the 
governor,  attorney  general,  secretary  of  state, 
comptroller  general,   and    state  school  com- 
missioner, the  state  board  of  education,  which 
is  an  advisory  body  to  the  commissioner,  and 
hears  as  a  court  of  last  resort  appeals  from 
his  decisions  touching  the  administration  or 
construction  of  the  school  laws.     Tlie  state 
commissioner  is  charged  with  the  administra- 
tion of  the  school  laws,  and  is  general  super- 
intendent of  the  public  schools ;  he  apportions 
the  school  revenue  to  the  several  counties  in 


GEORGIA 


723 


proportion  to  the  number  of  youth  from  6  to 
18  years  of  age  and  of  confederate  soldiers 
under  80  years  of  age  resident  in  each,  and 
is  required  to  make  an  annual  report  to  the 
legislature.  Each  county  constitutes  a  school 
district,  under  the  control  of  a  county  board 
of  education  consisting  of  five  freeholders,  who 
are  elected  for  four  years  by  the  grand  jury. 
The  board  chooses  a  secretary  for  the  same 
term,  who  is  ex  officio  the  county  school  com- 
missioner, divides  the  county  into  subdistricts, 
and  in  each  is  required  to  establish  one  or 
more  primary  schools,  and,  where  the  pub- 
lic wants  demand  them,  graded  schools  from 
the  primary  to  the  high  school  grade.  The 
county  boards  haTe  n  general  supervision  of 
the  schools  and  school  houses  of  their  counties, 
employing  the*  teachers,  and  prescribing  the 
text  books,  but  no  sectarian  nor  sectional  books 
are  to  be  used,  nor  can  the  Bible  be  excluded 
from  the  public  schools.  These  boards  con- 
stitute a  tribunal  for  the  determination  of  any 
local  controversy  respecting  the  construction 
and  administration  of  the  school  laws,  an  ap- 
peal lying  from  their  decisions  to  the  state 
school  commissioner,  and  are  required  to  pro- 
vide separate  schools,  with  eqnal  facilities,  for 
w hite  and  colored  children.  The  county  school 
commissioner  is  the  medium  of  communication 
between  the  state  commissioner  and  the  sub- 
ordinate school  officers ;  he  is  required  to  visit 
each  school  in  bis  county  at  least  twice  a  year, 
to  make  an  annual  census  of  the  children  of 
school  age,  to  apportion  the  school  fand  of  the 
county  to  the  subdistricts  in  proportion  to  the 
number  of  such  children  in  each,  and  to  make 
such  reports  to  the  state  commissioner  as  may 
be  required.  He  examines  teachers,  who  are 
licensed  by  the  county  board,  and  are  divided 
into  three  grades,  with  licenses  continuing  one, 
two,  and  three  years  respectively.  No  county 
is  entitled  to  its  share  of  the  state  school  fund 
unless  the  county  board  has  provided  by  tax- 
ation or  otherwise  for  keeping  primary  schools 
in  operation  for  three  months  in  the  year,  or 
two  months  in  the  case  of  ambulatory  schools, 
which  may  be  established  in  counties  in  which 
from  sparseness  of  population  it  is  impractica- 
ble to  maintain  schools  for  three  montbs.  The 
schools  are  free  to  the  children  of  the  respec- 
tive school  districts.  The  county  boards  may 
establish  evening  schools  for  youths  over  12 
years  of  age  who  cannot  attend  during  the 
day,  and  under  the  direction  of  the  state  board 
they  may  organize  self-sustaining  manual  labor 
schools.  Public  school  buildings  and  furniture 
and  the  site  (not  more  than  four  acres)  of  a  public 
school  house  are  exempt  from  taxation  and  from 
sale  on  execution.  The  school  system  of  two 
cities  and  of  four  counties  is  organized  under 
special  laws.  The  school  fund  consists  of  the 
proceeds  of  the  poll  tax  and  of  the  taxes  on 
shows  and  exhibitions,  and  on  the  sale  of  spirit- 
uous and  malt  liquors,  one  half  of  the  monthly 
payments  made  by  the  lessees  of  the  Western 
and  Atlantic  railroad,  the  dividends  on  186 


shares  of  the  Georgia  railroad  and  banking 
company,  set  apart  as  a  permanent  education^ 
fund  by  the  act  of  Jan.  22, 1852,  and  the  inter- 
est (6  per  cent.)  on  $350,000  in  bonds  issued 
under  the  act  of  Dec.  11,  1858,  as  a  permanent 
school  fund.  By  an  act  of  1818  certain  lands 
or  the  proceeds  thereof  were  set  apart  for  the 
education  of  poor  children,  but  it  is  believed 
that  but  a  small  portion  is  now  available.  By 
the  act  of  Feb.  19,  1878,  it  is  provided  that 
when  legal  bonds  of  the  state  are  purchased 
and  cancelled,  or  paid  off,  the  same  amount  of 
bonds  having  100  years  to  run  shall  be  issued 
by  the  governor  payable  to  the  school  fund, 
and  that  the  interest  on  these  at  the  rate  of  7 
per  cent,  per  annum  shall  be  paid  semi-annually 
tor  the  support  of  the  public  schools.  From 
the  adoption  of  the  constitution  of  1868  to 
Dec.  1,  1878,  $789,722  42  belonging  to  the 
school  fund  had  been  collected,  of  which  $854,- 
418  89  had  been  diverted  to  other  uses,  but 
measures  had  recently  been  taken  to  restore  it 
to  the  proper  channel.  The  present  school  rev- 
enue is  about  $250,000  a  year.  The  state  school 
commissioner  in  1878  reported  (two  counties 
wanting)  849,164  children  of  school  age,  of 
whom  198,816  were  white  and  150,848  colored. 
Public  schools  were  in  operation  in  120  coun- 
ties ;  89  reported  1,879  white  and  856  colored 
schools;  number  of  pupils  enrolled,  76,157,  of 
whom  58,499  were  white  and  17,658  colored; 
average  attendance,  82,224.  According  to  the 
United  States  census  of  1870,  the  state  contained 
1,880  schools,  having  2,482  teachers  (1,517  male 
and  915  female),  66,150  pupils  (32,775  male 
and  38,875  female),  and  an  annual  income  of 
$1,258,299,  of  which  $66,560  was  derived  from 
endowments,  $114,626  from  taxation  and  public 
funds,  and  $1,072,118  from  other  sources,  in- 
cluding tuition  fees.  Of  this  number  246  were 
public  schools,  viz. :  4  normal,  9  high,  26  gram- 
mar, 18  graded  conunon,  and  1 89  ungraded  com- 
mon, having  827  teachers,  11,150  pupils,  and  an 
income  of  $175,844,  of  which  $59,298  was  de- 
rived from  taxation.  Of  the  schools  not  pub- 
lic, 151  were  classical  (28  colleges  and  123  acad- 
emies), 8  professional  (1  law  and  2  medical), 
and  9  technical  (8  coounercial,  1  for  the  blind, 
1  for  the  deaf  and  dumb,  and  4  of  art  and  music). 
Of  the  residue,  1,452  were  day  and  boarding 
schools  and  19  parochial  and  charity  schools. 
The  colleges  had  77  male  and  66  female  teach- 
ers, 978  male  and  1,620  female  pupils,  and  an 
income  from  endowments  of  $36,850,  and  from 
other  sources  of  $112,516.  The  university  of 
Georgia,  at  Athens,  was  chartered  in  1795  and 
organized  in  1801.  It  has  a  permanent  endow- 
ment of  $100,000,  derived  from  the  sale  of 
lands  set  apart  in  1784  by  the  revolutionary 
statesmen  and  soldiers  of  Georgia,  to  found  a 
university.  The  interest  on  this  sum,  which 
has  been  invested  by  the  legislature,  is  paid  by 
the  state.^  The  university  has  a  preparatory 
department,  an  academic  department,  embra- 
cing the  ordinary  branches  of  collegiate  study, 
and  a  law  department.    The  state  college  of 


724: 


GEORGIA 


agriculture  and  the  mechanic  arts,  endowed 
with  the  congressional  land  grant  of  270,000 
acres,  which  has  been  sold  for  $243,000,  was 
organized  as  a  fourth  department  in  1872;  it 
embraces  instruction  in  agriculture,  engineer- 
ing,  and  chemistry.  Students  intending  to  en- 
ter the  Christian  ministry  are  relieved  from 
payment  of  tuition  when  in  need  of  aid,  and 
other  poor  students,  residents  of  the  state,  to 
the  number  of  50  annually,  have  their  tuition 
remitted,  in  return  for  which  they  are  ex- 
pected to  teach  in  some  school  in  Georgia  as 
many  years  as  they  have  resided  at  the  uni- 
versity. The  number  of  professors  and  in- 
structors in  1872  was  15,  including  2  in  the  law 
and  8  in  the  preparatory  department;  num- 
ber of  students,  817,  viz. :  7  resident  gradu- 
ates, 255  undergraduates  (including  15  law  stu- 
dents), and  55  in  the  preparatory  department ; 
number  of  volumes  in  the  college  and  society 
libraries,  20,000.  The  North  Greorgia  agricul- 
tural college,  at  Dahlonega,  became  toward  the 
close  of  that  year  a  branch  of  the  state  col- 
lege and  a  department  of  the  university.  At- 
lanta university,  in  the  city  of  that  name,  was 
established  in  1867  by  the  freedmen's  bureau 
and  the  American  missionary  association.  It 
is  not  restricted  as  to  color  or  sex,  but  is  de- 
signed especially  for  the  higher  education  of 
colored  youth.  Preparatory,  normal,  collegi- 
ate, agricultural,  and  theological  departments 
have  been  organized,  and  in  1872  there  were 
7  instructors  and  178  students.  Oglethorpe 
university  (Presbyterian),  also  at  Atlanta,  had 
5  professors,  48  coUegiate  and  62  preparato- 
ry students ;  but  it  has  since  been  suspended 
for  want  of  funds.  Mercer  university  (Bap- 
tist), at  Maoon,  in  1871  had  5  professors  and 
instructors,  82  students,  and  a  library  of  5,000 
volumes.  It  has  a  theological  department. 
Emory  college  (Methodist  Episcopal  church 
south),  at  Odord,  in  1872  had  12  professors 
and  instructors,  50  preparatory  and  189  col- 
legiate students,  and  a  library  of  3,000  vol- 
umes. Bowdon  college,  at  Bowdon,  Carroll 
CO.,  had  4  professors  and  instructors  and  22 
students.  The  other  institutions  classed  as 
colleges  are  chiefly  for  the  superior  instruction 
of  females.  The  principal  are  Furlow  Masonic 
female  college  at  Americus,  GrifSn  female  col- 
lege at  GrifSn,  Hamilton  female  college  at 
Hamilton,  the  Southern  female  college  at  La 
Grange,  the  Wesley  an  female  college  at  Macon, 
the  Georgia  female  college  at  Madison,  Marietta 
female  college  at  Marietta,  La  Vert  female  col- 
lege at  Talbotton,  West  Point  female  college  at 
West  Point,  and  Monroe  female  college  at  For- 
syth. The  Atlanta  medical  college  in  1872 
had  14  professors  and  instructors  and  52  stu- 
dents. The  medical  college  of  Georgia,  at 
Augusta,  had  10  professors  and  instructors, 
108  students,  and  a  library  of  5,000  volumes. 
The  Savannah  medical  college  in  ld72  had  14 
professors  and  instructors,  36  students,  and  a 
library  of  8,000  volumes.  The  census  of  1870 
returns  1,735  libraries,  containing  467,282  vol- 


umes, of  which  545,  having  162,861  volumes, 
were  not  private,  classified  as  follows:  state, 
1,  with  16,000  volumes ;  town,  city,  &c.,  4, 
with  8,780;  court  and  law,  63,  with  8,610; 
school,  college,  &c.,  15,  with  41,100;  Sabbatli 
school,  869,  with  68,114;  church,  82,  with 
16,002 ;  historical,  literary,  and  scientific  socie- 
ties, 2,  with  2,000 ;  benevolent  and  secret  as- 
sociations, 1,  with  400;  circulating,  8,  with 
11,895.  Besides  the  college  libraries,  the  prin- 
cipal are  those  of  the  young  men's  library  as- 
sociation at  Atlanta  (8.000  volumes),  of  tlie 
mechanics^  and  scientinc  association  at  Co- 
lumbus (8,000),  and  of  the  Georgia  historical 
society  at  Savannah  (7,000).  There  were  110 
newspapers  and  periodicals,  issuing  15,539,724 
copies  annually,  and  having  an  average  circu- 
lation of  150,987,  viz. :  15  daily,  circulation 
80,800;  5  tri-weekly,  8,600;  9  semi-weekly, 
5,100;  78  weekly,  88,887;  2  semi-monthly, 
700 ;  and  6  monthly,  21,950.  They  were  classi- 
fied as  follows :  agricultural  and  horticultural, 
6 ;  illustrated,  literary,  and  miscellaneous,  5 ; 
political,  98';  religious,  4 ;  technical  and  pro- 
fessional, 2.  The  number  of  church  organiza- 
tions was  2,878,  The  number  of  edifices  and 
sittings,  and  tbe  value  of  church  property,  are 
shown  in  the  following  table : 


DKNOMINATIONB. 

Baptist 

CbiiBtiaii 

Congregational 

Epiaeopal 

Jewish 

Lutheran 

Methodist 

Presbyterian 

Boman  Catholic 

Universalist 

Union 

Total ; 


UiflOM. 

Sitttifh 

1«818 

889,105 

88 

10,285 

10 

2.800 

27 

10.080 

5 

1,400 

10 

8,000 

1,1M 

827,848 

128 

4»,075 

11 

6,600 

8 

900 

6 

1,100 

2,098 

801,148  , 

$1,12S.«0 
0Q.0S0 
l&UO 
807.200 
62.T00 
67,100 

fi68,aS5 

294,060 

900 

90,700 


— Of  the  thirteen  provinces  which  declared 
themselves  independent  in  1776,  Georgia  was 
the  latest  settled.  The  country  lying  within 
its  present  boundaries  was  a  wilderness  previ- 
ous to  1788,  and,  though  comprehended  within 
the  charter  of  Carolina,  had  been  claimed  by 
Spain  as  well  as  England.  By  patent  dated 
June  9,  1782,  George  II.,  in  honor  of  whom  it 
received  its  name,  granted  the  territory  to  a 
corporation  entitled  the  '^  Trustees  for  settling 
the  Colony  of  Georgia.^' '  The  double  purpose 
proposed  in  the  settlement  of  this  re^on  was, 
on  the  one  hand,  to  afford  a  retreat  for  the 
destitute  at  home,  and  on  the  other,  to  secure 
the  frontiers  of  the  Carolinas  from  the  incur- 
sions of  the  Indians  and  the  Spaniards  of  Flo- 
rida. In  November  of  the  same  year  116  per- 
sons were  embarked  at  Gravesend  under  the 
direction  of  Gen.  James  Oglethorpe,  and  ar- 
rived at  Charleston  in  January,  1783.  From 
this  place  Oglethorpe  explored  the  conntry, 
and  soon  after  purchased  a  large  tract  of  land 
from  the  Creeks.  On  a  high  bluff  overlooking 
a  river  the  foundation  of  a  town  was  laid, 


GEORGIA 


725 


which  received  the  name  of  Savannah.  Here 
the  settlement  was  commenced  in  the  spring 
of  1733.  The  condition  upon  which  the  lands 
were  parcelled  out  was  military  duty,  and  so 
grievous  were  the  restrictions  to  which  the 
colonists  had  to  submit  that  many  returned 
into  Carolina,  where  the  lands  were  held  in 
fee  simple.  The  number  of  inhabitants  in  the 
colony  nevertheless  continued  to  increase,  con- 
siderable accessions  to  its  population  being 
received  from  Germany  and  Scotland.  In 
1739  war  broke  out  between  Spain  and  Eng- 
land, and  Gen.  Oglethorpe  was  appointed  to 
the  command  of  the  South  Carolina  and 
Georgia  troops.  Having  mustered  1,000  men 
and  a  number  of  Indian  allies,  he  invaded 
Florida,  but,  failing  in  an  expedition  against 
St.  Augustine,  returned  unsuccessful.  In  1742 
this  invasion  was  retaliated,  and  a  Spanish 
fleet  of  36  ships  and  5,000  men  appeared  in 
the  Altamaha  river,  took  Fort  St.  Simon,  and 
were  proceeding  against  Fort  Frederica,  on 
St.  Simon's  island,  when  from  a  stratagem 
conceived  by  Oglethorpe  they  became  alarmed, 
retired  to  their  ships,  and  sailed  for  Florida. 
Peace  was  soon  restored ;  but  restrictions  of 
various  kinds,  and  especially  the  prohibition  of 
slavery,  rendered  the  people  discontented,  and 
many  abandoned  their  settlements,  while  those 
who  remained  with  difficulty  obt<uned  a  scan- 
ty subsistence.  The  restrictions  upon  slavery 
were  removed  about  1750,  and  in  1752,  the 
trustees  having  surrendered  their  charter  to 
the  crown,  Georgia  became  a  royal  govern- 
ment, with  privileges  and  regulations  similar 
to  those  of  the  other  colonies.  The  first  good 
effect  of  the  change  of  government  was  felt  in 
the  establishment  of  a  general  assembly  in  1755. 
The  limits  of  the  colony  to  this  time  were  the 
Savannah  on  the  north  and  the  Altamaha  on 
the  south,  extending  westward  to  the  Pacific. 
In  1763  all  the  lands  between  the  Altamaha 
and  St.  Mary's  were  annexed  to  Georgia  by 
a  royal  proclamation.  From  this  period  the 
colony  made  rapid  progress;  the  rich  swamps 
and  lowlands  on  the  rivers  were  brought  into 
cultivation,  and  production  rapidly  increased. 
At  the  commencement  of  the  revolution  the 
colonists  did  not  hesitate  to  make  the  grievan- 
ces of  their  northern  brethren  their  own,  and 
take  part  in  the  coming  struggle.  In  July, 
1775,  a  convention  gave  the  sanction  of  the 
colony  to  the  measures  of  congress,  and  ap- 
pointed delegates  to  that  body.  Daring  the 
war  that  ensued  Georgia  was  overrun  by  Brit- 
ish troops,  and  the  principal  inhabitants  were 
compelled  to  abandon  their  homes  and  fly  into 
the  neighboring  states.  In  1778  Savannah  was 
captured,  and  in  1779  Augusta  and  Sunbury. 
In  the  latter  year  an  unsuccessful  attempt  was 
made  by  the  Americans  and  French  to  recap- 
ture Savannah.  Georgia  framed  its  first  con- 
stitution in  1777,  a  second  in  1789,  and  a  third 
in  1798,  which  was  several  times  amended. 
The  constitution  of  the  United  States  was 
ratified  by  Georgia  on  Jan.  2,  1788.     After 


the  revolutionary  war  Georgia  suflered  on  her 
frontiers  from  the  incursions  of  the  Creeks  and 
Cherokees.  In  1790  and  1791  treaties  were 
concluded  with  the  chiefs  of  those  nations. 
By  the  treaty  of  Fort  Wilkinson  in  1802  the 
Creeks  ceded  to  the  United  States  a  large 
tract  which  has  since  been  assigned  to  Georgia, 
and  now  forms  the  S.  W.  counties  of  the  state. 
In  the  same  year  Georgia  ceded  to  the  United 
States  all  its  claims  to  the  lands  westward  of 
its  present  limits.  Subsequently  serious  diffi- 
culty arose  between  the  state  and  national  gov- 
ernments respecting  the  Cherokees,  which  was 
terminated  by  the  removal  of  that  tribe  in  1888 
to  the  Indian  territory,  when  Georgia  came 
into  possession  of  their  lands.  In  the  presi- 
dential election  of  1860  the  vote  of  Georgia 
was  51,889  for  Breckenridge,  42,886  for  Bell, 
and  11,590  for  Douglas.  Immediately  after 
the  result  became  known  the  legislature  (Nov. 
18)  ordered  an  election  to  be  held  on  Jan. 
4,  1861,  for  the  choice  of  delegates  to  a  con- 
vention to  consider  the  question  of  withdraw- 
ing from  the  Union.  This  convention,  consist- 
ing of  301  delegates,  assembled  at  Milledgeville 
on  Jan.  16,  and  on  the  19th  passed  an  ordi- 
nance of  secession  by  a  vote  of  208  to  89.  A 
proposition  to  call  a  congress  of  the  disaflected 
states,  with  a  view  to  cooperation,  was  defeated 
by  a  vote  of  164  to  188.  All  the  delegates 
subsequently  signed  the  ordinance  except  six, 
who  caused  an  entry  to  be  made  in  the  journal 
that  they  acquiesced  in  the  will  of  the  majority. 
On  the  24th  10  delegates  were  appointed  to 
the  congress  of  the  seceded  states,  to  be  held 
at  Mon^mery,  Ala.,  Feb.  4,  and  on  March 
16  the  constitution  of  the  Confederate  States 
was  unanimously  ratified.  Ordinances  were 
also  passed  resuming  jurisdiction  over  places 
ceded  to  the  United  States,  and  transferring 
all  forts,  arsenals,  and  munitions  of  war  to  the 
confederate  government.  On  Jan.  3,  1861, 
Fort  Pulaski,  on  Cockspur  island  at  the  month 
of  the  Savannah  river,  mounting  60  guns,  was 
seized  by  order  of  Gov.  Brown,  and  at  the  same 
time  Fort  Jackson,  4  m.  below  Savannah,  was 
occupied.  On  the  24th  the  arsenal  at  Augusta, 
containing  two  12-pound  howitzers,  .two  can- 
non, about  20,000  small  arms,  and  large  stores 
of  ammunition,  was  taken  possession  of  by  700 
state  troops  under  Gov.  Brown.  Georgia,  ex- 
cept on  the  coast,  was  not  the  theatre  of  active 
hostilities  until  1864.  On  Nov.  25, 1861,  Com. 
Du  Pont,  who  had  just  taken  Port  Royal,  S. 
C,  occupied  Big  Tybee  island  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Savannah,  and  soon  after  other  points  com- 
manding Fort  Pulaski  were  taken  possession 
of,  and  that  fort  was  reduced,  April  11,  1862, 
by  a  bombardment  from  batteries  erected  on 
Tybee  island.  Eariy  in  March  Com.  Du  Pont, 
with  a  fleet  from  Port  Royal,  took  possession 
of  St.  Mary's,  Brunswick,  Darien,  and  St.  Si- 
mon's island,  and  left  a  small  force  at  each.  On 
Feb.  28,  1863,  the  Nashville,  a  confederate 
ironclad,  was  destroyed  in  the  Ogeechee  river 
by  Commander  Worden ;  and  on  March  3  an 


726 


GEORGIA 


meffectnal  attack  was  made  on  Fort  McAllis- 
ter on  the  same  river,  a  few  miles  8.  W.  of  Sa- 
vannah, by  a  federal  fleet.  On  Jane  11  Darien 
was  burnt,  and  on  June  17  Gapt.  John  Eodgers 
in  the  Weehawken  disabled  and  captured  in 
Warsaw  sound  the  confederate  ironclad  At- 
lanta, which  had  just  come  down  from  Savan- 
nah. A  portion  of  the  operations  around  Chat- 
tanooga in  the  autumn  of  1868  took  place  in 
N.  W.  Georgia.  On  May  6,  1864,  commenced 
the  decisive  campaign  from  Chattanooga  under 
Gen.  Sherman,  which  resulted,  after  a  persist- 
ent resistance  and  much  severe  fighting,  in  the 
evacuation  of  Atlanta  by  the  confederates  on 
Sept.  1.  Sherman  started,  Nov.  15,  on  his 
memorable  march  to  the  sea.  Passing  through 
the  heart  of  Georgia,  he  entered  MiUedgeville 
on  the  28d,  and  reached  the  vicinity  of  Savan- 
nah on  Dec.  10.  On  the  18th  Fort  McAllister 
was  taken  by  storm,  and  on  the  21st  Savan- 
nah was  occupied,  having  been  evacuated  the 
night  before  by  the  confederates  under  Gen. 
Hardee,  who  had  destroyed  the  navy  yard, 
two  ironclads,  several  smaller  vessels,  and 
much  ammunition  and  stores.  A  cavalry  force 
under  Gen.  Wilson  in  April,  1865,  entered 
Georgia  from  Alabama,  took  Columbus  and 
West  Point,  arrived  at  Macon  on  the  2l6t,  and 
captured  Jefferson  Davis,  the  fugitive  president 
of  the  confederacy,  at  Irwinville,  May  10.  An- 
dersonville  in  this  state  was  the  seat  of  the 
most  noted  of  the  confederate  military  prisons, 
and  there  was  another  at  Millen,  which  was 
removed  upon  the  approach  of  Gen.  Sherman. 
After  the  surrender  of  the  confederate  armies, 
the  state  was  under  the  control  of  the  military 
until  June  17,  1865,  when  President  Johnson 
appointed  James  Johnson,  a  citizen  of  the  state, 
provisional  governor,  with  power  to  call  a  con- 
vention of  delegates  chosen  by  the  citizens 
loyal  to  the  United  States,  who  were  qualified 
as  voters  by  the  laws  in  force  immediately 
before  the  passage  of  the  ordinance  of  seces- 
sion, and  who  should  take  the  oath  prescribed 
in  the  amnesty  proclamation  of  May  29.  The 
election  of  delegates  took  pJace  Oct.  4,  and  the 
convention,  assembling  at  MiUedgeville  on  the 
25th,  remained  in  session  18  days,  during  which 
time  it  repealed  the  ordinance  of  secession  and 
acts  in  pursuance  thereof,  declared  the  war 
debt  void,  amended  the  constitution  by  abolish- 
ing slavery  and  in  other  respects,  and  ordered 
an  election  to  be  held  on  Nov.  15  for  govern- 
or, members  of  the  legislature,  and  congress- 
men. The  le^slature  convened  Dec.  4,  and 
soon  afterward  ratified  the  amendment  to  the 
constitution  of  the  United  States  abolishing 
slavery,  by  a  unanimous  vote.  On  the  14th 
Charles  J.  Jenkins,  who  had  been  elected  gov- 
ernor, was  inaugurated,  and  on  the  19th  the 
provisional  governor  was  instructed  to  turn 
over  to  him  the  government  of  the  state.  These 
measures  not  meeting  with  the  approval  of 
congress,  the  senators  and  representatives  were 
not  admitted  to  seats;  and  under  the  recon- 
struction acts  of  1867  Georgia,  with  Alabama 


and  Florida,  was  constituted  the  third  military 
division,  and  placed  in  command  of  Mfgor  Gen. 
Pope.  A  registration  of  those  entitled  to  vote 
under  these  acts  was  subsequently  made,  when 
192,285  voters  were  registered,  viz.:  96,262 
white  and  95,973  colored.  An  election  was 
held  during  the  five  days  commencing  Oct.  29, 
which  resulted  in  a  large  mfgority  for  a  consti^ 
tutional  convention  (the  whites  generally  re- 
fraining from  voting),  and  in  the  choice  of  166 
delegates,  of  whom  88  were  colored.  The 
convention  met  at  Atlanta  Dec.  9,  and  ad- 
journed finally  March  11^  1868,  after  framing 
a  constitution,  and  providmg  for  an  election  for 
its  ratification  or  rejection  and  for  the  choice 
of  state  officers  and  congressmen,  to  be  lield 
April  20  and  the  three  following  days.  The  re- 
sult was  a  minority  of  17,699  for  ratification, 
and  the  election  of  Rufus  B.  Bullock,  republi- 
can, by  7,047  mfgority  over  John  B.  Gordon, 
democrat.  The  leg^lature  consisted  of  22  re- 
publicans and  22  democrats  in  the  senate,  and 
78  republicans  and  102  democrats  in  the  house; 
8  senators  and  25  representatives  were  colored. 
On  June  25  an  act  of  congress  was  passed  pro- 
viding for  the  readmission  of  Georgia,  with 
other  states,  upon  the  ratification  by  tiie  legis- 
lature of  the  14th  amendment  to  the  constita- 
tion  of  the  United  States,  and  the  abrogation 
of  certain  provisions  of  the  state  constitution 
prohibiting  suits  on  debts  contracted  prior  to 
June  1,  1865.  The  legislature  organized  on 
July  4,  and  on  the  21st  complied  with  the  pre- 
scribed conditions  by  a  vote  of  24  to  14  in  the 
senate  and  89  to  70  in  the  house,  and  on  the 
following  day  Gov.  Bullock  was  inaugurated. 
On  the  29th  United  States  senators  were  elect- 
ed, and  on  the  80th  the  government  of  the 
state  was  turned  over  to  the  civil  authorities. 
The  congressional  representatives  had  been 
admitted  to  seats  on  the  25th,  but  the  senators 
were  still  excluded.  In  September  the  colored 
members  of  the  legislature  were  expelled,  asA 
the  candidates  having  the  next  highest  number 
of  votes  in  the  respective  districts  seated  in 
their  places,  on  the  ground  that  by  the  code 
and  tne  laws  existing  at  the  adoption  of  the 
constitution,  which  were  continued  in  force  by 
one  of  its  provisions,  negroes  were  ineligible  to 
office.  This  action  was  regarded  by  the  majori- 
ty at  Washington  as  a  violation  of  the  recon- 
struction acts  and  of  the  conditions  upon  which 
the  state  had  been  admitted ;  and  on  the  oi^an- 
ization  of  the  41st  congress,  March  4, 1869,  the 
representatives  from  Georgia  were  not  per- 
mitted to  take  their  seats.  Subsequently  the 
supreme  court  of  the  state  decided  that  negroes 
were  entitled  to  hold  office,  and  on  Dec.  22 
congress  passed  an  act  directing  the  governor 
by  proclamation  to  convene  at  Atlanta  all  per- 
sons declared  by  the  order  of  Gen.  Meade  (who 
had  succeeded  Gen.  Pope  in  December,  1867) 
of  June  25,  1868,  to  be  elected  to  the  legisla- 
ture, who  were  required  to  take  the  test  oath 
prescribed  by  the  act  as  a  condition  precedent 
to  organization,  and  to  ratify  the  15th  amend- 


meat  to  the  constitation  of  tbe  United  States, 
to  enUtle  the  state  to  representation  in  con- 
gresa.  B;  an  order  of  Deo.  34  M^or  Geo. 
Terry  was  placed  in  ooniinand  of  the  troops  to 
cany  the  act  into  effect.  The  legislature  met, 
Jan.  10,  1870,  in  pursuance  of  a  proclamation 
of  Gov.  Bnllock,  and  adjonrned  from  time  I 
time  until  the  26th  of  that  month,  when 
commission  appointed  by  Gen.  Terry  to  deter 
mine  the  eligibility  ofcertain  members  reported 
against  21  as  ineligible  under  the  Hth  amend- 
ment, or  for  refaaing  to  take  the  test  oath,  and 
the  candidates  having  the  next  highest  nnmber 
of  votes  in  the  respective  districts  were  seated 
in  their  places.  Both  booses  were  declared 
duly  organized  on  the  Slat,  and  on  Feb.  2  the 
15tb  amendment  was  ratified  b;  a  vote  of  26  to 
10  in  the  senate  and  55  to  20  in  the  house. 
Thft  conditions  preacrihed  in  the  reoonatrnction 
aots  of  1667  were  also  assented  to,  and  subse- 

Saontly  United  States  senators  were  elected. 
Id  Jnly  16  an  act  for  the  readmission  of  the 
state  received  tbe  approval  of  tbe  president. 
An  election  for  congressmen  was  held  Nov. 
30-32,  and  they,  tt^ether  with  tbe  senators 
elected  in  1868,  having  been  admitted  to  oon- 
grees  in  the  following  December,  the  recoti' 
strnction  became  complete.  (See  sopplement.) 
CE0R6U  (Rnss.  Onuia;  Pers.  GutjUtan; 
anc.  lieria),  the  name  formerly  applied  to  that 
part  of  western  Awa  comprised  in  the  Russian 
Transcaucasia,  lying  between  the  Caspian  and 
the  Black  seas,  and  tbe  Caucasian  and  Anne- 
niao  monntnins;  area,  about  70,000  sq.  m. 
Within  its  boundaries  are  incladed  the  Bns- 
sian  governntcnts  of  Eateis,  Tifiis,  Elisaheth- 

Eol,  Baku,  and  Erivan,  and  the  districts  of  Sa- 
atal,  Snkhum,  and  Tchernomore.  These  are 
the  extreme  limits  of  ancient  Georgia,  but  in 
modern  times  tlie  name  has  generally  been 
confined  to  the  territory  bounded  N.  by  tbe 
Caucasus,  E.  by  Shirvon,  8.  by  the  range  of 
tbe  Armenian  mountains  separating  the  valley 
of  the  Eur  from  that  of  the  Aras,  and  W.  by  a 
branch  of  the  Caucasian  range,  having  an  area 
of  abont  25,000  sq.  m.  The  surface  of  tbe  en- 
tire country  is  monntunons,  hnt  many  of  tbe 
valleys,  especially  that  of  the  river  Eur,  which 
flows  through  it  from  W.  to  E.,  are  of  great 
fertility.  The  climate  is  agreeable  and  health- 
ful, and  the  soil  produces  in  abundance  all  the 
cereals,  hemp,  flax,  and  cotton,  and  many  fine 
fruits,  particularly  grapes,  from  which  much 
wine  is  made.  For  a  more  particnlar  descrip- 
tion of  the  conntry  see  Russia  and  the  articles 
on  the  modem  governments  and  districts.- — 
The  Georgians,  or  ancient  Iberians,  including 
their  kindred,  the  Suanethians,  Mingrelions, 
and  Lazians,  form  the  main  race  of  the  south- 
ern division  of  the  Caucasian  group  of  the  Medi- 
terranean family  of  the  human  species.  Tlieir 
name  is  believed  to  be  derived  from  the  Per- 
sian ffiitj  (GnijiBtan,  "the  land  of  wolves"). 
They  call  themselves  Eartveii  or  Eartlians,  M- 
ter  the  province  Earllia  of  the  former  Geor- 
gian empire.    The  Armenians  call  them  Yirk. 


!GIA  737 

Tbe  Georgians  proper  occnpy  tbe  country  com- 
prised within  the  more  limited  of  tbe  bounda- 
ries above  given,  end  embracing  Eartlla  on  the 
Eur,  Eakhetia,  N.  E.  of  Kortlia,  and  other  dis- 
tricts. West  of  them  are  the  Mingrelians,  who 
occupy  Uingrelia,  and  Gnrio,  on  the  Black  sea. 
The  Suanethians  inhabit  the  aoutbem  slope  of 
the  Caucasus  N.  E.  of  the  Mingrelians.  These 
three  divisions  belong  to  the  Russian  empire. 
The  Lazians  in  the  saqjakate  of  Lazistan,  pa- 
sbalik  of  Trebizond,  are  subjects  of  Turkey. 
While  the  Armenians,  who  control  most  of  the 
tra£BD  of  tbe  country,  are  timid  and  intent  on 
gain,  the  Georgians  are  bold,  reckless,  turbu- 
lent, and  extravagant  They  are  also  indolent, 
apathetic,  and  ignorant,  seldom  giving  any 
ngna  of  animation  except  when  on  a  drink- 
ing bout.  The  lower  classes  are  chiefiy  culti- 
vators of  the  soil,  which  they  work  in  the 
same  way  that  their  ancestors  did  centuries 


ago.  The  Georgian  men  are  noted  fur  their 
athletic  forms  and  the  women  for  their  beauty, 
although  the  features  of  the  latter  are  regular 
and  handsome  rather  than  beantiful,  and  are 
wanting  in  expression.  Tbe  general  character- 
istics of  the  race  are  finely  chiselled  brows, 
large,  black,  liquid  eyes,  prominent  sorai-aqni- 
line  nose,  and  volnptnous  mouth.  Before  mar- 
riage the  women  endeavor  to  keep  their  waists 
as  amall  as  possible  by  means  of  a  girdle,  which 
they  wear  almost  continuonsly ;  this  results  in 
a  targe  development  of  the  bosom,  which  Is 
much  admired.  It  is  said  that  in  former  times 
the  belt  was  never  removed  imtil  the  nuptial 
day,  when  it  was  out  by  the  dagger  of  the 
bridegroom.  Many  such  ancient  customs,  now 
obsolete  in  the  neighborhood  of  TIdis,  are  still 
preserved  in  the  moDDtoins  and  isolated  dis- 
tricts.   Before  the  Russian  domination  a  large 


728 


GEORGIA 


trade  in  slaves  was  carried  on  with  Tarkey, 
the  Georgian  nobles  deriving  their  chief  reve- 
nue from  the  sale  of  their  serfs,  the  men  for 
the  Turkish  armies,  the  women  for  the  ha- 
rems ;  but  the  traffic  is  now  interdicted,  and 
the  relations  between  the  upper  and  lower 
classes  are  much  modified.  The  Persians  and 
Mussulmans  from  the  north  of  India  also  pur- 
chased many  women  from  this  region  for  their 
harems,  paying  sometimes  as  high  as  20,000 
piastres  for  a  remarkably  beautiful  one.  The 
Georgian  stock  consequently  is  largely  dissem- 
inated throughout  Mohammedan  countries. 
The  Georgians  are  nominally  members  of  the 
Greek  church,  and  have  had  the  Bible  in  their 
language  since  the  beginning  of  the  10th  cen- 
tury ;  but  the  priests  are  generally  as  ignorant 
as  the  people. — Nothing  certain  is  known  of 
early  Georgian  history.  The  statements  of 
the  Greek  and  Latin  writers  are  confused  and 
lead  to  various  conclusions.  George  Rawlin- 
son  thinks  that  the  territory  was  anciently  "  in 
the  possession  of  a  people  called  by  Herodotus 
Saspeires  or  Sapeires,  whom  we  may  identify 
with  the  Iberians  of  later  writers."  The  Col- 
chians  and  Albanians  were  probably  their 
neighbors.  Their  legends  trace  their  origin  to 
Targamos,  a  descendant  of  Japhet,  and  claim 
Mtzkhetos  as  the  founder  of  the  ancient  capital 
Mtzkhta,  which  stood  about  15  m.  N.  W.  of 
Tiflis.  The  first  Georgian  empire  seems  to 
have  been  ended  by  the  Scythians,  who  invaded 
it  in  the  7th  century  B.  C.  It  is  probable  that 
it  afterward  formed  a  part  of  the  Persian  em- 
pire, was  conquered  by  Alexander  the  Great, 
and  regained  its  independence  at  his  death. 
Phamavas  was  the  first  or  one  of  the  first 
kings  of  the  second  Georgian  empire.  Mir- 
van,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  2d  century  B.  G., 
and  his  son  Pharnaj,  sovereigns  of  Persian  de- 
scent, introduced  Parseeism,  which  led  to  a  re- 
volt. The  king  of  Armenia  came  to  the  aid  of 
the  Georgians,  and  put  his  son  Arshag  on  the 
throne,  thus  founding  the  dynasty  of  the  Arsa- 
cides.  In  65  6.  0.  the  Georgians  or  Iberians 
came  into  contact  with  the  Romans,  and  were 
compelled  by  Pompey  to  sue  for  peace.  In  the 
beginning  of  the  8d  century  A.  D.  the  king- 
dom became  highly  prosperous,  but  in  the 
following  period  the  Persians  made  destructive 
invasions.  Early  in  the  4th  century  the  Geor- 
gians were  converted  to  Christianity  by  St. 
Nina,  a  captive  woman.  At  the  death  of  Ste- 
phanos I.  m  574,  Guram,  a  Jew  who  had  been 
his  general-in-chief,  ascended  the  throne.  In 
635  the  Arabs  overran  the  country,  but  did 
not  succeed  in  subverting  Christianity.  Subse- 
quent kings  sufi^ered  much  from  their  aggres- 
sions, and  the  Armenian  dynasty  of  the  Ba- 
gratides,  who  succeeded  the  Guramides,  even- 
tually became  vassals  of  the  caliphs.  Bagrat 
III.  liberated  his  country  from  foreign  domi- 
nation, and  David  III.  (1089-1126)  extended 
his  dominions  over  a  part  of  Armenia  and  as 
far  as  Trebizond.  Queen  Tamar  III.  (1184- 
1206)  reduced  several  of  the  tribes  north  of 


the  Caucasus,  and  her  son  George  IV.  van- 
quished the  Persians,  converted  many  of  them 
to  Christianity,  and  rendered  valuable  aid  to 
the  crusaders.  In  the  18th  century  the  Mon- 
golians subdued  the  country,  but  in  the  mid- 
dle of  the  14th  George  VI.  threw  off  their 
yoke  and  extended  his  sway  over  the  neighbor- 
ing provinces.  Tamerlane  reduced  the  conn- 
try  to  subjection,  but  it  was  again  liberated  by 
George  VII.  In  1424  King  Alexander  divided 
his  kingdom  among  his  three  sons,  and  ti^e  his- 
tory of  the  next  two  centuries  is  one  of  conflicts 
between  the  three  governments,  and  of  quar- 
rels with  Persia  and  Turkey,  in  which  Russia 
interfered.  The  country  was  reunited  under 
Vakhtang  IV.  or  V.,  whom  the  Persians  call 
Shah  Naos.  He  died  in  1676,  and  for  a  century 
after  Georgia  was  the  scene  of  inteatine  fends 
and  divisions,  in  which  the  Turks  and  Persians 
took  part.  In  1788  Irakli  (Heraolius)  II.  of 
Eakhetia,  who  had  united  under  his  sway  a  large 
part  of  the  ancient  kingdom,  being  pressed  by 
the  Persians,  announced  himself  a  varaal  of  Rus- 
sia. His  successors  having  new  difSculties  wiUi 
the  Persians  and  Lesghians,  Greor^a  was  made 
in  1801  a  province  of  Russia,  and  in  1810  Ime- 
rethia  was  added  to  it. — The  Georgian  language 
is  written  in  an  alphabet  of  40  letters,  some- 
what varying  in  different  manuscripts.  The 
following  are  used  in  Brosset^s  dictionary : 

&   A         b  B         ^  Q        ^D 


'J  E     a  w     o  z     6^ 


H 


CDth    o  I 

9  m    6  n 

3  p      vrj  J 


6° 


R 


qVL 


&  T  y  ^ 


D  TCH    tuTZ       0   Di 

DCH    (j  KH      ^  K] 

H        J%  HO     ^  F 


d 


OH 


GEORGIA 


GEORGIA  bare: 


729 


Ihe  characters  used  in  the  ecclesiastical  style 
of  writing  differ  from  the  common  ones.  The 
languages  of  tlie  foar  tribes,  the  Georgians, 
the  Mingrelians,  the  Suanethians,  and  the  La- 
zians,  are  related  to  each  other,  and  show  a 
common  development  from  one  primitive  form, 
either  primitive  Aryan  or  Dravidian ;  but  there 
is  no  foundation  for  connecting  them  with  the 
languages  spoken  by  tribes  north  of  the  Cauca- 
sus. The  Georgian  is  written  from  left  to  right. 
It  makes  no  distinction  of  gender.  To  distin- 
guish sex,  the  words  male  and  female  are  intro- 
duced, except  for  the  words  king,  queen,  young 
man,  young  woman,  him,  and  her.  No  article 
is  used.  There  are  two  numbers,  singular  and 
plural,  and  six  cases,  nominative,  genitive,  da- 
tive, vocative,  instrumental,  and  instrumental 
moaal.  There  are  special  forms  for  the  com- 
parative and  superlative  of  adjectives.  Nouns 
are  inflected  by  means  of  suffixes,  and  verbs  by 
means  of  suffixes,  prefixes,  and  changes  in  the 
radical  letters.  Tne  verbs  are  either  active, 
passive,  reciprocal,  or  neuter,  and  are  modified 
according  to  one  of  the  20  classes  of  ooi^uga- 


tion  into  which  they  are  divided.  Prepositions 
govern  either  the  genitive,  dative,  or  instru- 
mental.— Among  the  literary  remains  of  an- 
cient Georgia,  some  of  the  manuscripts  written 
in  the  ecclesiastical  style  of  alphabet  are  prob- 
ably of  high  antiquity ;  but  most  of  them  date 
subsequently  to  the  introduction  of  Christianity, 
and  consist  of  homilies  and  translations  of  por- 
tions of  Scriptures,  and  of  Plato,  Aristotle,  and 
other  Greek  authors.  Some  manuscripts  con- 
tain novels  and  romances ;  one  gives  in  verse 
the  history  of  Shah  Naos,  and  several,  dating 
principally  from  the  17th  century,  are  poetical 
works  of  some  merit.  The  most  important 
of  Georgian  manuscripts  are:  a  volume  of 
63  treatises,  historical  and  biographical,  which 
has  thrown  much  light  on  the  history  of  the 
Ehazars  during  the  8th  century  ;  a  translation 
of  the  Gospels  by  Droudch,  dating  from  the 
10th  century ;  and  a  romance  entitled  "  Tariel, 
the  Man  with  the  Tiger  Skin,"  a  general  of 
Queen  Tamar,  by  Skhotta  of  Rustvel.  The  fol- 
lowing is  a  facsimile  of  the  last  verse  of  Ruat- 
vePs  romance : 


The  literal  translation  is  as  follows :  **  Moses 
of  Ehori  has  glorified  Amiran,  the  son  of  Da- 
re^'an ;  the  poem  of  Abdul  Messia,  written  by 
Khevtel,  and  the  history  of  Dilar  by  the  inde- 
fatigable writer  Geth  Sargis  of  Tmogvi,  were 
wort^hy  of  praise ;  but  Rustvel  has  wept  with- 
out ceasing  over  his  Tariel."  Among  similar 
compositions,  an  epic  on  Queen  Tamar,  by 
Tchakhadze,  ranks  equally  high.  During  the 
18th  century,  in  spite  of  the  incessant  wars 
that  harassed  the  country,  there  was  a  rich 
supply  of  meritorious  literature,  and  the  lan- 
guage attained  that  definiteness,  richness,  and 
energy  which  are  now  its  most  prominent 
features.  Prince  Sulkhan-Saba-Orbelian  pub- 
lished in  that  century  a  dictionary  of  the  lan- 
guage, containing  at  least  25,000  words,  and 
King  Vakhtang  VI.  caused  an  extensive  his- 
tory of  the  country  to  be  written.  The  Rus- 
sian language  has  now  generally  superseded 
the  Georgian  in  the  schools,  and  books  in  the 
Georgian  language  are  printed  in  Russian  char- 
acters. The  language  and  literature  of  the 
G^rgians  have  been  specially  studied  by  Ade- 
lung,  Brosset,  Dom,  Josselin,  Elaproth,  Saint- 
Martin,  and  Tchubinoff.  Brosset  is  considered 
^e  highest  authority  on  the  subject    Ethno- 


logical studies  of  the  Georgian  race  are  con- 
tained in  the  books  of  travel  of  Cunynghame, 
Dorn,  Dubois  de  Montp6reux,  W.  J.  Hamilton, 
Haxthausen,  Mounsey,  Poulett-Cameron,  and 
Wagner.— See  Hutoire  de  la  Georgie  depuis 
VantiquitS  jtuqu'au  XIX'  tUcle^  traduite  du 
georgUn^  by  Brosset  (2  vols.  4to,  St.  Peters- 
burg, 1849-'57);  "History  of  Grusia,"  by 
Baratoff  (St  Petersburg,  1866  et  seq,);  and 
La  GScrgie,  by  De  Villeneuve  (Paris,  1871). 

GEORGIA,  Galf  Af,  an  arm  of  the  sea  lying  be- 
tween Vancouver  island  and  the  mainland  of 
British  Columbia,  between  lat  48""  50"  and  50"" 
K,  and  Ion.  122°  40'  and  125^  W.  On  the 
south  it  is  connected  with  the  strait  of  Juan  de 
Fuca  by  Haro  and  Rosario  straits,  and  on  the 
north  with  Queen  Charlotte  sound.  Howe 
sound  and  Jervis  and  Burrard  inlets  run  from 
it  into  the  mainland.  Eraser  river  fiows  into  it 
Its  length  is  about  100  m. ;  greatest  breadth,  80 
m.  At  each  extremity  of  the  gulf  is  an  archi- 
pelago, and  it  contains  severd  large  islands. 

GEORGIA  BARK,  the  common  name  of  Pineh- 
neya  pnbenSj  one  of  the  handsomest  of  our 
native  shrubs.  It  grows  in  bogs  and  along  the 
banks  of  streams  from  South  Carolina  to  Flori- 
da, and  sometimes  attidns  the  height  of  20  ft., 


730 


GEORGIAN  BAY 


GfiRANDO 


tbongli,  as  it  throws  up  many  stems  from  the 
same  root,  it  retains  a  shrab-iike  form.  It  has 
the  general  botanical  characters  of  the  ruhiaeecB, 
to  which  family  it  belongs.  The  leaves  are 
large,  oval,  acute,  and  downy  on  the  under 
surface,  as  are  the  flower  clusters  which  are 
borne  at  the  ends  of  the  branches ;  these  con- 
sist of  several  five-flowered  fascicles  of  pur- 
plish-spotted flowers,  with  a  tube  nearly  an  inch 
long  and  a  reflexed  limb ;  the  calyx  is  short  and 
five-lobed,  one  of  the  lobes  being  expanded 
into  a  large,  ovate,  rose-colored  leaf,  which  is 
more  showy  than  the  flower  itself.  The  plant 
is  closely  related  to  cinehonay  and  is  one  of  the 
many  that  have  been  proposed  as  substitutes 
for  Peruvian  bark.  From  the  reports  of  physi- 
cians living  in  the  states  where  it  grows,  it  ap- 
pears to  have  decided  anti-periodic  properties, 
though  slower  in  its  action  than  quinia.  As 
an  ornamental  plant  it  is  deserving  of  the  at- 
tention of  those  who  live  in  a  climate  where 
the  winters  are  mild;  in  England  it  is  suffi- 
ciently valued  to  be  cultivated  as  a  wall  plant. 
The  genus  was  named  by  Michaux  in  honor  of 
Gen.  Oharles  0.  Pinckney. 

CEORGIAN  BAY.    See  Huron,  Lake. 

GEPIBJ^  a  Germanic  people,  akin  to  the 
Goths,  who  first  appear  in  history  in  the  8d 
century  A.  0.  as  living  on  the  Baltic  near  the 
Vistula.  They  subsequently  moved  further 
8.  and  settled  N.  of  Pannonia,  between  the 
Ostrogoths  on  the  east  and  the  Visigoths  on 
the  west.  They  were  at  first  compelled  to  fol- 
low Attila,  but  regaining  their  independence  at 
his  death,  under  their  king  Arderic,  they  drove 
back  the  Iluns  and  occupied  their  territory  on 
the  lower  banks  of  the  Theiss,  Danube,  Drave, 
and  Save.  Theodorio,  king  of  the  Ostrogoths, 
defeated  them  in  488  near  Sirminm  (now  Szer^m 
in  Slavonia),  and  Alboin,  king  of  the  Lombards, 
assisted  by  the  Avars,  destroyed  their  power 
in  666.  The  remnants  of  the  people  became 
gradually  amalgamated  with  the  conquerors. 

CrERA,  a  town  in  the  German  principality  of 
ReuBS-Schleiz,  in  a  beautiful  valley  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  White  Elster,  35  m.  S.  S.  W.  of 
Leipsic;  pop.  in  1871,  17,959.  It  consists  of 
the  town  proper  and  two  suburbs,  and  is  reg- 
ularly built,  naving  been  restored  in  modem 
style  after  a  great  conflagration  in  1780.  It 
has  manufactories  of  woollens,  cotton,  linen, 
camlet,  porcelain,  stoneware,  tobacco,  leather, 
soap,  chocolate,  glue,  artificial  flowers,  musical 
instruments,  and  fire  engines,  iron  founderies, 
large  breweries  and  dyeing  establishments,  and 
carries  on  a  considerable  trade.  Its  old  castle 
dates  from  1066,  when  the  place  first  became  a 
town,  and  was  bestowed  on  the  baron  of  Reuss 
in  the  12th  century.  Three  railways  connect 
the  town  with  Zeitz,  GOssnitz,  and  Eichicht. 

GEBAMB,  FenUBiBd  de,  baron,  a  French  Trap- 
pist,  bom  in  Lyons,  April  17, 1772,  died  in  Rome, 
March  15,  1848.  He  was  educated  in  Vienna, 
and  served  against  the  French  in  the  Austrian, 
Spanish,  and  English  armies.  He  was  of  a  vio- 
lent temper,  and  fought  several  duels.    In  1812 


he  was  in  London,  and  his  creditors  souii^t 
to  have  him  arrested,  but  he  barricaded  his 
dwelling,  hung  out  a  flag  inscribed  ^^  My  house 
is  my  castle,^^  and  resisted  for  a  fortnight  the 
sherifl^  and  his  deputies.  He  was  afterward 
sent  to  the  continent,  where  he  fell  into  the 
hands  of  Napoleon,  by  whose  orders  he  was 
imprisoned  in  Vincennes  and  afterward  in 
La  Force.  In  the  latter  prison  he  met  the 
bishop  of  Troyes,  and  thenceforward  he  conse- 
crated his  life  to  religion,  joining  the  Trappist 
order  some  time  after  his  release  (1815).  He 
took  the  vows  in  1817  at  the  monastery  of 
Port  du  Salut  near  Laval,  and  distinguished 
himself  so  greatly  by  his  piety  that  he  was 
appointed  procurator  general  of  the  order.  In 
1881  he  made  a  pilgrimage  to  the  Holy  Land, 
and  in  1887  went  to  Rome.  His  PeUrinage  d 
Jerusalem  et  au  mont  Sinai  en  1881-^88  (4 
vols^  Paris,  1886)  has  been  translated  into  for- 
eign languages,  and  passed,  like  his  Voyage  de 
la  TVappe  d  Borne  (1888),  and  other  works, 
through  many  editions. 

GfiRANDO)  Jcseph  Hnrie  de,  baron,  a  French 
philosopher  and  statesman,  bom  in  Lyons, 
Feb.  29,  1772,  died  in  Paris,  Nov.  11,  1842. 
He  was  educated  in  the  college  of  the  Oratory 
at  Lyons,  and  was  preparing  for  the  priesthood 
against  the  wishes  of  his  family  when  the  rev- 
olutionary persecutions  of  ecclesiastics  led  him 
to  change  his  purpose.  When  in  1798  his  na- 
tive town  was  besieged  by  the  troops  of  tlie 
convention,  he  took  arms  for  its  defence,  was 
made  prisoner,  and  narrowly  escaped  death. 
He  entered  the  army,  but  his  regiment  having 
been  sent  to  Lyons,  he  was  there  recognized, 
denounced,  and  obliged  to  seek  safety  in  flight 
He  went  to  Switzerland  and  thence  to  Italy,  and 
was  employed  two  years  in  a  commercial  house 
in  Naples.  In  1797  he  returned  to  France,  after- 
ward joined  a  regiment  of  cavalry,  and  was  in 
garrison  at  Colmar  when  the  institute  proposed 
the  question :  ^^  What  is  the  influence  of  signs  on 
the  formation  of  ideas? "  De  G^rando  sent  in 
a  dissertation  on  it,  and  learned  that  he, had 
received  the  prize  soon  after  the  battle  of 
Zurich,  in  which  he  had  taken  part.  Invited 
to  Paris,  he  entered  the  ministry  of  the  inte- 
rior under  Lucien  Bonaparte  in  1799,  became 
secretary  general  of  that  department  under 
Champagny  in  1804,  accompanied  him  to  Italy 
in  1805,  was  appointed  master  of  requests  in 
1808,  was  afterward  engaged  in  the  organiza- 
tion of  Tuscany  and  of  the  Papal  States  when 
they  were  united  to  France,  received  the  title 
of  councillor  of  state  in  1811,  and  was  ap- 
pointed governor  of  Catalonia  in  1812.  On 
the  fall  of  the  empire  he  retained  his  dignities ; 
but  for  having  been  sent  to  organize  the  de- 
fence of  the  Moselle  during  the  hundred  days 
he  was  at  first  discarded  after  the  second  res- 
toration, but  soon  resumed  his  place  in  the 
council  of  state,  which  he  held  during  the 
rest  of  his  life.  In  1819  he  began  a  course 
of  lectures  before  the  faculty  of  law  in  Paris 
on  public  and  administrative  law,  which  were 


saspeoded  in  1632  tuid  reannied  in  1826.  In 
18ST  lie  was  raised  to  the  peerage.  Hia  prin- 
cipal philoBophical  works  arer  Bet  Hffnei  et  de 
Vart  de  penter  eoTitidira  dam  teWM  rapportt 
mutu«U  (4  toIs.  Bvo,  Paris,  1800) ;  De  la  gitUra- 
tion  de»  eonnaiaaTiea  Aum<itne«  (Berlin,  1802}  ; 
aod  Hutoire  eomparie  dei  tyeUme*  de  philoio- 
phie  (8  Tols.  8to,  Paris,  1808),  of  which  a  post- 
tamnonB  volume  appeared  in  the  third  edition 
CI84T-'8).  In  1625  ho  received  the  prize  of 
the  tcadem;  Tor  bis  treatise  Hu  per/ectitmna- 
m«nt  moral  etde  Viducatwtideii>i''mime{tTfiai- 
lated  into  English,  Boston,  16S0),  the  funda- 
mental  idea  of  which  is  that  life  is  a  discipline 
whose  object  is  perfeotion.  The  five  leading 
motives  which  solicit  the  will  are  sensations, 
affections,  thought,  dntj,  and  reli^on;  and 
the  two  conditions  of  tiarmonious  develop- 
ment are  a  love  of  the  good  (rumour  ifu  hien) 
and  a  habit  of  self-control.  His  VitiUur  du 
pauvre  also  received  the  prize  of  the  aoad- 
emj  (1621).  In  1627  he  published  Be  Pidu- 
eatitm  dei  tourdi-mueti  de  naUtanee;  and  in 
1826  appeared  his  Imtitutet  du  droit  adminu- 
tratif  franfaU,  which  was  finished  hj  Bon- 
latignier  and  Alfred  Blsnohe  (2d  ed.,  6  vols., 
ISIS-'S).  Shortlj  before  his  death  be  made 
a  tonr  through  Germanj  and  Switzerland,  in 
order  to  stndj  the  system  of  hospitals  and 
other  charitable  institutions. 

CEBINICH  (Or.  yipavoi,  a  orane),  the  botani- 
cal name  of  one  genns  and  the  popnlar  name 
of  another  genns  of  plants  belonging  to  the 
bmily  geraitiaeem.  Plants  of  the  genas  gera- 
nium are  herbs  with  perennial,  biennial,  or  an- 
nual roots ;  stems  swollen  at  the  joints ;  leaves 
nsnall?  rounded  and  palmately  lobed  or  dis- 
sected; flower  stalks  terminal  or  lateral,  one- 
to  three-flowered ;  flowers  sjmmotrical,  parts 
in  fives,  petals  equal;  stamens  ten,  in  two  se- 
ries, the  five  outer  ones  opposite  the  petals  and 
sterile;  alternating  with  the  petals  are  Ave 
■mall  glands  npon  the  receptacle;  the  pistil 
consists  of  five  two-ovnled  carpels  united  to  a 
prolongation  of  the  axis.  As  the  pistil  ma- 
tures this  axis  and  the  attached  styles  elongate 
and  form  a  pointed  fruit  about  an  inch  and  a 
half  long ;  the  beak-like  oharact«r  of  the  fruit 
suggested  the  popular  name  of  cranesbill,  and 
probablj  the  botanical  name  for  the  genua  also. 
When  qnite  ripe  the  carpels  break  awaj  from 
the  central  axis,  the  small  one-seeded  pods  re- 
maining attached  to  the  styles,  the  separatdon 
taking  place  from  below  upward.  Sis  species 
ot  geranium  or  cranesbill  are  found  east  of  the 
Mississippi,  and  a  few  others  are  peculiar  to  the 
western  side  of  onr  territory.  The  only  peren- 
nial among  the  eastern  species,  and  at  the  same 
time  the  largest  and  best  known,  is  0.  titaeti- 
latum,  the  spotted  cranesbill  \  its  stem  is  about 
two  feet  high,  each  of  its  numerous  branches 
l)earing  two  light  purple  flowers  about  an  inch 
across;  the  leaves  are  aboot  five-parted,  with 
the  divirions  cat  at  the  ends ;  when  old  they 
sometlmea  have  whitish  blotches,  on  account 
of  which  not  very  conspicuous  character  the 


SIDM  731 

speoiflc  name  was  g^ven.  The  root  stock  of 
this  plsnt  is  very  astringent,  and  is  not  only 
a  popnlar  domestic  remedy  in  diseases  of  the 
bowels  and  other  cases  where  astringents  are 
required,  but  is  officinal  in  the  United  States 
pharmacopteia.    On  account  of  its  astringen- 


Spotted  Cnnubtll  (Oennlni 

cy  it  is  in  some  places  called  alum-root,  a 
name  which  properly  belongs  to  Heuehera, 
and  should  be  restricted  to  it.  Of  the  annual 
kinds  we  have  Q.  Eabertianvm,  or  herb  Robert, 
a  beantiful  plant  common  in  onr  woods,  espe- 
cially among  rooks  and  In  the  rich  black  mould 
of  their  crevices,  where  it  is  partially  shaded. 
Its  flowers,  though  small,  are   numerous  and 


b  Botwrt  (Gon 


n  RDberUiDum). 


prettily  striped  and  rosy,  and  its  foliage  is  so 
delicately  cut  and   home  upon   long   slender 

Setioles,  that  it  is  well  adapted  for  tlie  gar- 
en,  especially  in  the  rockwork.  A  heavy  dis- 
agreeable odor  is  however  emitted  from  its 
leaves,  if  handled.    Frequently  in  the  aDtunn 


732  OERA 

the  leftres  are  carionslj  dotted  with  miiiDte 
black  specks,  the  peritheoia  of  a  parasitic  fun- 
gas  (dotkidea  Sobertianum).  O.  Carolinia- 
num,  similar,  witL  paler  flowers  aod  scentless 
foliage,  erroneooalj  aapposad  to  be  6.  dimee- 
tum,  occurs  in  waste  pkaes  on  barren  soils,  and 
ia  widely  diffused.  G.  punllum  (amall-fiow- 
ered  cranesbill),  with  slender  stems,  rounded, 
flve-parted,  kidnej- formed  leaves,  and  small 
ttluish-pnrple  petals,  bas  been  foand  in  waste 
places  in  New  York  and  Idassaohosetts.  The 
last  three  are  natives  of  Europe,  naturalized  in 
this  countrj.  Some  ezotio  perennial  species 
are  cultivated  in  our  gardens;  tbe  commonest 
of  these  is  0.  langvineum,  a  native  of  England, 
with  deep  crimBon-purplefiowers  which  bloom 
nearly  all  summer;  a  variety  of  this  is  known 
sa  0.  Laneatlriaae.  0.  Iberievta,  O.pratenu, 
and  a  few  others  are  also  grown.  The  anemoue- 
leaved  geranium,  &.  anevuyT^folium,  is  a  green- 
houae  species,  with  beautifully  divided  leaves, 
from  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. — Oeranium  ia 
the  name  popularly  given  to  the  species  and 
varieties  of  pelargonium,  so  generally  cultiva- 
ted. The  geaae  pelargonium  differs  from  ge- 
ranium  in  several  characters,  the  most  obvious 
of  which  are  the  half-shrnbby  character  of 
the  stems  and  the  somewhat  irregular  flowers. 
One  of  the  sepals  or  divisions  of  the  calyx  has 
its  base  prolonged,  which  runs  down  on  one  side 
of  the  pedicle  or  flower  stalk  aa  an  adherent 
apur,  aa  may  be  seen  in  a  cross  section  of  the 
pedicle;  the  two  petab nearest  this  sepal  arc 
often  different  from  the  others  in  size  and 
ahape ;  stamens  that  bear  anthers  usually  seven, 
always  less  than  ten;  pistil  as  in  geraniam. 
The  name,  as  with  geranium.,  is  suggested  by 
the  fancied  resemblance  of  the  fruit  to  the  bill 
of  a  bird,  but  in  this  case  it  is  the  stork  in  place 
of  the  crane  (Gr.  irt^pyif,  a  stork).  There  are 
DO  more  popular  tender  plants  than  the  vari- 
OOB  pelargoniums,  whether  for  window  culture, 
summer  bedding  plants,  or  choice  ornamente  to 
tlie  conservatory  and  greenhouse.  Though  the 
name  geranium  apphed  to  them  is  incorrect,  it 
has  become  so  firmly  attached  by  long  usage 
that  DO  change  is  probable.  Aa  witli  many  other 
plants  that  have  been  long  in  cultivation,  the 
pelargoniums  have  become  so  mined  by  hybrid- 
izing, crossing,  and  sporting,  that  it  ia  generally 
difficult  to  determine  the  apecies  from  which 
they  originated.  The  Cape  of  Good  Hope  hns 
famished  a  large  majority  of  the  species,  a  few 
only  having  come  from  Auatraliaand  elsewhere. 
A  scientific  classification  being  impracticable, 
it  will  aerve  our  purpose  to  group  them  after 
the  manner  of  the  florist.  The  scented  pelargo- 
niums include  a  number  that  have  tVagrant  fo- 
liage and  generally  iuconapicnous  flowers.  The 
best  known  is  the  rose  geranium,  P.  eapita- 
tura,  which  ii  probably  the  oldeat  apeciea  in  cul- 
tivation, it  having  been  carried  to  England 
in  1690;  its  lobed,  downy,  pleasantly  scented 
leaves  are  well  known ;  there  is  a  variety  with 
the  leaves  edged  with  white.  The  peppermint 
geranium  ia  P.  tomentotum;  the  nutmeg-scent- 


ed, P.  odoratiuimvm ;  and  the  pennyroyal- 
scented,  P.  aatipKlatum.  The  ivy-leaved  pe- 
largoniums form  a  very  distinct  group,  disiin- 
gniahed  by  their  smooth,  fleshy  leaves,  lohed 
like  those  of  the  ivy,  and  their  weak  and 
trailing  stems;  they  are  mainly  derived  ttom 
P.peltatTim  and  P.  lataripei.  Within  a  few 
years  great  improvement  has  been  mode  in 
this  class,  and  they  now  present  a  great  variety 
in  foliage  and  flowers;  their  prostrate  habit 
especially  adapts  them  to  coltivation  in  vases 
and  hanging  baskets.  Florists'  pelai^oniumg, 
or  show  pelorgoninma  as  they  are  often  called, 
have  rounded  leaves  and  flowers,  often  some- 
what irregular,  of  the  greatest  beauty  of  color 
and  markings;  they  have  resulted  from  long- 
continued  crossings,  and  their  origin  is  so  ob- 
scure that  recent  French  writers  name  them 
all  P.  hoTtulajiormn,  the  pelargonium  of  tbe 
gardeners.  This  class  is  only  seen  in  perfec- 
tion in  greenhouses,  and  it  requires  great  care 


B««r1et  G 


n  (PelMgon 


and  skill  to  make  a  flne  show  of  them.  We 
then  have  a  large  claaa  that  flower  indoors  in 
winter,  and  are  turned  ont  into  the  borders  in 
snramer,  where  they  are  used  in  masses  to  pro- 
duce fine  effects  by  their  fiowers  or  roliage; 
the  foliage  of  these  has  an  unpleasant  odor, 
and  some  of  them  are  popularly  known  as  fish 
geraniums.  The  old  scarlet  geranium,  P.  in- 
quinattM,  and  the  horseshoe  geranium,  P.tonalt, 
are  the  principal  species  from  which  this  clasj 
originated  ;  the  fiowers  range  from  white  to 
the  most  dazzling  scarlet  and  dark  crimson; 
of  late  a  number  with  double  flowers  have  been 
introduced ;  their  foliage  is  often  highly  orna- 
mental, it  being  variegated  with  white,  yellow, 
pink,  and  other  shades  upon  tbe  gre«D.  The 
florists  do  not  agree  in  their  classification  of 
these  varieties ;  their  principal  divisions  are  into 
nosegay,  zonale,  bronze-zoned,  gold  and  sDver 


GERANIUM 

tricolora,  and  gold  end  silver  margined.  Sonie 
of  the  tricolors,  of  which  "  Mra.  PoUock  "  mny 
be  taken  as  the  tjpe,  hnva  leavea  beaatifnll/ 
colored;  bnt  these  do  not  flouriafa  well  in  onr 
hot  Bommera,  and  are  oolj  seen  in  perfection 
when  grown  nnder  glass.    Palargoninms  grow 


0£RARD 


733 


reodilj  from  seed,  and  if  started  early  in  a 
liotbed  the  plants  may  be  had  in  bloom  the 
same  season;  the  plants  have  sach  a  mixed 
aod  varied  anceatry  that  seeds  from  almost  any 
of  OUT  onltivated  kinds  are  likely  to  produce 
plants  different  from  the  immediate  parent. 


In  Qrui  (Eiodli 


Those  who  engage  in  the  prodactioa  of  new 
varietiespractiseoarefiil  crossing,  using  the  pol- 
len of  one  variety  opon  the  pistil  of  another  in 
the  usnal  way.  The  varieties  are  perpetuated  by 
propagating  from  cuttings,  which  readily  take 
root;  the  commercial  florists  propagate  them 


all  winter  for  the  spring  soles;  the  amatear 
can  readily  moltiply  them  in  the  open  gronnd 
after  the  hot  weather  of  summer  is  over.  Cat- 
tings  two  to  six  inches  long,  planted  in  a  shady 
place,  will  bood  take  root  and  make  good, 
plants  for  winter  blooming;  if  the  stems  from 
which  the  cuttings  are  to  be  taken  are  very 
sueeolent,  they  should  be  out  half  or  two  thirds 
throngh,  and  when  the  wounded  snrface  has 
dried  the  cutting  can  be  entirely  removed. — 
Erodiiim  (Gr.  ipuiiif,  a  heron)  is  a  genus  closely 
related  to  geranium,  from  which  it  principally 
differs  in  having  the  leaves  pinnately  instead 
of  palmatelj  divided,  and  in  the  twisting  of  tbe 
styles  when  in  fruit  they  break  away  from  the 
beak-like  receptacle.  The  plants  are  mostly 
natives  of  Europe  and  the  East,  and  there  is 
one  species  indigenoos  to  Texas,  E.  Texamim. 
Tbe  only  erodium  of  special  interest  is  £.  eieu- 
tarium,  which  is  sparingly  naturalized  in  some 
of  the  eastern  states,  and'  aboadantly  so  on 
the  Pacific  coast,  where  it  ia  of  great  service 
as  a  forage  plant,  its  yoong  growth  furnishing 
a  bite  to  tbe  oattje  when  there  is  bat  little  else 
for  them  to  eat.  It  is  known  as  pin  grass, 
and  also  b;  the  Mexican  name  of  aljtlana. 

fiEBARD,  tke  Bksel,  a  saint  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  chnrch,  and  founder  of  the  order  of 
knights  bospitaliers  of  Saint  John  of  Jerusa- 
lem.    (See  SAINT  John  of  Jebvsai;em.) 

fifiUBD,  Cidle  JalH  Badle,  a  French  officer, 
bora  at  Pigoana,  Var,  Jnne  U,  1817,  drowned 
in  Africa  in  September,  1804.  Enliatmg  in 
thespahis,  he  landed  in  Africa  in  1S42,  and  two 
years  later  kiUed  his  fli-at  lion.  In  all  he  killed 
26.  On  his  return  to  France  he  gave  tbe  re- 
sults of  his  experience  in  Xa  chatte  au  lion 
(1865)  and  Ohrard  U  tueur  de  iiont  (1856).  The 
latter  work  has  been  translated  into  English 
under  the  title  of  "Gerard  the  Lion  Killer." 
He  afterward  proposed  to  explore  the  Kong 
range  in  western  Guinea,  which  had  not  yet 
been  visited  by  any  Eoropean.  Starting  from 
England  in  the  latter  part  of  1663,  he  attempt- 
ed to  penetrate  into  the  interior  of  Africa 
through  Dahomey.  Failing  in  this,  be  pro- 
ceeded to  Sierra  Leone,  whence  an  English 
man-of-war  took  him  to  the  river  Gallinas.  Ha 
started  agun  for  tbe  interior,  bat  having  been 
plundered  of  his  baggage  he  resolved  to  return 
to  Sierra  Leone,  'While  croaaing  the  river  Jouy 
he  was  drowned. 

fifeSlBD,  Etkiae  lUwrite,  count,  a  French 
marshal,  bom  at  Damvillers,  April  4, 1TT3,  died 
in  Paria,  April  IT,  1856.  He  enlisted  in  ITBl 
as  a  private,  served  under  Dnmonriez  and 
Joardan,  and  obtained  a  colonelcy  in  1800.  He 
distingoiahed  himself  at  Aasterlitz,  Halle,  Jena, 
and  Wagram,  receiving  as  reward  for  his  ser- 
vices the  rank  of  general  of  brigade  and  a  bar- 
ony. After  service  in  Portugal  and  Spain,  he 
joined  the  Rnsnan  expedition,  and  as  general 
of  division  evinced  unfaltering  energy  daring 
the  retreat  from  Moscow.  He  was  severely 
wounded  in  tbe  campaign  of  161S,  and  in  1814 
fought  successfolly  agtunst  the  invading  troops. 


734 


g£rard 


Boring  the  campai^  of  I81S  he  was  placed 
noder  the  command  of  Grouchj,  who  hod  or- 
ders to  prevent  the  Praasians  from  joining 
the  English  Armj  aader  Welhngton.  On  tho 
morning  of  June  18,  bearing  the  report  of  can- 
non, he  atrongly  nrged  a  march  toward  Water- 
loo, hut  was  overruled.  On  the  faQ  of  Napo- 
leon, Gerard  left  France,  and  did  not  retam 
till  181T.  Id  1B22  he  was  elected  deputy,  took 
his  seat  among  the  opposition  members,  and 
was  reelected  in  1823  and  1827.  He  contrib- 
nted  to  the  success  of  the  revolution  of  J830, 
and  after  being  minister  of  war  for  three 
niontha,  reentered  the  chamber  of  depnties. 
Having  been  promoted  to  the  rank  of  marshal, 
lie  waa  in  1631  intmated  with  the  command 
of  the  French  armj  sent  to  protect  Belgium 
ogaioHt  Holland.  In  1S32  he  commanded  at 
the  siege  of  Antwerp,  whioh  he  forced  to  ca- 
pitulate, Deo.  23.  In  1834  be  agun  held  for 
three  months  the  iDfEce  of  minister  of  war. 
He  was  made  count  in  1818,  peer  in  1833,  grand 
chancellor  of  the  legion  of  honor  in  1835,  com- 
mander general  of  the  national  guards  of  the 
Seine  in  1838,  and  senator  in  18G2. 

gIkIRD,  Fruf^  PhmI  BImm,  baron,  a 
French  painter,  bom  in  Rome  in  ITTO,  died  in 
Paris,  Jan.  11,  1637.  He  entered  the  stodio 
of  David  in  1788  ;    in 

1792   he  visited   Italy,  _.,"■" 

but  soon  returned,  and 
exhibited  in  1766  his 
first  great  pictare,  "Be- 
lisariuB."    "The  Throe 
Ages,"     "  Cupid    and 
Psyche,"  "Ossian,"and 
the  "  Battle  of  Aoster- 
lltz,"  which   appeared 
in  succession  from  1805 
to  1610,  established  hia 
fame.    The  lost  was  ap- 
plauded for  its  accuracy 
and  beauty  by  Napo- 
leon, who,   as  well  as 
nearly  all  the  members 
of  his  family,  had  their 
portraits  painted  by  GS- 
rard.    At  the  command 
ofLouiaXVlILheeie- 
cntedin  1817  his  "En* 
try  of  Henry  IV".  into 
Paris."      His    "  Lottis 
XIV.  declaring  hia  grandson  Philip  of  Aii^on 
King  of  Spain"  appeared  in  the  pnblio  exhi- 
bition of  1828 ;  and  his  "  Coronation  of  Charles 
S."  in  that  of  1829.     Under  Louis  Philippe  he 
executed  rarious  important  works  in  the  halls 
of  the  historical  museum  at  Versulles  and  in 
the  cnpola  of  the  Pantheon.     The  hitter,  com- 
pleted in  1836,  were  the  laat  of  his  perform- 
ances.    During  his  career,  besides  80  historical 
pictures,  some  of  which  are  of  very  large  di- 
menEiions,  he  painted  nearly  SOO  portraits. 

elllBD  DE  NEBTIL  (GiitABD  Labbdmie),  a 
French  author,  bom  in  Paris,  May  21,  1808, 
died  there,  Jan.  34, 1855.    He  published  when 


0ERA8A 

18  years  old  a  series  of  poems  entitled  ^Ugia 
uatioTiala,  and  in  1826  t,  new  translation  of 
Fautt.  He  wrote  dramas  either  by  himself  or 
in  cDi(junction  with  Alexandre  Dumas,  one  of 
which,  Leo  Burciart,  was  published  in  1639 
with  Dotes.  In  1850,  in  copjunotion  with 
U^ry,  he  produced  Le  chariot  d'enfant,  a  met- 
rical translation  of  an  Indian  drama,  and  a 
seriesof  philosophical  and  biographical  esMys 
upon  eccentric  characters,  entitled  Let  illu- 
minet,  tm  laprieuneuTg  du  toeialitrae  (185S). 
On  the  morning  following  the  anniversary  of 
the  death  of  Jenny  Colon,  an  actress  whom  he 
loved  devotedly,  he  was  fonnd  hanging  and 
dead  in  the  street. 

Cf  BllDHEB,  GJrwai,  or  Glrtw ti,  a  town  of 
France,  in  the  department  of  Vosges,  on  the 
margin  of  Lake  G^rardmer,  near  the  German 
frontier,  22  m.  S.  E.  of  Spina) ;  pop.  in  16SS, 
6,22S.  It  covers  a  oonsiderahle  extent  of 
ground,  ttie  houses  mostly  standing  in  gardens. 
It  has  a  large  trade  in  cheese,  known  as  G6- 
rom6  cheese.  Lake  G^rardmer  is  the  most 
beantiAiI  of  the  inland  waters  of  France ;  it  is 
oval  in  sb^e,  about  1^  m.  long,  and  travereed 
bj  the  river  Valogne. 

cniBi,  or  CiUm  (now  Jerath),  a  ruined  city 
of  Palestine,  E.  of  tlie  Jordan,  m  the  ancient 


Decapolis,  66  m.  N.  E.  of  Jerusalem,  on  the 
opposite  slopes  of  two  bills,  between  which 
flows  the  river  Eeman.  The  most  interesting 
of  its  remains  extend  along  the  right  bonk  of 
the  stream,  and  comprise  a  Corinthian  temple 
and  triumphal  arch,  five  or  six  other  temples, 
and  two  theatres,  all  of  marble;  a  nanmachia, 
or  artificial  basin  for  tlie  representation  of  B«a 
lights ;  and  a  Bmall  temple,  with  a  semicircular 
Ionic  colonnade  from  which  a  street,  lined  with 
rows  of  columns,  traverses  the  city.  At  right 
angles  with  this  are  three  other  streets,  all  full 
of  relics  of  ancient  greatness.  There  are  raised 
walks  for  foot  passengers  on  either  aide,  whilo 


GERBOA 


GERHARDT 


735 


the  centre  course  still  shows  marks  of  chariot 
wheels.  The  walls,  which  are  pierced  hj  three 
ornamented  gateways,  and  flanked  by  occasional 
towers,  are  in  tolerable  preservation.  Outside 
is  an  extensive  necropolis ;  200  yards  N.  E.  is 
a  large  reservoir,  and  near  it  can  be  traced  an 
aqueduct.  The  river  and  yalley  are  crossed 
by  two  bridges.  There  are  two  grand  baths, 
and  inscriptions,  chiefly  of  the  time  of  Anto- 
ninus Pias,  but  in  general  much  defaced,  are 
met  with  in  all  directions.  Mention  of  Gerasa 
is  first  made  by  Josephns,  who  states  that  King 
Alexander  Jannssus,  after  subduing  Pella,  at- 
tacked and  captured  it,  about  65  B.  G.  It  is 
referred  to  by  Greek  and  Roman  writers,  but 
no  detfuls  of  its  history  are  given.  After  the 
Roman  conquests  in  the  East  the  district  around 
Gerasa  became  one  of  their  favorite  colonies. 
It  was  burned  by  the  Jews  at  the  commence- 
ment of  their  war  with  the  Romans,  and  taken 
again  by  Annius,  one  of  Vespasian's  generals. 
Half  a  century  later  it  attained  its  greatest 
prosperity.  On  the  rise  of  Christianity  it  be- 
came the  seat  of  a  bishop.  In  1122  Baldwin 
II.  captured  i^  and  destroyed  the  castle. 

I2EU01.    Bee  Jebboa. 

QEKDIL.  HyMtatke  Slgisa«ifl,  a  Savoyard  phi- 
loeopher,  bom  at  Samoens,  June  28,  1718,  died 
in  Borne,  Aug.  12, 1802.  He  became  a  Bama- 
bite,  stndied  theology  in  Bologna,  won  the 
friendship  of  Oardin^J  Lambertmi,  afterward 
Pope  Benedict  XIV.,  and  became  professor  of 
phuoflophy  at  Macerata,  at  Oasale,  and  finally 
at  Turin.  Refusing  the  dignity  of  general  of 
his  order,  he  became  tutor  to  the  prince  of 
Piedmont^  afterward  Oharles  Emanuel  IV.  of 
Sardinia,  the  rich  abbey  of  Ohiusa  being  given 
him,  whose  revenues  he  devoted  to  diarity. 
His  first  works  were  £elairemementa  ntr  la 
notion  et  la  dimaibUite  de  Vitendue  geomStrique 
(Turin,  1741),  and  JmmatMalitS  de  Vdme  de- 
fiumtrie  eontre  Locke  (1747).  To  these  works 
succeeded  almost  every  year  until  his  death 
others  in  Latin,  French,  or  Italian,  on  ques- 
tions of  theology,  philosophy,  physical  or 
mathematical  science,  and  sociology.  He  was 
created  a  cardinal  in  petto  by  Clement  XIV., 
and  officially  proclaimed  as  such  in  1777  by 
Pius  VI.  Appointed  prefect  of  the  Propa- 
ganda, protector  of  the  Maronites,  and  cor- 
rector of  oriental  publications,  he  led  in  Rome 
a  life  of  the  most  laborious  poverty.  He  sold 
his  library  in  179£l  in  order  to  support  himself, 
followed  Pius  VI.  to  Siena,  and  would  have 
been  unanimously  chosen  by  the  conclave  as 
his  successor,  if  the  fact  of  his  being  a  native 
of  Savoy,  then  a  part  of  France,  had  not 
caused  Austria  to  oppose  him.  His  complete 
works  were  published  in  Rome  (20  vols.  8vo, 
1806~'21).  An  edition  of  his  select  works  in 
12  vols,  was  begun  in  Paris  in  1826,  but  only  2 
vols,  have  appeared.  In  1863  Migne  published 
a  selection  of  his  theological  works  in  1  vol. 
large  8vo. 

GERDT,  Plem  1IImIi&  a  French  physiologist, 
bom  at  Loohes,  Aube,  May  1, 1797,  died  in  Paris, 
854  TOL.  -vn.— 4V 


March  18,  1856.  In  1884  he  became  professor 
in  the  Paris  faculty  of  medicine,  and  in  1837 
was  elected  a  member  of  the  academy  of  medi* 
cine.  His  treatment  of  physiology  was  sys- 
tematic rather  than  experimental,  and  he  car- 
ried to  an  extreme  degree  the  doctrine  of  the 
so-called  vital  properties  residing  in  as  many 
difierent  organs  and  tissues  of  the  body,  and 
accounted  directly  for  the  phenomena  of  life, 
without  any  reference  to  the  action  of  physical 
or  chemical  forces.  His  publications  were  nu- 
merous and  varied  in  character,  most  of  them 
appearing  in  the  medical  journals  or  in  the 
bmletins  of  the  academy  of  medicine.  He  aJso 
wrote  Anatomie  des  former  exterieureSy  appli- 
quSe  d  la  peinture,  d  la  sculpture  et  d  la  ehU 
Turgie  (1 829) ;  Traite  dee  bandages  et  des  panse- 
ments  (1887-9) ;  Physiologie  philosophique  des 
sensations  et  de  Vintelligenee  (1846) ;  and  CAp- 
rurgie  pratique^  uncompleted  (1851-5). 

GEBFiLCON,  or  JeriklMi.    See  Faixwn. 

GEKHABD,  Eduri,  a  German  archeologist, 
bom  in  Posen,  Nov.  29,  1795,  died  May  12, 
1867.  Resigning  a  professorship  at  Breslau  on 
account  of  weak  eyes,  he  travelled  in  Italy,  and 
resided  15  years  in  Rome.  He  was  engaged  on 
Platner's  Besehretbung  der  Stadt  Rom^  planned 
by  Kiebuhr,  and  then  directed  by  Bunsen,  for 
which  he  undertook  to  furnish  a  complete  ac- 
count of  the  sources  of  knowledge  concerning 
ancient  Roman  topography,  under  the  title  of 
Seriptores  de  Regionibus  Urbis.  When  in  1 828 
the  crown  prince  of  Prussia  visited  Italy,  Ger- 
hard accompanied  him  to  Naples,  and  obtained 
his  protection  for  the  Instituto  di  eorrispon- 
densa  areheologiea^  founded  at  Rome,  of  wnich 
Gerhard  was  director  until  his  retum  to  Pms- 
sia  in  1887.  He  was  afterward  appointed 
archsQologist  of  the  royal  museum  at  Berlin, 
professor  in  the  uniyersity  of  that  city,  and 
member  of  the  academy  of  sciences.  Among 
his  nomerous  writings  are :  Antike  Bildwerl^ 
(Stuttgart,  1827-'44,  with  140  copperplate  il- 
lustrations);  Attserlesone  Orieehisehe  Vasen* 
bilder  (4  vols.,  Berlin,  1889-'58,  with  830 
plates);  Orieehisehe  und  Etrushische  Trinh- 
sehalen  (1840);  Etrushisehe  und  Campanische 
Vasenbilder  (1843) ;  Trinhsehalen  und  Gefdsse 
(2  parts,  1848-'50) ;  and  Ueber  die  Eermen- 
bilder  avf  Grieehist^^en  Vasen  (1856). 

GERHARDT,  Charies  Frfd^rle,  a  French  chem- 
ist, bom  in  Strasburg,  Aug.  21,  1816,  died 
there,  Aug.  19,  1856.  The  son  of  a  manufac- 
turer of  chemical  products,  he  studied  in  1835 
in  Liebig^s  laboratory  at  Giessen,  and  in  1844 
was  appointed  professor  at  Montpellier,  where 
he  remained  four  years.  He  returned  to  Paris 
and  established  a  private  laboratory,  in  which 
he  continued  his  researches  till  1855,  publish- 
ing papers  upon  homologous  series,  the  theory 
of  types,  the  anhydrous  acids,  and  the  starch- 
es. In  1855  he  accepted  the  chair  of  chemistry 
and  pharmacy  at  Strasburg.  Among  his  most 
important  publications  is  the  Traiti  de  ehimie 
organique  (4  vols.  8vo,  1853-^6),  upon  which  he 
was  occupied  a  large  portion  of  his  life,  and  in 


736 


GERHARDT 


GERMAN  CATHOLIOS 


which  he  presents  a  complete  account  of  the 
actual  progress  of  organic  chemistry.  The 
work  was  intended  as  an  appendix  to  Ber- 
zelius^s  Chimie  minirale, 

GEEHARDT,  Pail,  a  German  poet  and  theolo- 
gian, horn  atGr&fenhainichen,  near  Wittenherg, 
March  12,  1607,  died  at  Lfibben,  June  7,  1676. 
Little  is  known  of  his  life  till  in  1651  he  became 
pastor  at  Mittenwalde,  a  position  which  he 
exchanged  in  1657  for  that  of  deacon  in  the 
church  of  St.  Nich olas  in  Berlin.  He  was  th ere 
at  the  head  of  the  strict  Lutherans  against 
the  syncretism  of  Galixtus  and  his  followers, 
and  was  deprived  of  his  diaconate  because  he 
reiiised  to  obey  the  edict  of  1664  forbidding 
either  party  to  defame  the  other  in  the  pulpit 
or  tax  it  with  heresy.  In  January,  1667,  he 
was  reinstated  in  his  office,  but  resigned  the 
following  month,  and  in  1668  became  arch- 
deacon in  Ltlbben.  He  is  esteemed  the  author 
of  the  best  German  hymns  after  those  of 
Luther:  several  of  them  were  translated  by 
John  Wesley,  and  are  found,  in  part  at  least, 
in  the  Methodist  hymn  book.  In  Germany 
they  were  first  collected  under  the  title  of 
Oeistliche  Andachten  in  120  Liedem  (Berlin, 
1666),  and  many  of  them  are  contained  in 
most  of  the  Protestant  hymn  books  in  Ger- 
many. Of  their  numerous  editions,  the  best  is 
that  of  Philipp  Waokemagel  (Stuttgart,  1843). 

C^RICiVLT,  Jean  hndA  ThMore  iBdr6,  a 
French  painter,  bom  in  Rouen  in  1790,  died  in 
Paris,  Jan.  18,  1824.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Carle 
Yemet  and  of  Gu6rin,  and  his  first  pictures, 
the  "  Guide  of  the  Imperial  Guard  in  1812 " 
and  the  "  Wounded  Cuirassier,"  were  well  re- 
ceived. In  1816  he  went  to  Italy,  and  in 
1819,  on  his  return  to  France,  he  exhibited  the 
**  Raft  of  the  Medusa,"  a  very  ^tunatic  scene, 
executed  in  the  most  powerful  style,  which 
is  considered  one  of  the  masterpieces  of  the 
French  school. 

CriaUiACH,  Otto  ?•■)  a  German  theologian, 
bom  in  Berlin  in  1801,  died  there,  Oct.  24, 
1849.  He  held  various  ecclesiastical  offices, 
and  not  long  before  his  death  became  professor 
at  Berlin.  He  published  several  works,  prom- 
inent among  which  are  a  commentary  on  the 
Scriptures,  known  as  the  Oerlaeh'seJie  Btbel^ 
which  was  continued  after  his  death  by  Schmie- 
der.  He  also  edited  Auiwahl  van  Luthers 
Sehriften  (24  vols.,  Berlin,  1840-'48).— His 
elder  brother,  Ernst  Ludwig,  bom  in  Berlin, 
March  7,  1795,  is  prominent  as  an  ultra-con- 
servative Journalist  and  politician,  and  as  the 
parliamentary  leader  of  the  high-church  party 
in  Prussia. 

CrEKHAN  CITHOUCS  (DeuUehhatholihen),  a 
religious  denomination,  formed  in  1844  by  se- 
cession from  the  Roman  Catholic  church  of 
Germany.  It  owed  its  origin  mainly  to  a  let- 
ter written  Oct.  1,  1844,  by  Johannes  Roiige, 
an  excommunicated  priest  of  Silesia,  to  Bishop 
Arnold!  of  Treves,  in  which  the  exhibition  of 
the  holy  coat  of  Treves  was  called  an  idola- 
trous festival,  and  the  bishop  was  called  upon 


to  suppress  it.  In  the  Prussian  province  of 
Posen  another  Catholic  priest,  Johann  Czeraki, 
had  already  declared  on  Aug.  22  his  secesdon 
from  the  Roman  Catholic  church,  and  had  at- 
tempted the  foundation  of  a  Christian  apostolic 
Catholic  congregation.  After  the  publication 
of  the  letter  of  Konge  these  two  united,  and  a 
number  of  congregations,  w^ho  called  diem- 
selves  German  Catholics,  sprang  up  within 
a  short  time.  The  **  Confession  of  Schneide- 
mUhV'  drawn  up  by  Czerski,  rejected  the  re- 
ception by  the  priests  alone  of  the  Lord^s  sup- 
per in  both  kinds,  the  canonization  and  invo- 
cation of  saints,  indulgences  and  purgatory, 
fasting,  the  use  of  the  Latin  language  in  divine 
service,  the  celibacy  of  priests,  the  prohibition 
of  mixed  marriages,  the  supremacy  of  the  pope, 
and  other  points.  They  retained  the  seven 
sacraments  and  the  mass,  which  they  celebra- 
ted in  the  vernacular  language.  The  **  Con- 
fession of  Breslan,'^  which  set  forth  the  views 
of  Ronge,  also  claimed  free  investigation  of  the 
Bible  and  freedom  of  belief  for  every  individn- 
al  member.  A  council  which  met  at  Leipsic, 
March  22,  1845,  adopted  a  new-  creed  mostly 
based  on  the  *^  tlonfesuon  of  Breslau.^'  From 
this  time  the  principles  of  German  Catholicism 
spread  very  rapidly.  The  attitude  of  the  gov- 
ernments with  regard  to  it  was  very  diverse. 
In  Austria  and  Bavaria  it  was  even  forbidden 
to  use  the  name.  A  serious  obstacle  to  the 
growth  of  the  new  religious  denomination  was 
found  in  their  intemal  dissensions.  There  had 
been  from  the  beginning  a  radical  disagreement 
between  Ronge  and  Czerski.  The  latter  agreed 
in  general  with  the  doctrines  of  orthodox  Prot- 
estantism, while  the  former  adopted  almost 
all  the  views  of  the  Protestant  rationalists. 
Czerski  issued  a  circular  ("New  Confession  of 
Schneidemtlhl  ^')  against  those  who  denied  Ihe 
divinity  of  Jesus  Christ.  An  attempt  to  unite 
the  two  parties  on  a  common  platform  was 
made  in  an  assembly  at  Rawicz,  Febraary,  1846, 
but  it  had  not  the  desired  effect.  The  revolu- 
tions of  1848  seemed  to  be  very  favorable,  and 
some  additions  were  made  to  their  congrega- 
tions in  Austria  and  Bavaria;  but  after  their 
suppression  German  Catholicism  was  again  pro- 
hibited  in  those  countries.  The  second  council 
of  Leipsic,  which  met  in  May,  1850,  had  to  be 
tran^erred  to  Kdthen  on  account  of  the  inter- 
ference of  the  police ;  it  proposed  an  alliance 
with  the  Free  congregations,  which  had  formed 
themselves  by  secession  from  the  Protestant 
churches,  and  the  election  of  a  joint  executive 
committee  from  both  denominations,  which  was 
to  act  as  a  presiding  board  until  the  meeting  of 
a  triennial  diet,  which  was  appointed  for  1852, 
but  it  did  not  meet.  In  June,  1859,  the  repre- 
sentatives of  the  German  Catholics  and  Free 
congregations  met  at  Gotha,  where  a  union 
between  the  two  parties  was  effected  under  the 
name  of  Bund  /reireligio$er  Gemeinden.  In 
1862,  however,  they  were  again  divided,  and 
the  mjflority  of  the  German  Catholics  joined 
the  national  Protestant  church. — The  fullest 


GERMANIC  RACES  AND  LANGUAGES 


737 


history  of  German  Catholicism  is  given  by 
Eampe,  Geschiehte  der  religiosen  Bewegungen 
der  neuem  Zeit  (4  vols.,  Leipsic,  1862-60). 

C»aiHANI€  RACES  AND  LANGUAGES.  Before 
the  political  history  of  Germany  began,  or  a  dis- 
tinct German  nation  appeared,  Germanic  races 
moulded  the  political  organizations  of  the 
north  and  west  of  Enrope,  and  Germanic  lan- 
gaages  either  superseded  or  modified  the  speech 
of  the  previous  inhabitants.  Ethnologists 
sometimes  classify  the  Germanic  races  under 
the  generic  name  of  Teutons,  as  a  main  divi- 
sion of  the  Slavo-Germanic  branch  of  the  Aryan 
or  Indo-Enronean  family  of  nations.  The  term 
Teutonic,  in  tnis  wider  sense,  is  chiefly  used  by 
English  writers,  as  the  equivalent  of  the  Ger- 
man Germaniseh  (Fr.  germanique)y  in  contra- 
distinction to  DeuUeh  (Fr.  altemand)^  in  the 
narrower  sense,  and  is  thus  often  used  in  this 
work.  Three  groups  are  distinguished :  Scan- 
dinavians, Goths,  and  Germans.  The  Scandi- 
navians occupy  Norway  and  Sweden  (excepting 
the  territory  of  the  Lapps),  the  Danish  isles,  and 
the  peninsula  of  Jutland.  The  Goths,  now 
extinct,  were  subdivided  into  Ostrogoths  and 
Visigoths,  or  Eastern  and  Western  Girths.  The 
Germans  are  subdivided  into  two  groups,  the 
northern  and  southern,  or  Low  and  High  Ger- 
mans, and  are  found  principally  in  Germany, 
the  Netherlands,  England,  the  United  States, 
and  the  British  colonies.  There  are  many  hy- 
potheses in  regard  to  the  meaning  of  the  word 
German.  Some  authorities  derive  it  from  the 
old  High  German  ger,  spear  or  javelin,  and 
consider  the  Oermani  of  the  ancients  as  the 
equivalent  of  O&rmannen  or  men  armed  with 
such  weapons.  Others  derive  it  from  the 
Celtic  gairm  or  garm^  noise,  and  understand, 
it  to  refer  to  the  ancient  German  practice  of 
shouting  in  battle.  The  modem  German  word 
DeuUch  is  held  by  some  to  be  a  modification 
of  the  name  Teut,  Tuisco,  or  Tuisto,  a  mythical 
ancestor  of  the  Germans;  others  trace  it  to 
duty  old  High  German  diot^  pertaining  to  the 
people,  or  national;  and  others  again  to  the 
verb  diutan^  to  explain.  The  cradle  of  th e  Indo- 
Europeans  is  generally  placed  in  Asia,  whence 
the  Germans  have  been  supposed  to  have  en- 
tered Europe  across  the  Ural  and  Caucasus. 
Some  recent  authorities,  however,  remove  the 
primitive  habitat  of  the  Aryans  from  the 
sources  of  the  Oxus  and  Jaxartes  to  the  Rus- 
so-Lithuanian  plateaus,  contiguous  to  the  first 
historical  habitat  of  the  Germans,  north  of  cen- 
tral Europe,  and  within  the  boundaries  of  the 
Rhine,  the  Danube,  and  the  Vistula.  There 
are  no  positive  data  about  the  Germanic  races 
prior  to  the  2d  century  B.  C.  No  mention  is 
made  of  them  when  the  Hellenes  came  in  con- 
tact with  the  Scythians,  and  the  Gauls  carried 
terror  to  Rome  and  Delphi.  Pytheas  of  Mas- 
salia  met  with  Goths  and  Teutons  on  the  Bal- 
tic, and  it  is  probable  that  the  Goths  inhabited 
Scandinavia  before  the  4th  century.  Arrian 
says  that  Alexander  the  Great  had  dealings 
with  peoples  living  on  the  lower  Ister  (Danube), 


whom  he  calls  Celts;  but  he  mentions  the 
Germanic  Qaadi  and  Marcomanni  as  tribes  of 
them.  It  is  evident  that  the  Greek  writers 
often  speak  of  Germans  as  Celts  or  Galatians. 
Strabo  designates  the  Germans  as  Celto-Scy- 
thians,  meaning  a  people  neither  Celtic  nor  Scy- 
thic.  The  uncertainty  of  the  Greek  and  early 
Roman  writers  concerning  them  renders  it 
presumable  that  the  Germans  lived  before  the 
time  of  the  Cimbric  migrations  isolated  from 
their  neighbors  to  the  south  and  west,  while 
the  correlation  of  the  two  linguistic  groups 
seems  to  indicate  that  they  lived  in  constant 
intercourse  with  the  Slavs.  In  the  2d  century 
B.  C.  the  Germanic  races  became  the  dominant 
element  in  western  and  central  Europe.  The 
first  historical  migration  started  from  the  Cim- 
bric peninsula,  whence  the  tribes  composing 
it  were  indiscriminately  called  Cimbri.  Other 
migrations  of  the  same  period  took  their  rise  in 
the  region  of  the  Baltic,  and  the  name  of  Teu- 
tons was  given  to  the  tribes  figuring  in  these. 
The  Celts  previously  moved  to  the  west  and 
south,  but  many  of  them  had  retraced  their 
steps,  and  migrated  with  Germanic  races  from 
west  to  east.  This  mixed  people  appeared 
under  Cambaules  and  Cerethrius  in  Thrace, 
and  after  the  dissolution  of  the  Macedonian 
empire  under  Brennus  in  Macedonia  and 
Greece,  and  under  Leonnarius  in  Asia  Minor. 
The  torrent  of  Cimbri  and  Teutons  which 
rushed  over  the  Alps  at  the  close  of  the  2d 
century  B.  C.  failed  to  weaken  the  Romans  in 
the  mountainous  districts  of  northern  Italy  and 
Illyria.  Germanic  tribes  were  for  centuries 
put  to  their  utmost  to  prevent  the  fhrther  ad- 
vance to  the  north  of  their  southern  enemies. 
CsBsar  and  Tacitus  are  the  most  valuable  au- 
thorities upon  the  condition  of  the  western  dis- 
tricts of  Germany  In  their  time.  Cessar  states 
that  the  Rhine  was  the  eastern  boundary  of 
Gaul,  and  affirms  that  in  Switzerland,  southern 
Alsace,  near  the  upper  Moselle,  and  on  the 
shores  of  the  strait  of  Dover,  there  were  only 
four  Celtic  tribes,  the  Helvetii,  Sequani,  Medio- 
matrici,  and  Morini.  He  called  the  country  of 
the  Maas,  north  of  Sedan,  Germania  Inferior, 
and  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine,  between  Brei- 
sach  and  Linz  (near  Coblentz),  Germania  Supe- 
rior. Tacitus  divides  the  Germans  into  three 
classes,  which  he  says  were  the  descendants  of 
the  three  sons  of  Mannus,  the  son  of  Taisto,  a 
god  whom  all  Germans  adored.  He  names  In- 
gsBvones  as  living  close  to  the  sea ;  Hermiones 
inhabiting  the  centre ;  and  all  others  were  Istae- 
vones.  He  mentions  also  as  original  divisions, 
according  to  some,  the  Marsi,  Gambrivii,  Suevi, 
and  Vandals.  Pliny  the  Elder  knew  five  prin- 
cipal divisions  of  Germans :  Vindili,  Ingsvones, 
IstsBvones,  Hermiones,  and  Peucini.  The  Ger- 
manic races  formed  confederations  at  a  very 
early  period.  The  most  ancient  known  were 
the  confederation  of  Snevi,  described  by  Csssar ; 
another  of  Cherusci,  founded  by  Arminius; 
and  a  third  of  Marcomanni,  with  IdLarbodnns  as 
chief.    The  Batavi  settled  on  the  banks  of  the 


738 


GERMANIC  RACES  AND  LANGUAGES 


Rhine,  aronnd  the  lowest  portion  of  its  coarse, 
the  Ubii  near  Cologne,  the  Treviri  near  Treves, 
the  Nervii  in  Hainaat,  the  Vangiones  near 
Worms,  the  Nemetes  near  Spire,  and  the  Tri- 
bocci  in  Alsace.  Between  the  Rhine  and  the 
Elbe  lived  the  Catti  (Hessians),  with  the  Usipii 
N.  of  the  Lippe,  the  Sigambri  and  Tenoteri  h^ 
tween  the  Ruhr  and  Sieg,  the  Cherasci  around 
the  Hartz,  the  Brncteri  in  Westphalia,  and  fur- 
ther north  the  Chamavi  and  Angrivarii.  Be- 
tween the  Weser  and  the  Ems  lived  probably 
the  Dulgibini  and  Chasuari  mentioned  by  Ta- 
citus. On  the  shores  of  the  North  sea  were 
the  Frisii  and  Chauoi,  and  on  those  of  the  Bal- 
tic the  Heruli  and  Rugii.  On  tiie  lower  Elbe 
lived  the  Saxons,  with  the  Angles  S.  E.  of  them ; 
higher  up  on  the  west  bank  of  the  river,  the 
Longobards.  On  the  Danube,  and  subsequent- 
ly in  Bohemia,  were  the  Marcomanni,  and  £. 
of  them  the  QuadL  In  SUesia  dwelt  the  Sem- 
nones,  Lygii,  and  Burgundians,  and  between 
the  Vistula  and  the  Pregel,  the  Goths.  The 
name  of  Suevi  was  given  to  a  confederation  of 
tribes  scattered  over  the  territory  between  the 
Elbe,  the  Vistula,  and  the  Baltic.  This  con- 
federation reached  subsequently  to  the  southern 
portions  of  Germany,  where  its  name  Swabians 
(Schwiiben)  la  still  current.  It  is  impossible  to 
state  the  precise  Mmits  of  the  different  tribes. 
There  was  a  constant  shifting  of  settlements, 
and  the  subsequent  migrations  have  rendered 
the  boundaries  of  Tacitus  totally  undistinguish- 
able.  The  southward  pressure  of  the  Germans, 
Slavs,  Finns.  Huns,  and  Avars  commenced  in  the 
8d  century  A.  D.  The  result  was  the  withdrawal 
of  the  Romans  from  the  southern  portion  of 
Germany,  and  the  loss  of  the  eastern  portion  to 
Slavic  and  Finnic  tribes.  The  Longobards  set- 
tled for  a  while  in  the  north  of  Hungary,  the 
G^pidffi  in  the  east  of  it,  the  Gx>ths  in  Moesia 
ana  Hlyria,  the  Marcomanni  in  Vindelicia  and 
Noricum,  the  Alemanni  and  Burgundians  in 
Helvetia.  The  whole  original  territory  from 
the  mouth  of  the  Danube  to  the  delta  of  the 
Rhine  was  thus  occupied  again  by  Germanic 
races.  But  the  pressure  of  the  eastern  races 
continued,  and  impelled  by  it  about  one  half  of 
the  Grerman  warriors  attacked  the  Roman  em- 
pire, and  divided  southern  Europe  among  them. 
The  whole  Gothic  family  of  Vandals,  Heruli, 
Rugii,  GepidiB,  Alani,  Suevi,  Longobards,  Bur- 
gundians, and  Franks  left  Germany  almost 
entirely,  and  the  Slavs  and  Finnic  races  took 
possession  of  the  thinly  populated  districts, 
and  extirpated  in  several  places  the  German  in- 
habitants. The  Gothic  empire  on  the  Danube, 
founded  there  after  the  exodus  of  the  Goths 
from  the  Baltic  territory,  was  conquered  by 
the  Huns.  After  Attila^s  death  the  Goths  sep- 
arated again  into  the  old  divisions  of  Eastern 
and  Western  Goth s.  Th e  Visigoths  were  led  by 
Alaric  to  Italy  (about  400),  and  by  his  succes- 
sor Ataulf  to  Spain,  and  became  Romanized. 
Theodoric  led  the  Ostrogoths  to  Italy  (489), 
where  he  founded  a  mighty  empire,  which  after 
his  death  was  absorbed  by  the  Byzantines. 


The  people  disappeared  in  the  small  remnants 
that  survived  the  disasters  of  the  long  war. 
The  Burgundians  moved  to  the  Rhine  and 
Neckar,  and  subsequently  into  Roman  Gaul, 
where  they  settled  between  the  Aar  and  the 
Rh6ne,  and  founded  an  empire,  which  was 
conquered  and  absorbed  by  the  Franks  about 
534.  They  too  became  Romanized.  The  Van- 
dals moved  from  the  Oder  and  Vistula  to  Dada. 
Early  in  the  6th  century  they  conquered  Spaia, 
and  Genseric  took  them  to  Africa,  where  they 
founded  an  empire,  which  was  conquered  by 
Belisarius  in  584,  when  the  Vandals  disappeared. 
The  Scandinavians  remained  in  comparative 
isolation.  The  Goths  inhabited  only  a  small 
portion  of  the  Scandinavian  peninsula,  going 
no  further  north  l^an  the  lakes  Wener,  Wetter, 
and  Hielmar.  From  the  population  south  of 
Jutland  went  forth  the  stock  of  the  English- 
speaking  race.  During  the  5th  and  6th  cen- 
turies l^ree  Germanic  tribes,  the  Jutea^  An- 
gles, and  Saxons,  crossed  the  North  sea.  set- 
tled in  the  British  islands,  and  subjugated  the 
former  population.  The  country  of  the  Rhine 
and  the  Weser  then  became  the  main  abiding 
place  of  pure  Germanic  elements.  The  princi- 
pal races  in  the  old  homestead  were  now  the 
Saxons,  Thuringians,  Franks,  and  Bavariana, 
and  they  were  in  danger  of  being  ovemn  by 
the  Slavs.  Charlemagne  succeeded  in  driving 
the  Wends  back  to  ^e  Vistula,  the  Sorba  to 
the  Oder,  the  Czechs  to  the  lower  Carpathiana, 
and  the  Croats  as  far  as  Spalato  in  Dalmatian 
and  also  in  destroying  the  Avar  power  in  Pan- 
nonia.  The  Moors  had  destroyed  the  empire 
of  the  Visigoths,  and  the  Frankish  empire  ab- 
sorbed the  other  Romano-Germanic  states,  with 
the  exception  of  small  fractions  in  Italy.  This 
empire  comprised  the  whole  of  Gaul  and  Ger- 
many as  far  as  the  Oder,  and  after  its  division  it 
was  found  necessary  to  frame  treaties  in  both 
the  Romance  and  the  German  language.  The 
portion  which  Louis  the  German  received  at 
the  division  of  the  East  Frankish  empire  in  870 
embraced  all  the  pure  Germanic  races,  exoept- 
ing  those  on  the  Haas  and  the  Scheldt.  The 
earliest  record  of  the  existence  of  German  as 
a  national  lauguage  dates  from  A.  D.  818 
(lingua  Theutuea^  Theotueoy  Theudueay  Tkeo- 
aisca)y  and  the  development  of  the  German 
nation  as  a  blending  of  several  races  into  one 
belongs  to  the  same  century.  Conrad  I.  and 
Henry  I.  subdued  the  dukes  of  the  Swabians, 
eastern  Franks  or  Franconians,  and  Bavarians, 
and  under  Otho  I.  a  German  empire  appeared. 
During  this  period  the  Scandinavians  jpeopled 
the  Faroe  apd  Shetland  islands,  the  Orknejs 
and  Hebrides,  Iceland,  and  Greenland,  and  vis- 
ited the  north  coast  of  the  American  continent* 
They  established  themselves  also  in  the  British 
isles  and  France  (Normandy).  These  disper- 
sions produced  however  no  lasting  effect,  ex- 
cept in  Icelsnd  and  the  Faroe  islands.  The 
Northmen  of  Normandy  became  GaUidzed, 
went  to  Italy,  founded  there  the  empire  of 
the  Two  Sicilies,  and  conquered  England  in 


GERMANIC  RACES  AND  LANGUAGES 


739 


1066.  The  Danes  moved  sonth  on  the  penin- 
sola  of  Jatland  as  far  as  the  Schlei,  but  their 
invasions  of  England,  prior  to  the  Norman  con- 
quest, proved  fruitless  in  the  end.  The  Swedes 
were  similarly  unsuccessful  in.Esthonia  and  Li- 
vonia, but  their  conquest  of  Finland  led  to  & 
lasting  establishment  of  their  nationality  on  the 
European  mainland,  which  the  Russian  occu- 
pancy of  the  country  since  the  beginning  of  the 
19th  century  has  not  been  able  to  efface.  The 
history  of  the  German  empire  after  Otho  I.  is 
a  series  of  contests  between  the  emperors  and 
the  dukes  of  the  principal  races  composing  it. 
The  Saxons,  the  Franconians,  and  the  Swabians 
were  in  turn  at  the  head  of  the  empire  in  the 
persons  of  their  own  leaders.  The  political 
significance  of  special  races  ceased  in  tlie  18th 
century,  but  in  language  and  manners  there 
are  still  five  which  may  be  clearly  distin- 
guished. The  Saxon  race  is  dominant  in  the 
northwestern  lowlands  of  Germany,  especially 
in  the  northern  districts  of  the  Elbe,  across  the 
Hartz  to  Cassel,  and  across  the  Weser  to  the 
mouth  of  the  Rhine.  The  Frankish  race  ex- 
tends from  the  Fichtelgebirge  to  Treves,  and 
from  Hesse  to  the  Rauhe  Alp.  The  Thurin- 
gians  inhabit  the  section  between  the  Thurin- 
gian  forest  and  the  Hartz,  and  from  the  Werra 
far  into  Brandenburg.  The  Swabians  live  be- 
tween the  central  Neckar  and  the  Alps,  and 
from  the  upper  Rhine  to  Augsburg.  The  Bava- 
rians reach  from  Augsburg  to  Vienna,  and  from 
the  Fichtelgebirge  to  the  Tyrol. — The  bounda- 
ries of  the  modem  German  language  are  not 
coincident  with  the  limits  of  the  present  Ger- 
man empire.  In  the  northwest,  Grerman  is  spo- 
ken in  some  portions  of  the  French  department 
of  Le  Nord,  the  south  and  east  of  Belgium,  and 
the  eastern  portion  of  the  Netherlands.  In 
the  southwest,  German  is  heard  as  far  as  the 
Doubs,  the  eastern  Jura,  the  lake  of  Neufch&- 
tel,  and  Monte  Rosa  in  Italy.  In  the  south, 
the  language  reaches  from  Monte  Rosa  to 
Mount  St  Gothard,  and  thence  almost  direct- 
ly east  as  far  as  the  Mur  in  Styria.     In  liie 


east,  the  line  may  be  drawn  from  Radkersburg 
on  the  Mur,  through  Presburg  in  Hungary,  to 
Pdhrlitz  on  the  Iglau  in  Moravia,  thence  to 
Krdmmau  on  the  Moldau  in  Bohemia,  and 
thence  again  to  Taus.  Further  N.  E.  the  ter- 
ritory of  the  German  language  reaches  to  Leit- 
meritz  on  the  Elbe,  and  to  the  sources  of  the 
Oder  in  Austrian  Silesia,  whence  the  boun- 
dary runs  directly  N.  to  Krotoschin  in  Posen, 
and  thence  indefinitely  to  Interburg  in  East 
Prussia  and  N.  W.  to  the  Eurische  Haff.  The 
N.  boundary  follows  the  Baltic  from  Polan- 
gen  to  Flensburg  in  Schleswig,  and  the  North 
sea  from  Tondem  to  Gravelines.  It  is  possible 
to  distuDiguish  about  20  different  dialects  with- 
in this  territory.  They  may  be  divided  into 
Low  German  and  High  German  dialects,  of 
which  the  latter  may  be  subdivided  into  South 
German  and  Middle  German.  Since  the  time 
of  Luther  these  historical  peculiarities  of 
speech  have  however  in  a  great  measure  dis- 
appeared, and  are  heard  only  among  the  lower 
classes. — ^Lanouaoes.  Of  all  the  numerous 
Teutonic  tongues  of  ancient  times,  only  five 
languages,  German,  Dutch,  English,  Danish, 
and  Swedish,  are  now  in  a  fiourishing  condi- 
tion. Linguists  consider  the  Scandinavian, 
Gothic,  and  German  forms  of  speech  as  de- 
scended, in  common  with  the  modern  idioms 
of  India,  Persian,  Greek,  Latin,  Celtic,  Slavic, 
and  Lithuanian,  from  a  single  parent  tongue, 
Sanskrit.  It  was,  however,  deemed  neces- 
sary to  go  further,  and  to  derive  the  whole 
group  of  Indo-European  tongues  from  a  primi- 
tive language,  whicn  was  also  the  mother  of 
Sanskrit.  This  language,  of  which  no  monu- 
ments exist,  has  been  constructed  by  the  science 
of  comparative  grammar,  not  as  the  primitive 
tongue  from  which  all  forms  of  speech  are 
derived,  but  as  one  of  many  primitive  lan- 
guages, and  as  the  parent  of  Sanskrit,  Greek, 
Latin,  Gothic,  &c.,  as  Latin  is  the  mother  of 
French,  Italian,  and  Spanish.  The  following 
table  exhibits  the  probable  course  of  develop- 
ment of  the  Teutonic  tongues : 


pBnnnyE  oebmanio 

OB 

TEUToina 


Low  Gbbmak  . . 


BotQdiSSTlBD 


E.  ScandlDATiuu. 


1 


W.  Sca&dinaTiim,  Old  None Iceiandic 

SiMdii^ 
DanUh, 

OldFrisfam Frisian 

'  Anglo-Saxon. . . .  EnglUh. 
'  Middle Dntch...2>««B^ 
.  Old  Saxon ..  i ...  Ptott-ZVuteo*. 


Saxon 


Gothic. 
.High  Oxbxak Old  High  Gemuo.. .  Middle  High  Qennan Qwmam, 


Among  the  Indo-European  languages,  Gothic 
diverges  widely  from  the  primitive  tongue,  and 
must  be  considered  as  a  younger  sister  of  San- 
skrit. Gothic  was  not  the  oldest  of  the  Ger- 
manic tongues,  though  its  literary  documents 
date  back  further  than  any  other.  Old  High 
German,  old  Norse,  Anglo-Saxon,  and  Gothic 


were  probably  sister  dialects ;  at  least  no  one 
of  them  appears  to  be  derived  from  any  of  the 
others.  Old  High  German  comprises  a  num- 
ber of  dialects  which  were  spoken  chiefly  in 
South  Germany,  as  the  Thuringian,  Frank- 
ish, Swabian,  Alsatian,  Swiss,  and  Bavarian. 
They  are  found  in  literary  records   dating 


740 


GERMANIC  RACES  AND  LANGUAGES 


from  the  8th  to  the  middle  of  the  11th  oentnrj. 
A  gradual  change  took  place  subsequently  in 
the  language,  and  it  became  the  mother  of  a 
new  dicSect,  which  is  called  the  middle  High 
German,  and  which  survived  it  in  the  same 
districts  of  upper  Germany.  The  literature 
of  middle  High  German  reaches  from  the  12th 
to  the  end  of  the  15th  century,  and  it  is  so 
clear,  grand,  refined,  and  melodious,  that  it  has 
been  called  the  first  classical  period  of  German 
literature.  A  new  modification  of  the  old  High 
German,  and  a  daughter  of  the  middle  High 
German,  made  its  appearance  for  the  first  time 
in  a  literary  production  of  note  in  Luther's 
translation  of  the  Bible,  and  in  its  rapid  de- 
velopment seems  to  have  reached  its  culmi- 
nating point  in  the  literature  of  the  present 
century.  Under  the  term  Low  German  are 
comprised  all  the  dialects  m[>oken  in  the  low- 
lands of  Germany.  The  old  Saxon,  which  be- 
longs to  this  group,  was  spoken  between  the 
Rhine  and  the  Elbe,  in  the  districts  which  lie 
at  the  foot  of  the  central  plateau  of  Germany. 
Its  literary  documents  date  from  between  the 
9th  and  llih  centuries,  and  had  their  origin  in 
the  districts  of  Monster,  Essen,  and  CTeves. 
The  old  Saxon  is  the  mother  of  the  middle  Low 
German,  which  is  to  be  distinguished  from  the 
middle  German  and  middle  Netherlandish  or 
middle  Dutch,  and  also  from  the  modem  de- 
rivative of  it  called  modem  Low  German,  or 
Platt-Deutsch.  While  old  Saxon  most  closely 
approaches  old  High  German,  the  dialect  spo- 
ken in  the  districts  of  Thnringia  and  the  region 
between  upper  and  lower  Germany  formed 
a  kind  of  transition  between  High  and  Low 
German.  On  the  N.  coast  of  Germany,  be- 
tween the  Rhine  and  the  Elbe,  and  beyond 
the  latter  river  as  far  as  Jutland,  extended  the 
old  Frisian  diidect.  Its  literary  records  are 
of  comparatively  late  date,  but  it  displays  a 
very  antique  cast,  resembling  most  closely  the 
old  High  German.  The  Dutch  language  has 
no  literature  earlier  than  the  16th  century, 
but  it  is  still  a  literary  and  national  language ; 
while  Flemish,  which  was  also  used  during 
this  period  in  the  courts  of  Flanders  and  Bra- 
bant, had  to  give  way  to  the  official  lan- 
guages of  Holland  and  Belgium,  and  its  use 
is  almost  completely  confined  to  the  Flemish 
peasantry.  Anglo-Saxon  is  also  a  Low  German 
dialect.  The  four  Germanic  tribes  that  invaded 
Britain  have  left  no  record  in  the  dialects  pecu- 
liar to  each,  and  there  are  no  facts  from  which 
to  determine  the  precise  nature  of  their  speech. 
The  Jutes  who  settled  in  Kent,  Hampshire,  and 
the  Isle  of  Wight  probably  did  not  speak  an 
old  Norse  dialect,  as  no  traces  of  it  are  found 
in  those  districts.  The  Angles,  coming  from  a 
settlement  adjacent  to  the  Saxons,  may  also 
have  spoken  a  Saxon  dialect.  The  Saxons  of 
England  called  themselves  simply  Saxons,  in 
distinction  from  the  old  Saxons,  or  those  who 
had  remained  on  the  continent ;  but  it  is  still 
doubtful  whether  they  belonged  exactly  to  one 
and  the  same  tribe.    The  term  Anglo-Saxon 


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GERMANIC  RACES  AND  LANGUAGES 


741 


is  however  applied  to  all  Germanic  dialects 
spoken  in  England  after  the  5th  century.  The 
language  of  the  period  extending  to  the  end  of 
the  10th  centarj  is  distinguished  as  old  Anglo- 
Saxon,  with  two  principal  dialects,  the  Saxon 
and  Anglian,  or  southern  and  northern,  of 
which  the  Anglian  or  northern  was  the  most 
affected  hy  Norse  influences.  The  language  of 
the  suhsequent  period  was  a  strange  mixture 
of  Anglo-Saxon  with  the  Norse  of  the  Danes 
and  Norwegians,  and  the  Norse-French  of  the 
Norman  conquerors;  and  the  literary  docu- 
ments are  characterized  hy  a  considerable  loss 
of  the  inflectional  forms.  Mod  em  Angl  o-Saxon 
or  English  b  divided  into  three  periods:  old 
English,  middle  English,  and  modem  English. 
Old  English  continued  to  disregard  the  old  in- 
flectional forms,  especially  in  the  declension  of 
substantives.  Middle  English  is  characterized 
by  an  almost  total  absence  of  declensions  of 
nouns  and  adjectives,  and  a  great  diminution  of 
strong  verbs.  Modern  English  continued  the 
same  decline,  and  has  now  been  stripped  of  all 
inflectional  forms  with  the  exception  of  the  s  and 
8t  of  the  present  and  the  ed  and  en  of  the  pre- 
terite of  verbs,  the  ing  of  the  present  participle, 
the  s  of  the  genitive  and  plui^,  the  degrees  of 
comparison  of  adjectives  and  adverbs,  and  a  few 
pronominal  cases.  Old  Norse  is  the  dialect 
which  from  an  unknown  period  to  the  11th  cen- 
tury was  spoken  in  Sweden,  Norway,  Denmark, 
and  the  adjacent  islands.  It  is  believed  that  it 
was  split  at  a  very  early  date  into  two  sister  dia- 
lects, one  the  mother  of  old  Norse  or  Icelandic, 
the  other  the  parent  of  Swedish  and  Danish. 
The  first  germs  of  Swedish  and  Danish  are  con- 
sidered to  have  existed  long  before  the  11th 
century  in  the  dialects  of  the  Scandinavian 


tribes.  Swedish  scholars  distinguish  between 
the  East  and  West  Scandinavian,  which  divi- 
sion they  consider  as  having  taken  place  before 
the  Northmen  settled  in  Norway  and  Sweden. 
The  stationary  existence  of  the  Norse  language 
in  Icelandic,  in  which  it  has  been  preserved 
almost  intact  to  the  present  day,  is  explained 
by  the  secluded  position  of  the  island,  and  the 
zeal  with  which  the  old  songs  and  sagas,  as 
collected  and  fixed  in  the  two  Eddas,  have 
been  cultivated  by  the  inhabitants. — In  regard 
to  the  degree  of  relationship  in  which  these 
languages  stand  to  each  other,  and  in  which 
they  stand  collectively  to  cognate  languages, 
the  six  old  Teutonic  tongues  may  be  classified 
in  three  groups :  1,  the  Low  German,  with  the 
Gothic  and  its  nearest  relatives  Anglo-Saxon, 
old  Saxon,  and  old  Frisian;  2,  the  old  High 
German ;  8,  the  old  Norse.  The  affinities  be- 
tween these  languages  and  the  modern  tongues 
derived  from  them  are  illustrated  in  the  forego- 
ing table.  The  first  ten  cardinal  numbers  have 
been  chosen  for  this  purpose,  as  numerals  are 
preferable  for  comparative  purposes  to  any 
other  class  of  words  on  account  of  the  in  varia- 
bleness of  their  meaning.  The  Latin,  Greek, 
and  Sanskrit  forms  have  been  added  to  show 
the  degree  of  relationship  of  the  Germanic  to 
the  cognate  groups  of  the  Aryan  or  Indo-Eu- 
ropean family  of  languages.  The  primitive 
tongue  is  understood  to  be  the  mother  of  all, 
and  gives  the  forms  from  which  linguistic 
scholars  derive  those  of  the  most  ancient  as 
well  as  of  the  modem  Aryan  dialects.  The 
changes  which  the  words  have  undergone  in 
these  languages  have  been  discovered  to  appear 
in  each  according  to  fixed  principles,  which  in 
linguistic  science  are  known  as  Grimm^s  law. 


GENEBAL  TABLE   OF   OBIMM's  LAW. 


(  Sanskrit 

L  ]  Greek 

(  Latin 

II.     Gothic 

IIL     O.  H.  German 


I. 


1. 


gli(h) 

g 
k 


8. 


dh(h) 

e 

f(d^b) 


bh(h) 

f(b) 
b 

P 


II. 


g 

y 
g 

k 
ch 


6. 


d 
6 
d 
t 
z 


i 


(P) 
ph(f) 


m. 


7. 


k 

K 


c,  qu 

h,  g  (0 
h,  g,  k 


8. 


t 

t" 

t 

th,  d 

d 


9. 


P 

IT 

P 

f,b 


The  law  is  stated  by  Max  Mtlller  as  follows : 
**  If  the  same  roots  or  the  same  words  exist 
in  Sanskrit,  Greek,  Latin,  Celtic,  Slavonic, 
Lithuanian,  Gothic,  and  High  German,  then 
wherever  the  Hindoos  and  the  Greeks  pro- 
nounce an  aspirate,  the  Goths  and  the  Low 
Germans  generally,  the  Saxons,  Anglo-Sax- 
ons, Frisians,  &o.,  pronounce  the  correspond- 
ing hard  check.  .  .  .  Secondly,  if  in  Greek, 
Latin,  Sanskrit,  Lithuanian,  Slavonic,  and 
Celtic  we  find  a  soft  check,  then  we  find 
a  corresponding  hard  check  in  Gothic,  a  cor- 
responding breath  in  old  High  German.  .  .  . 
Thirdly,  when  the  six  first  named  languages 
show  a  hard  consonant,  then  Gothic  shows  the 
corresponding  breath,  old  High  German  the 


corresponding  soft  check."  In  illustration  of 
the  different  formulas  we  add  examples  for  each 
class  and  division.  1.  Sansk.  hanm,  Gr.  x^^ 
Lat.  amer  {=hdn8er)y  Goth.  ganSy  O.  H.  Ger. 
iangy  Ger.  GanSy  Eng.  goose  ;  Sansk.  hya$y  Gr. 
xBig,  Lat.  heri,  Goth,  gistra^  O.  H.  Ger.  Jcistar, 
Ger,  gesteniy  "Eng,  yesterday.  2.  Sansk.  <2Am^ 
Gr.  Oapaeiv,  Goth.  ga-daursaHj  O.  H.  Ger.  tar- 
ran,  Eng.  to  dare,  8.  Sansk.  bhri,  Gr.  f^po^ 
Latl  /ero,  Goth,  haira,  0.  H.  Ger.  m>«,  Eng. 
to  hear.  4.  Sansk.  jndy  Gr.  yv&fiiy  Lat.  gnoseo^ 
Goth,  ian,  0.  H.  Ger.  cJuin^  Ger.  hennen,  Eng. 
to  know.  5.  Sansk.  pdd-as,  Gr.  ?rod-df,  Lat. 
ped-is  (pes)y  Goth,  f^t-us,  O.  H.  Ger.  vuoz^ 
Ger.  Fuss,  Eng.  foot.  6.  Goth.  hUpa,  O.  H. 
Ger.  hUfiiy  Ger.  helfen^  Eng.  help,    7.  Sansk. 


742 


GERMANICUS  O^SAR 


GERMAN  IVY 


hapdla,  Gr.  xe^oAi^,  Lat.  caput,  Goth,  haubith, 
O.  H.  Ger.  houpit,  Ger.  Haupt,  £ng.  hsad, 
8.  Sansk.  trayas  (noin.  pL),  Gr.  rpeZC)  L&t.  ^m, 
Goth.  threUy  O.  H.  Ger.  <M,  Ger.  drei,  Eng. 
tA7*^«.  9.  Sansk.  panckaUj  Gr.  iri^iTre,  Goth. 
Jim/y  Eng.  /?oe.  Sanak.  upari,  Gr.  {rff^p,  Lat. 
«ttj»«*,  Goth,  t^/lw,  O.  H.  Ger.  iiZ^ar,  Ger. 
uber,  Eng.  <w^. — For  farther  information  see 
the  articles  on  the  principal  languages  and 
dialects.  On  the  races,  see  Zenss,  Die  Dent- 
ichen  und  die  Nachbarstdmme  (Munich,  1837); 
H.  MQller,  Die  Marken  dea  Vaterlandes  (Bonn, 
1837) ;  F.  H.  MtOler,  Die  deuUchen  Stamme 
und  ihre  Furaten  (5  vols.,  Berlin,  1840); 
Watterich,  Der  deutsehe  I^ame  Oermanen 
(Paderbom,  1870);  Baumann,  Oegehiehte  dea 
deuUchen  Volhea  in  ieiner  Entwickelung  stum 
National- Staat  (Leipsio,  1871  et  seg,).  On 
the  group  of  languages,  see  Grimm,  GeseAich- 
te  der  deutaehen  Sprache  (Leipsic,  1848),  and 
Deutsche  Grammatik  (4  vols.,  GOttingen, 
1819-*37);  Bopp,  Vergleichende  Grammatik 
des  Sanskrit,  Zend,  Grieehieehen,  Lateiniechen, 
Litauisehen,  Altslawisch^n,  Gothieehen  und 
Deutfchen  (6  vols.,  Berlin,  1833-52 ;  transla- 
ted by  Eastwick,  London,  1862) ;  Schleicher, 
Compendium  der  vergleiehenden  Grammatik 
der  Indogermanischen  Spraehen  (Weimar, 
1862) ;  Heyne,  Grammatik  der  Altgermanischen 
Sprachstdmme (PadeTborn,lS62);  Marsh,  "The 
Origin  and  History  of  the  English  Language " 
(New  York,  1862)  ;  March,  "  Comparative 
Grammar  of  the  Anglo-Sazon  Language  "  (New 
York,  1870);  and  Helfenstein,  "A  Compara- 
tive Grammar  of  the  Teutonic  Languages" 
(London,  1870). 

GEKHANICIJS  CJB8AR,  a  Roman  general,  bom 
in  Rome,  15  B.  C,  died  near  Antioch  in  A.  D. 
19.  He  was  the  son  of  Claudius  Nero  Drusus 
and  Antonia,  the  daughter  of  the  triumvir  An- 
tony, and  was  adopted  by  his  uncle  Tiberius 
in  accordance  with  the  wiQl  of  Augustus.  His 
original  names  are  unknown.  £  7  he  ac- 
companied Tiberius  against  the  rebels  of  Dal- 
matia,  served  with  distinction  during  three 
campaigns,  and  on  his  return  to  Rome  received 
a  triumph  and  the  hand  of  Agrippina,  grand- 
daughter of  Augustus.  At  £e  close  of  an- 
other campaign,  in  11,  he  was  made  consul, 
and  in  the  following  year  was  placed  in  com- 
mand of  the  eight  legions  on  the  Rhine.  He 
was  absent  in  Gaul  when  upon  the  death  of 
Augustus  (14)  a  universal  sedition  broke  out 
in  the  army.  He  was  a  favorite  with  the 
soldiers,  and  they  had  already  determined  to 
raise  him  to  the  head  of  the  empire,  when  he 
suddenly  returned  to  the  camp,  and  at  the  peril 
of  his  life  succeeded  in  repressing  two  succes- 
sive revolts,  and  in  establishing  Tiberius  upon 
the  throne.  He  immediately  marched  the' 
pacified  legions  against  the  enemy  across  the 
Rhine,  and  routed  the  Marsi,  whom  he  fell 
upon  by  night  as  they  were  celebrating  a  fes- 
tival. Being  soon  after  appointed  commander- 
in-chief  of  all  the  legions  of  Germany,  he 
began  that  series  of  exploits  which  gained  him 


his  title  of  Germanicus.  He  marched  against 
the  native  hero  Arminius,  the  conqueror  of 
Varus,  defeated  him,  and  made  his  wife  Thus- 
nelda  prisoner ;  then  penetrated  to  the  Teuto- 
burg  forest,  near  the  sources  of  the  Lippe, 
tlie  scene  of  Yarus^s  disaster,  and  buried  the 
bones  of  the  legionaries  who  had  fallen  there. 
Yet  Arminius  hovered  about  the  Roman  army 
in  impracticable  places,  attacked  it  in  a  narrow 
pass,  and  drove  it  into  a  marsh  with  so  great 
loss  that  Germanicus  decided  to  retreat  to  the 
Rhine.  In  the  year  16  he  returned  against  the 
Germans  with  a  fleet  of  1,000  vessels,  landed 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Ems,  crossed  the  Ems  and 
the  Weser,  and  defeated  Arminius  first  on  the 
plains  of  Idistavisus  and  tlien  in  the  vicinity 
of  Minden.  He  determined  thereupon  to  re- 
turn, but  he  lost  a  part  of  his  fleet  in  a  storm, 
and  his  own  vessel  stranded  on  the  shores  of 
the  Chauci.  Fearing  that  his  losses  might  em- 
bolden the  Germans,  he  sent  Silius  against  the 
Catti,  while  he  himself  attacked  the  Marsi 
He  purposed  to  pursue  his  advantages  in  the 
following  year,  when  Tiberius,  jealous  of  bis 
fame,  recalled  him,  and  in  the  triumph  which 
was  granted  him  Thusnelda  figured  among  the 
captives.  To  rid  himself  of  Germanicus,  the 
emperor  sent  him  to  the  East  to  fight  the  Par- 
thians  and  to  pacify  Armenia.  He  at  the  same 
time  gave  the  government  of  Syria  to  Cneius 
Piso,  with  secret  instructions  to  thwart  and 
annoy  Germanicus.  The  latter  hastened  to 
Armenia,  and  placed  the  crown  upon  Zeno. 
He  subsequently  reduced  Oapimdocia  to  a  prov- 
ince, and  gave  the  command  of  Commagene  to 
ServsBus.  At  the  request  of  Artabanns,  king  of 
the  Parthians,  he  removed  Vonones,  the  deposed 
monarch,  to  Pompeiopolis.  In  the  year  19  he 
visited  Egypt  without  the  special  permission  of 
the  emperor,  as  required  at  the  time.  On  his 
return  to  Syria  he  suddenly  fell  ill  and  died. 
Agrippina  brought  his  ashes  to  Italy  amid  uni- 
versal mourning;  honors  almost  unexampled 
in  Roman  history  were  paid  to  his  memory; 
and  Piso,  accused  by  l^e  senate  of  having 
poisoned  him,  anticipated  his  condemnation  by 
a  voluntary  death.  *  Germanicus  is  the  hero  of 
the  ** Annals"  of  Tacitus,  and  is  one  of  the 
noblest  characters  in  the  history  of  the  Roman 
empire.  He  had  reputation  also  as  an  orator 
and  poet,  but  of  several  works  which  he  com- 
posed there  remains  only  a  Latin  translation 
of  the  Phcenomena  of  Aratus,  which  is  superior 
to  Cicero's  translation  of  the  same  work.  He 
was  the  father  of  the  emperor  Caligula. 

GERKAN  IVY  {aeneeio  aeandens),  a  bouse  plant 
cultivated  for  its  quick-growing,  ivy-like  foli- 
age, but  which  is  not  properly  an  ivy.  It  is 
one  of  the  composite  family,  and  a  native  of  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope.  Its  twining  stems  grow 
to  the  height  of  8  or  10  ft.,  and  are  well  clothed 
with  round  heart-shaped  leaves,  which  have 
several  pointed  lobes,  of  a  rather  thin  texture 
and  a  light  green  color.  The  plant  is  rarely 
seen  in  bloom,  but  it  sometimes  produces  um- 
bel-like clusters  of  small  bright  yellow  flowers. 


g^ 


Na 


GERMAN  OCEAN 

It  grows  readilj  from  cuttings,  flonriBhes  well 
in  the  drj  atmosphere  of  dwelling  rooms,  and 
isadmtrabl;  adapted  to  window  cnltore;  in  the 


GERMANY 


743 


G»™nlT7. 

open  gronnd  it  is  a  nseM  climber  where  it  is 
denrM  to  cover  a  snr&ce  qaickly,  bat  it  is 

killed  bj  the  first  frost. 

eEBHlN  OCEAV.     See  Nobth  Sba. 

eOlUK  8ILTEK,  or  IrgntaM,  an  alloj  re- 
sembling silver,  made  of  variable  proportions 
of  its  ingredients  according  to  the  nsee  for 
which  it  is  designed.  A  composition  of  8  parts 
of  copper  to  8  each  of  nickel  and  zinc  is  recom- 
mended as  making  a  close  imitation  of  silver 
of  -f^.  The  two  latter  metals  are  also  used 
in  the  proportions  of  4  each  to  B  of  copper.  Bj 
osing  a  larger  proportion  of  copper  the  alloy  is 
more  eosilj  rolled  into  pistes,  but  the  copper 
sooner  becomes  apparent  in  nse.  Iron  nsed  in 
the  proportion  of  3  to  31-  per  cent,  renders  the 
composition  whiter  but  more  brittle.  The  gen- 
nine  German  silver,  made  from  the  ori^el  ore 
of  Hildbnrghaasen  in  Henneberg,  analyzed  by 
Eefersteiu,  was  found  to  consist  of  copper  40'4 
per  oent.,  nickel  81 '6,  dno  2&'4,  iron  2-e. 

CBlUHTOWff,  formerly  a  post  boroogh  of 
Philadelphia  oo.,  Pennsylvania,  0  m.  N.  W.  of 
the  state  bouse,  Philadelphia,  and  incladed 
einoe  1854  in  the  22d  ward  of  that  city;  pop. 
of  the  ward  in  1870,  22,60S.  It  has  one  main 
street,  about  4  m.  long,  extending  S.  8.  E.  and 
N.  N.  W.,  wiiLoh  is  intersected  at  right  angles 
by  several  others.  It  is  lighted  with  gas,  is 
well  supplied  with  water,  and  is  connected 
with  Philadetphia  by  both  a  steam  and  a  horse 
railway.  Many  retired  merchants  and  wealthy 
citizens  of  PhUadelphia  hare  here  their  resi- 
dences, some  of  which  are  of  great  elegance. 
Among  the  public  buil^ngs  are  21  churches, 
an  aoulemy  and  other  schools,  and  a  bank. 
There  are  also  a  number  of  exteiksive  mannfao- 
tories. — Germantowo  was  laid  oat  in  1084  un- 
der a  grant  from  William  Penn,  and  settled  by 


Germans,  whence  its  name,  It  is  memorable 
OS  the  scene  of  the  defeat  of  the  American 
army  under  Washington  by  the  British  on  Oct 
4j  17TT.  Washington,  having  learned  that  Gen. 
Howe  had  detached  a  portion  of  the  mwn  di- 
vimon  of  his  army,  then  at  Germantown,  de- 
termined to  take  advantage  of  it  to  attack  his 
camp.  After  marching  all  night,  he  entered 
the  town  about  sunrise.  The  enemy,  who  were 
encamped  across  the  main  street  st  right  an- 
gles, were  taken  by  surprise,  but  the  morning 
being  dork  and  foggy,  the  Americans  were 
thrown  into  confusion  by  the  many  small  en- 
closures of  the  village,  and  the  British  rallied 
and  attacked  in  turn.  Some  of  the  Americans 
were  seized  with  a  panic,  and  what  had  prom- 
ised to  be  a  victory  was  changed  into  a  defeat. 
Washington  withdrew  in  good  order,  with  all 
bis  artillery.  The  British  loss  was  upward  of 
600;  the  Ameriosn  about  1,000. 

eOMlflCB  <Tr.  St.  Gebmaim  l'Auxerbois), 
a  s^nt  of  the  Roman  Catholic  chnrch,  bom  in 
Anierre,  central  Gaol,  about  880,  died  in  Ra- 
venna, July  81,  44S  or  44B.  He  was  of  a  sena- 
torial family,  studied  literature  and  jurispru- 
dence, and  distinguished  himself  for  eloquence. 
He  was  made  by  the  emperor  Honorius  mili- 
tary governor  of  his  native  district,  and  in  418 
was  elected  bishop  of  Auxerre,  although  a  mar- 
ried man.  He  separated  from  his  wife,  gave 
his  property  to  the  poor,  and  built  a  monastery 
on  the  river  Yonne.  He  twice  visited  England 
at  the  request  of  Celestine  I.,  and  by  his  au- 
thority the  doctrines  of  Pelagins  were  con- 
demned and  suppressed  there,  and  schools  for 
the  ednoatiou  of  the  clergy  were  opened.  He 
once  led  the  Britons  against  a  party  of  Hota 
and  BaxoDS  who  were  plundering  the  coast, 
and  terrified  them  into  retreat  by  a  general 
shout  of  "Halleliyah,"  on  action  known  under 
the  name  of  the  Hallelujah  victory.  He  en< 
oonraged  St.  Patrick  to  undertake  the  conver- 
sion of  the  Irish,  and  in  447  went  to  Ravenna 
to  mediate  between  the  revolted  Bretons  and 
Valentinian  III.  His  feast  is  celebrated  on 
July  SI.  A  manuscript  preserved  in  the  abbey 
of  8t.  Qall,  entitled  Liher  Saacti  Ambroni  in 
Laud«m  Sanetontm  cotnpotitiu,  is  said  by  the 
Benedictine  editors  of  St.  Ambrose  to  have 
been  probably  written  hy  8t.  Germanus.  His 
life,  written  80  years  after  his  death  by  the 
priest  Oonstantins,  and  put  in  verse  by  the 
monk  Eric,  is  to  be  found  in  Labbe's  JVoea 
Bibliotkeea  McmutoriplowTn.  A  new  life  of 
St.  GermanuB  was  ^ven  in  vols.  ix.  and  xi. 
of  Newman's  "Lives  of  the  English  Saints" 
(London,  1844). 

fiEKUKT  (Oer.  DeaUehland;  Fr.  Allemagjia), 
formerly  a  large  empire  of  central  Enrope, 
with  an  area  at  the  time  of  the  first  French 
revolntion  of  267,714  sq.  m.,  and  28,260,000 
inhabitants.  From  1808  to  1815  it  was  dis- 
membered and  disorganized.  In  161G  the  Ger- 
man confederation  {DrntUeher  Bund)  was  es- 
tablished in  the  place  of  the  old  German  em- 
pire, embracing  port  of  Austria  (the  present 


744 


GERMANY 


Oisleithania,  with  the  exGeption  of  Galicia  and 
Bukowina ;  see  Austria),  the  bulk  of  Prussia 
(with  the  exception  of  Prussia  proper  and 
Posen),  the  kingdoms  of  Bavaria,  Wlirtemberg, 
Saxony,  and  Hanover,  the  electorate  of  Hesse- 
Cassel,  and  a  number  of  grand  duchies,  duchies, 
principalities,  and  free  cities ;  in  all  89  states, 
which  in  1866  had  been  reduced  to  83.  The 
area  of  this  confederation  was  248,589  sq.  m. ; 
the  population  in  1865,  46,412,586.  In  1866 
it  was  dissolved.  Austria  was  excluded  from 
Germany,  and  Hanover,  Hesse-Gassel,  Nassau, 
and  Schleswig-Holstem,  with  Lauenburg  and 
Frankfort,  were  annexed  to  Prussia ;  the  states 
north  of  the  Mam  were  formed  into  the  North 
German  confederation  under  the  headship  of 
Prussia.  The  four  South  German  states,  Ba- 
varia, Wlirtemberg,  Baden,  and  Hesse-Darm- 
stadt, were  made  independent  states,  but  were 
elosely  united  with  the  North  German  con- 
federation by  means  of  the  Zollverein  and  de- 
fensive and  offensive  alliances.  Luxemburg 
and  Liechtenstein  were  dismissed  from  all  con- 
nection with  the  other  German  states.  Thus 
the  term  Germany,  from  1866  to  1871,  desig- 
nated the  North  German  confederation  and 
the  four  South  German  states,  with  an  aggre- 
gate area  of  204,719  sq.  m.,  and  a  population 
in  1867  of  88,581,522.  In  January,  1871,  the 
North  German  confederation  and  the  four  South 
German  states  united  to  reestablish  the  Ger- 
man empire,  to  which,  by  cession  from  France, 
the  Reichsland  of  Alsace-Lorraine  was  added. 
This  empire  is  bounded  N.  by  the  North  sea, 
Denmark,  and  the  Baltic  sea,  £.  by  Russia  and 
Austria,  S.  by  Austria  and  Switzerland,  and  W. 
by  France,  Belgium,  and  Holland  (including 
Luxemburg).  Its  extreme  northern  point  is 
on  the  frontier  of  the  province  of  East  Prussia, 
in  lat.  66^  52'  N. ;  its  extreme  southern  noint 
is  in  the  Bavarian  district  of  Swabia  and  Neu- 
burg,  lat.  47°  17'.  From  E.  to  W.  it  extends 
from  Ion.  22°  52',  on  the  boundary  of  East  Prus- 
sia and  Russian  Poland,  to  Ion.  5°  45',  on  the 
line  dividing  German  and  French  Lorraine. 
The  area  is  208,788  sq.  m. ;  pop.  m  1871,  41,- 
058,189,  or  197  to  the  square  mile.— Stretch- 
ing from  the  lofty  summit  of  the  Alps  to  the 
low  beaches  of  the  Baltic,  from  the  picturesque 
and  diversified  countries  of  western  Europe  to 
the  monotonous  plains  of  the  east,  Germany 
encloses  a  rich  variety  of  mountainous  regions, 
tertraced  country,  table  lands,  and  fertile  plains. 
Though  mainly  an  inland  country,  it  has  good 
outlets  to  its  numerous  navigable  rivers.  Two 
great  river  systems,  tributai^  to  the  North  sea 
and  the  Black  sea,  meet  in  Germany,  rendering 
it  the  centre  of  the  interior  commerce  of  the  Eu- 
ropean continent.  Its  climate  unites  the  char- 
acteristics of  the  surrounding  countries,  hold- 
ing a  mean  between  the  extreme  heat  of  the 
south  and  the  extreme  cold  of  northern  Eu- 
rope, between  the  excessive  moisture  of  the 
western  coast  countries  and  the  dryness  of  the 
eastern  plains.  Until  recently  its  boundaries 
were  but  poorly  protected ;  but  the  recovery 


of  Alsace  and  part  of  Lorraine,  in  consequence 
of  the  war  of  1870-'71,  restored  to  Germany  a 
very  strong  position  for  defence,  as  now  the 
Vosges  mountains  form  the  western  frontier, 
and  to  the  former  bulwarks  against  an  invasion 
from  France,  Mentz,  Coblentz,  Saarlouis,  Lan- 
dau, and  Germersheim,  a  number  of  equally 
strong  fortresses  in  Alsace  and  Lorraine  have 
been  added :  Metz,  Strasburg,  Diedenhofen 
(Tbionville),  Bitsch,  and  Neu  Breisa^ch.  On 
the  south  and  southeast  Germany  is  protected 
by  the  Alpine  system  and  the  maze  of  its  pro- 
jecting spurs,  and  the  mountains  separating  it 
from  Bohemia.  The  weakest  point  of  Ger- 
many is  the  £.  and  N.  E.  frontier  toward  Rus- 
sia. There  the  Russian  territory  enters  like  a 
wedge  into  the  side  of  Germany,  and  the  de- 
fence of  its  easternmost  provinces  depends  on 
its  military  organization  rather  than  on  the 
three  fortresses  of  Posen,  Thorn,  and  Ednigs- 
berg. — The  vertical  configuration  of  Germany 
presents  three  principal  groups:  the  Alpine 
region  south  of  the  Danube,  the  elevated  and 
terraced  central  portion,  and  the  level  north- 
ern country.  1.  By  the  exclusion  of  Austria 
from  Germany,  the  Alps  have  become  the 
southern  frontier,  and  only  two  comparatively 
small  branches  (the  Algan  Alps  between  the 
Rhine  and  the  Lech,  and  the  Bavarian  Alps 
between  the  Lech  and  the  Salzach)  belong  to 
the  German  empire.  2.  The  terraced  coim- 
try  of  central  Germany  has  its  nucleus  near 
the  junction  of  the  boundaries  of  Saxony,  Bo- 
hemia, and  Bavaria,  about  lat  50°,  in  the 
FichtcJgebirge,  the  watershed  of  the  tributa- 
ries of  the  Rhine,  Danube,  and  Elbe.  Thence 
a  number  of  mountain  chains  of  the  secondary 
order  radiate  in  all  directions.  To  the  south- 
east the  Bohemian  Forest,  the  fi'ontier  be- 
tween Bavaria  and  Bohemia,  runs  nearly  160 
m.  in  parallel  rugged  chains  toward  the  Dan- 
ube. Its  highest  elevation  is  the  Arber,  about 
4,800  ft  To  the  northeast  the  Erzgebirge, 
the  loftiest  peaks  of  which  rise  to  an  eleva- 
tion of  4,000  ft.,  forms  the  frontier  between 
Bohemia  and  Saxony.  On  the  right  bank  of 
the  Elbe  the  mountains  cluster  in  a  group  of 
sandstone  formation  (Saxon  Switzerland  and 
Lusatia) ;  after  which,  assuming  the  name  of 
Sudetio  mountains  (Riesengebirge,  Glatzerge- 
birge),  they  turn  S.  E.,  dividing  Bohemia  from. 
Silesia,  and  extending  to  the  head  waters  of 
the  Oder,  where  they  meet  the  Carpathians. 
They  culminate  in  the  Schneekoppe,  upward  of 
5,000  ft.  high.  S.  W.  of  the  Fichtelgebirge  the 
Franconian  Jura  sweeps  to  the  Danube  and 
along  its  northern  bank  in  a  westerly  direction 
into  Wtlrtemberg,  where  its  long-stretched, 
sharply  defined  ridges  and  table  lands  are  known 
by  the  names  of  Rauhe  Alp,  Swabian  Alp,  Aal- 
buch,  &o.  In  S.  W.  Germany  (grand  duchy 
of  Baden),  near  the  head  waters  of  the  Dan- 
ube, the  mountain  ridge  of  the  Black  Forest 
sets  off  at  a  sharp  angle  from  the  Swabian 
Alp  in  a  northerly  direction  nearly  parallel  to 
the  Rhine,  and  skirting  the  fertile  bottom  land 


GERMANY 


745 


of  its  E.  bank.  The  spars  of  this  ridge,  ex- 
tendiDg  as  far  N.  as  the  Neckar  river,  there 
meet  with  the  Odenwald  (grand  dnchy  of 
Hesse),  which,  by  the  Spessart  and  RhOn  (N. 
W.. frontier  of  Bavaria),  and  again  by  the  Thu- 
ringian  and  Franconian  forests,  is  connected 
wi3i  the  Fichtelgebirge.  The  territory  en- 
closed by  these  different  ridges,  being  those 
sections  of  Bavaria  and  WUrtemberg  N.  of  the 
Danube,  nearly  the  whole  of  Baden,  pai*t  of 
the  grand  dachy  of  Hesse,  and  a  few  of  the 
petty  Saxon  dachies,  is  intersected  by  a  num- 
ber of  lesser  hill  chains.  Between  this  Fran- 
conian and  Swabian  mountain  system  and  tlie 
Rhtetian  Alps  of  Austria  extends  a  vast  level 
plain  (southern  Bavaria),  bounded  N.  by  the 
Danube,  W.  by  the  Iller,  E.  by  the  Inn  and 
Salzach.  The  N.  W.  section  of  central  Ger- 
many (always  taking  the  Fichtelgebirge  as  the 
centre)  appears  like  a  labyrinth  of  hill  chains, 
few  of  which  attain  a  considerable  elevation. 
The  more  important  of  them  are :  the  Werra 
mountains,  the  Habichtswald,  the  Wester wald, 
the  Taunus  (Prussian  province  of  Hesse-Nas- 
sau), the  Eder  hills,  Egge  hills,  Rothhaar  hills, 
and  the  Haarstrang  TPrussian  Westphalia). 
These  are  all  between  tne  Rhine  on  the  west, 
the  Main  and  Kinzig  rivers  on  the  south,  the 
Werra  on  the  east,  and  the  Lippe  on  the  north. 
The  highest  summit  is  the  Astenberg  in  West- 
phalia, nearly  2,800  ft.  high.  N.  of  the  Lippe 
only  one  other  hill  chain  stretches  in  a  N.  W. 
direction  nearly  parallel  to  the  Ems,  viz.,  the 
Teutoburg  forest,  renowned  in  German  history 
as  the  theatre  of  the  conflict  by  which  the  rule 
of  the  Romans  east  of  the  Rhine  was  broken. 
E.  of  the  Weser,  the  Weser  hills  run  parallel  to 
that  river,  while  S.  E.  of  them  and  N.  of  the 
Tharingian  system  the  Hartz  appears  as  an 
isolated  mass  of  mountains,  the  highest  sum- 
mit of  which  (Brocken)  reaches  the  height  of 
8,737  ft.  On  the  left  or  western  bank  of  the 
Rhine  the  Yosges,  extending  along  the  western 
frontier  of  Alsace,  rise  near  Oolmar  to  an  alti- 
tude of  about  4,700  ft.,  and  their  northern 
spurs  in  Rhenish  Bavaria  and  Rhenish  Prussia, 
called  the  Haardt,  the  Hunsr&ck,  and  the  Hoch- 
wald,  to  about  2,700  ft.  in  the  latter  range. 
Farther  N.  the  Ardennes  send  into  Rhenish 
Prussia  the  ridge  of  the  Eifel  (2,500  ft.)  and 
the  Hohe  Venn.  Northeastern  offshoots  of 
the  Jura  cross  the  southern  frontier  of  Alsace. 
8.  The  great  plain  of  northern  Germany  ex- 
tends over  the  entire  breadth  of  the  country 
N.  of  a  line  drawn  from  the  Holland  frontier 
to  Osnabrdtk  and  Minden,  thence  E.  S.  E.  to 
Leipsic,  thence  S.  by  E.  to  a  point  where  the 
head  waters  of  the  Oder  and  V  istula  approach 
one  another.  This  vast  plain,  which  at  some 
former  geological  period  has  undoubtedly  form- 
ed the  bottom  of  the  sea,  is  traversed  only  by 
two  ridges  of  hills,  none  of  which  rise  above 
400  ft  One  of  these  ridges  extends  from  the 
lower  Vistula  W.  to  the  Oder  above  Stettin ; 
the  other  from  Tamowitz  in  S.  E.  Silesia  along 
the  Oder  to  lat.  52''  N.,  then  a  little  to  the 


north  of  that  parallel  through  the  Prussian 
provinces  of  Brandenburg  and  Saxony  into 
Hanover. — ^Each  of  the  seas  by  which  Ger- 
many is  bounded  on  the  north  has  a  peculiar 
coast  configuration.  While  the  coast  of  the 
North  sea  or  German  ocean  is  largely  indent- 
ed by  deep  bays  (DoUart  and  Jade  bays)  or 
wide  embouchures  (Weser  and  Elbe),  and  its 
*^ marshes^'  are  the  richest  and  most  fertile 
soil  in  all  Germany,  the  shores  of  the  Baltic 
form  many  extensive  lagoons  (Haffs),  and  are 
generally  uninviting  and  sterile.  The  advan- 
tages which  the  formation  of  the  shores  of  the 
North  sea  would  seem  to  offer  for  the  develop- 
ment of  the  maritime  interests  of  Germany,  are 
to  a  great  extent  neutralized  by  the  fact  that 
a  series  of  sand  banks,  called  Watteriy  stretch 
nearly  all  along  the  coast.  Besides  this,  the 
island  which  commands  the  entrance  of  all 
German  ports  on  the  North  sea  (Helgoland) 
has  been  ceded  to  Great  Britain. — Germany 
is  intersected  by  many  rivers.  The  principal 
river  systems  are  those  of  the  Danube,  Rhine, 
Weser,  Elbe,  and  Oder.  The  Danube,  flow- 
ing from  W.  to  E.,  has  within  the  empire  a 
length  of  400  m.  Its  principal  tributaries  in 
Germany  are :  on  the  left  or  N.  bank,  the  Alt- 
mtihl,  Nab,  and  Regen;  on  the  right  bank, 
the  Iller,  Lecli,  Isar,  and  Inn.  The  North  sea 
receives  the  river  systems  of  the  Rhine  (469 
m.  within  Germany),  the  Ems  (about  200  m. 
long),  the  Weser  (400  m.  inclusive  of  the 
Werra),  and  the  Elbe  (500  m.  within  the  em- 
pire). The  principal  tributaries  of  the  Rhine 
are  the  HI,  Nahe,  and  Moselle,  on  the  left  bank ; 
the  Kinzig,  Murg,  Neckar,  Main,  Tauber,  Lahn, 
Sieg,  Wipper,  Ruhr,  and  Lippe,  on  the  right. 
The  Weser  is  formed  by  the  confluence  of  the 
Werra  and  Fulda,  and  receives  only  a  few  trib- 
utaries (Werre,  Aue,  and  Hunte  on  the  left, 
AUer  and  Leme,  Ocker,  WtLmme,  and  Geesteon 
the  right).  The  Elbe  has,  next  to  the  Danube, 
the  largest  river  system.  Its  afiluents  in  the 
empire  are  the  Mulde,  Saale,  Jetze,  Ilmenau, 
Schwinge,  and  Oste,  on  the  left  bank:  the 
Black  Elster,  Havel  and  Spree,  Stecknitz,  fllde, 
and  Stdr  on  the  right  bank.  Two  thirds  of  the 
territory  drained  by  rivers  which  flow  into  the 
Baltic  sea  belongs  to  the  system  of  the  Oder 
(about  500  m.  within  the  empire),  and  its  nu- 
merous tributaries,  the  Neisse,  Weistritz,  Eatz- 
bach,  Bober,  Ucker,  and  Peene  on  the  left,  the 
Elodnitz,  Malapane^  Weide,  Bartsch,  Warthe, 
Plone,  and  Ihna  on  the  right.  Of  the  small 
river  systems  the  following  may  be  mentioned : 
the  Eider  (boundary  between  Schleswig  and 
Holstein),  aboat  105  m.  long ;  the  Pomeranian 
rivers  Rega,  Persante,  Wipper,  Stolpe,  Lupow, 
and  Leba ;  and  the  Vistula,  which  in  Germany 
has  a  length  of  about  150  m.  A  number 
of  canals  connect  several  of  the  large  river 
systems,  but  only  a  few  of  them  can  compare 
with  the  American  canals.  The  most  impor- 
tant is  the  Ludwigs  canal,  connecting  the  Dan- 
ube with  the  Main  (and  through  this  with  the 
Rhine),  thus  furnisning  uninterrupted  naviga- 


746 


GERMANY 


tion  from  the  North  to  the  Black  sea.  The 
Bh6ne  and  Rhine  canal  connects  the  system 
of  these  two  rivers  by  joining  the  Donbs  and 
the  111.  The  Bremerrdrde  canal  connects  the 
Oste  and  Schwinge,  tributaries  of  the  Elbe; 
the  Kiel  canal  connects  the  North  and  Baltic 
seas  bj  the  Elder,  and  the  Strecknitz  canal 
famishes  an  outlet  from  the  Elbe  into  the 
Baltic  by  the  Trave ;  by  the  Finow  and  Mtlll- 
rose  canal  the  systems  of  the  Elbe  and 
Oder  are  connected. — ^The  number  of  lakes 
in  Germany  is  large,  but  most  of  them  are 
inconsiderable.  The  following  deserve  to  be 
mentioned  :  the  lake  of  Constance  (Bodensee), 
the  banks  of  which  belong  to  five  different 
states,  Baden,  Wtlrtemberg,  Bavaria,  Austria, 
and  Switzerland ;  Ammer,  W&rm,  Ghiem,  and 
E6nigs  lakes,  in  Bavaria ;  Feder  lake,  Wtkrtem- 
berg ;  lake  of  Steinhude  {Steinhuder  Meer\  in 
Hanover  and  Lippe ;  Zwischenahner  Meer,  in 
Oldenburg;  lake  of  Pldn,  in  Holstein;  lake  of 
Ratzeburg,  in  Lauenburg  and  Mecklenburg; 
the  lakes  of  Schwerin  and  M&ritz,  in  Meck- 
lenburg ;  Schwieloch  and  ScharmQtz  lakes, 
in  Brandenburg ;  Damm  and  PlOn,  in  Pomera- 
nia;  Zarnowitz  lake,  in  Pomerania  and  west- 
em  Prussia;  the  Salt  lake  near  Eisleben,  in 
the  Prussian  province  of  Saxony;  and  the 
lake  of  Laach,  in  Rhenish  Prassia. — ^The  cli- 
mate of  Germany  is  temperate,  and,  consider- 
ing the  extent  of  the  country,  remarkably  uni- 
form, the  greater  heat  of  the  lower  latitudes 
being  tempered  by  the  greater  elevation  of 
the  country  and  its  Alpine  character.  On 
the  great  plain  of  northern  Germany  the  dis- 
tricts exposed  to  the  moist  west  and  south- 
west winds  have  a  more  inclement  climate 
than  central  Germany;  while  the  southern- 
most districts,  though  drier,  have  less  heat 
than  more  northern  latitudes.  The  average 
decrease  of  the  mean  temperature,  going  from 
S.  to  N.,  is  1"*  F.  in  62  m.,  and  going  from  W. 
to  E.  1^  in  72  m. ;  measured  by  the  verti- 
cal elevation,  it  is  1^  in  266  ft.  The  mean 
annual  temperature  of  Stralsund  (lat.  64^  18' 
N.,  Ion.  18**  6'  28"  E.)  is  46-4** ;  the  mean 
temperature  in  summer  68^,  in  winter  29*8^. 
The  mean  annual  temperature  of  the  valley  of 
the  Rhine  is  62^  of  Thurin^a  47*6'',  of  Silesia 
47**,  of  all  Germany  48•8^  The  extremes  of 
temperature  in  the  country  N.  of  the  Alps  are 
96**  above  and  81**  below  zero.  In  an  aver- 
age of  10  years  the  Rhine  had  been  frozen 
over  26  days  during  each  winter,  the  Weser 
80  days,  the  Elbe  62  days,  the  Oder  70  days. 
The  atmosphere  is  pure  and  wholesome,  and 
unfavorable  to  the  development  of  endemic  or 
hereditary  diseases,  except  in  the  high  Alpine 
valleys,  where  cretinism  prevails.  Epidemics 
are  generaUy  less  destractive  in  Germany  than 
in  the  neighboring  countries. — Of  wild  ani- 
mals, the  deer,  hare,  rabbit,  fox,  hamster  (a 
kind  of  marmot  peculiar  to  Germany),  marten, 
badger,  weasel,  otter  (rare),  &c.,  are  found  near- 
ly everywhere,  stringent  game  laws  prevent- 
ing their  destruction.    A  good  breed  of  horses 


is  raised  in  Mecklenburg,  Holstein,  and  Han- 
over ;  cattle  raising  is  a  most  important  branch 
of  husbandry  in  Oldenburg,  the  N.  W.  part  of 
Hanover,  Franconia,  and  l£e  Alpine  country ; 
sheep  are  raised  extensively  in  Saxony,  Silesia, 
and  Brandenburg;  Saxony  furnishes  the  finest 
quality  of  wool ;  goats,  mules,  and  asses  are 
reared  principally  in  the  mountainous  districts 
of  the  south ;  hogs  in  all  states,  but  chiefly  in 
the  west.  Large  birds  of  prey  (the  eagle  and 
vulture)  are  rarely  found  beyond  the  Alpine 
districts ;  fowl  of  all  kinds,  wild  and  domestic, 
are  plentiftd  in  all  parte  of  the  country.  Ger- 
many has  only  a  few  species  of  amphibia; 
there  are  only  two  venomous  kinds  of  snakes, 
vipera  berus  and  F.  ehertea.  Carp  and  pike 
are  numerous  in  nearly  all  rivers  and  ponds,  the 
salmon  only  in  the  larger  rivers ;  sturgeon,  cod, 
and  sheatfish  in  the  Elbe,  trout  in  all  moun- 
tain streams ;  herring  and  sardines  in  the  Bal- 
tic and  North  sea.  Oysters  of  good  quality 
are  obtained  near  the  shores  of  Schleswig-Hol- 
stein,  and  pearl  mussels  in  some  rivers  of  the 
interior.  The  silkworm  is  not  raised  exten- 
sively.— Germany  is  rich  in  mineral  products^  . 
and  mining  has  employed  there  a  great  num-  L^ ' 
ber  of  persons  from  the  remotest  times.  Gold 
is  found  only  in  a  few  places  in  limited  quan- 
tities (in  the  Hartz  mountains  and  in  the  king- 
dom of  Saxony) ;  silver  abounds  in  the  Hartz 
and  in  southern  Westphalia ;  iron  is  found  in 
large  quantities  in  nearly  all  the  mountain 
ranges,  the  best  qualities  being  those  worked 
in  Westphalia,  Alsace-Lorraine,  and  Rhenish 
Prassia;  excellent  tin  abounds  in  the  Erzge- 
birge ;  lead  in  Saxony  and  upper  Silesia;  cala- 
mine and  zinc  in  Silesia ;  cobalt  in  Saxony. 
Salt  is  obtained  in  quantities  more  than  suf- 
ficient for  domestic  consumption  in  all  the 
states  except  Saxony  and  Anhalt*  The  pro- 
duction of  coal  has  been  enormously  increased 
within  the  last  40  years.  The  most  exten- 
sive coal  beds  occur  in  Rhenish  Prussia,  West- 
?halia,  upper  Silesia,  Saxony,  and  Anhalt. 
'he  N.  W.  districts  have  instead  an  abundant 
supply  of  peat.  Sulphur,  saltpetre,  alum,  vit- 
riol, gypsum,  chalk,  ochre,  emery,  porcelain 
clay,  graphite,  marble,  alabaster,  and  amber 

ion  the  shores  of  the  Baltic)  are  found  in  dif- 
erent  districts.  Precious  stones  are  compara- 
tively scarce.  Of  mineral  springs  Gemaany 
has  a  great  number,  and  several  of  them  (Pyr* 
mont,  Ems,  Wiesbaden,  Selters,  Hombnrg, 
Baden-Baden,  Kissingen,  Schwalbach,  Salz- 
brunn,  Warmbmnn,  £c,)  eiyoy  a  world-wide 
reputation. — The  soil  on  the  whole  is  only  of  /.-^ 
moderate  fertility.  Many  tracts  are  exuber- 
antly productive,  but  many  others  are  almost 
as  barren  and  sterile  as  the  Russian  steppes. 
The  most  fertile  tracts  of  land  in  Germany  and 
in  Europe  are  the  marshes  on  the  shore  of  the 
North  sea.  Scientific  agriculture  has  improved 
the  natural  condition  of  the  soil  in  a  high  de- 
gree. All  kinds  of  grain  and  fruit  belonging 
to  the  temperate  zone  are  raised :  rye,  baney, 
oats,  potatoes,  peas,  and  beans,  everywhere ; 


GERMANY 


747 


/ 


maize  principally  in  the  south ;  wheat  in  the 
south  and  west;  buckwheat  in  the  north; 
millet  in  the  southeast;  rapeseed,  poppy,  anise, 
and  cumin  in  the  central  and  northwest  dis- 
tricts. The  largest  grain  fields  are  in  Wartem- 
berg,  the  smallest  in  Mecklenburg.  Bavaria, 
Wtbrtemberg,  Saxe-Altenburg,  Mecklenburg, 
Holstein,  &c.,  produce  a  larger  quautity  of 
breadsti]^s  tiian  is  required  for  home  consump- 
tion, while  Saxony  and  some  of  the  Saxon 
duchies  import  breadstuff's.  Flax  and  hemp, 
madder,  woad,  and  saffron  are  cultivated  more 
in  the  south  and  central  region  than  in  the 
north.  Tobacco  is  extensively  raised  (even  for 
exportation  to  other  tobacco-growing  conn- 
tries)  on  the  upper  Rhine,  the  Werra  and 
Oder,  and  in  Brandenbui^.  Excellent  hops 
are  funiished  by  Bavaria  and  Brunswick. 
Beets  are  raised  in  enormous  quantities  for  the 
manufacture  of  sugar,  and  tneir  cultivation 
has  almost  entirely  superseded  the  grain  cul- 
ture in  the  Prussian  province  of  Saxony,  An- 
hflJt,  Hesse-Darmstadt,  and  S.  Bavaria.  Chic- 
cory,  as  a  substitute  for  coffee,  is  raised  in  the 
country  between  the  Elbe  and  Weser  rivers. 
In  garden  culture  Wftrtemberg,  Bavaria,  Hesse, 
and  the  Saxon  duchies  hold  the  highest  rank. 
The  fruit  raised  on  the  banks  of  the  Rhine  and 
Neckar,  in  Saxony  and  N.  W.  Bavaria^  is  of 
the  very  best  quality  to  be  found  anywhere. 
Peaches  and  figs  ripen  only  in  localities  pro- 
tected from  the  cola.  The  apples  of  Saxony 
are  of  the  choicest  kind,  and  are  exported  to 
Russia  in  large  quantities.  Marron  chestnuts, 
almonds,  &c.,  are  raised  in  the  S.  W.  states. 
Great  attention  is  paid  to  the  improvement  of 
fruit.  In  all  the  states  there  are  pomologioal  so- 
cietiea,  which  from  time  to  time  hold  national 
conventions.  The  culture  of  the  vine  extends 
to  lat.  6V  80'.  (See  Gebicant,  Winbs  of.) 
— The  three  free  cities  excepted,  the  greatest 
density  of  population  prevails  in  the  principal- 
ity of  Reuss  elder  hue  (478  to  the  square 
mdleX  the  kingdom  of  Saxony  (442),  the  grand 
duchy  of  Hesse  (288),  and  the  duchy  of  Saxe- 
Altenburg  (256).  In  the  following  states  it 
exceeds  the  average:  WQrtemberg,  Baden, 
Brunswick,  Saxe-Ooburg-Gotha,  Schwarzburg, 
Reuss  younger  line,  Lippe,  Anhalt,  and  Saxe* 
Weimar.  In  Prussia  it  is  184,  in  Bavaria  166. 
The  number  of  large  cities,  proportionately  to 
the  population,  is  greater  in  Germany  than  in 
any  other  country  except  Great  Britain,  Bel- 
gium, and  Holland.  There  is  one  city  with 
more  than  800,000  inhabitants  (Berlin),  two 
with  more  than  200,000  (Hamburg  and  Bres- 
lau),  seven  with  more  than  100,000  (Dres- 
den, Munich,  Cologne,  Magdeburg,  K6nigsberg, 
Leipsic,  and  Hanover),  22*  with  more  than  50,- 
000,  and  50  with  from  20,000  to  50,000.  More 
than  nine  tenths  (92  per  cent.)  of  the  popula- 
tion of  Germany  belong  to  the  German  race; 
the  remainder,  belonging  principally,  to  the 
Slavic  race,  is  mainly  confined  to  the  eastern 
Prussian  provinces.  The  entire  number  of 
Slavs  in  Germany  is  about  2,640,000  (2,460,000 


Poles,  140,000  "Wends,  60,000  Czechs),  or  6i 
per  cent,  of  which  number  only  about  60,- 
000  are  outside  of  Prussia.  In  the  latter  coun- 
try there  are  also  about  150,000  Lithuanians 
and  Letts.  The  Danes,  in  Schleswig,  number 
about  150,000,  and  the  French,  chiefly  in  Lor- 
raine, 280,000.  Except  Ireland,  no  country  of 
Europe  has  lost  so  large  a  number  of  inhabi- 
tants by  emigration  as  Germany.  From  1819 
to  1855  the  aggregate  number  of  German  emi- 
grants was  estimated  at  1,800,000.  The  num- 
ber of  German  immigrants  into  the  United 
States  from  1820  to  1872  amounted  to  2,580,- 
000.  The  Germans  are  usually  classified  into 
Low  Germans  and  High  Germans,  or  north- 
erners and  southerners.  The  dividing  line 
may  be  drawn  from  lat.  50^  80'  in  western  Ger- 
many to  lat.  52°  80'  on  the  eastern  frontier,  or 
along  the  course  of  the  Sieg  (a  tributary  of 
the  Rhine)  to  the  southern  slope  of  the  Hartz 
mountains,  crossing  the  Elbe  near  its  conflu- 
ence with  the  Saale,  then  a  little  to  the  north- 
ward along  the  southern  banks  of  the  Havel 
and  of  the  Warthe.  i  In  physical  development 
the  Germans  are  superior  to  either  the  Latin 
or  the  Slavic  race.  Their  frame  and  their 
muscular  development  are  strong,  almost  heavy. 
Among  the  lower  classes  of  the  rural  and  la- 
boring population  stoutness  and  strength  often 
approacn  to  clumsiness.  Generally  the  north- 
erners are  taller  and  have  better-shaped  fea- 
tures and  limbs  than  the  southerners.  The 
blonde  complexion  prevails  only  in  the  north ; 
in  central  and  southern  Germany  light  or  dark 
brown  is  more  frequently  found.  In  power  of 
endurance  the  Germans  are  surpassed  by  the 
Slavic  race,  in  agility  by  the  Latin.  The  prom- 
inent features  of  the  German  national  character 
are  honesty,  faithfulness,  valor,  thoughtfolness, 
perseverance,  and  industry.  The  Germans 
have  largely  promoted  the  progress  of  human 
knowledge.  There  is  scarcely  a  single  branch 
of  science  in  which  they  have  not  excelled. 
In  music,  painting,  and  sculpture  they  occupy 
a  very  high  rank  among  nations.  The  German 
artisan  is  valued  for  his  dexterity  and  steadi- 
ness. The  sectional  and  local  diversities  of 
character  are  very  great  in  Germany.  While 
the  Protestant  northerners  have  many  charac- 
teristics in  common  with  the  Anglo-Saxon,  the 
Catholic  southerners  approach  in  some  im- 
portant respects  the  Latin  race,  particularly  in 
a  certain  preponderance  of  imagination  over 
reason.  The  Low  German  assimilates  far  more 
readily  to  the  English  or  American  than  to  the 
Austrian  or  S  wabian. — The  culture  of  the  soil  in 
Germany  is  highly  developed,  and  inferior  only 
to  that  of  England.  The  products  of  agricul- 
ture have  been  nearly  doubled  by  the  introduc- 
tion of  more  rational  methods  of  cultivation 
since  1816.  All  German  states  have  agricultu- 
ral colleges,  some  of  which  ei^oy  a  world-wide 
reputation.  The  methods  of  cultivation  are 
different  in  different  portions  of  the  country. 
The  triennial  and  quadrennial  rotations  of  crops 
are  most  in  use.    According  to  the  first  method. 


C. 


748 


GERMANY 


winter  grain  is  raised  in  the  first  year,  spring 
grain  in  the  second,  and  potatoes,  pnlse,  or 
fodder  in  the  third  year ;  according  to  the  sec- 
ond method,  recommended  hy  Thaer,  a  grain 
crop  is  always  followed  by  a  crop  of  fodder  or 
pnlse.  In  some  of  the  northern  states  crops 
of  grain  are  raised  on  a  certain  portion  of  the 
farm  for  several  snccessive  years,  after  which 
the  field  is  allowed  to  lie  faUow  irom  three  to 
seven  years,  according  to  the  number  of  lots 
into  which  the  farm  is  divided.  In  Mecklen- 
barg  agricolture  approaches  to  horticulture, 
inasmuch  as  many  different  kinds  of  fruit  are 
raised  on  little  plots  of  ground,  one  by  the  side 
of  another.  The  culture  of  forests  is  conduct- 
ed upon  a  more  scientific  basis  than  in  any  oth- 
er country.  Having  in  former  times  thought- 
lessly destroyed  their  forests,  many  German 
states  have  been  compelled  to  replant  them  in 
order  to  satisfy  the  wants  of  agriculture  and 
industry.  In  many  states  the  forests  mostly 
belong  to  government,  and  are  as  carefully 
kept  as  gardens ;  but  even  private  owners  are 
prohibited  by  law  from  wasting  their  forests 
without  regard  to  the  public  good.  The  most 
extensive  forests  are  found  in  central  and  south- 
ern Germany  and  in  the  eastern  provinces  of 
Prussia.  The  entire  superficies  of  wood  land 
in  Germany  is  52,989  sq.  m.,  of  which  Prussia 
has  31,428,  Bavaria  9,876,  and  W&rtemberg 
about  2,296. — Of  all  European  countries,  Ger- 
/^^many  has  the  oldest  manufactures.  In  the  last 
century  it  had  fallen  in  regard  to  tlie  extent  of 
its  mechanical  pursuits  behind  England  and 
Belgium,  but  within  60  years  it  has  advanced 
rapidly,  and  is  now  in  a  fair  way  to  recover  its 
former  position.  As  early  as  the  18th  century 
Germany  was  celebrated  for  its  cloth  and  linen 
.  manufactures,  its  glass  wares,  carved  and  chis- 
elled wares,  &c.  In  the  14th  century  the  silk 
manufacture  was  introduced,  and  the  first  paper 
mill  was  established  as  early  as  1890.  During 
the  15th  century  Germany  became  celebrated 
for  its  watch  manufacture.  Printing  works 
were  established  at  Augsburg  and  the  lace 
manufacture  introduced  into  Saxony  in  the 
16th  century.  At  that  time  Germany  was  to 
Europe,  in  regard  to  industry  and  commerce, 
what  England  is  now.  The  thirty  years'  war 
destroyed  all  prosperity  for  a  long  time.  At 
the  beginning  of  the  18th  century  German  in- 
dustry again  flourished,  principally  in  conse- 
quence of  the  immigration  of  the  Huguenots  ex- 
pelled from  France.  Frederick  II,  of  Prussia 
and  Joseph  II.  of  Austria  strove  to  raise  it  to 
its  former  eminence,  but  the  French  revolu- 
tionary wars  blighted  it  once  more.  Since 
then  it  has  recovered  the  lost  ground,  princi- 
pally by  means  of  the  Zolherein,  a  commercial 
union  of  German  states,  which  was  inaugurated 
in  1819  and  gradually  joined  by  the  minority 
of  the  states.  According  to  the  constitution 
of  1871,  the  German  empire  constitutes  one 
customs  and  commercial  union,  except  a  few 
small  communes  which  on  account  of  their 
situation  remain  excluded  from  the  common 


line  of  customs,  and  the  two  Hanse  towns, 
Hamburg  and  Bremen,  which  as  free  ^orts 
may  remain  outside  of  the  union  ^*  until  tbey 
themselves  demand  admittance.*'  Besides  the 
states  of  the  empire,  the  Zollverein  embraces 
the  grand  duchy  of  Luxemburg  and  the  Aus- 
trian commune  of  Jungholtz  on  the  south- 
ern frontier  of  Bavaria.  By  the  Zollverein 
free  commerce  was  established  among  all  its 
members,  while  a  high  tariff  protected  their  in- 
dustry against  foreign  competition.  The  pro- 
gress made  by  Germany  under  this  system  is 
truly  remarkable.  While  60  years  ago  it  had 
become  preeminently  an  exporter  of  raw  pro- 
ducts of  the  soil,  it  is  now  one  of  the  principal 
exporters  of  industrial  products  and  importers 
of  raw  materials.  The  centres  of  German 
industry  are  the  kingdom  of  Saxony,  West- 
phalia, Rhenish  Prussia,  and  Alsace-Lorraine. 
The  linen  manufacture  stands  highest  in  Sax- 
ony, Silesia,  and  Rhenish  Prussia.  The  cotton 
industry  of  Germany  has  of  late  assumed  very 
large  dimensions.  The  number  of  spindles  in 
1869  was  estimated  at  5,000,000.  The  imports 
of  cotton  into  the  territory  of  the  Zollverein 
were  2,271,000  cwt.,  of  cotton  yam  818,264, 
and  of  cotton  goods  28,700  cwt.;  while  on 
the  other  hand  the  exports  of  cotton  were 
986,897  cwt.,  of  cotton  yam  66,861,  and  of  cot- 
ton goods  198,662.  How  the  woollen  manu- 
facture of  Germany  has  been  increased  by  the 
Zollverein  may  be  seen  from  the  fact  that  in 
1825  Germany  exported  to  England  alone  280,- 
000  cwt.  of  raw  wool,  while  in  1869  the  quan- 
tity of  woollen  yam  imported  into  Germany 
amounted  to  800,000  cwt.,  and  the  quantity 
exported  to  94,000,  leaving  not  less  than  206,- 
000  cwt.  as  the  net  import  of  raw  material. 
In  the  same  year  the  quantity  of  woollen  doth 
exported  amounted  to  806,681  cwt.  The  Ger- 
man silk  fabrics  equal  in  quality  the  French 
and  English,  but  are  somewhat  inferior  in  de- 
sign. The  principal  silk  manufactories  are  in 
Prassia  (Berlin,  Elberfeld,  and  Oreifeld)  and 
Saxony.  The  export  of  silk  fabrics  from  Ger- 
many is  nearly  equal  in  amount  to  the  domes- 
tic consumption.  The  paper  manufacture  has 
made  considerable  progress,  although  the  finest 
qualities  are  still  imported  to  some  extent.  In 
some  fabrics  of  wood,  as  the  choicest  kinds  of 
cabinet  furniture,  and  all  kinds  of  toys,  Ger- 
many stands  unequalled,  and  is  a  large  export- 
er to  all  countries  of  the  world.  The  iron 
manufacture  has  of  late  increased  rapidly.  The 
production  of  raw  iron  in  the  empire  amounted 
in  1868  to  27,757,880  cwt  (21,065,199  in  Prus- 
sia, 4,487,468  in  Alsace-Lorraine,  961,382  in 
Bavaria),  and  in  1869  to  about  88,000,000  owt. 
The  best  iron  and  steel  wares  are  manufactured 
in  Rhenish  Prussia  and  Saxony.  The  machine 
shops  of  Prussia,  Saxony,  Bavaria,  and  Baden 
rival,  if  they  do  not  excel,  the  largest  estab- 
lishments of  their  kind  in  England.  Other 
important  branches  of  industry  are  gold  and 
silver  wares  (Augsburg  and  Berlin),  ^ass 
wares  (Silesia),  lea&er  Rhenish  Prussia),  por- 


GERMANY 


749 


oelfun  (Saxony  and  Berlin^  mathematical  and 
astronomical  instruments  (Munich  and  Berlin), 
clocks  (Baden),  &c.  Brewing  is  one  of  the 
most  extensile  branches  of  industry,  especially 
in  Bavaria.  There  were  in  the  year  1870-'71 
in  the  empire  (exclusive  of  Lorraine)  802  beet 
sugar  manufacturing  establishments  (227  in 
Prussia,  85  in  Anhalt,  25  in  Brunswick,  5  each 
in  the  Thuringian  states  and  Wtlrtemberg,  4 
in  Bavaria,  1  in  Baden),  which  made  4,876,000 
cwt.  of  sugar. — ^I'he  foreign  commerce  of  Ger- 
many is  of  great  importance.  The  total  value 
of  imports  in  1870  was  estimated  at  $408,200,- 
000,  of  exports  at  $845,600,000.  The  present 
customs  law  of  the  German  empire  bears  date 
July  1,  1869  ;  a  new  tariff  was  introduced  on 
Oct.  1,  1870.  All  transit  duties  have  been 
abolished;  the  duties  on  imports  have  been 
greatly  reduced ;  of  exports  only  rags  are  sub- 
ject to  a  duty.  The  free  towns,  Hamburg, 
Bremen,  and  Labeck,  are  the  principal  outlets 
of  German  commerce.  Hambursr  nolds  the 
third  rank  of  all  European  ports,  London  and 
Liverpool  only  being  superior.  The  income 
of  the  ZoUverein  in  1871  was  $22,900,000. 
The  merchant  navy  of  Germany  is  larger  than 
that  of  any  other  country  except  England  and 
the  United  States.  It  numbered  in  December, 
1871,  5,122  vessels  (of  which  179  were  steam- 
ers), of  an  aggregate  tonnage  of  1,805,000.  The 
number  of  vessels  entering  the  German  ports 
in  1871  was  68,155,  of  8,785,000  tons;  the 
number  of  vessels  cleared  67,471,  of  8,864,000 
tons.  The  principal  articles  of  export  are  wool, 
hops,  grain,  cattle,  linen  yarn,  skms  and  hides, 
glass  ware,  and  antimony,  to  England ;  iron  and 
steel  wares,  zinc,  coal,  lumber,  hops,  hemp, 
flax  and  seed,  alcohol,  and  cattle,  to  France ; 
grain,  timber,  coa],  wine,  leather,  wool,  metals, 
woollen  and  cotton  fabrics,  hosiery,  hardware, 
china,  and  glass  ware,  to  Holland ;  wool,  wine, 
and  salt,  to  Belgium ;  grain,  salt,  and  brandy, 
to  Switzerland;  seeds,  fruit,  preserves,  and 
sugar,  to  Sweden  and  Russia ;  linen  and  cotton 
goods,  ribbons,  and  hosiery,  to  Italy,  Spain,  and 
Portugal;  wine,  cotton,  woollen,  linen,  and 
silk  goods,  hardware,  glass  ware,  toys,  &c.,  to 
America.  The  imports  are,  besides  all  kinds 
of  raw  material  (cotton,  pig  iron,  copper,  coaL 
&c.),  coffee,  sugar,  rice,  wine  (from  France  and 
Hungary),  cloth,  laces,  machines,  the  finer 
qualities  of  silk  fabrics,  jewelry,  &c.  The  sil- 
ver standard  prevailed  in  Germany  until  the 
establishment  of  the  enopire,  when  the  gold 
standard  was  adopted.  The  unit  in  the  north- 
em  states  was  the  Thaler  (30  thalers  to  1 
ZoUverein  pound  of  silver,  equal  to  1*889  lb. 
avoirdupois) ;  in  the  western  the  Gulden  Rhev- 
niseh  or  Rhenish  florin  (521-  ^o  I  ^h.  of  silver). 
The  gold  coins  common  to  all  Germany  were 
the  crown  (50  to  1  lb.  of  fine  gold)  and  the 
half  crown ;  their  value  was  regulated  by  com- 
merce, and  averaged  about  9^  thalers  ($6  58) 
the  crown.  These  coins  will  be  received  at 
their  old  value  until  Jan.  1,  18Y5,  when  they 
will  be  superseded.    According  to  the  new  law 


for  the  uniformity  of  the  coinage  throughout 
the  empire,  published  in  1872,  the  gold  coins 
of  the  empire  will  be  in  future  the  twenty-mark 
(69}  to  1  lb.  of  fine  gold),  ten-mark,  and  five- 
mark;  the  silver  coins,  the  five-mark  (20  to  1 
lb.  of  fine  silver),  two-mark,  one-mark,  50  pfen- 
nige  (200  to  1  lb.  of  fine  silver),  and  20  pfennige ; 
the  nickel  coins,  ten  pfennige  and  five  pfennige ; 
the  copper  coins,  two  pfennige  and  one  pfen- 
nig. The  French  metrical  system  of  weights 
and  measures  has  been  adopted,  and  made 
compulsory  from  Jan.  1,  1872. — The  railways 
of  Germany  belong  to  the  "  Association  of  Ger- 
man Railway  Companies,*'  which  was  estab- 
lished in  1846,  and  also  embraces  various  rail- 
ways of  the  Austro-Hnngarian  monarchy  and 
of  the  Netherlands.  The  aggregate  length  of 
the  German  railways  in  connection  with  the 
association  which  were  in  operation  on  Jan.  1, 
1878,  was  18,648  m.,  of  which  8,482  m.  be- 
longed to  Prussia,  1,910  to  Bavaria,  767  to 
Wartemberg,  689  to  Baden,  708  to  Hesse,  and 
518  to  Alsace-Lorraine.  The  constitution  of 
the  empire  obliges  the  particular  governments 
to  make  the  railways  of  their  states  a  uni- 
form part  of  the  general  German  railway  sys- 
tem, and  authorizes  the  central  government 
to  build  new  roads  even  without  the  consent 
of  the  particular  government,  whenever  the 
defence  of  Germany  or  the  interests  of  the 
common  trafiBc  require  it.  The  aggregate 
number  of  locomotives  employed  by  the  asso- 
ciation in  1868  was  6,878 ;  of  tenders,  5,897. 
The  total  number  of  passengers  carried  was 
117,000,000,  and  the  aggregate  earnings  were 
$166,000,000.  The  administration  of  postal 
affairs  and  telegraphs  (except  those  of  Bavaria 
and  WtLrtemberg)  also  belongs  to  the  central 
government ;  the  surplus  of  receipts  over  ex- 
penditures flows  into  the  imperial  exchequer. 
The  German- Austrian  and  Luxemburg  postal 
union  also  embraces  the  Austro-Hungarian 
monarchy;  the  German- Austrian  telegraph 
union,  the  Austro-Hungarian  monarchy,  and 
the  Netherlands.  The  aggregate  length  of  the 
telegraph  lines  of  the  empire  (inclusive  of  Ba- 
varia and  Wtlrtemberg)  in  1871  was  22,788 
m. ;  that  of  telegraph  wires,  78,818  m.;  the 
number  of  stations,  8,726 ;  the  number  of  post 
o£5ces,  6,896.  Regular  steamboat  lines  are  es- 
tablished on  the  Rhine  (since  1827),  Danube 
(1888),  Elbe,  Oder,  Vistula,  Main,  and  Moselle. 
There  are  two  transatlantic  lines  of  steamers 
from  Hamburg,  one  from  Bremen,  and  one  from 
Stettin. — Politically  Germany  is  divided  into 
26  states,  22  of  which  have  a  monarchical  and 
three  a  republican  form  of  government.  The 
constitution  of  one  (Alsace-Lorraine)  was  in 
1878  not  yet  decided.  The  kingdom  of  Prussia 
embraces  about  two  thirds  of  the  area  of  Ger- 
many, and  a  mi^jority  of  the  population  (24,- 
600,000  out  of  41,000,000).  Besides  Prussia 
there  are  three  kingdoms,  Bavaria,  Saxony,  and 
WUrtemberg ;  six  grand  duchies,  Baden,  Hesse- 
Darmstadt,  Mecklenburg-Schwerin,  Meoklen- 
burg-Strelitz,   Saxe-Weimar,  and  Oldenburg; 


750 


GERMANY 


five  dnchies,  Brunswick,  Saxe^Meizdogen,  Saze- 
Cobarg-Gotha,  Saxe-Altenbnrg,  and  Anhalt; 
seven  principalities,  Schwarzburg-Sondershan- 
sen,  Schwarzbnrg-Rndolstadt,  Lippe-Detmold, 
Schaumburg-Lippe,  Waldeok,  Renss  senior,  and 
Renss  junior;  three  free  cities,  Ltlbeck,  Bremen, 
and  Hamburg;  and  the  imperial  territory  of 
Alsace-Lorraine.  The  constitution  of  the  Ger- 
man empire  bears  date  April  16, 1871.  At  the 
head  of  the  empire  is  the  king  of  Prussia,  who 
has  the  title  of  ^^  German  Emperor.^'    The  em- 

Seror  represents  the  empire  international^, 
edares  war,  concludes  peace,  and  enters  into 
alliance  and  treaties  with  foreign  powers.  For 
a  declaration  of  war  the  consent  of  the  fed- 
eral council  is  required,  unless  an  attack  has 
been  made  upon  German  territory.  The  em- 
peror is  the  commander-in-chief  of  the  im- 
perial army  and  navy.  He  convokes,  opens, 
adjourns,  and  closes  the  federal  council  and 
the  Reichstag,  but  the  former  must  be  con- 
voked whenever  two  thirds  of  its  members 
demand  it  The  emperor  promulgates  the  laws 
and  superintends  their  execution.  The  legis- 
lative Actions  are  vested  in  the  federal  coun- 
cil (Bundetrath)  and  the  Reichstag.  The  mem- 
bers of  the  former  are  appointed  by  the  gov- 
ernments of  the  states.  It  consisted  in  1878 
of  58  members :  17  for  Prussia,  6  for  Bavaria, 
4  for  Wtlrtemberg,  4  for  Saxony,  8  for  Baden, 
8  for  Hesse,  2  for  Mecklenburg-Schwerin,  2 
for  Brunswick,  and  1  for  each  of  the  others 
except  Alsace-Lorraine.  It  has,  according  to 
the  constitution,  eight  standing  committees :  1, 
for  the  army  and  fortresses ;  2,  for  the  navy ; 
8,  for  tariff^  excise,  and  taxes;  4,  for  trade  and 
commerce;  5,  for  railways,  posts,  and  tele- 
graphs; 6,  for  civil  and  criminal  law;  7,  for 
financial  accounts ;  8,  for  foreign  affairs.  Since 
the  annexation  of  Alsace-Lorraine,  a  9th  com- 
mittee for  that  territory  has  been  added. 
The  committee  for  foreign  affairs  consists  of 
the  representatives  of  Bavaria,  Saxony,  and 
Wtlrtemberg,  and  those  of  two  other  states 
who  are  annually  elected  by  the  federal  coun- 
cil, under  the  presidency  of  Bavaria.  The 
emperor  appoints  the  committees  for  the  army 
and  navy,  except  one  member  in  the  com- 
mittee for  the  army,  who  is  appointed  by  Ba- 
varia; all  the  other  committees  are  elected  by 
the  federal  council.  The  Reichstag  is  elected 
by  universal  direct  suffrage  and  by  ballot,  at  the 
average  rate  of  one  deputy  for  every  100,000 
inhabitants.  It  consisted  in  1878  of  882  mem- 
bers :  286  for  Prussia,  48  for  Bavaria,  28  for 
Saxony,  17  for  Wiirtemberg,  14  for  Baden,  9 
for  Hesse,  6  for  Mecklenburg-Schwerin,  8  each 
for  Oldenburg,  Saxe-Weimar,  Brunswick,  and 
Hamburg,  2  each  for  Saxe-Meiningen,  Anhalt, 
and  Saxe-Ooburg-Gotha,  and  1  for  each  of 
the  other  states.  The  legislative  period  is 
three  years.  The  Reichstag  can  be  dissolved 
by  a  resolution  of  the  federal  council  with  the 
consent  of  the  emperor.  In  case  of  a  dissolu- 
tion, the  new  election  must  take  place  within 
60  days,  and  the  convocation  of  the  new  Reichs- 


tag within  90  days.  The  Reichstag  cannot  be 
adjourned  without  its  own  consent  for  a  period 
exceeding  80  days,  and  not  oftener  than  once 
during  one  session.  It  elects  its  president,  vice 
presidents,  and  secretaries.  Its  members  receive 
no  pay  or  indemnity,  are  during  the  exercise 
of  their  functions  free  from  responsibility,  and 
eivjoy  the  usual  constitutional  immunity.  For 
an  imperial  law  {Beich$ge»etz)  the  agreement 
of  the  minority  of  the  federal  councU  and  the 
Reichstag  is  requisite  and  sufficient.  Such 
sections  of  the  imperial  constitution  as  provide 
for  the  rights  of  particular  states  can  only  be 
changed  with  the  consent  of  the  state  con- 
cerned. States  which  fail  to  fulfil  their  fed- 
eral duties  can  be  coerced  by  means  of  an 
^^  execution,"  which  is  ordered  by  tlie  federal 
oouncO  and  carried  out  by  the  emperor.  Dis- 
putes between  states  are  decided  by  the  fed- 
eral council.  The  revenue  and  fexpenditnrea 
of  the  empire  must  annually  be  estimated  and 
presented  in  the  imperial  budget.  The  expen- 
ditures of  the  empire  are  first  met  by  the  sur- 
plus of  previous  years,  and  by  the  income  arising 
from  customs,  fVom  the  common  branches  of 
excise,  and  from  the  administration  of  postal 
affairs  and  telegraphs.  If  these  revenues  are  in- 
sufficient, the  balance  is  raised,  as  long  as  no  im- 
perial taxes  are  imposed,  by  contributions  irom 
the  several  states.  The  distribution  is  made 
by  the  imperial  chancell<Hr,  who  has  annually  to 
give  an  account  of  it  to  the  federal  council  and 
the  Reichstag.  In  the  budget  for  1878,  the 
ordinary  expenditures  were  estimated  at  (79,- 
660,000,  and  the  extraordinary  at  $6,900,000. 
The  direct  revenue  was  estimated  at  $70,000,- 
000,  leaving  a  balance  of  about  $16,000,000 
to  be  distributed  among  the  states.  The  pub- 
lic debt  on  April  8,  1878,  amounted  to  only 
$1,224,000,  which  was  soon  to  be  paid  off. — 
The  military  system  of  the  empire  is  the  same 
which  has  for  many  years  been  in  operation  in 
Prussia.  Every  German  capable  of  bearing 
arms  must  serve  for  three  years  in  the  stand- 
ing army,  for  four  years  in  the  reserve,  and  for 
five  years  in  the  landwehr.  No  substitution  is 
allowed.  The  emperor  is  the  commander  of 
the  entire  German  army  in  time  of  war,  and, 
with  the  exception  of  the  Bavarian  troops,  also 
in  time  of  peace.  All  tiie  German  troops  ar» 
bound  to  obey  unconditionally  the  orders  of 
the  emperor;  the  Bavarian  troops  have  this 
duty  only  in  time  of  war.    The  emperor  ap- 

Eoints  (except  in  the  Bavarian  army)  all  the 
igher  officers,  orders  the  erection  of  fortress- 
es in  any  part  of  the  empire  (in  Bavaria  and 
Wtlrtemberg  with  certain  reservations),  and  in 
case  of  threatened  disturbance  of  order  can  de- 
clare any  country  or  district  in  a  state  of  siege. 
The  army  of  the  empire  is  made  up  of  the  foK 
lowing  contingents:  1,  the  army  of  Prussia, 
with  which,  in  virtue  of  special  military  conven- 
tions, the  troops  of  Oldenburg,  Schwarzburg- 
Sondershausen,  Lippe,  Schaumburg  -  Lippe, 
Waldeck,  Ltbeck,  Bremen,  and  Hamburg  have 
been  incorporated ;  2,  the  contingents  of  Baden, 


GERMANY 


751 


Hessef  Saxe- Weimar,  the  three  Saxon  dnohies, 
Sohwarzbarg-Rudolstadt,  and  the  two  princi- 
palities  of  Benss  and  that  of  Anhalt,  the  troops 
of  which  states  are  likewise  by  special  conven- 
tions  most  closely  united  with  the  Prussian 
army,  and  have  all  their  officers  appointed  by 
the  emperor;  8,  the  contingents  of  the  two 
grand  duchies  of  Mecklenburg;  whose  officers 
are  likewise  appointed  by  the  emperor ;  4,  the 
contingent  of  Brunswick ;  6,  the  contingent  of 
Saxony,  forming  a  separate  army  corps;  6,  the 
contingent  of  wtlrtemberg,  one  corps;  7,  the 
contingent  of  Bavaria,  two  corps.  In  time  of 
war  several  corps  are  formed  into  an  army, 
each  army  embracing  from  two  to  four  corps. 
The  army  corps,  both  in  peace  and  war,  is 
subdivided  into  divisions,  brigades,  regiments, 
and  battalions.  In  1878  the  army  on  the  peace 
footing  embraced  17,086  officers  and  .4:01,659 
rank  and  file,  with  96,158  horses  and  1,198 
guns;  divided  into  148  regiments  of  infantry, 
26  battalions  of  chasseurs,  93  regiments  of 
cavalry,  85  regiments  of  field  artillery,  18 
regiments  of  foot  artillery,  19  battalions  of 
engineers,  18  battalions  of  train,  and  293  bat- 
talions in  depots  of  landwehr.  On  the  war 
footing  the  army  numbered  81,006  officers  and 
1,276,526  rank  and  file,  of  whom  676,486  were 
field  troops  with  siege  train,  246,798  reserve 
troops,  and  854,247  garrisons.  The  fleet  of 
war  of  the  empire  consisted  of  42  steamers  (of 
which  5  were  ironclads),  of  45,070  horse  power 
and  carrying  277  guns,  and  5  sailing  vessels, 
with  94  guns;  8  additional  steamers  were  in 
course  of  construction.  The  navy  was  manned 
by  8,840  seamen  and  boys,  and  officered  by  1 
admiral,  1  vice  admiral,  8  rear  admirals,  44 
captains,  and  237  lieutenants.  Germany  has 
four  ports  of  war,  Kiel,  Dantzic,  and  Stral- 
sund  on  the  Baltic,  and  Wilhelmshaven  in  the 
bay  of  Jahde  on  the  North  sea. — Protestantism 
is  professed  by  62 '8  per  cent,  of  the  population, 
Roman  Catholicism  by  86 '2.  The  Protestants 
of  the  state  churches,  who  are  divided  into 
Lutherans  and  German  Reformed  church,  or 
united  under  the  name  of  Evangelical  church, 
in  1871  numbered  25,581,709 ;  the  free  Prot- 
estant churches,  as  the  Baptists,  Methodists, 
Moravians,  Free  congregations,  Irvingites, 
&c.,  number  114,000.  In  Prussia,  the  Protes- 
tants constitute  65  per  cent,  of  the  total  popu- 
lation; in  Alsace-Lorraine,  17;  in  Bavaria,  27; 
in  Baden,  83 ;  in  Wtlrtemberg  and  Hesse,  68 ; 
in  Oldenburg,  76 ;  in  Hamburg,  91 ;  in  all  the 
other  states,  from  96  to  99.  The  Catholics  have 
thus  a  minority  in  only  three  states,  Bavaria, 
Baden,  and  Alsace-Lorraine.  Of  the  German 
princes  two,  the  kings  of  Bavaria  and  Saxony, 
are  Catholics.  The  number  of  Old  Catholics 
was  estimated  in  1878  at  55,000.  The  Jews 
number  499,000,  or  about  1*2  per  cent.;  they 
are  most  numerous  in  Hamburg,  where  they 
constitute  4*4  per  cent. ;  they  are  8'1  per  cent, 
in  Hesse,  2*7  in  Alsace-Lorraine,  1*8  in  Baden, 
1'8  in  Prussia,  from  1  to  1*3  in  Bavaria, 
Lippe,  Waldeck,  Anhalt,  Labeck,  and  Schaum- 
355  VOL.  VII. — 48 


burg,  and  less  than  1  per  cent,  in  all  the  other 
states.  The  Protestant  state  churches  in  all 
the  larger  and  most  of  the  smaller  states  have 
now  a  synodal  constitution ;  only  in  a  few 
of  the  latter  the  government  still  clings  to  the 
consistorial  constitution,  in  virtue  of  which  the 
church  is  wholly  ruled  by  consistories  appoint- 
ed by  the  state  governments.  There  has  been 
since  1846  a  bond  of  union  for  all  the  states 
(inclusive  of  Austria)  in  the  Evangelical  church 
conferences,  consisting  of  delegates  of  the  sev- 
eral church  governments,  who  meet  biennially 
for  the  discussion  of  the  common  interests  of 
the  German  Protestant  churches.  An  agita- 
tion for  the  convocation  of  an  imperial  synod 
(Reiehssynods)  has  begun,  and  is  gaining 
ground.  The  Roman  Catholic  church  has  five 
archbishops  (Cologne,  Posen,  Munich,  Bam- 
berg, and  Freiburg),  20  bishops,  and  three 
vicars  apostolic.  At  the  general  meetings  of 
the  German  bishops,  the  archbishop  of  Cologne 
presides.  The  Old  Catholics  in  1873  elected 
a  missionary  bishop  for  the  German  empire, 
who  was  recognized  by  the  governments  of 
Prussia,  Baden,  and  Hesse  as  a  bishop  of  the 
Catholic  church. — There  are  20  universities: 
Berlin,  Bonn,  Breslau,  Erlangen,  Freiburg, 
Giessen,  Gdttingen,  Greifswald,  Halle,  Heidel- 
berg, Jena,  Kiel,  Eonigsberg,  Leipsic,  Marburg, 
Munich,  Rostock,  Strasbnrg,  Tubingen,  and 
Wftrzburg.  Each  of  these  has  the  four  facul- 
ties of  theology,  law,  medicine,  and  philos- 
ophy. Breslau,  Bonn,  and  TQbingen  have  two 
theological  faculties.  Catholic  and  Protestant ; 
in  Munich,  WUrzburg,  and  Freiburg,  the  theo- 
logical faculty  is  Catholic,  in  all  the  others 
Protestant.  Among  the  universities  is  some- 
times also  reckoned  the  academy  of  Monster, 
with  two  faculties,  Catholic  theology  and  phi- 
losophy. Munich,  Wfirzburg,  and  Ttibingen 
have  each  a  faculty  of  political  economy,  and 
Tubingen  one  of  natural  sciences.  Altogether 
the  German  universities  in  1878  had  1,687  pro- 
fessors and  17,463  students.  Germany  has  10 
polytechnic  institutes,  a  number  of  theological 
schools,  agricultural  colleges,  mining  academies 
(Freiburg,  Berlin,  and  Clausthal),  and  other  spe- 
cial schools  of  every  kind.  There  are  880  gym- 
nasia, 14  HealgymnaHen,  214  progymnasia  and 
Latin  schools,  and  485  RedUchulen  and  Burger^ 
ichulen  of  a  higher  grade.  Together,  these  sec- 
ondary schools  have  177,000  pupils.  The  num- 
ber of  normal  schools  is  190;  of  public  primary 
schools,  58,000,  with  6,900,000  pupils.  On  an 
average  there  are  150  pupils  to  every  1,000  in- 
habitants ;  this  proportion  is  considerably  ex- 
ceeded in  Brunswick,  Anhalt,  Oldenburg,  Sax- 
ony, and  the  Thuringian  •  states,  but  it  is  not 
reached  in  Mecklenburg  and  Bavaria.  In  all 
German  states  the  attendance  of  all  children  at 
school  for  at  least  five  years  is  made  compulsory 
by  law ;  and  in  some  states,  especially  in  cen- 
tral Germany  and  in  Wtlrtemberg,  those  who 
are  unable  to  read  and  write  are  very  rare  ex- 
ceptions. Nearly  all  the  capital  cities  have 
large  public  libraries,  museums  of  art,  scientifio 


752 


GERMANY 


collectiong,  d;c.  Anatomical  and  mineralogical 
maseams,  zoological  and  botanical  gardens,  ob- 
servatories, &c.,  are  connected  with  most  of 
the  nniversities.  The  number  of  associations 
of  scholars  in  all  the  different  sciences  is  very 
great.  The  fine  arts  are  as  careftiUy  fostered 
as  science.  Not  even  Italy  is  in  advance  of 
Germany  in  musical  compositiou,  many  of  the 
greatest  composers  of  modem  times  being  Ger- 
mans, as  Handel,  Gluck,  Mozart,  Haydn,  Men- 
delssohn, Beethoven,  Weber,  Meyerbeer,  and 
Bichard  Wagner.  In  the  art  of  painting  the 
members  of  the  two  principal  German  schools, 
of  Munich  (Cornelius,  Kaulbach,  Piloti),  and 
of  DClBseldorf  (Schadow,  Lessing,  Bendemann), 
rival  tlie  best  artists  of  all  times.  In  sculpture 
Ranch,  Danneker,  and  Rietschel  take  rank 
with  Thorwaldsen  and  Oanova.  German  lit- 
erature is  exceedingly  prolific,  and  contains  a 
very  great  number  of  works  of  sterling  merit. 
The  number  of  new  publications  exceeded  9,000 
annually  from  1860  to  1868,  and  10,000  from 
1868  to  1873.— Of  the  eariiest  history  of  Ger- 
many no  records  remain.  The  Romans  before 
the  time  of  Julius  Oessar  knew  little  or  noth- 
ing of  the  people  living  E.  of  the  Rhine  and 
N.  of  the  Danube,  though  some  German  tribes 
had  invaded  the  Roman  empire  toward  the 
end  of  the  2d  century  B.  0.  At  the  time  of 
the  conquest  of  Gaul,  the  Romans  learned  that 
the  country  beyond  the  Rhine  contained  a  nu- 
merous people,  who,  although  barbarians  ac- 
cording to  the  standard  of  civilization  of  that 
time,  had  fixed  settlements  and  were  agricul- 
turists. They  were  called  Germani,  eithei",  as 
Strabo  asserts,  because  they  were  nearly  re- 
lated (brothers  german)  to  the  inhabitants  of 
Gaul,  or,  which  is  more  probable,  from  the 
weapons  they  carried  (ffer,  spear,  mann^  man). 
They  were  tall,  light-haired,  blue-eyed,  warlike, 
and  fond  of  independence,  intoxicating  liquors, 
and  gambling,  in  which  they  often  staked  their 
personal  liberty.  Their  chief  occupations  were 
nunting,  care  of  cattle,  and  the  use  of  arms. 
They  were  divided  into  nobles,  freemen,  and 
serfs.  They  paid  peculiar  respect  to  their  women 
and  the  aged,  and  honored  chastity  not  less  than 
valor.  They  elected  their  chiefs,  whom  the  Ro- 
mans often  call  kings.  They  had  priests,  bards, 
and  snored  groves,  and  worshipped  or  feared 
gods,  demigods,  and  giants.  Woden  and  his 
wife  Fria  or  Frigga,  Ziu,  and  Fro,  were  among 
their  chief  divinities.  They  believed  in  the 
immortality  of  the  soul,  or  in  life  in  Walhalla. 
Their  sacrifices  consisted  of  domestic  animals, 
including  horses,  and  sometimes  of  human  vic- 
tims. They  had  no  cities,  but  mostly  lived  in 
hamlets,  or  small  communities,  which  held  sev- 
eral species  of  property  in  common.  They 
were  divided  into  more  than  50  tribes,  of  which 
the  following  principally  (though  not  simul- 
taneously) figure  in  tne  history  of  the  Romans: 
the  Teutons,  Ubii,  Ohauci,  Oatti,  Rugii,  Batavi, 
Usipii  or  Usipetes,  Tencteri,  Bructeri,  Angri- 
varii,  Tribocci,  Cherusci,  Longobardi,  Suevi, 
Goths,    Marcomanni,    Hermunduri,    Burgnn- 


dians,  Vandals,  Gepid®,  Franks,  and  Alemanni. 
These  tribes  did  not  all  live  within  the  limits  of 
the  Germania  proper  of  the  Romans,  which  was 
bounded  by  the  North  sea  and  the  Baltic,  the 
upper  Elbe,  Danube,  and  Rhine.  The  districts 
S.  of  the  Danube  and  W.  of  the  Rhine,  which 
became  Roman  provinces  under  the  names  of 
RhsBtia,  Yindellcia,  and  Noricum,  and  Germa- 
nia Prima  and  Secunda  (in  Gaul),  were  most- 
ly inhabited  by  non-German  tribes,  and  often 
exposed  to  the  incursions  of  the  Germans.  One 
of  these  incursions  was  headed  by  Ariovistus, 
who  was  driven  from  Gaul  by  CsBsar,  in  the 
first  year  of  his  Gallic  campaigns.  Csesar  and 
the  generals  of  Augustus  nominally  subjected 
Germany;  but  when  the  Romans  attempted 
to  convert  their  nominal  dominion  into  real 
possession  of  the  country,  they  were  ignomin- 
iously  defeated,  and  Germany  was  liberate 
by  the  chief  of  the  Cheruscan  tribe,  Arminins, 
A.  D.  9.  The  subsequent  expedition  of  G«r- 
manicus  was  of  little  avail.  From  that  time 
the  history  of  Germany  is  in  part  lost  in 
vague  traditions  and  in  part  connected  with 
the  history  of  the  Roman  empire  for  several 
centuries,  until  the  country,  over  which  the 
whole  torrent  of  the  great  migration  of  nations 
had  swept,  became  gradually  united  with  the 
great  Frankish  empire  of  Clo\ds  (481-611)  and 
his  successors.  Among  these  Charlemagne, 
or  Earl  the  Great  (771-814),  consolidated  the 
empire  by  subjecting  the  Saxons,  the  last  Ger- 
man tribes  who  had  until  then  succeeded  in 
maintaining  their  independence,  and  was  in 
800  proclaimed  Roman  emperor  by  the  pope 
and  the  people  of  Rome.  Charlemagne^s  rule 
extended  from  the  Ebro  in  Spain  to  the  Elbe 
in  the  northeast,  the  Raab  (Hungary)  in  the 
east,  and  beyond  the  Po  in  Italy.  Ue  com- 
pelled the  Saxons  to  become  Christians,  and  in- 
troduced among  them  a  feudal  aristocracy  and 
a  strong  temporal  power  of  the  clergy.  The 
contest  between  these  and  the  imperial  power 
fills  the  history  of  Germany  for  centuries.  The 
feeble  successor  of  Charlemagne  was  unable  to 
keep  the  vast  empire  together.  In  848  it  was 
divided  between  his  three  sons,  Italy  falling 
to  the  share  of  Lothaire,  France  to  Charles 
the  Bald,  and  Germany  to  I^uis.  The  Ger- 
man kingdom  was  at  that  time  bounded  W. 
by  the  Rhine,  E.  by  the  Elbe,  the  Saale,  and 
the  Bohemian  Forest,  and  S.  by  the  Danube. 
The  sons  of  Louis  subdivided  Germany  into 
three  lesser  kingdoms,  but  these  were  re- 
united by  Charles  the  Fat,  and  for  a  brief 
time  even  France  was  once  more  joined  to 
Germany  (882-887).  Amulf,  a  nephew  of 
Charles,  was  elected  German  king,  and  was 
succeeded  (899)  by  his  son  Louis,  snmamed 
the  Child,  with  whom  the  Carlovin^an  dy- 
nasty became  extinct  (911).  Germany  at  that 
time  consisted  of  a  number  of  great  territories 
(duchies),  the  rulers  of  which,  together  with 
their  most  powerful  vassals,  elected  the  king, 
whose  power,  however,  depended  very  much 
upon  the  good  will  of  the  dukes.    The  Fran- 


GERMANY 


768 


conian,  Conrad  I.  (911-918),  nnsacoessfiilly 
endeavored  to  make  his  authority  respected 
hj  the  mighty  Saxon  duke  Henry,  and  on  his 
deathhed  entreated  his  sahjeots  to  elect  the 
dnke  his  successor.  Henry  I.  (919-986)  re- 
stored the  empire  hy  victories  over  the  Danes, 
Slavs,  and  Magyars.  His  son  Otho  I.  (986- 
978)  extended  the  honndaries  beyond  the 
Elbe  and  Saale  rivers,  defeated  the  Magyars, 
who  had  invaded  the  country,  so  completely 
(955)  that  they  never  ventured  to  return,  and 
conquered  Lombardy.  From  that  time  the 
conquest  of  Italy  became  one  of  the  principal 
aims  of  nearly  all  rulers  of  Germany.  For 
many  of  them  the  barren  honor  of  being 
crowned  by  the  pope  emperor  of  the  Roman 
empire  became  the  chief  object  of  all  their 
desires,  to  obtain  which  they  allowed  their 
power  in  Germany  to  be  encroached  npon 
more  and  more  by  the  vassal  princes.  The 
Saxon  dynasty  ruled  till  1024  (Otho  II.  978- 
983,  Otho  III.  988-1002,  Henry  II.  1002-'24), 
and  was  succeeded  by  the  Franconian.  Con- 
rad II.  (1024-^89),  an  energetic  and  well- 
meaning  man,  conquered  Burgundy  for  the 
German  empire.  His  son,  Henry  III.  (1089- 
'56),  extended  the  German  influence  over  the 
Slavic  countries  and  Hungary,  and  succeeded 
for  a  time  in  maintainiug  the  royal  authority 
against  all  attacks  of  the  aristocracy  and  hie- 
rarchy. But  the  youthful  Henry  IV.,  who  suc- 
ceded  to  the  throne  in  1056,  was  unable  to  re- 
sist the  power  of  the  papacy,  then  at  its  ze- 
nith under  Gregory  YIL,  and  was  obliged  to 
yield  some  of  the  most  important  prerogatives 
of  the  crown.  His  son,  Henry  V.  (1106-'25), 
was  the  last  ruler  of  the  Franconian  dynasty. 
After  the  brief  reign  of  Lothaire  II.,  the  dy- 
nasty of  the  Hohenstaufen  (Swabians)  succeed- 
ed to  the  throne,  and  gave  to  the  country  five 
sovereigns:  Conrad  III.  (1188-'52),  Frederick 
I.  (1152-'90),  Henry  VI.  (1190-'97),  Frede- 
rick II.  (1215-'50),  and  Conrad  IV.  (1260-'54). 
Between  Henry  VI.  and  Frederick  II.,  Philip 
of  Swabia  and  Otho  IV.  of  Brunswick  reigned 
as  rival  kings,  and  after  the  death  of  Philip 
Otho  alone.  The  reign  of  the  Hohenstaufen 
dynasty  represents  the  most  glorious  period 
of  German  history  during  the  middle  ages. 
Frederick  I.,  sur named  Barbarossa  {der  Roth- 
hari)^  still  figures  in  the  popular  songs  and 
traditions  of  Germany  as  the  ideal  emperor, 
the  representative  of  German  national  power 
and  splendor.  To  conquer  Italy  and  to  break 
the  temporal  power  of  the  pope  were  the  great 
objects  of  the  emperors  of  this  house.  After 
a  gigantic  struggle,  lasting  nearly  a  century, 
they  succumbed.  From  1250  to  1278  anarchy 
prevailed  in  Germany.  Several  rival  kings 
were  elected  (William  of  Holland,  Richard  of 
Cornwall,  Alfonso  of  Castile,  and  Henry 
Raspe),  but  none  of  them  obtained  any  au- 
thority. At  last,  in  1278,  Count  Rudolph  of 
Hapsburg  was  elected  king,  and,  by  vigorously 
suppressing  the  feuds  of  the  knights  and  bar- 
ons, reestablished  at  least  the  semblance  of 


royal  authority.  At  the  same  time  he  ob- 
tained for  his  family  several  important  territo- 
ries (Austria,  Styria,  Carinthia,  Camiola,  and 
Tyrol).  After  his  decease  (1291)  Adolph, 
count  of  Nassau,  was  elected  king  by  the 
dukes,  who  were  jealous  of  the  growing  pow- 
er of  the  Hapsburgs ;  but  Albert,  Rudolph's 
son,  wrested  the  crown  from  him.  Under 
Albert's  reign  (1298-1808)  the  Swiss  cantons 
declared  their  independence  of  Austria.  His 
successors  were  Henry  VII.  of  Luxemburg 
a808-'13),  Louis  IV.  of  Bavaria  (1318-'47), 
Charles  IV.  of  Luxemburg  (1847-'78),  who  by 
a  sort  of  written  constitution  (golden  bull)  de- 
fined and  increased  the  power  of  the  prince 
electors,  Wenoeslas  or  Wenzel  (1878-1400), 
so  miserable  a  ruler  that  it  was  found  neces- 
sary to  dismiss  him,  Rupert  of  the  Palatinate 
(1400-'10),  and  Sigismund,  brother  of  Wen- 
oeslas. During  the  reign  of  the  latter  the  at- 
tempt of  Huss  to  reform  the  doctrines  of  the 
church  was  the  prmcipal  event.  Huss  was 
burned  at  the  stake  (1415),  at  the  council  of 
Constance,  the  emperor  having  ignominious- 
ly  broken  his  pledge  to  protect  him  during  his 
stay  at  Constance.  This  treachery  provoked 
the  bloody  war  of  the  Hussites.  After  Sigis- 
mund's  decease  (1487),  the  royal  or  imperial 
crown  of  Germany  (the  title  of  Roman  em- 
peror having  gradually  supplanted  that  of 
German  king)  remained  continuously  with  the 
Hapsburg  family.  The  energetic  and  liberd 
Albert  II.  (1488-^89)  was  succeeded  by  the 
inert  and  feeble  Frederick  III.  (or  IV.,  as 
Frederick  the  Fair,  the  rival  of  Louis  the  Ba- 
varian, had  borne  the  title  of  king  as  Frederick 
III.),  who  bore  the  royal  title  for  more  than 
half  a  century  (1440-'98).  His  son,  Maximil- 
ian I.  (1498-1519),  a  chivalrous  man  of  noble 
impulses,  but  lacking  perseverance,  organized 
the  empire  more  systematically  than  had  ever 
been  attempted,  but  was  unsuccessful  in  his 
efforts  to  establish  a  national  army.  Under 
his  reign  the  reformation  of  the  church  was 
begun  by  Luther  (1617).  Once  more  Germany 
became  the  ruling  power  of  Europe  under 
Charles  V.,  grandson  of  Maximilian,  who  uni- 
ted the  crowns  of  Spain,  the  Netherlands, 
Germany,  and  Naples,  and  vigorously  opposed 
the  efforts  of  France  to  obtain  control  of  Italy. 
But  even  during  his  reign  the  germs  of  civil 
and  political  dissension  contained  in  the  refor- 
mation of  the  church  began  to  be  developed  in 
Germany.  A  formidable  insurrection  of  the 
peasants,  who  longed  for  civil  as  well  as  reli- 
gious liberty,  was  quelled  with  difficulty  by 
the  princes  under  the  sanction  of  Luther,  who 
was  only  too  ready  to  scout  the  idea  of  an 
amelioration  of  the  political  condition  of  the 
people.  The  Protestant  princes  of  northern 
Germany  leagued  themselves  against  the  im- 
perial authority,  and  though  Charles  defeated 
them  (1547)  by  the  aid  of  Maurice  of  Saxony, 
he  was  compelled  by  his  former  ally  to  grant 
important  privileges  to  the  Lutheran  church 
(1552).     In  the  mean  time  the  bishoprics  of 


754 


OEBMANY 


Ton],  Metz,  and  Verdnn  bad  been  wrested 
from  the  German  empire  by  France.  Dia- 
^asted  with  the  sucoesBes  of  his  adversaries, 
Oharles  resigned  the  crown«  He  was  sncceed- 
ed  by  his  brother  Ferdinand  I.  (1656-'64). 
The  imperia]  authority  was  rapidly  sinking  to 
utter  insignificance.  France  in  the  west  and 
Turkey  in  the  east  were  hovering  on  the  bor- 
ders of  Germany,  ready  on  every  occasion  to 
foster  the  internal  dissensions  of  the  empire 
and  to  conquer  from  it  valuable  possessions. 
The  feeble  Maximilian  II.  (1664-'76),  the  vision- 
ary Rudolph  II.  (1576-1612),  and  his  brother 
Matthias  (1612-^19),  were  unable  to  arrest  the 
political  decay.  The  thirty  years*  war  (1618- 
^48),  which  devastated  and  impoverishea  Ger- 
many, destroying  all  industry  and  commerce, 
left  the  imperial  authority  completely  shat- 
tered, and  Germany  cut  up  into  a  multitude 
of  petty  states,  whose  rulers  were  absolute 
monarchs  in  fact,  if  not  in  name.  The  perse- 
cutions perpetrated  by  Ferdinand  11.  (1619- 
'87)  on  his  rrotestant  subjects  almost  equalled 
those  of  Philip  II.  of  Spain.  The  peace  of 
Westphalia  (1648),  concluded  by  Ferdinand  III. 
(1637-57),  tore  Alsace  from  the  German  em- 
pire. Under  the  pedantic  and  feeble-minded 
Leopold  I.  (1658-1706)  Germany  took  part  in 
the  coalition  against  the  rising  power  of  France, 
but,  although  successful  in  war,  did  not  obtain 
any  signal  advantages  by  the  peace.  From 
that  time  the  title  of  German  emperor  ap- 
peared only  as  an  empty  surname  of  the  rulers 
of  Austria  (Joseph  I.,  Oharles  VI.,  Francis  I., 
the  husband  of  Maria  Theresa,  whose  enemy, 
Charles  Albert  of  Bavaria,  was  also  crowned 
as  Oharles  YIL,  &c.).  In  fact,  Germany  was 
merely  a  maze  of  little  despotisms,  among  which 
a  few  larger  states  were  endeavoring  to  obtain 
a  voice  in  the  councils  of  Europe.  Prussia  (a 
kingdom  since  1701),  through  the  genius  of 
Frederick  the  Great,  established  a  great  Prot- 
estant power,  able  to  cope  with  Austria,  but 
at  the  same  time  anxious  to  prevent  the  re- 
construction of  a  great  united  empire.  Thus 
the  attempts  of  the  emperor  Joseph  II.  (1765- 
'90,  or  rather  1780-'90,  when  he  reigned  him- 
self) to  reestablish  the  imperial  authority  in 
southern  Germany  were  baffled  by  Prussia. 
At  last  the  tempest  of  the  French  revolution 
prostrated  the  tottering  fabric  of  the  German 
empire.  Vanquished  by  the  armies  of  France, 
the  emperor  Francis  II.,  son  and  successor 
(1792)  of  Leopold  II.,  ceded  by  the  treaties  of 
Oampo  Formio  (1797)  and  Lun^ville  (1801)  the 
country  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Bhine.  The 
petty  rulers  who  lost  their  possessions  in  this 
way  were  indemnified  with  the  territories  of 
ecclesiastical  princes.  In  1805  several  states 
seceded  from  the  empire  and  became  allies 
of  France ;  and  when  at  last,  in  1806,  a  num- 
ber of  German  states  formed  the  Rhenish 
confederation  under  the  protectorate  of  Na- 
poleon, the  emperor  Francis  resigned  the  Ger- 
man crown,  and  the  empire  was  formally  dis- 
solved.   A  number  of  the  smaller  territories 


were  annexed  to  the  larger  states,  and  most 
of  the  free  cities,  which  while  under  the  nomi- 
nal authority  of  the  erilperors  had  enjoyed  a 
sort  of  republican  government,  lost  their  inde- 
pendence. The  efforts  of  Prussia  to  oppose 
to  this  confederation  a  North  German  leagne 
having  been  frustrated,  nearly  the  whole  of 
Germany,  with  the  exception  of  Austria  and 
Prussia,  was  reduced  to  a  state  of  French  vas- 
salage. The  minions  of  the  emperor  Napoleon 
ruled  the  country  with  an  iron  rod,  and  if  they 
removed  many  of  the  most  glaring  remnants  of 
feudal  despotism,  they  introduced  in  their  stead 
all  the  abuses  of  an  irresponsible  military  re- 
gime, and  carried  their  extortions  to  a  fright- 
ful extent.  The  sums  drawn  from  Germany  by 
Napoleon  under  the  designation  of  contribu- 
tions or  subsidies  must  be  counted  by  hundreds 
of  millions.  The  independence  of  the  coun- 
try was  reestablished  by  the  coalition  of  Aus- 
tria, Bussia,  Prussia,  Sweden,  and  Great  Britain 
(1818-'15).  A  reconstruction  of  the  old  em- 
pire having  been  rendered  impossible  by  the  po- 
sition which  Prussia  had  assumed,  a  confedera- 
tion was  formed  by  all  those  states  which  had 
contrived  to  maintain  their  sovereignty  during 
the  Napoleonic  troubles  (June  8, 1815).  Their 
number,  which  had  exceeded  800  at  the  time 
of  the  dissolution  of  the  empire,  had  then  been 
reduced  to  less  than  40,  and  a  further  reduc- 
tion was  made  afterward  by  the  extinction  of 
several  petty  dynasties.  The  enthusiastio  hope 
of  the  German  people  that  Germany  would  once 
more  appear  as  a  powerful  united  nation  was 
sorely  disappointed.  The  diet,  being  only  a 
permanent  convention  of  the  representatives  of 
princes,  all  jealous  of  their  individual  sovereign- 
ty and  unwilling  to  recognize  the  claims  of  ^e 
nation,  became  an  abject  tool  of  political  op- 
pression, and  a  harmonious  cooperation  of  tlie 
states  existed  only  in  regard  to  repressive  meas- 
ures against  all  progressive  movements.  Wher- 
ever the  people  of  a  single  state  endeavored  to 
obtain  free  institutions,  the  diet  found  occasion 
to  interfere  in  favor  of  absolute  monarchical 
power.  None  of  the  promises  contained  in  the 
act  of  confederation  in  r^ard  to  a  general  tariff 
le^slation,  a  common  currency  and  postal  sys- 
tem, &o. ,  were  fulfilled.  Whatever  was  attained 
in  this  respect  was  due  to  the  efforts  of  single 
states.  Thus  the  Prussian  Zollverein  united  a 
large  portion  of  the  German  states  on  the  ba- 
sis of  common  material  interests,  and,  by  the 
great  advantages  it  secured  to  its  members, 
kept  alive  the  longings  for  a  stUl  more  complete 
nation al  union.  The  French  revolution  of  1830 
found  an  echo  in  some  of  the  smaller  German 
states,  whose  rulers  were  compelled  to  grant 
written  constitutions  to  their  subjects.  A  vig- 
orous political  life  began  to  be  developed  in  the 
southwestern  states,  and  after  the  accession  to 
the  Prussian  throne  of  Frederick  William  IV. 
(1840),  in  northern  Germany  also  the  demands 
of  the  people  became  more  distinctly  defined, 
while  in  Austria  all  popular  aspirations  were 
suppressed  by  the  despotic  rule  of  Prince  Met- 


GERMAKY 


755 


temich.  Immediately  on  the  downfall  of  the 
Orleans  dynasty  in  France  (Feb.  24,  1848),  in- 
surrections broke  out  in  all  the  German  states. 
The  princes,  unable  to  resist  these  movements, 
hastened  to  yield  to  the  popular  demands.  A 
national  congress  of  representatives  of  the 
people  (German  parliament)  was  convoked  by 
a  provisional  self-constituted  assembly  (Var- 
parl€nnent%  and  met  at  Frankfort,  May  18, 
1848.  It  formed  a  provisional  national  gov- 
ernment, consisting  of  a  vicar  of  the  empire 
(Rsiohtverweser)  and  a  ministry.  Archdnke 
John  of  Austria  was  elected  vicar,  June  29 ;  J)ut 
in  spite  of  his  professions  of  zeal  for  national 
liberty  and  union,  it  soon  became  evident  that 
his  principal  aim  was  the  frustration  of  all  ener- 
getic action  on  the  part  of  the  parliament.  Dis- 
tracted by  the  troubles  in  Holstein,  which  Den- 
mark endeavored  to  wrest  entirely  from  its 
connection  with  the  German  confederation,  the 
parliament  made  but  slow  progress  in  framing  a 
national  constitution.  When  at  last  the  bill  of 
rights  had  been  agreed  upon  (December,  1848), 
the  counter-revolution  had  already  been  vic- 
torious in  Austria  and  Prussia,  and  it  became 
apparent  that  these  great  powers  would  not 
submit  to  a  constitution  framed  by  the  popular 
congress.  Then  a  strong  party  began  to  ad- 
vocate the  exclusion  of  Austria  from  the  new 
empire.  This  party,  whose  principal  leader 
was  Gagem,  prevailed  in  the  parliament,  and 
elected  the  king  of  Prussia  German  emperor 
(March  28,  1849) ;  but  he  declined  the  honor. 
Despairing  of  success,  a  number  of  members 
of  parliament  resigned  their  position,  thus  giv- 
ing a  minority  to  the  democratic  party,  who 
elected  a  provisional  regency  of  the  empire, 
consisting  of  Raveaux,  Yogt,  Schfller,  H. 
Simon,  and  Becher.  Reduced  to  less  than  one 
third  of  its  original  number,  the  parliament 
adjourned  to  Stuttgart,  May  30,  1849,  and  en- 
deavored to  raise  a  popular  revolution  in  favor 
of  the  new  national  constitution.  But  onlv 
the  people  of  Baden,  a  small  part  of  Wtlrtem- 
berg,  and  the  Palatinate  (Bavaria)  followed  the 
example  of  Saxony,  which  had  already  risen 
in  revolution.  The  insurrection  at  Dresden 
had  been  suppressed  after  a  sanguinary  battle 
by  Prussian  soldiery;  and  the  revolution  in 
Baden,  although  successful  for  a  few  weeks, 
was  likewise  crushed  in  a  brief  campaign  by 
the  Prussian  army  (June).  The  rump  parlia- 
ment of  Stuttgart  had  in  the  mean  time  been 
forcibly  dissolved  by  the  government  of  Wftr- 
temberg.  Having  thus  got  rid  of  all  revolu- 
tionary support,  the  Prussian  government  at- 
tempted to  obtain  the  mastership  of  Germany 
on  its  own  account.  Austria,  almostprostrated 
at  the  time  by  the  Hungarian  war,  would  have 
been  able  to  offer  little  or  no  resistance  to  such 
a  movement  if  carried  on  energetically  and 
rapidly ;  but  the  Prussian  government  was  no 
match  for  the  bold  and  shrewd  Prince  Schwar- 
zenberg,  at  that  time  the  soul  of  the  Austrian 
government.  In  March,  1 850,  Prussia  assembled 
at  Erfurt  a  new  parliament  of  representatives 


of  those  petty  states  which  were  too  powerless 
to  resist  its  demands,  and  a  sort  of  federal  cour 
stitution  was  adopted  by  it,  but  never  obtained 
any  real  existence.  To  cut  short  all  further 
attempts  of  Prussia,  Austria  convoked  the  old 
diet,  which  had  been  formally  dissolved  in 
1848.  Prussia  refusing  to  recognize  the  diet, 
a  hostile  conflict  between  Austria  and  Prussia 
seemed  almost  inevitable.  The  armies  of  both 
were  marching  to  Hesse-Oassel,  and  a  skir- 
mish of  the  outposts  bad  taken  place  near 
Bronzell  (Nov.  8,  1860),  when  suddenly  the 
Prussian  government  lost  courage  and  sub- 
mitted to  all  the  demands  of  Austria.  The 
first  fruits  of  the  restoration  of  the  diet  were 
the  intervention  in  Schleswig-Holstein  in  favor 
of  Denmark,  the  abolition  of  the  national  bill 
of  rights  and  of  free  constitutions  in  several 
of  the  smaller  states,  and  the  sale  by  auction 
of  the  national  navy  which  had  been  created 
by  voluntary  contributions  of  the  people  du- 
ring the  revolution.  While  in  these  questions 
the  influence  of  Austria  prevailed,  Prussia  bal- 
anced its  loss  of  political  power  by  the  en* 
largement  of  its  commercial  influence.  Han- 
over became  a  member  of  the  ZoUverein  (Sep- 
tember, 1851),  and  was  soon  followed  by  Old- 
enburg and  Schanmburg-Lippe.  The  efforts 
of  Austria  to  enter  the  Zollverein,  in  order 
to  destroy  the  Prussian  influence  even  there, 
were  successfully  resisted  by  Prussia,  but  a 
postal  and  telegraph  union  of  all  German 
states  was  accomplished.  During  the  east- 
em  war  (1853-'6)  the  German  confederation 
followed  a  vacillating  policy,  swaying  to  and 
fro  between  Austria  and  Prussia.  In  April, 
1854,  those  two  powers  concluded  a  treaty  of 
alliance,  guaranteeing  to  each  other  their  re- 
spective possessions  against  all  enemies  what- 
ever. The  diet  joined  in  this  treaty  July  24^ 
and  in  December  added  another  clause,  prom- 
ising the  assistance  of  all  Germany  to  Austria 
if  its  army  of  occupation  in  the  Danubian 
principalities  should  be  attacked.  Prepara- 
tion for  war  was  resolved  upon  by  the  diet, 
Feb.  8,  1855.  After  that  the  position  of  Prus- 
sia toward  Austria  became  more  reserved, 
and  Austria,  despairing  of  active  assistance 
on  the  part  of  the  confederation,  was  compel- 
led to  relinquish  its  intention  to  take  part  in 
the  war  against  Russia.  In  November,  1856, 
the  diet  adopted  a  resolution  promising  to  as- 
sist Prussia  in  its  attempts  to  reconquer  Neuf- 
ch4tel,  but  the  proffered  assistance  was  not 
required.  In  1857  the  interference  of  the  diet 
was  requested  against  the  attempts  of  Den- 
mark to  merge  the  duchies  of  Holstein  and 
Lauenburg  completely  in  the  Danish  kingdom. 
After  long  hesitation  and  delay  a  resolution 
was  adopted  in  1858,  by  which  the  Danish 
government  was  compelled  to  submit  its  pro- 
ject of  a  new  political  organization  to  the 
legislative  assemblies  of  the  duchies.  When, 
in  the  beginning  of  1859,  difficulties  arose  be- 
tween France  and  Austria  on  account  of  the 
state  of  Italy,  a  violent  anti-Napoleonic  feeling 


756 


GEEMANY 


manifested  itself  in  Germany.  The  Pmssian 
floyernment,  though  willing  to  defend  Anstria^B 
German  provinces,  and  even  the  Lomhardo- 
Yenetian  kingdom,  under  certain  restrictions, 
would  not  stir  unless  it  should  ohtain  the  mil- 
itary leadership  of  all  Germany,  irrespective 
of  all  limitations  contained  in  the  act  of  con- 
federation. After  long  and  angry  discussions 
the  leadership  was  conceded  to  Prussia  hy  tlie 
smaller  states.  A  circular  despatch  of  the 
Russian  government,  covertly  threatening  Ger- 
many if  it  should  interfere  in  the  Italian  war, 
had  no  effect  hut  the  assumption  hy  Prussia 
of  a  more  defiant  attitude  toward  France,  and 
the  issue  of  an  order  hy  the  prince  regent  to 
mobilize  two  thirds  of  the  Prussian  army 
(June,  1859).  A  few  days  later,  the  Prussian 
cielegate  in  the  diet  moved  that  two  federal 
army  corps  under  the  command  of  Bavaria  be 
stationed  on  the  upper  Rhine,  and  one  Prus- 
sian corps  on  the  Main,  and  that  the  9th  and 
10th  federal  army  corps  be  united  with  the 
Prussian  army.  This  motion  was  followed  by 
another,  to  the  effect  that  the  diet  should  ap- 
point a  commander-in-chief  of  the  non-Prus- 
sian and  non- Austrian  army  corps.  Thus  the 
German  confederation  appeared  to  be  on  the 
very  point  of  waging  war  against  France,  under 
Prussian  leadership,  when  all  at  once  Austria, 
unwilling  to  sacrifice  its  preponderating  infiu- 
ence  in  Germany  to  the  doubtful  project  of  pre- 
serving its  Italian  provinces,  introduced  in  the 
diet  a  resolution  to  mobilize  the  whole  federal 
army,  and  to  appoint  the  Pmssian  prince  re- 
gent commander-in-chief,  sabject  to  the  con- 
trol of  the  diet,  or  rather  of  Austria,  the  latter 
being  always  certain  of  a  mi^iority  in  the  diet. 
This  movement  at  once  neutralized  all  advan- 
tages Prussia  had  obtained.  And  when  the 
preliminaries  of  peace  were  agreed  upon  by 
the  emperors  of  France  and  Austria  at  Yilla- 
franca,  July  11,  the  dissension  and  jealousy 
between  Austria  and  Prussia,  those  great  im- 
pediments to  German  unity,  were  more  appa- 
rent than  ever  before.  A  passage  in  the  Aus- 
trian emperor's  proclamation  of  peace,  in  which 
he  asserted  that  his  natural  allies  had  forsaken 
him,  and  that  the  neutral  powers  would  have 
imposed  upon  him  less  favorable  terms  of  peace 
than  were  offered  by  his  adversary,  gave  rise 
to  an  acrimonious  correspondence  between  the 
Austrian  and  Prussian  governments.  The  lat- 
ter succeeded  in  proving  that  the  assertion 
of  the  emperor  had  no  foundation  in  fact,  and 
that  he  had  been  purposely  misled  by  false 
representations  of  the  French  ruler  at  the  in- 
terview of  Yillafranca.  This  singular  discov- 
ery did  not  render  the  feeling  of  Austria  any 
more  friendly  toward  Prussia.  A  paper  war 
was  carried  on  by  the  presses  of  southern  and 
northern  Germany,  and  while  the  govern- 
ments of  those  petty  states  who  had  been  the 
most  forward  in  their  hostile  demonstrations 
against  France  were  eagerly  courting  the  favor 
of  Napoleon  III.,  the  most  sinister  threats 
against  Pnuwia  came  from  Yienna,  Munich,  and 


Carlsmhe.  The  opinion  became  prevalent  that, 
Austria  having  been  humbled  by  France,  if  a 
war  for  the  conquest  of  the  left  bank  of  the 
Rhine  should  be  waged  by  France  against 
Prussia,  the  latter  would  not  obtain  any  assist- 
ance either  from  Austria  or  the  smaller  German 
states.  The  hostility  of  the  two  great  secticms 
of  Germany  manifested  itself  in  sanguinary  riots 
in  the  mixed  Prussian  and  Austrian  garrison  of 
the  federal  capital  (Aug.  6-8).  Feeble  move- 
ments were  initiated  by  the  liberal  party  to 
arrest  the  progress  of  disunion,  and  to  prompt 
the.  Prussian  government  to  take  the  lead  in 
reforming  the  federal  constitution.  But  Pms- 
sia,  disheartened  and  unwilling  openly  to  op- 
pose the  infiuence  of  Austria,  declined  the 
destiny  which  the  liberal  party  pressed  upon 
it,  and  would  promise  nothing  more  than  the 
promotion  of  liberal  institutions  by  the  power 
of  its  example.  Austria,  on  the  other  hand, 
made  some  show  of  concessions  to  the  popular 
wishes,  in  order  to  divide  the  current  of  the 
sympathies  of  the  popular  party  in  Germany. 
A  committee  was  appointed  by  the  emperor 
(August)  to  draw  up  a  constitution  on  the 
basis  of  provincial  representation  for  the 
Austrian  empire.  At  the  same  time  another 
movement  was  initiated  in  Bavaria,  the  object 
of  which  was  the  creation  of  a  separate  con- 
federation of  the  central  German  states,  as  a 
third  great  power  within  Germany.  The  same 
idea  had  been  promoted  by  Bavaria  in  1850, 
and  then  led  to  confusion  and  disunion.  Not- 
withstanding the  discouraging  conduct  of  the 
Prussian  government,  the  Uberal  party  of  Ger- 
many on  Sept.  16  established  a  national  associ- 
ation, the  Nationalverein,  to  agitate  and  pro- 
mote in  all  the  particular  states  the  conversion 
of  the  confederation  (Staatenhund)  into  one 
compact  federal  state  w^ith  a  national  represen- 
tation {BundeB8taat\  under  the  headship  of 
Prussia.  Prussia  in  no  way  expressed  approval 
of  this  proiect,  but  it  soon  took  occasion  to 
oppose  in  the  federal  diet  the  policy  of  Austria 
and  its  allies.  It  moved  on  Oct.  10  that  the  lib- 
eral constitution  of  Hesse-Cassel  of  1831,  which 
in  1852  had  been  abolished  by  the  elector  in  an 
illegal  way,  be  restored.  The  legislature  of 
Hesse-Cassel  fully  approved  of  this  proposition, 
but  in  the  federal  diet  the  Austrian  infiuence 
led  to  its  rejection.  In  May,  1860,  the  motion 
of  Prussia  for  a  reform  of  the  military  consti- 
tution of  the  German  confederation  was  like- 
wise rejected.  The  dissatisfiaction  which  this 
attitude  of  Austria  caused  among  the  liberals 
of  the  central  and  southern  states  was  some- 
what mitigated  by  the  publication  of  the  new 
fundamental  law  in  Austria,  on  Oct.  20,  1860, 
which  appeared  as  a  concession  to  constitu- 
tional principles.  Prussia,  on  the  other  hand, 
greatly  offended  the  liberals  by  the  ultra-con- 
servative principles  professed  by  King  "Wi]- 
liam  I.,  who  on  Jan.  2,  1861,  succeeded  his 
brother  Frederick  William  lY.  In  December 
the  Saxon  minister  Yon  Beust,  one  of  the  most 
ardent  champions  of  greater  national  unityf 


GERMANY 


757 


presented  to  Prussia  a  new  project  of  the  fed- 
eral constitution,  according  to  which  a  repre- 
sentation of  the  German  nation  at  the  federal 
diet  was  to  be  created  by  the  establishment  of 
an  assembly  of  delegates  chosen  by  the  diets 
of  the  several  states.  Austria  declared  its 
readiness  to  accept  this  project,  which  gave  to 
Austria  and  Prussia  an  equal  number  of  dele- 
gates, if  she  should  be  allowed  to  enter  the 
confederation  with  her  entire  territory.  Prus- 
sia in  a  note  of  Dec.  20  declared  it  to  be  im- 
practicable, and  instead  advocated  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  federal  state,  on  the  plan  which 
had  been  tried  ten  years  before.  This  idea  was 
promptly  rejected  by  all  the  middle  states  in 
February,  1862,  on  the  ground  that  it  would  in- 
Tolve  the  loss  of  their  sovereignty.  In  August 
they  united  with  Austria  in  submitting  another 
plan  of  reform,  according  to  which  an  assembly 
of  delegates  of  the  several  German  diets  was 
to  be  convoked  at  Frankfort  for  the  special 
purpose  of  deliberating  on  some  reforms  in  the 
civil  and  commercial  legislation  of  the  German 
states.  An  assembly  of  liberal  German  depu- 
ties, held  in  September  at  Weimar,  declared 
against  this  plan  as  wholly  unsatisfactory, 
while  on  the  other  hand  it  was  approved  by 
the  new  national  reform  association  (Reform- 
fferein)^  which  in  October  was  organized  at 
Frankfort  as  the  organ  of  those  who  uncon- 
ditionally opposed  the  exclusion  of  Austria 
from  Germany  and  the  establishment  of  a  Prus- 
sian leadership.  In  the  federal  diet,  in  Janu- 
ary, 1863,  it  was  defeated  by  a  small  minority. 
In  the  mean  while  the  incessant  conflicts  be- 
tween the  Prussian  liberals  and  their  ultra-re- 
actionary government  had  led,  in  September, 
to  the  entrance  into  the  ministry  of  Otto  von 
Bismarck,  who  soon  after  became  its  president 
and  minister  of  foreign  affairs.  The  uncom- 
promising firmness  with  which  he  opposed  the 
views  of  the  Prussian  diet  on  a  reduction  of 
the  military  budget  filled  even  the  Prussian 
fiiends  of  nationtd  unity  with  despair.  Little 
was  known  of  the  ultimate  plans  of  Bismarck 
with  regard  to  German  unity ;  but  it  was  ap- 
parent that  Prussia  desired  to  be  emancipated 
from  the  federal  diet,  and  that  her  plans  would 
henceforth  be  pushed  with  greater  energy  than 
at  any  previous  time.  The  union  movement 
was  steadily  gaining  among  the  German  people, 
and  Austria  made  a  bold  bid  for  the  continued 
headship  in  a  reconstructed  Germany.  Fran- 
cis Joseph  invited  the  princes  of  all  the  Ger- 
man states,  as  well  as  the  ruling  burgomasters 
of  the  free  cities,  to  a  diet  of  princes  (Fwnten- 
tag),  to  discuss  the  question  of  a  new  consti- 
tution. This  assembly  sat  at  Frankfort  Aug. 
IT  to  Sept.  1.  The  king  of  Prussia  declined  to 
attend  it.  The  great  mi(jority  of  princes  as- 
sented to  the  project  of  the  emperor  of  Austria, 
according  to  which  a  directory  of  five  princes 
(Austria,  Prussia,  Bavaria,  and  two  others) 
was  to  be  at  the  head  of  the  nation,  assisted  by 
a  federal  council  and  a  federal  assembly  of  800 
members^  which  was  to  meet  every  third  year. 


Although  Prussia  was  to  have  an  equal  number 
of  deputies  in  the  federal  assembly,  the  presi- 
dency in  the  directory  and  federal  council 
was  to  remain  with  Austria.  The  reform 
association  declared  for  accepting  the  new 
constitution  as  a  step  in  advance;  while  all 
the  liberal  parties  of  Germany  decidedly  re- 
jected it.  Soon  a  foreign  complication  turned 
the  attention  of  all  parties  from  the  conflict  of 
their  schemes  of  reconstruction  to  a  common 
defence  of  the  German  nationality.  Frederick 
YII.  of  Denmark,  in  union  with  the  predomi- 
nant party  of  the  country,  had  issued  in  March, 
1868,  a  patent  separating  the  duchy  of  Holstein 
from  the  common  Danish  monarchy,  in  order 
to  unite  Schleswig  (which  until  then  had  been 
united  with  Holstein  under  one  constitution) 
with  Denmark  proper.  The  federal  diet  sum- 
moned the  Danish  government  to  repeal  the 
patent,  as  it  encroached  upon  the  right  of 
Holstein,  and  thus  of  Germany,  and  threaten- 
ed, in  case  of  refusal,  a  *^  federal  execution." 
On  Nov.  15  Frederick  VII.  died,  and  was 
succeeded,  according  to  the  stipulation  of  the 
London  conference  of  1852,  by  Christian  IX., 
who  on  Nov.  18  proclaimed  the  incorpora- 
tion of  Schleswig  with  Denmark.  But  as  the 
federal  diet  had  never  recognized  the  London 
conference,  the  people  of  the  duchies,  as  well 
as  a  number  of  the  smaller  German  states, 
recognized  Prince  Frederick  of  Augustenburg 
as  duke  of  Schleswig- Holstein.  Public  opinion 
throughout  Germany  strongly  sympathized 
with  this  view,  but  Austria  and  Prussia  de- 
cided to  stand  by  the  stipulations  of  1851  and 
1852,  and  insisted  on  carrying  out  the  federal 
execution.  The  federal  diet  on  Dec.  7,  by  8 
votes  against  7,  acceded  to  their  demand  and 
intrust^  the  execution  to  Hanover  and  Sax- 
ony. The  German  troops  entered  Holstein  on 
Dec.  28,  and  the  Danes  withdrew  without 
offering  resistance.  Prussia  and  Austria  on 
Dec.  28  moved  in  the  federal  diet  the  occupa- 
tion of  Schleswig,  in  order  to  enforce  the  re- 
peal of  the  law  of  Nov.  18.  The  motion  was 
rejected,  because  the  minority  believed  the 
question  of  succession  would  be  prejudged  by  its 
adoption.  In  defiance  of  this  resolution,  Aus- 
tria and  Prussia  declared  that  they  would  now 
act  in  the  matter,  not  as  members  of  the  con- 
federation, but  as  great  powers  of  Europe,  and 
at  once  (February,  1864)  marched  their  troops 
into  Schleswig.  On  Feb.  5  the  Danes  evacua- 
ted the  strong  Dannevirke,  and  withdrew  be- 
hind the  intrenchments  of  DUppel,  which  were 
stormed  by  the  Prussians  on  April  18.  A  peace 
conference  of  representatives  of  the  great  pow- 
ers, which  met  in  London  on  April  25,  re- 
mained without  result.  The  Danes  evacuated 
Jutland  and  confined  themselves  to  the  islands ; 
but  when  the  Prussians  on  June  29  occupied 
Alsen,  they  gave  up  all  further  resistance,  and 
in  the  preliminary  peace  concluded  in  July 
ceded  Schleswig,  Holstein,  and  Lauenburg  to 
Austria  and  Prussia.  The  cession,  which  was 
confirmed  in  the  definitive  peace  of  Vienna, 


758 


GERMAinr 


Oct.  80,  was  based  entirely  on  the  right  of 
conquest,  the  question  of  the  lawful  succession 
in  the  duchies  and  the  claims  of  the  federal 
diet  being  ignored.  When  Prussia  after  the 
conclusion  of  peace  called  upon  Hanover  and 
Saxony  to  withdraw  their  troops  from  Hoi- 
stein,  Saxony  showed  some  intention  to  resist 
by  force.  A  collision  was  averted  by  a  reso- 
lution of  the  federal  diet,  which  in  accordance 
with  the  demand  of  Austria  and  Prussia  de- 
clared the  execution  to  be  ended.  The  dis- 
agreement between  Austria  and  Prussia  now 
began  to  widen.  Austria  desired  to  have  the 
administration  of  the  duchies  transferred  to 
Prince  Frederick  of  Augustenburg ;  Bismarck 
entered  into  negotiations  concerning  the  an- 
nexation of  the  duchies  to  Prussia.  The  fed- 
eral diet  took  an  unavailing  interest  in  the 
cause  of  Prmce  Frederick,  and  finally  confined 
itself  to  a  protest  against  the  illegal  solution 
of  the  Schleswig-Holstein  question,  while  the 
crown  jurists  of  Prussia  undertook  to  prove 
that  Christian  IX.  of  Denmark  was  the  lawful 
duke  of  Schleswig-Holstein,  which  therefore, 
in  virtue  of  the  peace  of  Vienna,  belonged  to 
Austria  and  Prussia.  A  better  understanding 
between  Austria  and  Prussia  appeared  to  be 
established  when  the  latter  power,  in  April, 
1865,  concluded  a  commercial  treaty  with  the 
ZoUverein.  On  Aug.  14  the  Gastein  conven- 
tion gave  Austria  the  exclusive  occupation 
of  Holstein,  to  Prussia  that  of  Schleswig,  and 
annexed  Lauenburg  to  Prussia.  The  resolu- 
tion of  another  general  assembly  of  deputies 
of  all  the  German  states,  which  was  held  at 
Frankfort  in  October,  and  which  demanded 
the  convocation  of  the  diet  of  Schleswig-Hol- 
stein, was  entirely  disregarded  by  the  two 
great  powers.  Soon  a  new  difiSculty  sprang 
up  between  Austria  and  Prussia.  The  per- 
mission given  by  the  Austrian  governor  of 
Holstein,  Gen.  von  Gablenz,  to  hold  an  anti- 
Prussian  meeting  at  Altona,  Jan.  28,  1866,  led 
to  a  very  angry  exchange  of  diplomatic  notes. 
Austria  warned  the 'other  states  against  the 
ambitious  schemes  of  Prussia  in  a  circular  nqte 
of  March  16,  and  began  to  arm.  As  the  states 
of  the  second  rank  did  not  conceal  their  en- 
tire sympathy  with  Austria,  Prussia  in  April 
strengthened  her  position  by  an  alliance  with 
Italy,  and  also  began  to  arm.  At  the  same 
time  Prussia  made  a  bid  for  the  sympathy  of 
the  masses  of  the  people  in  the  smaller  states  by 
moving  in  the  federal  diet,  on  April  9,  the  con- 
vocation of  a  general  national  assembly,  to  be 
elected  by  direct  and  universal  sufi^age.  An 
understanding  arrived  at  between  Prussia  and 
Austria  to  begin  the  disarmament  on  April  25 
and  26  failed,  as  Austria  reftised  to  withdraw 
her  army  from  the  Italian  frontiers.  A  peace 
congress,  proposed  by  England,  France,  and 
Russia,  likewise  failed,  because  Austria  de- 
manded the  exclusion  of  all  negotiations  con- 
cerning the  extension  of  the  territory  of  either 
disputant.  On  June  1  Austria  transferred  the 
decision  of  the  Schleswig-Holstein  question  to 


the  federal  diet.  This  was  regarded  by  Pn»- 
sia  as  a  termination  of  the  Gastein  convention ; 
her  troops  were  at  once  marched  into  Holstein, 
and  the  Austrian  governor  of  Holstein  was 
invited  to  reenter  into  the  joint  occupation  of 
Schleswig.  Austria  denounced  this  act  as  a 
violation  of  the  federal  constitution,  and  on 
June  14  the  federal  diet,  by  a  majority  of  9 
against  6,  adopted  the  view  of  Austria  and  or- 
dered the  mobilization  of  the  entire  federal 
army,  except  the  troops  of  Prussia.  The  states 
voting  for  this  resolution  were  Austria,  Bavaria, 
Saxony,  Hanover,  WtLrtemberg,  Hesse-Cassel, 
Hesse-Darmstadt,  Nassau,  and  the  small  states 
forming  the  16th  class.  The  representative 
of  Prussia  at  once  declared  that  the  m^ority 
of  the  federal  diet  had  exceeded  its  authority, 
and  that  Prussia  regarded  the  confederation  as 
dissolved.  On  the  following  day,  the  govern- 
ments of  Hanover,  Saxony,  and  Hesse-Cassel 
were  requested  by  Prussia  to  take  back  their 
vote  of  the  preceding  day,  to  disarm,  and  to 
enter  into  a  new  confederation  with  Prussia, 
which  in  that  case  would  guarantee  their  sov- 
ereignty; in  case  of  refusal,  the  immediate 
opening  of  hostilities  was  announced.  The 
three  governments  on  the  same  day  refused 
this  demand,  and  on  Jupe  16  their  territory 
was  occupied  by  Prussian  troops.  The  bril- 
liant campaign  of  the  Prussians  (see  Psussia) 
against  the  Austrians,  who  had  been  joined  by 
the  Saxon  troops,  in  Bohemia  and  Moravia 
(June  28  to  July  22),  and  against  the  other 
federal  troops  in  Thuringia  and  in  the  region 
of  the  Main  (June  27  to  the  beginning  of  Au- 
gust), completed  the  dissolution  of  the  confed- 
eration and  secured  the  reconstruction  of  Ger- 
many on  an  entirely  new  basis.  The  prelimi- 
nary peace  of  Kikolsburg,  July  26,  which  was 
confirmed  by  the  definitive  peace  of  Prague, 
Aug.  28,  excluded  Austria  from  Germany,  and 
provided  for  the  establishment  of  a  new  con- 
federation of  the  states  N.  of  the  Main.  The 
states  S.  of  the  Main,  Bavaria,  Wtlrtemberg, 
Baden,  and  Hesse-Darmstadt,  were  left  at  lib- 
erty to  establish  a  South  German  confederation. 
Schleswig-Holstein,  Hanover,  Hesse-Oassel, 
Nassau,  and  Frankfort  were  incorporated  with 
Prussia.  Even  before  the  conclusion  of  the 
definitive  peace  Prussia  had  entered  into  offen- 
sive and  defensive  alliances  with  WQrtem- 
berg  (Aug.  18),  Baden  (Aug.  17),  and  Bavaria 
(Aug.  22).  On  Aug.  24  tJ^e  last  representa- 
tives of  the  old  Grerman  confederation,  who 
from  Frankfort  had  removed  to  Augsburg,  de- 
clared the  work  of  the  federal  diet  to  be 
at  an  end.  The  North  German  confederation 
{KorddeutBcher  Bund)  was  established  by  trea- 
ties between  Prussia  and  the  smaller  states 
during  the  period  fr^m  Aug.  18  to  Oct.  21. 
On  Dec.  15  an  assembly  of  plenipotentiaries 
met  in  Berlin  to  draft  the  constitution  of 
the  confederation,  which  was  then  submit- 
ted to  the  constituent  North  German  Reichs- 
tag, which  met  in  Berlin  on  Feb.  24,  1867, 
and  on  April  16  adopted  by  280  against  58 


GERMANY 


769 


votes  the  draft  sabmitted  to  it.  The  king  of 
Prussia,  as  president  of  the  confederation,  ap- 
pointed Bismarck  federal  chancellor,  and  on 
Jnlj  1  the  constitution  went  into  operation. 
In  Febmary  the  South  German  states  had  held 
military  conferences  in  Stuttgart  to  promote  a 
greater  conformity  of  their  army  organization 
with  that  of  Prussia.  Baden  favored  the  adop- 
tion of  the  entire  Prussian  system  ;  and  when 
the  other  three  states  declined  to  go  so  far, 
though  they  admitted  the  desirability  of  great- 
er uniformity,  Baden  concluded  a  special  mil- 
itary convention  with  Prussia.  Next  to  the 
adoption  of  the  federal  constitution,  the  most 
important  event  in  the  constituent  Reichs- 
tag was  an  interpellation  of  Herr  von  Bcnnig- 
sen,  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  liberal  party, 
concerning  the  right  of  Prussia  to  garrison  the 
federal  fortress  of  Luxemburg.  The  grand 
duchy  of  Luxemburg,  which  formed  a  part 
of  the  old  German  confederation,  showed  the 
most  decided  opposition  to  entering  the  new 
North  German,  and  Prussia  had  given  her 
consent  for  the  grand  duchy  to  remain  outside 
of  the  reconstructed  Germany.  Soon  after 
negotiations  had  been  begun  between  France 
and  Holland  for  a  sale  of  the  grand  duchy  to 
France,  Prussia  had  entered  an  emphatic  pro- 
test against  this  scheme,  and  on  March  80  the 
king  of  Holland  had  officially  denied  any  inten- 
tion to  sell  Luxemburg.  The  full  details  of 
tliese  negotiations  only  became  known  officially 
in  consequence  of  the  interpellation  of  Benning- 
sen,  and  created  an  extraordinary  excitement 
throughout  Germany.  The  expression  of  public 
opinion  against  the  transfer  of  Luxemburg  to 
France  was  no  less  decided  in  the  south  of  Ger- 
many than  in  the  north.  The  grand  duchy 
of  Hesse  concluded  in  April  a  military  conven- 
tion with  Prussia,  in  virtue  of  which  its  mil- 
itary system  was  reorganized  according  to  the 
Prussian,  and  the  Hessian  troops  were  placed 
under  the  chief  command  of  the  king.  Wftr- 
temberg  also  introduced  severed  features  of 
the  Prussian  system.  No  doubt  could  be  en- 
tertained that,  in  case  of  war,  northern  Ger- 
many might  safely  rely  on  the  support  of  all 
the  South  German  states.  But  a  conference 
of  the  powers  which  had  signed  the  London 
treaty  of  1839  found  a  peaceable  solution  for 
the  Luxemburg  question.  The  grand  duchy 
was  declared  neutral  territory  under  the  guar- 
antee of  all  the  powers  represented  at  the 
conference ;  and  the  federal  fortress  was  to  be 
razed.  This  peaceable  solution  was  hastened 
by  the  declaration  of  Bismarck  that  if  the  re- 
sult of  the  conference  should  not  be  favorable 
to  the  preservation  of  peace,  he  would  at  once 
mobilize  900,000  men.  On  May  28  the  minis- 
ters of  the  South  German  states  were  invited 
by  Prussia  to  come  to  Berlin  in  order  to  put 
the  Zollverein's  treaty  on  a  safe  basis.  An 
agreement  was  arrived  at,  according  to  which, 
for  the  legislation  on  affairs  of  the  Zollverein, 
the  South  German  states  would  send  a  specified 
number  of  members  to  the  North  German  fed- 


eral council,  and  order  the  election  of  a  pro- 
portional number  of  deputies,  who  in  union 
with  the  North  German  Reichstag  would  con- 
stitute the  customs  parliament.  A  new  at- 
tempt of  Napoleon  to  meddle  in  the  pro- 
gress of  German  reconstruction  by  demand- 
ing that,  in  accordance  with  one  article  of 
the  treaty  of  Prague,  the  people  of  northern 
Schleswig  be  allowed  to  express  by  a  plebiscite 
their  preference  for  Denmark  or  Germany, 
was  sharply  repelled  by  Prussia,  Bismarck  de- 
claring that  Prussia  was  unwilling  to  recog- 
nize &e  right  of  France  to  watch  over  the 
fulfilment  of  the  treaty  of  Prague.  An  inter- 
view of  Napoleon  with  the  emperor  of  Austria 
in  August  was  looked  upon  as  a  threatening 
movement  against  Germany,  and  not  only  the 
North  German  states,  but  even  the  Germans  of 
Austria,  strongly  expressed  themselves  against 
the  endeavors  of  France  to  interfere  in  any 
way  in  the  internal  affairs  of  the  German  na- 
tion. In  the  grand  duchy  of  Hesse,  the  sec- 
ond chamber  demanded  that  the  entire  grand 
duchy,  instead  of  only  the  northern  portion  as 
hitherto,  be  admitted  into  the  North  German 
confederation.  In  Baden  both  the  government 
and  the  chambers  expressed  a  wish  to  enter 
the  confederation.  Bismarck  issued  a  circular 
note  on  the  demonstrations  of  public  opinion, 
which  he  declared  to  be  significant  proofs  that 
the  national  feeling  of  the  Germans  would 
never  brook  a  foreign  interference  in  German 
affairs,  and  would  never  allow  the  develop- 
ment of  the  affairs  of  the  German  nation  to 
be  guided  by  any  other  considerations  than 
the  national  interests  of  Germany.  But  while 
South  Germany  gave  no  encouragement  to 
the  schemes  of  Napoleon  against  the  pro- 
gress of  German  unity,  there  remained  a  wide- 
spread dissatisfaction  with  the  policy  of  Prus^ 
sia,  and  an  unwillingness  to  tighten  the  bonds 
of  union.  At  the  election  for  the  first  Ger- 
man customs  parliament,  the  South  German 
party,  which  opposed  any  advances  toward  a 
closer  union,  elected  50  out  of  89  South  Ger- 
man deputies.  Even  in  the  grand  duchy  of  Ba- 
den it  met  with  an  unexpected  success.  When, 
in  reply  to  the  opening  speech  of  the  king  of 
Prussia,  the  national  liberal  party  moved  an 
address  which  asked  for  an  enlargement  of 
the  functions  of  the  customs  parliament,  and 
distinctly  hinted  at  the  complete  union  of 
north  and  south,  the  ultra^conservative  feudal 
party  of  Prussian  deputies,  the  radical  party 
of  progress  (FortsehritUpartei),  the  Catholic 
party,  and  the  socialists  united  with  the  South 
German  party  and  caused  its  rejection  by  186 
against  150  votes.  The  conciliatory  but  firm 
attitude  of  the  Prussian  government  prevented 
the  progress  of  the  centrifugal  sentiments  in 
South  Germany.  The  governments  of  Bavaria 
and  WUrtemberg,  although  disinclined  to  make 
further  concessions  on  the  union  question,  were 
on  the  other  hand  no  less  unflinching  in  the 
observance  of  the  treaties  which  regulated 
their  relation  to  northern  Germany.    Baden, 


760 


GERMANY 


on  Maj  25,  1869,  condaded  a  new  military 
convention  with  Prussia,  which  established  an 
entire  uniformity  between  the  armies  of  Baden 
and  Prussia.  The  North  German  Beichstag 
expressed  a  decided  opinion  in  favor  of  re- 
stricting the  right  of  particular  states  and  en- 
lar^ng  the  functions  of  the  central  authorities. 
The  first  six  months  of  the  year  1870  were 
unusually  quiet,  and  it  was  the  common  opin- 
ion that  great  changes  in  the  relation  of  the 
four  South  German  states  to  the  North  Ger- 
man confederation  were  not  likely  to  be  made 
for  a  long  time  to  come,  when  suddenly  the 
action  of  France  precipitated  the  final  solu- 
tion of  the  German  question.  The  Spanish 
crown  having  been  offered  to  Prince  Leopold 
of  HohenzoUem,  and  rejected,  the  emperor 
Napoleon  demanded  the  guarantee  of  Prussia 
against  its  acceptance  at  any  time  thereafter  by 
any  prince  of  its  house.  This  being  scornfully 
refused,  war  was  at  once  declared  by  France 
(July  19,  1870),  and,  after  a  brilliant  series 
of  victories  for  the  Germans  and  almost  unin- 
terrupted defeats  for  the  French,  was  in  effect 
concluded  by  the  preliminary  peace  of  Ver- 
sailles, Feb.  26, 1871.  (See  Fbanoe.)  In  this 
war  all  the  states  both  of  North  and  South 
Germany,  except  Austria,  participated ;  and  in 
view  of  the  common  danger  through  which  all 
had  passed,  and  the  common  victory  which  all 
had  won,  the  governments  and  the  people  of 
Sonth  Germany  now  waived  any  further  op- 
position to*a  consolidation  of  all  the  German 
states  under  the  leadership  of  Prussia.  On 
Nov.  15, 1870,  a  treaty  was  concluded  between 
the  North  German  confederation,  Baden,  and 
Hesse  concerning  the  establishment  of  the 
German  confederation  (Beutscher  Bund);  on 
Nov.  28  the  entrance  of  Bavaria  into  the  con- 
federation was  regulated  by  treaty;  on  Nov. 
25,  that  of  Wfirtemberg.  Bavaria  asked  and 
received  important  concessions,  which  to  many 
unionists  appeared  to  be  going  too  far  in  favor 
of  particularism;  but  the  treaty  was  unani- 
mously ratified  by  the  federal  council  of  the 
North  German  confederation,  and  by  the 
Reichstag  by  195  against  32  votes.  On  Dec. 
8  the  king  of  Bavaria  invited  the  king  of 
Prussia  to  restore  the  dignity  of  German  em- 
peror; most  of  the  other  governments  gave 
their  assent  to  the  proposition  before  Dec.  8. 
In  the  name  of  the  federal  council  the  federal 
chancellor  on  Dec.  9  moved  in  the  Reichstag, 
and  the  motion  was  adopted  on  the  following 
day,  that  the  German  confederation  assume 
the  name  German  empire,  and  the  king  of 
Prussia,  as  president  of  the  confederation, 
tiie  title  emperor  of  Germany.  On  Jan.  18, 
1871,  the  restoration  of  the  imperial  dignity 
was  solemnly  proclaimed  by  the  king  of  Prus- 
sia at  Versailles ;  on  March  21  the  first  Ger- 
man Reichstag  assembled  at  Berlin,  and  was 
opened  by  the  emperor  in  person.  On  April 
14  this  Reichstag  ratified  the  constitution  of 
the  German  empire,  with  but  three  disaenting 
votes;  and  on  May  4  the  constitution  went  into 


operation.  By  the  peace  of  Versailles  Ger- 
many recovered  the  province  of  Alsace  and 
the  German-speaking  district  of  Lorraine.  Th e 
definitive  peace  was  concluded  at  Frankfort 
on  May  10,  and  on  June  9  the  new  EeieAsland 
of  Alsace-Lorraine  was  proclaimed  as  incor- 
porated with  Germany.  The  minority  of  the 
Reichstag,  in  full  harmony  with  the  imperial 
government  and  the  minority  of  the  federal 
council,  was  intent  upon  consolidating  the 
new  empire  by  centralizing  the  legislation  and 
extending  the  functions  of  the  central  author- 
ities. As  two  German  states,  the  grand  duch- 
ies of  Mecklenburg-Schwerin  and  Mecklenburg- 
Strelitz,  were  still  without  a  constitutional  gov- 
ernment, the  Reichstag  on  Nov.  8  adopted  the 
resolution  of  the  deputy  Biasing  that  every 
German  state  must  in  future  have  a  constitu- 
tional form  of  government.  On  Nov.  15,  on 
motion  of  Lasker,  it  was  resolved  to  embrace 
the  whole  of  the  civil  law  within  the  sphere  of 
the  imperial  legislation.  Of  the  political  par- 
ties which  opposed  the  advancing. consolida- 
tion of  the  empire,  by  far  the  most  powerful 
was  the  Catholic,  or  the  centre,  as  it  was  called 
from  the  central  seats  which  its  representa- 
tives occupied  in  the  Reichstag.  On  the  open- 
ing of  the  first  session  of  the  Reichstag,  in 
March,  1871,  they  moved  an  amendment  to 
the  address  by  which  the  Reichstag  was  to 
reply  to  the  speech  from  the  throne,  asking 
for  the  protection  of  the  temporal  power  of 
the  pope.  On  this  question  the  other  parties 
united  against  them  almost  unanimously,  and 
the  address  moved  by  the  migority  of  the 
Reichstag  was  adopted  by  248  votes  againat  63, 
the  minority  consisting  of  the  Catholic  party 
and  a  few  socialists.  The  confiict  between 
them  and  the  imperial  government  became 
more  intense  in  1872.  One  expression  in  a 
speech  which  the  pope  had  made  on  June  25 
was  regarded  by  the  minority  of  Germans  as 
a  direct  wish  for  the  overthrow  of  the  empire, 
and  intensified  the  sore  feelings  which  had 
been  produced  by  the  pope^s  rejection  of  the 
cardinal  prince  Hohenlone,  whom  the  Ger- 
man government  wished  to  appoint  as  minis- 
ter at  the  papal  court.  As  it  was  a  common 
opinion  that  the  reli^ous  excitement  prevailing 
in  the  Catholic  districts  of  Germany  was  large- 
ly due  to  the  infiuence  of  tlie  Jesuits,  the 
Reichstag  and  federal  council  adopted  in  June 
a  law  which  provided  for  the  suppression  of 
all  the  houses  of  the  Jesuits  and  of  aflSliated 
orders.  This  law,  which  toward  the  close  of 
the  year  1872  was  gradually  executed,  did  not 
define  which  other  religious  orders  were  com- 
prised within  its  terms;  but  the  Redemptorists, 
Lazarists,  ladies  of  the  Saored  Heart,  and  a  few 
others  shared  at  once  the  fate  of  the  Jesuits. 
The  bishops  of  Germany  assembled  in  Novem- 
ber in  a  general  conference  at  Fulda,  and  bit- 
terly complained  of  this  persecution ;  and  the 
pope,  in  an  allocution  made  in  December,  in 
terms  still  more  severe,  denounced  the  impu- 
dence of  the  anti-Catholic  legislation,  to  which 


GERMANY 


GERMANY  (Language,  &o.)      761 


the  imperial  government  of  Germany  replied 
hj  breaking  off  all  diplomatic  intercourse  with 
the  papal  court.  Thus  the  relation  between 
the  Catholic  church  and  the  imperial  govern- 
ment at  the  beginning  of  1878  was  one  of  open 
war.  This  was  particularly  the  case  in  the 
kingdom  of  Prussia,  where  the  relation  be- 
tween church  and  state  was  regulated  by  a 
number  of  new  laws  which  all  the  bishops 
positively  refused  to  obey.  The  government 
then  imposed  heavy  fines  upon  the  bishops, 
and  in  many  cases  withdrew  the  support  which 
the  ministers  and  institutions  of  the  church 
had  received  from  the  state  government.  An 
interesting  correspondence  on  the  subject  took 
place  between  the  pope  and  the  emperor.  The 
pope  expressed  the  hope  that  the  cruel  laws 
against  the  church  did  not  meet  the  appro- 
bation of  the  emperor,  and  asked  for  his  per- 
sonal interference  in  behalf  of  the  church :  to 
which  the  emperor  replied  that  in  a  constitu- 
tional state  like  Prussia  every  law  required  the 
sanction  of  the  sovereign,  and  that  the  former 
peace  between  the  different  Christian  churches 
had  been  wantonly  disturbed  by  the  unlawful 
conduct  of  the  bishops.  A  germ  of  new  difficul- 
ties between  the  state  governments  and  the 
Catholic  church  was  the  legal  position  claimed 
by  the  Old  Catholics,  who  maintained  that  the 
pope  and  the  bishops  wha  adhered  to  the 
decree  of  the  Vatican  council  had  abandoned 
the  Catholic  church,  and  that  they  alone  were 
entitled  to  be  regarded  as  the  true  representa- 
tives of  that  Catholic  church  which  in  Germa- 
ny until  1870  was  regarded  as  one  of  the  state 
churches.  Although  the  state  governments, 
in  view  of  the  comparatively  small  number 
of  the  Old  Catholics,  declined  to  accept  their 
view  of  the  ecclesiastical  situation,  they  at  the 
same  time  refused  to  treat  them  as  seceders 
from  the  Catholic  church,  and  took  the  ground 
that  the  movement  was  an  internal  affair  of 
that  church,  with  which  the  state  had  no  right 
to  meddle.  In  Prussia,  the  missionary  bishop 
of  the  Old  Catholics  was  accordingly  recog- 
nized in  October,  1873,  as  a  bishop  of  the  Cath- 
olic church,  and  as  such  he  at  once  received  a 
salary  from  the  state.  The  political  changes  in 
France  greatly  encouraged  the  hopes  of  the 
Catholic  opposition  in  Germany,  and  in  several 
southern  districts  of  Bavaria  led  to  threatening 
demonstrations  against  the  very  existence  of 
the  German  empire.  As  a  similar  effect  was 
produced  by  the  political  attitude  of  the  French 
government  in  Italy,  the  visit  of  the  king  of 
Italy  to  Berlin  was  enthusiastically  hailed  by 
the  liberal  parties,  both  in  Italy  and  in  Ger- 
many, as  an  indication  that  the  two  govern- 
ments intended  to  act  in  full  concert  against  the 
common  enemy.  The  relations  between  the 
governments  of  the  smaller  states  and  the  em- 
peror up  to  the  close  of  1873  were  friendly,  and 
no  serious  discrepancy  of  opinions  on  any  im- 
portant subject  was  shown  in  the  deliberations 
of  the  federal  council. — ^Among  the  best  histori- 
cal works  on  Germany  are  K.  A.  MenzePs  Ge- 


schiehte  der  BeuUchen  (8  vols.,  1815-'22),  and 
Neuere  Oeichichte  der  DeuUchen  (12  vols.,  1826- 
'48);  Luden's  Gewhiehte  de$  deuUchen  Volkes 
(to  the  13th  century,  12  vols.,  1829-'39);  and 
Giesebrecht's  Gesehichte  der  deuUchen  Kaieer- 
uit  (vols,  i.-iu.,  8d  ed.,  1862-'8). 

GERMANY,  Langnage  and  Lltenton  of.  The 
formation,  the  history,  and  the  philological 
affinities  of  the  German  tongue  have  been 
treated  at  length  in  the  article  Gebmanio 
Kaoeb  and  Languages,  and  we  shall  there- 
fore restrict  our  remarks  in  this  article  to  a 
brief  sketch  of  the  modern  High  German  lan- 
guage as  now  spoken  and  written.  In  this  the 
five  vowels,  a,  e,  i  (y),  o,  and  u,  sound  as  in 
Italian,  the  sound  being  lengthened  by  doub- 
ling the  vowels :  a  (or  ae),  when  long,  is  like 
a  in  mate,  when  short  almost  like  e  in  met;  0 
(oe),  long,  is  like  but  somewhat  duller  than  the 
French  eu  in  /eu,  when  short  it  resembles  the 
English  u  in  tub;  it  (ite)  is  also  duller  than  the 
French  u  in  tur  and  tvre.  C  before  e  and  i 
(y\  and  z  always,  stands  for  tz  or  ts,  as  in 
English  pets;  ek  for  Jch,  as  in  English  peck, 
suck;  g  is  always  hard,  generally  as  in  get, 
aive,  but  sometimes  almost  like  German  eh,  as 
m  etmg,  toeg;  h  before  a  vowel  has  the  same 
sound  as  in  our  has,  hen  ;  ch  is  harsher  than  A, 
and  like  the  Greek  x  oi*  the  Spanish  jota ;  j 
sounds  like  y  in  yes  ;  r  is  always  whirring ;  v, 
in  German  words,  has  the  sound  of/,  and  in 
foreign  of  the  English  v;  to  sounds  like  Eng- 
lish D.  S  has  a  threefold  sound :  1,  like  the 
Latin  a,  in  the  combination  st,  at  the  end  of  a 
syllable,  as  /est,  Furst,  and  in  forms  derived 
therefrom,  featest,  Fursten,  &c.,  at  the  end 
of  words,  as  in  das,  gutea,  &c.,  and  when 
double,  as  in  nasa,  Wasaer,  &c. ;  2,  much  like 
the  English  z,  at  the  beginning  of  words,  before 
vowels,  and  between  vowels,  as  in  Sonne,  dieaer, 
&c. ;  8,  like  the  English  ah  in  aTiell,  at  the  be- 
ginning of  words  before  some  consonants,  as 
Scandal  (Latin),  apdt,  atill,  &c.,  thou|^  in  a 
part  of  Germany  it  is  pronounced  like  the 
English  a  in  aea.  Seh  is  like  the  English  ah 
in  ahell.  Sz  stands  for  aa  after  long  vowels  or 
at  the  end  of  words,  and  is  thus  written  also  in 
derivative  forms,  as  rf^asz  and  miaz  from  meaaen, 
Ai  is  pronounced  like  the  English  ay  (yes); 
au  like  <m  in  our ;  ei  (or  ey)  like  i  m  mine. 
Eu  has  a  very  peculiar  sound,  approaching 
the  English  oi,  and  du  is  somewhat  heavier. 
E,  the  weakest  sound,  is  most  frequently  em- 
ployed :  1,  for  filling  up  the  transition  between 
consonants,  thus,  er  liebet  for  liebt  (the  latter 
form  is  now  more  common) ;  hence  it  is  often 
elided,  as  Tuih'*n  for  nahen,  as  in  English  poui^r 
for  power,  heaven  for  heaven;  2,  for  lengthen- 
ing i  when  that  letter  precedes  it,  as  in  icieder^ 
again,  distinguishing  it  from  wider,  against, 
counter ;  3,  as  a  mark  of  the  plural,  as  StHne^ 
stones,  from  Stein,  IT,  the  weakest  consonant, 
is  also  used  for  lengthening  a  preceding  vowel, 
aa  in  aehr,  wohl,  &c.  Besides  e,  three  dentals 
and  three  liquids  serve  for  all  grammatical  in- 
flections.   They  are  d^  «,  t,  and  m,  n,  r;  «,  m, 


762 


GERMANY  (Laitovaob  akd  Luebatubb) 


riy  r  are  employed  with  nouns,  d^  #,  ty  n  with 
verbs.  The  foUowing  is  a  synopsis  of  all  gram- 
matical endings  attached  to  words :  nominative 
(of  the  definite  article)  der,  di^,  da«,  plural  did 
for  all  genders ;  genit.  de«,  der,  de«,  plur.  der; 
dat.  dem,  der,  dem,  plur.  den ;  accus.  den,  di«, 
da«,  plur.  did.  These  are  the  endings  of  ad- 
jectives, nouns,  and  adjective  pronouns.  Com- 
parative dicker,  superl.  dicke^f;  receiving  the 
preceding  endings  when  declined.  Endings  of 
substantive  nouns:  singular  genit.  m  or  <,  as 
Doff'Uy  or  like  the  nominative ;  dat. «,  or  like 
the  nominative ;  plur.  «,  dat.  en — ^new  declen- 
sion everywhere  en  or  n  {d^  Falken^  &c.). 
Some  substantives  take  r  after  e  in  the  plural, 
and  undergo  metaphony,  as  in  Bad^  BUder^ 
Volk,  Volker,  Tuch,  lecher.  The  verbal  end- 
ings are  as  follows:  1.  Strong  verbs  (common- 
ly called  old  coi\jugation) :  indicative  present,  0, 
est  or  sty  et  or  t;  plural,  en  or  n,  et  or  f,  en  or 
n;  past,  first  and  third  persons  have  no  end- 
ing, second  est,  or  st;  plural,  en^  et,  en;  im- 
perative singular,  first  person  wanting,  second 
and  third  e;  plural,  en,  et  or  t,  en;  participle 
past,  prefix  ^«,  suffix  en,  2.  Weak  verbs  (im- 
properly called  regular,  really  inorganic  conju- 
gation) have  the  same  terminations  as  the  pre- 
ceding, except  in  the  past  tense,  where  et  or  t 
is  inserted  between  the  stem  and  the  ending ; 
participle  past,  prefix  ge^  suffix  et  or  t.  In  both 
the  ending  of  the  participle  present  is  end,  in- 
finitive en.  The  subjunctive  of  both  has  the 
endings  always  preceded  by  «,  and  the  past 
of  the  strong  verbs  undergoes  metaphony,  as 
ich  gaby  I  gave ;  ich  gabCy  I  might  give.  The 
strong  verbs,  whose  conjugation  is  called  irreg- 
ular, exhibit  the  phonetic  vicissitudes  of  words, 
and  are  therefore  to  be  regarded  as  organic 
and  containing  the  rules  of  the  language ; 
while  the  so-called  regular  verbs  are  weak,  un- 
dergo no  change,  and  only  admit  of  mechanical 
additions. — All  words  of  Teutonic  physiogno- 
my have  the  accent  on  the  radical  syllable ; 
those  taken  from  or  resembling  French,  gen- 
erally on  the  last  eflfective  syllable;  and  those 
from  other  languages  on  that  syllable  which 
to  the  German  ear  seems  to  be  the  radical ; 
thus:  Empfind'lichJceity  sensibility;  unzwoer- 
Idss^liehy  untrustworthy,  &c. ;  but  Regiment'y 
SoUdwrU&t'y  Kapitdn'y  &c.  The  German  lan- 
guage has  in  a  very  high  degree  three  quali- 
ties which  render  it  both  very  plastic  in  its 
material  and  very  flexible  in  its  adaptability 
to  all  forms  and  categories  of  thought.  These 
qualities  are:  1,  intuitiveness  of  expression, 
owing  to  the  organic  etyma  of  the  Indo-Euro- 
pean family  of  languages,  which  are  clearest 
in  the  Latin  (see  Lakgitaoe);  2,  facility  of 
composition  of  simple  words  into  double  or 
manifold  agglomerates,  requiring  long  para- 
phrases in  other  languages;  8,  power  of  poly- 
syllabic derivatives  from  radical  words.  These 
latter  qualities  do  not  impair  the  first. — ^Among 
the  most  eminent  of  the  founders  of  German 
philology  are  Benecke,  J.  and  W.  Grimm,  and 
Laohmann.    See  J.  Grimm,  Deutsche  Oramma- 


tiky  comprising  also  the  Scandinavian  branch 
(G6ttingen,  1619>'87) ;  Hofiinann  von  Fallers- 
leben,  Deutsehs  PhiloUgie  im  Orundrus  (Ber- 
lin, 1886),  with  a  bibliography  of  dialects;  Pi- 
schon,  Denhmdlerderdeutsehen  Spraehe(p  vols., 
Berlin,  1888-^51);  Wackemagel,  2)eutsehes  Lese- 
buck  (8  vols.,  Basel,  1889-'48);  J.  Grimm,  Oe- 
schiehte  der  deutsehen  Spraehe  (Leipsic,  1648). 
For  grammars  of  new  High  German,  see  Idc- 
elsamer  (about  1526)  ;  Albertus  (1673)  ;  Oelin- 
ger.  Unterrncht  der  1i4)chdeut*ehen  Spraehe 
(1574) ;  Cleans,  Grammatiea  Oermaniem  Lin- 
gum  (1678);  Martin  Opitz,  on  German  pros- 
ody (1624);  Schottel,  Deutsche  Spraehkunst 
(1641);  Morhof,  Uhterricht  ton  der  deutsehen 
Spraehe  und  Poesie  (1682);  Bddiker,  Grund- 
sdtge  der  deutsehen  Spraehe  (1690);  Brann 
(1766);  Heynatz  (1770);  Basedow  (1759); 
Bodmer  (1776) ;  Fulda,  Grundregeln  der  deut- 
sehen Spraehe  (1778);  Adelung  (1781-'2); 
Heinsius  (1798) ;  J.  Ch.  A.  Heyse  (1814^ ;  K. 
F.  Becker  (1829).  For  dictionaries,  see  Frisch, 
Teutseh-lateinisches  Wdrterhueh  (1741);  Ade- 
lung (1774-*86) ;  Moritz,  Grammntisehes  Wdr- 
terhueh  der  deutsehen  Spraehe  (1798) ;  Campe, 
Versuehe  deutseher  JS^raehhereieherung  (1791- 
'4),  and  Worterbueh  sntr  Au/kldrung  und  Ver- 
deutschung  der  unserer  Spraehe  avfgedrunr 
genen  fremden .  Ausdruehe  (1801 ;  modified  by 
Brandt,  1807-18);  Heyse,  Allgemein^  W&r- 
terhueh  zur  Verdeutsehungy  &c.  (1804)  ;  Hein- 
sius, Volksthumliehes  Worterbuch  (1818-'32); 
Adler,  German  and  English  (New  York,  1848); 
K.  W.  L.  Heyse  (1838-^49) ;  J.  and  W.  Grimm, 
a  gigantic  work,  begun  half  a  century  ago, 
and  not  yet  completed.  On  synonymes,  see 
Gottsched,  Beobaehtnngen  fiber  den  Qehrauch 
und  Missbrau4:h  tieler  deutseher  Worter  (1768) ; 
Heynatz  (1795);  Eberhard  (1802);  Maass, 
Wiegand,  Ch.  F.  Meyer,  &c. — Gebman  Lit- 
EBATUBE  received  its  first  impulse  from  the 
fondness  of  the  early  Germans  for  celebrating 
in  soDg  the  fabulous  and  heroic  associations 
of  their  traditions  and  history.  The  legends 
immediately  connected  with  Gothic,  Franldsh, 
and  Burgundian  warriors  of  the  period  of  na- 
tional migration  were  eventually  embodied  in 
the  lay  of  the  Kibelungeny  the  most  celebrated 
production  of  German  medisBval  poetry.  The 
spirit  of  the  Nibelungen  is  essentially  pagan 
and  mythological.  Christian  literary  activity 
manifested  itself  as  early  as  the  4th  century 
in  the  translation  of  almost  the  whole  of  the 
Bible  (probably  by  Bishop  Ulfilas),  fragments 
of  which  remain,  and  are  cherished  by  the 
Germans  as  the  earliest  monument  of  their  ec- 
clesiastical literature,  although  it  was  composed 
in  the  Gothic  language.  The  British  mission- 
aries established  cloisters  and  brotherhoods  in 
Germany  between  the  6th  and  8th  centuries, 
and  laid  the  foundation  for  that  system  of  in- 
struction which  in  the  8th  century  was  per- 
fected by  Charlemagne.  Metrical  translations 
of  the  (Gospels  appeared  in  the  9th  century  in 
the  old  High  and  Low  German  dialects,  the 
former  (Kristy  new  ed.,  Berlin,  1881)  in  rhymes^ 


GERMANY  (LANauAOB  and  Lxtebatxtbe) 


763 


and  tbe  latter  {Heliand^  firgt  published  in  Mn- 
nich,  1830-^40)  preserving  the  ancient  allitera- 
tions. A  translation  of  the  Psalms  by  Notker, 
which  dates  from  about  the  same  period,  is  re- 
garded as  one  of  the  best  specimens  of  old  High 
German  literature.  The  Lttdtoigslied,  a  paan 
in  honor  of  the  victorj  of  the  Frankish  king 
Louis  III.  over  the  Normans  about  880,  which 
Herder  extols  as  one  of  the  best  specimens  of 
early  German  poetry,  was  composed  in  the  old 
High  German  dialect  by  a  Frankish  church- 
man. Tbe  preservation  of  the  song  of  Hilde- 
brand,  which  is  associated  with  the  legends  of 
Theodorio  and  Atdla,  is  also  due  to  churchmen, 
who  transmitted  it  partly  in  the  old  High  Ger- 
man and  partly  in  the  Low  German  dialect. 
Several  Latin  poems  were  also  based  up>on 
Hunnlsh  and  Burgundian  legends,  but  with 
these  exceptions  the  priesthood  were  generally 
opposed  to  the  national  poetry  on  account  of  its 
pagan  associations.  Many  Latin  chroniclers 
and  poets  flourished  in  this  and  the  following 
pericKl;  there  was  also  a  Latin  poetess,  Ros- 
witha,  or  Helena  von  Rossow,  who  wrote  Latin 
religious  plays.  The  learning  which  flourished 
under  the  Saxon  emperors  was  superior  to 
that  of  the  times  of  Oharlemagne.  The  study 
of  mathematics  was  next  in  iniportance  to  that 
of  theology  and  Latin.  The  Greek  language, 
although  it  was  but  little  cultivated,  was  not 
unknown.  From  the  lOtii  to  the  13th  century 
Germany  probably  possessed  a  higher  mental 
cultivation  than  any  other  country  in  Europe, 
but  on  the  whole  it  was  of  a  Latin  and  ecclesi- 
astical cast,  and  the  people  had  no  share  in  it. 
In  the  12th  century  appeared  a  hymn  in  praise 
of  Hanno,  archbishop  of  Cologne,  which  Her- 
der calls  a  truly  Pindaric  song.  Among  the 
last  poems  which  appeared  in  this  era  from 
the  pen  of  churchmen  were  the  ^olandslied 
and  the  Alexanderlied. — In  the  12th  century 
poetry  passed  from  the  monasteries  and  eccle- 
siastical schools  to  the  palaces  of  princes  and 
the  casties  of  nobles.  Most  of  the  poets  who 
then  came  forward  were  nobles  by  birth,  some 
of  them  princes.  Heinrich  von  Yeldeke  was 
the  first  to  introduce  into  his  heroic  poem  Bneit, 
which  he  is  said  to  have  composed  after  a 
French  version  of  Virgil,  the  spirit  of  devotion 
to  woman,  or  Minne  (an  old  German  word  for 
love,  whence  the  name  Mirmetdnger),  Veldeke 
is  regarded  as  the  originator  of  the  heroic  min- 
strel song,  although  he  is  far  surpassed  in  ge- 
nius, elevation  of  thought,  and  depth  of  feeling 
by  Wolfram  von  Eschenbaoh.  The  other  mas- 
ters of  the  heroic  muse  were  Gottfried  of  Stras- 
burg,  Hartmann  von  der  Aue,  and  Eonrad  of 
Wt^zburg.  Their  longer  heroic  poems  treat 
chiefly  of  the  exploits  of  Charlemagne  and  of 
the  story  of  Arthur  and  the  round  table.  At 
the  same  time  they  composed  many  songs. 
Love  was  their  principal  theme,  but  from  a 
sense  of  delicacy  the  name  of  the  lady  who  was 
the  special  object  of  adoration  was  never  men- 
tione<L  Respect  for  womanhood,  which  was 
reckoned  among  the  virtues  of  the  ancient 


Grermans  even  in  the  days  of  the  deepest  bar- 
barism, contributed  to  make  the  German  love 
songs  more  reverential  than  those  of  the  French 
troubadours.  A  species  peculiar  to  the  bards 
was  called  the  watch  song,  consisting  in  a 
dialogue  between  a  lover  and  the  sentinel  who 
guards  his  mistress.  Walther  von  der  Yo- 
gelweide  was  the  most  gifted  of  these  lyric 
poets.  Next  to  him  rank  Heinrich  von  Of- 
terdingen,  Reimar  der  Alte,  Heinrich  von 
Morungen,  Gottfried  von  Keifen,  and  the  Aus- 
trian bards  Nithard  and  Tanhauser.  Several 
hundred  of  these  poets  were  engaged  in  wan- 
dering from  palace  to  palace  and  from  castie 
to  castie.  The  minstrels  constituted  what  is 
caUed  the  Swabian  school  of  poetry ;  the  songs 
were  mostly  in  the  Swabian  dialect.  The  ac- 
cession of  the  Swabian  emperors  of  the  house 
of  Hohenstaufen  to  the  throne  of  Germany  was 
the  signal  for  the  rise  of  the  bardic  art  (1138). 
Its  golden  age  was  shortiy  before  the  fall  of 
that  dynasty  (1264).  The  crowning  event  of 
the  minstrel  era  was  the  appearance  of  the  lay 
of  the  Nibelungen.  It  was  followed  by  the 
"Book  of  Heroes"  {Heldenbuch\  consisting 
of  a  collection  of  fragmentary  pieces  treating 
of  the  same  legends  as  the  Nibelungen^  but 
mixed  up  with  traditions  of  the  crusades. — 
Didactic  poetry  began  to  be  cultivated  with 
some  success  in  the  18th  century.  The  dawn 
of  historical  works  is  heralded  by  several  lo- 
cal chronicles;  that  of  writings  on  natural 
history  in  the  so-called  Meinauer  Xaturlehre; 
of  popular  religious  literature  in  the  sermons 
of  David  of  Augsburg  and  Berth  old  of  Winter- 
thur ;  and  of  works  on  jurisprudence  in  com- 
pilations of  Saxon  and  Swabian  laws  {SclcHb- 
oMpiegel  and  Schwabentpiegel),  Ulrich  von 
Lichtenstein  deplores,  in  1275,  in  his  famous 
poem  onFrauendierut  (devotion  to  woman),  the 
decline  of  chivalry,  but  his  attempt  to  revive  its 
spirit  was  hopeless.  Poetry  now* passed  from  the 
abodes  of  princes  and  knights  to  the  homes  of 
burghers  and  the  workshops  of  artisans ;  and 
instead  of  Minne^dnger  we  hear  of  Meister- 
tdnger,  as  the  plebeian  songsters  were  called. 
The  13th  century,  the  greater  part  of  which 
was  so  rich  in  poetical  productions,  was  one  of 
the  most  unfruitful  for  the  cause  of  learning. 
Leibnitz  says  that  the  10th  century  in  Germany 
was  a  golden  age  in  that  respect  compared  with 
the  13th. — In  the  14th  century  Germany  pos- 
sessed several  mystic  theologians,  followers  pf 
Meister  Eckart,  the  principal  of  whom  was 
Johann  Tauler  (1290-1861),  whose  sermons  and 
writings  contributed  to  pave  the  way  for  the 
reformation.  An  important  event  of  this  cen- 
tury, in  its  general  influence  upon  the  future 
development  of  German  literature,  was  the 
establishment  of  the  university  of  Prague  in 
1848,  soon  followed  by  universities  in  almost 
all  parts  of  Germany.  The  last  echoes  of  the 
period  of  chivalric  poetry  were  two  allegorical 
romances,  Tetierdank  in  verse,  and  Weisshunig 
in  prose  (flrst  published  at  the  beginning  of 
the  16th  century),  of  which  the  emperor  Maxi- 


764 


GERMANY  (Lanouagb  and  Lttebatube) 


milian  is  the  hero  and  probably  the  author,  al- 
though Melchior  Pfinziog  is  said  to  have  com- 
posed the  former  romance  at  the  emperor's  re- 
quest. The  onlj  good  poetry  of  the  14th  and 
15th  centuries  was  the  spirited  songs  of  Halb- 
suter  and  Veit  Weber,  celebrating  ti&e  victories 
of  Switzerland  over  Austria  and  Burgundy. — 
The  progress  of  classical  culture  was  stimulated 
at  the  opening  of  the  15th  century  by  the  estab- 
lishment of  learned  societies  and  schools  in 
different  parts  of  Germany  and  the  Low  Coun- 
tries. Begins,  Langius,  Dringeberg,  Reuchlin, 
Agricola,  and  other  eminent  men  were  among 
the  scholars.  Purbach  was  the  first  restorer 
of  mathematical  science,  and  his  pupil  Re- 
giomontanus  (Johann  Mtdler)  was  the  great- 
est mathematician  of  the  16th  century;  while 
Gutenberg  was  one  of  its  heroes.  His  inven- 
tion of  the  art  of  printing  produced  a  stead- 
ily increasing  literary  activity,  and  the  books 
printed  in  Germany  between  1470  and  1600 
amounted  to  sever^  thousand  editions. — ^The 
16th  century  opened  with  the  foundation  of 
the  university  of  Wittenberg  (1602),  and  inau- 
gurated along  with  the  reformation  a  new  era 
in  literature  by  Luther's  translation  of  the  Bi- 
ble, which  he  rendered  into  German  so  harmo- 
nious and  beautiful  that  it  is  considered  even 
at  the  present  day  as  a  model  of  terse  expres- 
sion. The  High  German,  as  used  by  Luther, 
is  so  pure  that  all  the  antiquated  and  anoma- 
lous ^alects  which  had  until  then  alternately 
predominated  in  German  composition  were 
from  that  time  more  or  less  banished  from  the 
language,  and  the  idiom  of  the  Bible  has  since 
become  the  sole  medium  of  cultivated  conver- 
sation and  of  German  literature.  Hymns  and 
psalms  were  now  brought  to  perfection.  That 
famous  religious  lyric,  Eiri'  feste  Burg  ist  un- 
8er  Qott^  and  others  of  Luther's  finest  hymns, 
have  become  classic,  and  have  found  hosts 
of  imitators,  the  most  distinguished  of  whom 
were  Deems  and  8peratus,  and,  in  the  17th 
century,  Paul  Gerhard.  Michael  Weiss  trans- 
lated the  hymns  of  Huss  into  German.  The 
writings  of  Luther,  Zwingli,  Johann  Amd,  Me- 
lanchthon,  Ulrich  von  Hutten,  Bngenhagen, 
Bullinger,  and  other  reformers  and  scholars, 
constitute  the  principal  theological  literature 
immediately  connected  with  the  reformation. 
In  historical  works,  the  influence  of  the  ref- 
ormation manifested  itself  in  the  superior 
style  and  greater  comprehensiveness  of  the 
universal  histories  of  Sebastian  Frank  and  Se- 
bastian Manster ;  also  in  chronicles  of  Switzer- 
land by  Tschudi,  and  of  Bavaria  by  Aventinus. 
Frank  also  published  a  collection  of  German 
proverbs ;  in  which  branch  of  literature,  how- 
ever, he  was  preceded  and  excelled  by  Johann 
Agricola's  AuslcQung  deuUch&r  Spruchwdrter. 
Albrecht  D&rer's  writings  unfolded  original 
views  of  the  fine  arts  in  their  connection  with 
mathematical  science.  The  principal  events 
in  prose  belles-lettres  were  tlie  translations 
into  German  of  Latin  tales,  in  which  Boc- 
caccio, Poggio,  and  other  Italian  novelists  and 


poets  were  for  the  first  time  introduced  to 
German  readers.  Translations  of  Tasso  and 
Ariosto  also  appeared.  Many  of  the  ancient 
chivalric  stories,  which  had  been  published  in 
prose  in  the  15th  century,  were  republished  in 
the  16th ;  collections  of  then&  were  made  and 
called  Volhibucher  (books  for  the  people),  of 
which  the  B%ich  der  Liebe  ("  Book  of  Love  ") 
became  the  most  popular.  The  period  before 
and  after  the  reformation  was  especially  fruitful 
in  satirical  and  allegorical  works.  One  of  tiie 
most  remarkable  of  the  former  kind  was  the 
NarreMthiff  ("Ship  of  Fools '')»  by  Sebas- 
tian Brant  of  Strasburg  (new  ed.  by  Zameke, 
Strasburg,  1854),  a  metrical  satire  on  the  fol- 
lies of  the  century,  which  in  the  opinion  of 
Hallam  may  possibly  have  suggested  to  Eras- 
mus his  BiMomium  Morim,  Thomas  Mumer 
imitated  this  in  his  Narrenheschworung  ("  Con- 
juration of  Fools  "),  and  published  one  of  bis 
bitterest  satires  on  Luther  under  the  title 
Van  dem  grossen  LuthtrUchen  Narren  ("  Of 
the  Great  Lutheran  Fool").  The  fable  of 
JSeinehe  Fuehs  (afterward  immortalized  by 
Goethe's  poem),  the  origin  of  which  is  identi- 
fied by  many  authorities  with  the  ancient 
epic  or  didactic  poem  of  the  T^ienagSy  and 
which  in  different  periods  had  appeared  in  a 
variety  of  forms,  was  revived  in  a  Low  Ger- 
man edition  (translated  from  the  Dutch)  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  16th  century,  and  was  looked 
upon  in  the  16th  as  a  satire  on  the  goyemment 
and  state  of  society  of  Germany.  It  was  fol- 
lowed by  a  great  number  of  poems  of  the  same 
kind,  of  which  one  whose  characters  are  fleas 
is  the  most  witty.  Among  the  purely  didactic 
fabulists  were  Alberus  and  Burkard  Waldis,  both 
also  eminent  as  composers  of  hymns.  Among 
the  more  comic  of  the  Volk$iuc7ier  was  the 
story  of  Till  JSulenspiegel,  relating  the  freaks, 
pranks,  drolleries,  fortunes,  and  misfortunes 
of  a  wandering  jester  (new  ed.  by  Lappen- 
berg,  1864).  The  ablest  satirical  and  didactic 
poet  of  the  16th  century  was  Johann  Fischart, 
the  author  of  more  than  60  works,  including 
the  above  mentioned  fable  on  fleas  (Flohatg), 
and  of  a  romantic  poem  (Das  gluelclurfU  Sehfff) 
which  was  regarded  as  a  model  for  roman- 
cers. He  has  been  called  the  German  Rabelais. 
The  story  of  Faust  and  the  autobiography  of 
Gdtz  von  Berlichingen,  afterward  adorned  by 
Goethe,  were  also  among  the  popular  works 
of  this  century.  The  Volkslieder  or  popular 
songs  of  this  period  were  much  admired  by 
Herder,  who  was  the  first  to  coUect  them. 
The  MeUtersdnger^  upon  whom  the  mantle  of 
the  minstrels  had  fallen  since  the  14th  centary, 
had  established  metrical  schools  in  various 
German  towns,  in  the  same  spirit  in  which 
they  would  have  founded  guilds  of  trade.  Their 
highest  ideal  of  poetry  was  conformity  to  the 
rules  of  versification  which  were  adopted  by 
their  school  committees.  In  the  16th  century 
their  corporation  derived  great  prestige  from 
the  genius  of  Hans  Sachs,  &e  poet  and  cobbler 
of  Nuremberg  (then  the  headquarters  of  the 


GERMANY  (Lanouaoe  and  Litsbatubb) 


765 


Meister9dnger\  whom  Herder  calls  the  Meister 
of  Meiitersdnger^  and  who  excelled  more  than 
any  poet  hefore  him  m  all  styles  of  composi- 
tion, from  the  most  tragical  toach  of  feeling  to 
the  most  comic  tarn  of  thought.  His  song  ded- 
icated to  Lather  (  Wittenbergische  Nctcktigall) 
was  especially  fine.  Franenlob  and  Michael 
Behaim  were  also  poets,  and  RosenhlQt  and 
Folz  playwrights  of  some  note,  the  former  of 
whom  was  also  one  of  the  best  tale  writers  of 
his  time.  A  mong  the  contributors  to  the  drama 
who  sacceeded  Hans  Sachs,  he  was  excelled  in 
skilfbl  arrangement  of  plots  by  Jakob  Ayrer 
(died  in  1605),  and  in  grace  and  refinement  of 
composition  by  Andreas  Gryphius  (1616-^64). 
— Daring  the  excitement  occasioned  by  the 
reformation  almost  all  branches  of  composi- 
tion were  cultivated,  but  in  learned  and  scien- 
tific literature  the  16th  century  was  most  pro- 
lific. Besides  Melanchthon,  whose  influence 
secared  the  preponderance  of  the  Aristotelian 
philosophy  in  the  Protestant  schools  of  Ger- 
many for  more  than  a  century,  were  Luther, 
Gamerarius  (classics  and  philology),  Cornelius 
Agrippa^  Theophrastus  Paracelsus  (mystical 
philosophy  and  natural  history),  Oopemicus 
(astronomy),  Leonhard  Fuchs  (botany  and  med- 
icine), Conrad  Gesner  (botany,  zoology,  and 
classics),  and  Agricola  (mineralogy).  At  tiie 
expiration  of  the  16th  century  few  of  the  great 
scholars  of  Germany  were  left,  and  classical  cul- 
tare  was  declining  in  the  early  part  of  the  17th. 
The  numerous  universities  and  schools  which 
had  sprang  up  under  the  influence  of  the  ref- 
ormation were  no  longer  animated  by  the  zeal 
of  the  reformers,  but  engrossed  by  subtle  po- 
lemical and  scholastic  strifes.  The  deliverance 
of  the  German  intellect  from  the  scholastic 
bonds  of  the  middle  ages,  which  was  the  cher- 
ished endeavor  of  Lutlier,  was  again  retarded. 
— ^Poetry,  in  passing  from  the  Meistersdnger  to 
scholars,  lost  in  naturalness  what  it  gained  in 
elaboration.  Most  aspirants  to  poetical  fame 
in  the  17th  century  were  graduates  of  univer- 
sities, and  learned  societies  were  formed  at 
its  beginning,  with  a  view  of  improving  the 
German  language  and  literature.  These  so- 
cieties became  as  notorious  for  their  imita- 
tions of  the  Italian  academies  as  the  cor- 
porations of  the  Meistersdnger  had  been  for 
attempting  to  mimic  the  minstrels.  After 
their  dissolation  they  were  replaced  by  many 
literary  and  scientific  associations  in  Leipsic, 
Berlin,  Hamburg,  Kdnigsberg,  Halle,  and  in 
others  of  those  principal  central  and  univer- 
sity towns  of  Protestant  Germany  which  had 
become  the  leaders  of  German  culture.  A 
new  school  of  poetry  was  established,  of 
which  the  forerunners  were  Friedricb  von 
Spee  (died  in  1685)  and  Georg  Rudolf  Weck- 
herlin  (1584-1651),  the  first  author  of  son- 
nets in  German.  Martin  Opitz  (1697-1639) 
became  the  leader  of  this  scnool,  which  after 
his  native  country  was  called  the  first  Sile- 
sian  school.  He  wrote  the  language  with  a 
parity  of  idiom  in  which  he  rivalled  Luther. 


He  imparted  more  vigor  to  the  versification, 
and  wrote  many  lyrical,  mixed,  and  didactic 
poems.  Although  more  scholastic  than  poet- 
ical, he  exerted  a  great  influence  on  litera- 
ture, at  a  time  when  the  thirty  years'  war  and 
the  growing  taste  for  bad  Italian  and  French 
modes  of  composition  threatened  to  annihilate 
all  vestiges  of  pure  German  poetry,  and  when 
the  reforms  introduced  by  Luther  into  the  lan- 
guage still  required  to  be  steadily  urged  and 
followed  up  in  order  to  become  established. 
Paul  Flemming  (1609-'40)  was  the  principal 
lyrical,  and  Simon  Dach  (1605-'59)  a  gifted 
sentimental  poet  of  this  school.  Von  Zesen 
(1619-^89)  was  the  greatest  purist  of  them  all, 
strenuously  opposing  the  admixture  of  French 
words,  which  was  becoming  more  and  more 
common  in  Germany.  HalsdOrfer  was  one  of 
the  principal  poets  of  the  pastoral  Nuremberg 
branch  of  the  school.  Among  the  other  emi- 
nent poets  were  Christian  Weise,  who  excelled 
in  popular  songs  and  the  drama,  and  afterward 
opposed  the  Silesiaa  schools,  and  Friedrich  von 
Ix>gau  (1604-^65),  a  witty  epigrammatist.  An- 
dreas Gryphius  did  much  to  improve  the  Ger- 
man drama,  and  his  poetry  was  as  excessively 
passionate  as  that  of  Opitz  was  conventional 
and  cold.  This  conventionality  gave  rise  to  a 
formidable  opposition,  at  the  head  of  which 
stood  Hofmannswaldan  (1618-79)  and  Lohen- 
stein  (1685-88),  who  took  the  most  inflated 
Italian  and  French  writers  as  their  models,  and 
became  proverbial  for  bombast  and  artificiality. 
They  in  their  turn  were  opposed  by  Canitz, 
the  Berlin  statesman  and  poet  (1 654-^90),  Bes- 
ser  (1654-1729),  and  KOnig  (1688-1744),  most 
of  whom  were  court  poets,  who  endeavored  to 
imitate  the  then  fashionable  verses  of  Boileau, 
but  were  anable  to  resist  the  success  of  Lohen- 
stein's  afiected  and  extravagant  effusions.  Imi- 
tativeness  was  the  bane  of  literature  in  Ger- 
many; only  a  few,  as  Brockes  of  Hamburg 
(1680-1747)  and  Gftnther  (1695-1728),  were 
free  from  it,  while  Neukirch  (1665-1729),  and 
especially  Wernike  of  Hamburg  (died  about 
1720),  were  almost  the  only  poets  who  dared 
to  protest  against  it. — The  most  successful  au- 
thors of  novels  in  this  period  were  Buchholz, 
Yon  Zesen,  Ziegler,  Klipphausen,  Lohenstein, 
and  Duke  Anton  Ulrich  of  Brunswick.  The 
most  entertaining  book  of  the  century  was  a 
collection  of  tales  of  adventure  (Simplicissi' 
mus)  by  Grimmelshausen,  a  style  of  composi- 
tion in  which  he  had  been  preceded  by  the 
satirist  Moscherosch.  The  writings  of  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  preacher  Abraham  a  Sancta  Clara 
(1642-1709)  are  distinguished  by  a  broad  hu- 
mor, especially  his  Judas.  Among  the  prose 
writers  of  the  17th  century  were  S.  von  Pufen- 
dorf  in  political  philosophy,  Kepler  (who  wrote 
in  Latin)  in  astronomy,  and  Gottfried  Arnold  in 
ecclesiastical  history.  Among  writers  on  the- 
ology and  ethics,  Spener,  the  founder  of  Prot- 
estant pietism,  takes  a  prominent  position.  In 
philosophy  and  learning  Latin  continued  to  be 
the  sole  medium  of  literature ;    and  Jakob 


766 


GERMANY  (Laxquags  and  LmsBATirBB) 


Boobm  (1575-1624),  the  great  mystic,  stood 
for  a  long  time  almost  alone  in  the  use  of  the 
vemacolar  tongue,  until  the  latter  part  of  the 
century,  when  Leibnitz  (1646-1716)  and  Wolf 
(1679-1754)  appeared.  Christian  Thomasius 
(1655-1728),  the  able  jurist  and  pietistio  phi- 
losopher and  writer,  was  the  firsts  in  his  lec- 
tures at  Leipsic  and  afterward  at  Halle,  to 
substitute  the  German  for  the  Latin  language 
as  the  medium  of  instruction.  He  was  also 
among  the  very  first  to  use  the  German  lan- 
guage in  his  writings,  and  established  the  first 
German  learned  periodical  in  Leipsic  (1688- 
'90).  Leibnitz  was  the  first  to  lay  a  scientific 
basis  for  the  study  of  philosophy  in  Germany, 
but  his  works  were  chiefiy  written  in  Latin 
and  French.  Wolf,  his  disciple,  shaped  the 
views  of  Leibnitz  into  a  comprehensive  system, 
and  published  his  works  in  the  German  lan- 
guage.— Under  the  impulse  of  the  new  philo- 
sophical ideas,  Germany  became  in  the  18th 
century  excited  on  the  subject  of  literature,  as 
it  had  been  on  that  of  theology  in  the  16tlK 
The  17th  closed  with  the  foundation  of  the 
Berlin  academy  by  Leibnitz  (1700).  The  gen- 
eral clamor  was  for  reform  in  education,  in  lit- 
erature, and  soon  for  reform  in  all  departments 
of  thought.  Gottsched  in  Leipsic  (1 700-1 766), 
laboring  in.  the  same  direction  as  Thomasius, 
exerted  himself  to  make  the  German  language 
the  sole  medium  of  instruction,  and  published 
in  it  manuals  and  abridgments  of  philosophy 
and  science.  He  advocated  the  classical  rules 
of  composition  of  Bacine  and  Oorneille,  but 
aimed  above  all  at  correctness.  His  views 
brought  him  into  conflict  with  Bodmer  (1698- 
1788)  and  Breitinger  of  Ztlrich  (l701-'76), 
who  were  admirers  of  Milton  and  rigidly  or- 
thodox in  religion,  while  Gottsched  was  friend- 
ly to  Voltaire.  They  carried  on  a  paper  war 
in  their  respective  journals,  until  at  length 
many  who  had  rallied  round  Gottsched  became 
disgusted  with  his  pedantry,  and  separating 
themselves  from  him,  established  a  periodic^ 
celebrated  in  German  literature  under  the 
name  of  Bremer  Beitrdge^  edited  by  G&rtner 
(1712-91),  in  which  they  opposed  their  former 
friend ;  at  the  same  time  they  formed  a  poeti- 
cal union  to  which  Hagedom  was  friendly,  al- 
though he  did  not  join  it,  but  which  was  event- 
ually joined  by  Klopstock,  who  became  its 
hero.  Among  the  contributors  to  this  journal 
were  Rabener  (1714-'71),  a  popular  satirist, 
of  a  correct  and  easy  style;  Zacharid  (1726- 
'77),  a  writer  of  poetry  in  imitation  of  Pope's 
"Rape  of  the  Lock;"  Gellert  (1716-'69),  a 
famous  fabulist ;  Kfistner,  the  poet  and  mathe- 
matician ;  Giseke ;  Johann  Elias  Schlegel,  dra- 
matist, and  Johann  Adolph  Schlegel  (1721- 
'98),  poet;  Fuchs.  Cramer,  Ebert,  translator 
of  Young's  "Nignt  Thoughts,"  and  several 
others.  The  journal  was  printed  in  Bremen, 
but  the  poets  resided  for  some  time  at  Leipsic, 
whence  they  adopted  the  name  of  the  second 
Saxon  school,  while  the  followers  of  Bodmer 
(of  Ztlrich)  styled  themselves  the  Swiss  school. 


Related  to  the  latter  was  the  school  of  Halle, 
to  which  belonged  Lange,  Pyra,  Uz,  and  G<ktz. 
The  most  distinguished  of  the  poets  of  this 
school  were  Kleist  (l7l5-'69),  author  of  de- 
scriptive and  picturesque  poetry  in  the  man- 
ner of  Thomson  and  Pope,  and  Ramler  (1725— 
'98),  a  composer  of  odes,  and  the  first  to  intro- 
duce the  language,  versification,  and  manners 
of  the  ancients  into  Germany.  Gleim  (1719— 
1808),  the  celebrated  fabulist  and  poet,  at  first 
a  follower  of  Bodmer,  gathered  a  knot  of 
writers  around  him,  and  exercised  for  about 
40  years  a  considerable  influence  on  Ger- 
man poetry ;  but  his  fame  was  diminished  by 
the  criticisms  of  Herder.  Salomon  Gessner  of 
Ztlrich  (l780-'87)  gained  in  his  time  a  high 
reputation  as  a  writer  of  idyls,  but  Herder 
thinks  that  he  was  overrated  by  his  contempo- 
raries. Bodmer's  prestige  w  as  also  soon  broken 
by  the  criticisms  of  Lessing.  Of  greater  influ- 
ence than  any  of  the  poets  as  yet  named  were 
Hagedom  of  Hamburg  (1708-'54),  whose  fables 
and  songs  have  immortalized  him  in  Germanv, 
and  Albert  von  Haller  (1708-'77),  the  illustri- 
ous physiologist  and  savant,  whp  was  remark- 
able as  a  writer  of  descriptive  and  didactic 
poetry.  They  were  followed  by  Klopstock 
(1724-1808),  whose  ^^ Messiah"  made  a  pro- 
found impression  upon  the  religious  world  by 
its  mystic,  devout^  and  rapturous  faith,  while 
as  a  work  of  art  it  was  greatly  admired.  The 
fashionable  and  elegant  portion  of  society  was 
attracted  by  the  semi-Grecian,  semi-Parisian 
muse  of  Wieland  (1788-1818).  But  it  was  re- 
served for  Lessing  (1729-'81)  to  give  a  new  di- 
rection to  German  literature.  He  did  for  it 
what  Luther  had  done  for  the  German  lan- 
guage. He  established  a  new  school  of  criti- 
cism, and  struck  a  final  blow  at  Gallic  influ- 
ence, at  the  same  time  that  Frederick  the 
Great  was  coquetting  w^ith  the  French  graces. 
His  tragedy  Emilia  Galotti^  his  comedy  Minna 
von  Bamhelm^  and  his  philosophical  drama 
Nathan  der  Weiee^  are  models  of  dramatic 
composition.  He  exerted  a  powerful  influence 
on  the  progress  of  the  German  drama  by  un- 
folding for  the  first  time  all  the  beauty,  vigor, 
and  originality  of  Shakespeare  before  the  Ger- 
man mmd,  and  by  the  profound  and  philosophi- 
cal criticisms  in  his  Dramaturge,  He  pro- 
nounced a  condemnatory  judgment  upon  all 
foreign  models  except  Shakespeare  and  the  an- 
cients, and  demonstrated  that  the  spirit  of  the 
age  shrank  from  the  mediesval  sentimentality 
of  epic  poetry,  and  desired  literature  to  reflect 
its  own  stirring  energies,  as  the  drama  alone 
can  do.  Most  celebrated  among  the  many 
literary  publications  which  were  identified  witli 
Lessing's  critical  labors  was  a  periodical  {LiU- 
raturhrirfe)  which  he  founded  in  Berlin  in 
1759,  in  coiyunotion  with  Nioolai  (1788-181 IX 
the  publisher  and  author.  Lessing  was  the 
master  spirit  of  this  publication,  and  the  prin- 
cipal contributor  next  to  himself  was  his  friend 
Moses  Mendelssohn  (1729-'86).  Both  Klop- 
stock and  Wieland  were  criticised  in  that  peri- 


GERMANY  (Languaqs  and  Litkbatuse) 


767 


odioal,  and  it  was  the  first  to  discover  the 
merit  of  Winckelmann  the  archseologist,  of 
Hamann  the  mystic  philosopher,  and  the  phi- 
losophical ffenins  of  Kant,  although  at  that 
time  he  haa  onlj  written  some  short  treatises. 
Shortly  after  the  commencement  of  the  Litera- 
turhritfe^  a  new  inflaence  was  infosed  into  the 
literary  world  by  Herder  (1744-1803),  who  while 
at  K5nigsberg  became  acquainted  with  Hamann 
and  Kant,  and  who  was  known  as  a  scholar  as 
early  as  1762.  He  brought  to  bear  upon  lit- 
erature an  almost  universal  knowleage,  the 
study  of  the  poets  of  all  nations,  an  intimate 
ac<}uaintance  with  Hebrew,  Greek,  and  Latin 
writings,  and  above  all  a  cosmopolitan  hamani- 
tarian  spirit,  which,  together  with  his  poetical 
genius,  manifested  itself  most  suggestively  in 
the  crowning  work  of  his  life,  IdSen  »ur  Phi- 
la$ophie  der  Ge^ehiehts  der  Memchheit,  He 
contributed  powerfully  to  promote  the  study 
of  oriental  poetry,  and  was  the  first  to  call  at- 
tention to  the  beauty  of  the  ancient  popular 
songs  of  different  nations,  and  particularly  of 
his  own.  Another  great  impulse  was  given  by 
Winckelmann  (1717-'68).  His  examinations 
of  the  remains  of  ancient  art  and  his  writings 
modified  all  the  old  theories  of  the  beaatiful ; 
and  by  his  efforts,  combined  with  those  of  Les- 
sing,  whose  celebrated  work  Laoloon  was  eli- 
cited by  Winckelmann^s  suggestions,  the  spirit 
of  art  and  poetry  was  brought  back  to  the 
genuine  and  simple  taste  of  the  Greeks. 
Heyne,  the  accomplished  critic  and  commenta- 
tor, propounded  tne  theories  of  Winckelmann 
at  Grdttingen,  then  the  most  brilliant  universi- 
ty of  Germany.  The  young  men  there  became 
deeply  impressed  with  the  new  theories,  and, 
under  the  influence  of  the  reforms  which  were 
then  initiated  in  religion,  philosophy,  literature, 
art,  and  education — in  almost  all  departments 
of  thought  and  life — ^founded  in  1770  tiie  Mu- 
ienalmanach^  a  literary  journal,  and  not  long 
afterward  a  poetical  union  known  as  the  OdU 
tinger  Diehterbundy  or  Hairihund,  Elopstock 
became  the  leader  and  model  of  these  enthusi- 
astic youths,  whose  aim  was  to  give  a  new 
stimulus  to  poetic  emulation,  and  to  oppose 
to  conventional  theories  a  school  of  poetry 
founded  upon  the  inspirations  of  genius  and 
humanity.  Among  the  members  of  the  union 
were  BClrger  (174^'94),  the  author  of  Lenore 
and  other  wild  and  picturesque  ballads  and 
songs ;  Voss  (1751-1826),  one  of  the  most  learn- 
ed and  eloquent  philologists  of  his  day,  im- 
mortalized by  his  translations  of  Homer  and 
Virgil,  and  the  author  of  one  of  the  best  Ger- 
man idyls  (Luite) ;  H51ty  (1748-1776),  whose 
songs  became  exceedingly  popular;  the  two 
Stolbergs,  who  cooperated  with  Voss  in  fa- 
miliarizing the  Germans  with  the  ancients,  and 
who  excelled  in  various  kinds  of  metrical  com- 
position ;  Olaudins,  Miller,  Habn,  Cramer,  Get- 
ter, and  Boje.  A  genial  poet  of  this  period  was 
Pfeffel  (1786-1809),  whom  it  would  be  difficult 
to  dass  with  any  particular  school.  Goethe 
(1749-1832),  already  known  to  fame,  and  ac- 
856  VOL.  vn. — 49 


quainted  with  Herder  and  other  poets,  but 
keeping  himself  aloof  from  all  unions  and  par- 
ties, came  forward  in  1778  with  Gott  von  Ber- 
liehingen^  which  was  greeted  as  the  commence- 
ment of  an  entirely  new  period  in  German 
dramatic  literature.  In  1774  appeared  Wer- 
therms  Leiden.  The  reformatory  period  of  liter- 
ature was  now  over.  The  revolution  had  set 
in,  or  the  Sturm-  und  Drangpenode^  as  it  was 
called  after  a  drama  of  that  name  by  Xlinger 
(1768-1881),  whose  high-wrought  tragedies 
and  novels,  as  well  as  the  writings  of  Schn- 
bart  (1739-^91),  Heinse  (died  in  1803),  Lenz 
(1760-'92),  and  Mdller  (1760-1825),  reflect 
most  forcibly  the  excitement  of  this  epoch. 
In  the  mean  time  Schiller  (1759-1805)  pro- 
duced his  EdtU>er,  followed  by  FU^eo  and  Co- 
hale  und  Liebe,  These  impassioned  tragedies 
gave  a  new  impetus  to  the  literary  excitement. 
His  Don  Carlos^  however  (1784),  shows  great- 
er moderation,  and  opens  a  long  series  of 
tragedies  in  which  the  highest  aspirations  for 
liberty  and  humanity  are  interwoven  with  his- 
torical associations,  expressed  in  language  of 
the  most  classical  purity.  But  it  was  only 
after  SchiUer's  union  with  Goethe  (1795)  that 
by  their  combined  labors  German  literature 
was  brought  to  tliat  classical  perfection  which, 
from  a  purely  national,  has  since  given  to  it  a 
universal  influence.  Schiller,  by  his  enthusias- 
tic and  sympathetic  eloquence  and  tenderness, 
became  the  favorite  of  the  people ;  and  Goethe, 
with  his  many-sided  intellect  and  boundless 
sensibilities,  controlled  by  a  strong  will,  en- 
cased in  a  body  of  exuberant  health,  and  disci- 
plined by  an  all-embracing  culture  and  knowl- 
edge, became  the  acknowledged  sovereign  of 
German  literature.— While  this  golden  era  of 
letters  was  in  a  great  measure  accelerated  by 
the  philosophic  spirit  of  the  age  which  had 
prompted  the  labors  of  Lessing  and  the  other 
reformers,  that  spirit  itself  gathered  strength 
from  the  light  which  it  difiVised,  and  in  rapid 
succession  gave  birth  to  Eant  (1724-1804). 
Fichte  (1762-1814),  Hegel  (1770-1881),  and 
Schelling  (1775-1854).  Lessmg,  especially  by 
his  comprehensive  essay  on  the  ^*  Education 
of  the  Human  Race,"  Herder,  Moses  Mendels- 
sohn, and  Hamann  are  philosophical  writers 
of  great  eminence.  In  a  popular  style  wrote 
Engel,  the  author  of  Lorenz  Stark,  and  the 
psychological  novels  of  Jacobi  are  among  the 
most  suggestive  of  German  prose  writings. 
Among  other  prose  writers  are  Reinhold  and 
Barth ;  Alexander  Gottlieb  Banmgarten,  gen- 
erally considered  the  founder  of  the  science  of 
esthetics  (in  I^tin) ;  Meier,  the  German  inter- 
preter of  his  theories;  and  Sulzer,  who  wrote 
on  the  same  science.  Abbt,  Garve,  Liscow, 
the  philosopher  and  elegant  fabulist,  Lavater 
the  physiognomist,  his  friend  Zimmermann, 
and  his  sarcastic  and  polished  opponent  Lich- 
tenberg;  the  historiansI)ohm,M6ser,  Schrdckh, 
Schldzer,  and  Beck;  SpitUer,  the  celebrated 
G6ttingen  historian ;  Mosheim,  the  ecclesiasti- 
cal historian ;  Johannes  von  Mnller,.  the  his- 


768 


GERMANY  (Lakouage  and  Litesattjrb) 


torian  of  Switzerland,  one  of  the  classical 
historiographers  of  Germany  (1752-1809) ; 
G^drg  Forster,  the  teacher  and  friend  of  Al- 
exander von  Humholdt,  an  admirahle  writer ; 
the  publicist  Friedrich  Karl  von  Moser;  the 
edacator  Basedow,  and  afterward  Pestalozzi; 
Oampe,  the  writer  of  books  for  children ;  Ni- 
colai,  the  friend  of  Lessing  and  anthor  of  the 
satirical  novel  Sebaldus  Nothanker ;  Adelung, 
the  philologist ;  B5ttiger,  the  antiqnarj ;  Sturz, 
the  biographer ;  Reimarus,  Jerusalem,  Spalding, 
Michaelis,  Rosemutlller,  and  Ernesti,  in  theol- 
ogy ;  Eichhorn  in  theology  and  universal  and 
literary  history ;  Blumenbach,  Bloch,  Herschel, 
Euler,  Yega,  and  many  other  eminent  writers  in 
various  branches  of  learning  and  science,  belong 
to  this  period. — ^A  peculiar  and  powerful  writer, 
who  stood  quite  alone  in  his  idiosyncrasies, 
was  Jean  Paul  Friedrich  Richter  (1768-1825). 
He  puzzles  the  reader  by  his  inability  to  assort 
his  thoughts,  which  he  pours  out  with  the 
reckless  naiveU  of  a  childlike  soul;  but  the 
obscurity  is  lighted  up  by  flashes  of  humor  and 
brilliant  gems  of  thought  and  feeling.  The  in- 
fluence of  this  genial  philosopher  was  great, 
especially  upon  the  women  of  Germany.  No- 
viuis  (Von  Hardenberg,  1772-1801)  was  an- 
other strangely  constituted  writer,  who  utter- 
ed himself  in  poetic  sighs  rather  than  in  vigor- 
ous words ;  but  amid  his  morbid  sentiments  are 
scattered  thoughts  of  such  wisdom  and  spiritual 
insight  that  his  poems  and  prose  writings,  al- 
though few  and  fragmentary,  gave  him  a  place 
among  the  classical  authors  of  his  country.  He 
is  regarded  as  the  head  of  the  so-called  romantic 
school,  which  draws  its  inspiration  from  the 
fabulous,  mediffivcd  and  ohiv^c  eras  of  litera- 
ture and  history.  Among  the  most  brilliant 
masters  of  this  school  was  August  Wilhelm  von 
Sohlegel  (1767-1845),  the  author  of  an  antique 
tragedy,  lon^  and  of  romances  and  elegies,  but 
chiefly  distinguished  for  his  admirable  metrical 
translation  of  Shakespeare,  his  critical  and  sbs- 
thetio  writings,  his  lectures  on  the  drama  and 
its  literature,  and  his  labors  connected  with 
Indian  literature  and  the  Sanskrit  language. 
His  brother  Friedrich  von  Schlegel  (1772- 
1829)  was  also  engaged  in  the  study  of  Hindoo 
literature ;  but  his  specialty  was  the  history  of 
ancient  and  modem  literature  and  the  philoso- 
phy of  history.  The  most  original  representa- 
tive of  this  school  was  Ludwig  Tieck  (1778- 
1858),  whose  poetical  dramatization  and  collec- 
tion of  ancient  fairy  and  popular  tales  reflect 
the  romance  of  medisval  poesy  with  beauty 
and  genius,  but  with  a  mystic  feeling  border- 
ing almost  on  superstition.  The  writings  of 
Tieck's  friend  Wackenroder  (1772-'98)  were 
the  first  to  enlist  the  sympathies  of  the  Ger- 
man artists  for  the  89sthetic  principles  of  the 
romantic  school.  La  Motte  Fouqu6  (1777- 
1843),  of  the  same  school,  stands  alone  in  Ger- 
man literature  by  his  remarkable  delineations 
of  fairy  lore,  as  for  instance  in  his  tale  of  Un- 
dine. Ohamisso  (1781-1888),  the  author  of 
PeUr  Sehlemihl  and  of  many  fine  lyrics,  Tiedge 


(1762-1841),  the  author  of  the  philosophical 
poem  Urania,  the  Aristophanic  Platen  (1796- 
1885),  and  the  mystic  reli^ous  poems  of  Wer- 
ner, all  belong  to  this  romantic  school;  and 
with  but  few  exceptions,  as  for  instance  the 
patriotic  and  spirited  poet  Seume  (1768-1810), 
most  writings  of  this  period  are  tinged  with  a 
morbid  passion  for  romantic  and  sentimental 
views  of  life.  This  epoch  comprises  the  lyrical 
poets  Schenkendorf  (1783-1817),  St&gemann 
(I76a-1840),  Kosegarten  (1758-1818),  Bagge- 
sen  the  Dane  (1764-1826),  Matthisson  (1761- 
1881),  Mahlmann  (1771-1826),  Sails  (1762- 
1834),  and  Eichendorff"  (1788-1857),  several  of 
whom  belong  to  the  romantic  school.  Among 
novelists  and  tale  writers  are  Achim  von  Ar- 
nim  (178i-1881)  and  Clemens  Brentano  (1777- 
1842),  the  compilers  of  a  series  of  celebrated 
popular  songs  (De8  Ehciben  Wvnderhom\  and 
Ernst  Theodor  Amadeus  Hoffmann  (1776- 
1822),  the  author  of  many  wild,  fantastic  tales 
and  legends  {Elixir  des  Tet^eh,  Kater  Murr, 
&c.),  which  cap  the  climax  of  the  supernatnral- 
istic  element  of  the  romantic  school.  Among 
favorite  novelists  of  this  period  are  J.  T. 
Hermes  (178&-1821) ;  Hippel  (1741-'96),  the 
indiscreet  friend  and  disciple  of  Kant ;  Musaus 
(1785-'87),  the  author  of  a  collection  of  Volkt- 
mdrchen  or  popular  fairy  tales;  Lafontaine 
(1759-1881),  a  type  of  the  most  sentimental 
novelists;  Blnmauer,  J.  G.  Mailer,  and  Thiim' 
mel  (1788-1817),  the  author  of  a  novel  in  imi- 
tation of  Sterne's  "Sentimental  Journey;" 
Jung-Stilling  (1740-1817),  the  inspired  tailor  in 
whose  n^ve  and  original  autobiography  Goethe, 
Schiller,  and  Herder  took  so  much  interest; 
Enigge  (l752-'96),  the  author  of  the  i?ewe  nach 
Braun$chweig ;  and  Immermann  (1795-1840), 
the  author  of  the  famous  story  of  Munckh4iuMen. 
Ghost  stories  were  for  a  time  made  popular  by 
Schiller's  Oeisterwher,  and  to  this  department 
of  literature  Jung-Stilling  also  contributed. 
Associated  with  the  romantic  school,  in  the 
earlier  part  of  her  literary  career,  was  Bettina 
von  Amim  (1785-1859),  celebrated  by  her  cor- 
respondence with  Goethe.  Rahel,  the  wife  of 
Yamhagen  von  Ense  (1771-1883),  was  a  liter- 
ary woman  of  much  greater  talent  and  origi- 
nsJity  of  thought.  Among  other  distinguished 
authoresses  are  Auguste  von  Paalzow,  Ida  von 
Hahn-Hahn.  Amalie  Schoppe,  Johanna  Scho- 
penhauer, Friederike  Brun,  and  many  others. 
Tal^  (Mrs.  Robinson)  contributed  to  difinse 
a  knowledge  of  Servian  popular  songs  and  of 
Slavic  literature  generally,  and  won  great  dis- 
tinction in  this  and  other  spheres  of  htera- 
ture. — The  efforts  of  Elopstock,  Herder,  and 
other  authors  to  revive  the  popularity  of  the 
early  German  poetry,  as  well  as  the  sentiment 
of  nationality  which  was  roused  at  the  begin- 
ning of  this  century  by  the  aggressive  policy 
of  Napoleon  I.,  contributed  to  give  a  power- 
ful impulse  to  the  researches  into  the  an- 
cient German  literature,  which  was  to  some 
extent  fostered  by  Jahn's  spirited  work  on 
Deutsehes  Volhsthum.    Yon  der  Hagen,  by  his 


6EBMANT  (Lakguagb  and  Lttebatube) 


769 


edition  of  the  Nibelungen^  did  much  to  pro- 
mote a  love  for  the  study  of  the  old  German 
dialects  and  the  poetry  connected  with  them. 
The  brothers  Wilhelm  and  Jakob  Grimm  are 
tlie  more  immediate  founders  of  this  new 
branch  of  philological  and  poetical  investiga- 
tion. Benecke,  Lachmann,  and  Simrock  la- 
bored in  the  same  direction,  and  more  recent- 
ly Moritz  Haupt;  also  Franz  Pfeifer,  Oskar 
Schade,  Zarncke,  Holtzmann,  Hoffmann  von 
Fallersleben,  Bartsch,  &c. — ^The  German  war 
of  independence  against  Napoleon  L  produced 
some  striking  patriotic  songs  from  Prof.  Arndt 
of  Bonn  (1769-1860),  and  Theodor  K6mer 
(1791-1813),  the  gallant  soldier-poet,  and  au- 
thor oiLeier  und  Sckwert  ("Lyre  and  Sword  "). 
Some  of  the  lyrical  poets  of  the  romantic 
school  whom  we  have  named  also  became  dis- 
tinguished for  their  patriotic  effusions,  espe- 
cially Schenkendorf  and  Stftgemann.  Wilhelm 
Mttller  of  Dessau  (1794-1827),  author  of  the 
admirable  Griechenlieder,  may  be  classed 
among  patriotic  poets.  The  maiden  efforts 
of  Friedrich  Rttokert  (1789-1866),  one  of  the 
best  lyrical  and  didactic  poets  of  Germany, 
and  celebrated  as  much  for  his  imitations  of 
troubadour  songs  as  for  his  versions  of  ori- 
ental poetry,  were  also  inspired  by  the  war 
against  the  French.  Another  who  came  for- 
ward as  a  champion  of  national  independence 
was  Uhland  (1787-1862),  the  chieftain  of  the 
modern  Swabian  school,  and  one  of  the  lead- 
ing poets  of  Germany.  Stuttgart,  the  seat 
of  the  great  publishing  house  of  Gotta  and 
of  the  critic  Wolfgang  Menzel,  was  the  head- 
quarters of  this  school.  Hebel  (1760-1826), 
whose  Alemannisehe  Qedichte  were  greatly  ad- 
mired by  Goethe,  belonged  to  it  by  the  Swabian 
dialect  and  spirit  of  his  songs,  although  he  lived 
at  an  earlier  period.  An  eminent  lyrical  poet 
of  this  school  was  Justinus  Eerner.  Gnstav 
Schwab,  Pfizer,  the  critic  and  historian,  Karl 
Mayer,  and  MOrike,  all  belong  more  or  less 
to  the  Swabian  school.  A  new  direction  was 
given  to  literary  activity  by  the  political  excite- 
ment immediately  preceding  and  succeeding 
the  French  revolution  of  1880.  Ludwig  Bdme 
(1786-1887)  and  Heinrich  Heine  (1800-1866) 
are  regarded  as  its  heralds,  the  former  by  his 
pungent  and  comprehensive  political  satires,  the 
latter  by  his  keen  insight  and  peculiar  lyrical 
genius.  Heine  exercised  a  wide  influence  in  the 
literary  world.  As  a  poet,  he  had  a  peculiar 
gift  of  uniting  the  tragic  and  comic  in  a  feli- 
citous and  racy  manner,  which  made  him  the 
idol  of  a  new  school  of  authors  who  styled 
themselves  "  Young  Germany,"  but  who  par- 
took much  less  of  Heine^s  poetical  gifts  tiian 
of  his  political  sympathies.  Earl  Gntzkow 
(bom  in  1811)  was  the  head  of  this  school. 
He  is  the  author  of  I>ie  Bitter  vom  Geiste  and 
Zauberer  von  Bonk,  and  of  many  other  novels, 
and  several  dramas.  The  other  principal  rep- 
resentatives of  "  Young  Germany  "  are  Hein- 
rich Laube  (bom  in  1806),  Gustav  EtLhne 
(1806),  and  Theodor  Mnndt  (1808).    An  emi- 


nent author  of  this  period  is  Baron  Sternberg 
(1806),  author  of  Diane  and  Paul^  and  of  many 
other  works  which  hold  up  the  mirror  to  the 
social  and  political  condition  of  his  country. 
Another  famous  writer  and  amateur  hberal 
politician  of  this  class  is  Prince  PUckler-Mnskau 
(1786-1871),  author  of  Brirfe  eines  Verstorbe- 
nen^  and  of  other  piquant  books.  The  taste  for 
novels  of  a  political  and  social  tendency  has  been 
characteristic  of  German  writers  since  the  early 
part  of  this  century.  The  novels  of  Gutzkow, 
Laube,  and  many  other  contemporary  Ger- 
man writers,  all  belong  to  this  category,  while 
Gustav  Freytag  has  gained  a  high  reputation  by 
several  excellent  novels,  among  which  the  best 
known  is  SoU  und  Hahen  {^^  Debit  and  Cred- 
it"). The  line  of  historical  novelists  was 
opened  by  Meissner  (1768-1807) ;  he  was  fol- 
lowed by  Karoline  von  Pichler  (1769-1848), 
Tromlitz  (Von  Witzleben,  1778-1839),  Van 
der  Velde  (1779-1824),  Karl  Spindler  (1796- 
1866),  author  of  Der  Jxtde^  Der  Bastctrd,  and 
other  novels,  which  ei\joyed  great  popularity ; 
Bellstab,  Storch,  Ran,  and  Eoenig  (1790-1869), 
author  of  Die  Chibieten  in  Maim  (1847). 
Bemeck  or  Bemd  von  Guseck  (born  in  1808), 
MOgge  (1806-'61),  author  of  Touseaint  and 
other  excellent  novels,  Edhne  and  Heller 
(1813-71),  are  all  contributors  to  this  class 
of  novels.  Here  belong  also  the  semi-histori- 
cal novels  of  Louise  Muhlbach  (Mme.  Mundt, 
1814-'73),  which  have  ei\joyed  a  very  wide 
popularity,  but  are  not  entitled  to  high  rank 
either  from  a  literary  point  of  view  or  as  in- 
terpreters of  history.  A  far  higher  merit  must 
be  awarded  to  Zschokke  (1771-1848),  one  of 
the  best  German  prose  writers  of  recent  times, 
author  of  many  excellent  historical  and  ro- 
mantic works,  and  of  Stunden  der  Andaeht,  a 
religious  work,  which  has  passed  through 
many  editions.  Heinrich  Steffens,  the  Nor- 
wegian philosopher  and  naturalist  (1778-1846), 
wrote  German  novels  based  upon  Scandinavian 
history,  which  are  replete  with  interest.  An- 
other historical  novelist  is  Wilhelm  Haring, 
known  by  the  pseudonyme  of  Wilibald  Alexis 
(1797-1871),  who  imitated  so  skilfully  the 
manner  and  style  of  Sir  Walter  Scott  that 
several  of  his  works  were  translated  into  for- 
eign languages  and  passed  for  some  time  as  the 
productions  of  the  great  English  romancer. 
The  most  famous  of  the  kind  is  "  Walladmor." 
Hauff,  a  genial  novelist,  whose  Lichtenstein 
takes  high  rank  among  historical  romances; 
Olauren,  a  licentious  writer,  but  one  whose 
novels  have  been  read  extensively ;  and  Hack- 
l&nder,  the  author  of  Boldatenlehen,  Handel 
und  Wandely  and  many  other  works,  and  the 
founder  and  conductor  of  the  widely  known 
journal  Ueber  Land  und  Meer,  may  be  men- 
tioned here;  also  Berthold  Auerbach  (1812), 
who  attracted  immediate  attention  by  his  first 
work,  Schwarzwdlder  Dorfgeaehichten,  and  has 
since  taken  his  place  among  the  leaders  of 
German  fiction,  his  novel  Avfder  Hoke  having 
gained  a  very  wide  reputation  in  Germany, 


770 


GERMANY  (Languaos  autd  LrncBATiTBB) 


England,  and  America,  which  has  been  in- 
creased by  his  later  works.  Among  German 
novelists  of  the  last  decade  whose  works  pos- 
sess permanent  value,  the  leading  place  is  nn- 
donbtedly  occupied  by  Friedrich  Spielhagen, 
whose  Problematuehe  Ndturen^  Durch  Naeht 
turn  LicJttj  Hammer  uihd  Amho$8j  and  other 
works,  eigoy  a  great  popularity  and  high  es- 
teem. Heinrich  Laube,  Alfred  Meissner  (a 
grandson  of  the  historical  novelist).  Max  Ring, 
dmund  Hoefer,  Fanny  Lewald,  Levin  Sch tick- 
ing, Karl  von  Holtei,  and  others,  have  been 
prolific  contributors  to  the  recent  literature  of 
notion.  Eugenie  John,  best  known  under  the 
nom  deplume  of  £.  Marlitt,  has  written  several 
excellent  novels,  among  which  Goldehe  (1866), 
Das  Oeheimniss  der  alien  Mamsell  (1867),  and 
Reiehsgrd^n  Oiuila  (1869)  have  been  excep- 
tionally popular,  and  have  been  translated  into 
English.  Paul  Ueyse  is  another  contemporary 
novelist  whose  works  have  attained  and  de- 
served much  success. — Among  the  poets  who 
have  expressed  liberal  political  tendencies  with 
most  point  are  Hoffmann  von  Fallersleben,  the 
author  of  UnpoliHsehe  Lieder;  Herwegh,  au- 
thor of  Qedichte  einee  Lebendigen  ;  Dingelstedt, 
author  of  Lieder  einee  hosmopolitUehen  NachU 
wdchters;  Prutz  (bom  in  1810),  Kinkel  (1815), 
and  Freiligrath.  Among  other  recent  poets 
who  have  acquired  some  eminence  are  Grabbe, 
Gottschall,  Emanuel  Geibel,  Redwitz,  Paul 
Heyse,  Wolfgang  Mtiller,  Max  Waldau,  Gerokt, 
Bodenstedt  (especially  distinguished  for  his 
versions  of  Persian  poetry),  BCttger,  Simrock, 
Kugler,  Keller,  Schefer,  and  Hammer,  many 
of  whom  excel  in  ballads  and  songs  after  the 
style  of  the  S  wabian  school.  A  circle  of  poets 
in  Vienna  cluster  round  Anastasius  GrGn  (Count 
Auersperg),  the  greatest  lyric  poet  of  Austria, 
author  of  Spaaiergdnge  einea  Wiener  Poeten^ 
Sehutt,  Derletzte  Ritter^  &o.  Lenau  and  Karl 
Beck  were  the  principal  and  most  gifted  of  his 
followers.  Alfred  Meissner  and  Moritz  Hart- 
mann  belong  to  this  school.  A  few  other  names 
of  writers  who  have  acquired  a  passing  reputa- 
tion by  attractive  or  melodious  verses  might 
be  added  here;  but  dnring  the  past  decade 
no  really  great  poet,  whose  fame  is  likely  to  be 
lasting,  has  appeared  in  Germany.  The  war 
against  France  in  1870  called  forth,  it  is  true, 
many  national  and  martial  lyrics,  among  the 
best  of  which  were  several  by  Freiligrath  and 
Geibel,  as  well  as  some  stirring  songs  by  the 
newer  writers  Gottschall,  Grosse,  Rittershaus, 
and  Jensen.  Several  of  those  named  in  the 
list  of  recent  poets  given  above  also  produced 
noteworthy  war  lyrics.  Die  Waeht  am  Rhein^ 
written  long  before  (about  1840)  by  Schneck- 
enburger,  became  the  popular  war  song  of  the 
armies  of  1870;  but  its  literary  worth  was 
small  compared  with  many  others  of  the  na- 
tional poems  published  dnring  the  period  of  its 
popularity. — ^Dramatic  literature  has  also  fallen 
from  the  high  estate  which  it  had  reached 
through  Lessing,  Goethe,  and  Schiller.  Gers- 
tenberg  (1787-1828)  was  the  author  of  the 


high-wrought  tragedy  Ugolino,  noticeable  only 
for  its  extravagance.  Among  his  contempo- 
raries were  some  excellent  dramatists  and 
{)oets,  as  Cronegk,  Leisewitz,  Weisse,  &c.  Iff- 
and  (1759-1814),  in  a  long  series  of  plays,  re- 
flected the  life  of  respectable  people  of  the  mid- 
dle classes ;  they  are  eminently  moral  in  their 
tone,  but  long  and  heavy.  Werner  (1768-1828) 
became  the  founder  of  the  so-called  tragedy  of 
fate  (Sehiehsalatragodie)  by  his  piece  called  i>^ 
Vi&rundetoafmgite  Februar,  The  imitators  of 
his  extravagant  style  are  Milliner  (1774-1829) 
in  his  Sehuld,  Howald  (1778-1845)  in  his  Bild, 
and  Grillparzer  (1790-1872)  in  his  Ahnfrau, 
Kotzebne  (1761-1819)  succeeded  in  obtaining 
a  higher  popularity  than  all  his  contemporary 
playwrights.  His  forte  was  in  comedy,  he 
wrote  more  than  200  plays,  some  of  which  have 
been  adapted  to  the  English  and  French  stage. 
MQnch-Bellinghausen  (nam  deplume,  Friedrich 
Halm)  has  written  an  excellent  drama,  Der 
Sohn  der  Wildnise,  a  national  tragedy,  Der 
Feehter  von  Ravenna,  and  other  works.  Maltitz, 
Eichendorff,  Jnlius  Mosen,  Gutzkow,  Laube, 
Hebbel,  Griepenkerl,  Prntz,  and  Brachvogel 
have  all  cultivated  dramatic  literature.  Char- 
lotte Birch-Pfeifer  (1800-'68)  dramatized  a 
great  number  of  stories.  Karl  Immermann  be- 
longs to  a  higher  class  of  dramatists ;  his  trilogy 
Alexis,  and  his  mythical  play  Merlin^  and  manj 
of  his  tragedies  and  comedies,  are  excellent 
reading  plays,  but  they  are  not  well  suited  to 
the  stage.  M.  Beer^s  Struensee  is  also  a  work 
of  high  poetical  merit.  Raupach  (1784-1862) 
was  one  of  the  most  fertile  of  German  drama- 
tists. Eduard  Duller  (1809-'58)  wrote  several 
historical  dramas.  The  comedies  of  Hack- 
lander,  and  particularly  of  Benedix,  display 
considerable  ability ;  and  among  other  writers 
of  comedy  are  Feldmann,  Topper,  Albini,  Gutz- 
kow, Gnstav  Freytag,  and  Bauemfeld.  Paul 
Heyse,  Wilhelm  Jordan,  Kruse,  Mosenthal, 
Weilen,  Wilbrandt,  Gustav  von  Pntlitz,  and 
Schauffert  are  among  the  more  noteworthy 
of  the  very  recent  dramatists.  Among  their 
works  are  many  of  positive  excellence,  though 
none  for  which  it  is  possible  to  predict  an 
enduring  fame. — BeUes-lettres,  on  the  whole, 
have  in  recent  years  fallen  into  comparative  m- 
significance  in  Germany.  The  most  eminent 
minds  no  longer  devote  themselves  to  poetic 
and  dramatic  literature,  but  to  the  explora- 
tion of  the  spheres  of  science. and  learning. 
Alexander  von  Humboldt  (1769-1859)  gave  a 
powerful  impulse  to  almost  all  departments 
of  knowledge  by  his  "  Cosmos,"  "  Travels," 
"  Views  of  Nature,"  and  the  general  sugges- 
tiveness  of  his  labors.  While  he  marks  a  new 
epoch  in  the  pursuit  of  the  natural  sciences, 
another  great  movement  was  initiated  in  his- 
torical researches  by  ^iebuhr  (1776-1881),  the 
illustrious  historian  of  ancient  Rome ;  Schlosser 
(1776-1861),  the  vigorous  and  truthftil  expo- 
nent of  universal  history,  and  particularly  of 
the  history  of  the  18th  century;  Heeren  (1760 
-1842),  the  investigator  of  history  in  connecticn 


GEBMANT  (LAirevAox  isv  Lttkbatusb) 


771 


with  political  and  commeroial  relations ;  Rau- 
mer  (1781-1873),  the  historian  of  the  Hohen- 
«taafen  ;  Leopold  von  Ranke  (1795),  whose 
lahors  embrace  a  vast  field  of  modern  history ; 
Dahlmann  (1785-1860),  the  German  Guizot, 
author  of  "Sources  of  German  History,"  and 
the  historian  of  Denmark  and  of  the  English 
and  French  revolutions;  and  Gervinus  (1805- 
'71),  the  historian  of  German  literature,  Shake- 
spearian critic,  and  author  of  the  great  history 
of  the  19th  century.  Here  may  be  mentioned 
also  Rotteck  (1775-1840),  whose  excellent  uni- 
versal history  has  been  very  popular  on  account 
of  its  liberal  political  views,  and  Weber,  the 
author  of  several  universal  histories.  While 
Niebuhr  introduced  a  profounder  method  in 
the  study  of  early  Roman  history,  Bunsen, 
Lepsins,  and  others  made  discoveries  in  Egyp- 
tian and  oriental  antiquities,  and  a  third  im- 
pulse proceeded  from  the  active  researches  in 
the  field  of  classical  archeology  and  philology. 
These  combined  influences  are  more  or  less 
manifest  in  the  labors  in  ancient  history  of 
Bdokh,  Earl  Otfried  MfiUer,  Duncker,  Broysen, 
Mommsen,  KortHm,  Adolph  Schmidt,  Plass, 
Wachsmuth,  Tittmann,  Flathe,  Manso,  Abeken, 
Schwegler,  £.  Gurtius,  Lassen,  Jahn,  Hermann, 
Teuffel,  and  Movers.  In  the  special  study  of 
Sanskrit  Roth,  BOhtlingk,  Benfey,  Fick,  A. 
Weber,  and  others  have  won  distinction.  The 
history  of  the  middle  ages  has  been  treated  by 
R&ha,  Rehm,  and  Wilken,  and  more  especially 
by  Leo,  Hammer,  Fallmerayer,  Aschbach,  Lap- 
penberg,  Dahlmann,  Sch&fer,  R5pell,  Eriegk, 
and  Gregorovius.  Various  branches  of  orien- 
tal history  and  literature  have  been  actively 
explored  by  Joseph  von  Hammer-Purgstall, 
FlQgel,  Plath,  Radeloli;  Ewald,  and  N61- 
deke.  Among  writers  on  modern  history  are 
Dohm,  Saalfeld,  BQlau,  Mtlnnich,  H&usser,  and 
Treitschke.  The  humanitarian  and  cosmopoli- 
tan direction  given  to  historical  Studies  by  the 
writers  and  philosophers  of  the  18th  and  19th 
centuries,  and  especially  by  Herder  and  Kant, 
is  manifest  in  the  comprehensiveness  of  views 
which  Rotteck,  and  chiefly  Schlosser,  bring 
to  bear  upon  their  labors,  as  well  as  in  many 
works  on  particular  sections  and  occupations 
of  the  people.  This  has  culminated  in  what 
may  be  designated  as  a  new  science,  which  the 
Germans  call  Culturgeschiehte,  i.  «.,  a  history 
which  treats  of  the  moral,  intellectual,  social, 
and  politico-economical,  as  well  as  political  de- 
velopment of  the  people.  Among  the  principal 
laborers  in  this  new  sphere  of  investigation  are 
Wachsmuth  (1784-1866),  author  oiEuropduehe 
Sittengesehichte  and  of  Allgemeine  Culturge- 
sehichte;  Scherr,  author  of  GeschUhte  deutseher 
OuUur  und  Sitte;  Klemm  (1802-'69),  author 
of  Allgemeine  Culturgeschiehte  der  Menach- 
heitf  and  of  Allgemeine  Oulturwissenchaft ;  and 
Henne-am-Rhyn,  author  of  Culturgeaekiekte 
der  neueren  Zeit,  The  same  tendency  to  dwell 
upon  the  practical  realities  of  life  extends  over 
many  other  departments  of  literature  in  Ger- 
many, and  is  most  strongly  expressed  in  recent 


biographies  and  autobiographies,  especially  in 
that  of  Perthes.  A  more  physiological  method 
in  these  branches  of  investigation  has  been 
adopted  by  Riehl  in  his  Naturgesehichte  des 
Volhs  ala  Orundlage  einer  deuUcKen  Soeialpo- 
litih.  The  literature  of  travels  was  greatly 
stimulated  by  Johann  Georg  Adam  Forster, 
commonly  called  Georg  Forster  (1754-*94),  who 
accompanied  Cook  on  his  second  voyage  round 
the  world,  and  who,  in  Alexander  von  Hum- 
boldt^s  opinion,  inaugurated  a  new  era  of  sci- 
entific voyages.  A  still  more  powerful  im- 
pulse was  given  by  Humboldt  himself,  by  his 
travels  in  the  equinoctial  regions  of  America, 
and  in  central  Asia.  The  travels  of  Lichten- 
stein  (1780-1857)  in  southern  Africa  were  of 
great  scientific  importance.  The  travels  of 
Prince  Maximilian  of  Wied  (1782-1867)  fur- 
nished valuable  additions  to  the  knowledge 
of  the  natural  history  and  ethnology  of  Brazil 
and  the  United  States.  The  explorations  of 
Martins  (1794-1868)  in  Brazil  are  important 
for  the  studies  of  botany,  ethnology,  geography, 
and  statistics.  Pdppig  (1797-1868)  visited 
Chili,  Pern,  and  the  river  Amazon.  Among 
the  other  explorers  of  South  America  are 
Burmeister  (bom  1807),  who  travelled  more 
particularly  in  Brazil,  and  Johann  Jakob  von 
Tschudi  (1818),  a  relative  of  fViedricli  von 
Tschudi,  author  of  Das  Thierleben  in  der  Al- 
pentoelt,  and  an  active  traveller,  especially  in 
Pom.  Sir  Robert  Hermann  Schoml>urgk  ^1804- 
*66),  a  German  by  birth,  but  employed  m  the 
service  of  the  British  government,  travelled  in 
British  Guiana,  Barbadoes,  Hayti,  &c.  His 
works  were  published  in  German  by  his  broth- 
er, Otto  Shomburgk  (1810-^57).  Another 
brother,  Moritz  Richard  Schomburgk,  travel- 
led in  British  Guiana  at  the  expense  of  the 
king  of  Prassia,  and  afterward  in  Australia  in 
company  with  a  fourth  brother^  Julius  Schom- 
burgk. The  East  has  been  visited  by  G.  H. 
von  Schubert  (1780-1860),  especially  Egypt, 
Palestine,  and  Greece,  and  by  Seetzen  (1767- 
1811),  whose  Eeisen  dureh  Syrien^  PaldstinOy 
die  TranS'Jordan-Ldnder,  Arabia  Petraa  und 
Unterdgypten^  were  edited  by  F.  Erase.  Minu- 
toli  (1772-1846)  wrote  on  his  travels  to  Upper 
Egypt.  Rtlppell  (bom  1794)  explored  Nubia, 
Eordofan,  Arabia  Petraea,  and  is  best  known 
by  his  travels  in  Abyssinia.  The  most  eminent 
writers  on  Egypt  are  Lepsius,  Brugsch,  Baron 
Bunsen,  Ebers,  Dtlmichen,  and  Lauth.  The 
historian  Raumer  gave  graphic  descriptions  of 
his  travels  in  Venice,  England,  Italy,  and  the 
United  States;  and  Joseph  Russegger  (1802- 
'63)  wrote  comprehensively  on  his  travels  in 
Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa.  Venedey  (1805- 
'71)  gave  accounts  of  England,  Ireland,  and 
southern  France.  Moritz  Wagner  (born  1813) 
has  published  bis  travels  in  Algeria,  the  Cau- 
casus, Oolchis,  Persia,  and  Eurdistan,  and,  in 
conjunction  with  his  companion  Scherzer,  in 
North  America  and  Costa  Rica.  Froebel 
(bom  1806)  has  described  "Seven  Years'  Trav- 
els in  Central  America,  Northern  Mexico,  and 


772 


GERMANY  (Laitouagb  and  Litbeatttbe) 


the  Far  West  of  the  United  States "  (English 
edition,  1859).  Hettner  (born  1821)  has  written 
sketches  of  his  travels  in  Greece.  Friedrioh 
Gerst&cker  (1816-^72)  is  the  author  of  many 
entertaining  and  humorons  descriptions  of 
travels,  especially  in  the  new  world.  Another 
pleasing  narrator  of  his  journeys  is  Mundt.  A 
voluminous  writer  of  travels  is  the  tourist  Kohl 
(bom  1808).  Ida  Pfeiffer  (1797-1868)  showed 
herself  a  most  intrepid  and  indefatigable  tourist 
and  valuable  contributor  to  the  literature  of 
travel.  Germany  has  also  given  birth  to  some 
of  the  most  celebrated  recent  explorers  of  re- 
mote parts  of  the  world,  as  Gfltzlaff  in  China, 
Siebold  in  Japan,  Barth,  Vogel,  Nachtigall, 
Gerhard  Rohlfs,  and  Henglin  in  Africa,  the 
brothers  Schlagintweit  in  central  Asia,  Bastian 
in  8.  E.  Asia,  and  Leichhardt  in  Australia. — 
We  complete  this  sketch  by  a  list  of  eminent 
men  (mostly  living)  in  the  principal  depart- 
ments of  learning,  including  some  names  al- 
ready mentioned.  In  the  natural  sciences: 
Bnrmeister,  Ule,  Johann  Mflller,  Cams,  Ross- 
mfissler.  Dove,  Giebel,  Masius,  Valentin,  Mole- 
schott,  Bftchner,  Vogt,  Oken,  Virchow,  Bur- 
dach,  Schleiden,  Bernhard  Ootta,  Nees  von 
Esenbeck,  Leopold  von  Buch,  Endlicher,  Mar- 
tins, Naumann,  BischofT,  Liebig,  Bunsen,  Kirch- 
hoff,  Kopp,  Poggendorff,  Rose,  Erdmann,  Gme- 
lin,  W6hler,  Wackenroder,  Gehler,  Vogel,  Mit- 
scherlich,  Pringsheim,  SchSdler,  Du  Bois-Rey- 
mond,  Feohner,  O.  Schmidt,  F.  Oohn,  Rei- 
chenbach,  linger,  Weber,  Mohl,  Steinheil, 
Ran,  Pietschmann,  Reich,  Hagen,  Lang,  Karl, 
Schrauf,  Wundt,  H.  Grassmann,  Hallier,  Kum- 
mer,  Mann,  Hartung,  Gegenbaur,  Ftirbinger, 
Hoffmann,  S.  Hartmann,  Haeckel,  Volker,  Ra- 
melow,  Kupffer,  Winkler,  Kunth,  Fitzinger, 
Emmerling,  Fresenius,  Wagner,  Meissner,  Vom 
Rath,  Baumgfirtner,  Erdmann,  Hofmann,  Kar- 
marsch,  Wtlrtz,  Zwick,  Otto,  Reis,  Robert 
Grassmann,  Zirkel,  G.  Hartwig,  Oredner,  Pfaff. 
In  medicine :  Johann  MtQler,  K.  Thiersch, 
Burdach,  Wagner,  Ehrenberg,  Hecker,  Carus, 
Blasius,  Froriep,  SchOnlein,  Skoda,  DiefFen- 
bach,  Mitscherlich,  Romberg,  Weber,  Donders, 
A.  von  Grfife,  Virchow,  Steinthal,  Reich,  W. 
Roth,  Busoh,  Haussmann,  Armbrecht,  Klebs, 
Nothnagel,  SchrSder,  Steinbacher,  Kunze, 
Ftlrst,  Stillmg.  In  astronomy  and  mathemat- 
ics :  Bessel,  Encke,  Struve,  Mfidler,  Galle, 
Gauss,  Lejeune-Diriohlet,  Argelander,  Heis, 
Schmidt,  Dienger,  FOrster,  Schucht,  GObel, 
Ofterdinger,  Zollner,  Greiffenstein,  K.  S.  Neu- 
mann, Mobius,  Weisbach,  H.  J.  Klein,  Volger, 
Bischof.  In  military  science,  engineering,  &c. : 
MOwes,  Taubert,  Rebhann,  Hagen,  Dittmer, 
Schmitt,  Winkler,  Lieber,  Zastrow.  In  geog- 
raphy, ethnology,  statistics,  and  travels:  Carl 
Ritter,  Daniel,  Wappaus,  Ungewitter,  Berghaus, 
Petermann,  M6ller,  Stein,  Streit,  Handtke, 
L6her,  Raumer,  Haxthausen,  Dieterici,  Hftbner, 
Sydow,  MOllhausen,  Mauch,  Munzinger,  HUgel, 
Roon,  Schweinfurth,  Semper,  Seemann,  Ziegler, 
Waitz,  Schmarda,  Blau,  Berlepsch,  Panli,  Stie- 
ler,  Fritsch,  Stephan,  Stangl,  Rodenberg,  Stein- 


thal, Cornelius,  Langhans,  Hartmann.  In  his- 
tory and  biography :  Waohl^,  GfrOrer,  Politz, 
Leo,  K.  A.  Menzel,  Preuss,  Weber,  Prutz,  Vam- 
hagen  von  Ense,  Pertz,  K.  W.  BSttiger,  Zim- 
mermann,  Von  Rochau,  G.  Curtius,  Dittmar, 
Spiegel,  S.  Bauer,  Fessler,  Wolff,  Jost,  Zunz, 
Gratz,  Stockmar,  Honegger,  Grotefend,  Stahl, 
Elze,  Ungewitter,  Hagenbach,  K.  Mendelssohn- 
Bartholdy,  Caspari,  Kolb,  HoltzendoHf,  Ukert, 
Rosenkranz,  Brandes,  Gentz,  Kitzsch,  Hirsch, 
Stoffel,  F.  Amdt,  W.  Mailer,  Wackemagel, 
Sybel,  Kohlrausch,  Caro.  In  the  history  and 
criticism  of  literature,  philosophy,  art,  and  tes- 
thetics:  Gervinus,  Viimar,  Wackemagel,  Ju- 
lian Schmidt,  Solger,  Bouterwek,  Visscher, 
Schwegler,  Ruge,  Wolf,  Koberstein,  Gottschall, 
Stern,  Schell,  Kreyssig,  Kurz,  Lindau,  Oarridre, 
Eye,  Stahr,  Hauptmann,  Elze,  Meissner,  Klein, 
Gervais,  Eth6,  Wagner,  Zimmermann,  Hirzel, 
J.  W.  O.  Richter,  LOper,  Schasler,  Weisse, 
Lenz,  Liszt,  J.  P.  Richter,  Lubke,  Fechner, 
J.  H.  Schmidt,  H.  Grimm,  Eggers,  Ltltke,  Va- 
gler.  In  philology :  F.  A.  Wolf,  Schaaf,  Mau- 
rer,  Heinsius,  Heyse,  K.  F.  Becker,  Massmann, 
Wilhelm  von  Humboldt,  Znmpt,  Hermann, 
Niebuhr,  Bernhardi,  Creuzer,  Wachler,  Con. 
Schneider,  Ernesti,  E.  and  G.  Curtius,  Matthife, 
Thiersch,  Jacobs,  Buttmann,  Rost,  Passow, 
Kdhner,  Ramshorn,  DOderlein,  Freund,  Ger- 
hard, Gesenius,  Nork,  Bopp,  Freytag,  Jahn, 
Hitzig,  Hnpfeld,  Ewald,  A.  F.  Hoffinann,  Las- 
sen, Sachs,  L.  Geiger,  Steinschneider,  Levy, 
Tischendorf,  Wattenbach,  Lepsius,  Schrader, 
Teuffel,  Westennann,  Meineke,  I-eo  Meyer, 
Kremer,  Obermtlller,  Dietz,  Brambach,  E.  M. 
Amdt,  Wollheim  da  Fonseca,  Delitzsch,  Holtz- 
mann,  ROdiger,  Stark,  Westphal,  Bohtlingk, 
Fick,  Schleicher,  Schott,  Cuno,  Zenker,  Din- 
dorf,  J.  Mailer,  Roth,  Benfey,  Hildehrand, 
Grassmann,  Quenstedt.  In  political  sciences 
and  jurisprudence  :  Savigny,  Stahl,  K.  F. 
Eichhom,  Gans,  HaUmann,  Welcker,  Schubert, 
Stein,  Bttlow,  Mohl,  Gentz,  Von  Rdnne,  R.  W. 
Dove,  Holtzendorff,  Gneist,  the  Swiss  Blnnt- 
schli,  Barth,  Glaser,  Gerber,  Marx,  Richter, 
Marr,  Adler,  Oppenhoff',  Maurer,  Mittermaier, 
Mohl,  Perthes,  Schwarze,  Twesten,  Joseph  lin- 
ger, Richthofen.  In  theology,  philosophy,  and 
Biblical  sciences :  Fessler,  Martin,  Luthardt, 
Rothe,  Hefele,  Ketteler,  DOllinger,  Alzog,  Dor- 
ner,  Guericke,  Schenkel,  Ullmann,  Strauss, 
Schleiermacher,  Rob,  Pottgeisser,  Keil,  De- 
litzsch, B.  Banr,  F.  O.  Baur,  Reinke,  Rein- 
kens,  Leonhardi,  Schulte,  Ulrici,  Braubach,  A. 
von  Hartmann,  Frohschammer,  J.  B.  Meyer, 
Zeising,  Nietsche,  Ueberweg,  Stier,  Aub,  Kmm- 
macher,  Balzer,  Lan^,  Tholuck,  Tischendorf, 
Friedberg,  Menzel,  Kirchmann,  Fischer,  A. 
Geiger,  Frankel,  Hirsch,  Philippson,  Keim, 
Luz,  Baumann,  Winer,  Tuch,  Kurtz,  Schra- 
der, Ludwig  Feuerbach,  Schopenhauer,  £. 
von  Hartmann.  In  the  science  of  educa- 
tion :  Diesterweg,  Froebel,  Gr&fe,  K.  Schmidt, 
Fricke,  Schlosser,  Dillmann,  Beck,  Hill,  Ltkb- 
ker,  Schmelzer,  L.  W.  Seyffarth,  B6hm,  Schott, 
Westermann,  MObius,  Rosenkranz,  Waitz. 


GERMANY  (Wines  of) 


773 


GERHAHY,  Wines  of.  The  wine-prodacing  I 
area  of  Germany  is  limited  chiefly  to  those 
parts  watered  by  the  Rhine  and  its  tributaries, 
the  Moselle,  the  Nahe,  the  Keckar,  the  Main, 
and  several  smaller  streams,  so  that  the  term^ 
Rhine  wine  and  German  wine  may  be  consid- 
ered almost  synonymons.  Bonn,  in  Rhenish 
Prossia,  and  Freiburg,  in  Baden,  mark  approxi- 
mately the  northern  and  southern  limits  of  the 
grape  culture.  Both  red  and  white  wines  are 
produced,  but  those  known  to  commerce  are, 
with  a  few  exceptions,  white.  The  red  varie- 
ties are  mostly  of  inferior  quality  and  are  con- 
sumed within  the  country.  AH  are  distin- 
guished by  their  comparative  freedom  from 
alcohol,  which  barely  exceeds  12  per  cent.,  and 
at  the  same  time  by  their  durability,  the  finer 
growths  frequently  retaining  their  excellence 
for  half  a  century  or  more.  Liebig  attributes 
their  distinctive  character  and  bouquet  to  the 
free  acid  which  they  contain,  and  their  valu- 
able hygienic  properties  to  the  tartar  present 
in  them.  To  this  cause  he  ascribes  the  im- 
munity enjoyed  by  persons  dwelling  on  the 
Rhine  and  the  Moselle,  and  indeed  by  all  who 
use  German  wines,  from  calcareous  complaints. 
The  most  favored  and  celebrated  viticultural 
district  in  Rhineland  is  that  known  as  the 
Rheingau,  a  strip  of  territory  about  15  m.  in 
length,  and  not  exceeding  3  m.  in  width,  lying 
between  the  Taunus  range  of  mountains,  in 
Nassau,  and  the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine.  It 
extends  from  Walluf,  just  below  Mentz,  to 
Lorch,  6  m.  below  Bingen.  The  river,  after 
following  a  northerly  course  for  many  miles, 
turns  abruptly  at  Mentz  to  the  west,  in  whicn 
direction  it  flows  as  far  as  Bingen,  when  it 
again  turns  northward.  Having  thus  a  south- 
erlj  exposure,  and  being  protected  from  the 
north  winds  by  the  mountains  behind  it,  and 
from  the  southwest  winds  by  a  range  on  the 
west  bank  of  the  Kahe,  with  the  further  ad- 
vantage of  having  the  rays  of  the  sun  reflected 
from  the  river  directly  upon  its  slopes,  the 
Rheingau  affords  a  site  for  vineyards  unequal- 
led perhaps  in  Europe,  and  has  a  climate  pe- 
culiarly favorable  to  the  production  of  the  fra- 
grant and  delicate  wines  for  which  the  district 
is  famous.  In  connection  with  the  Rheingau 
may  be  considered  the  neighboring  district  of 
Hoohheim,  on  the  north  bank  of  the  Main, 
about  4  m.  from  Mentz,  and  from  the  first  syl- 
lable of  which  is  derived  the  name,  hook,  by 
which  all  Rhenish  wines  were  once  designated 
in  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States.  The 
vineyards  of  Hoohheim  have  a  southerly  ex- 
posure, and  are  essentially  an  easterly  contin- 
uation of  those  of  the  Rheingau.  The  vine  ap- 
pears to  have  been  cultivated  throughout  this 
whole  region  as  early  as  the  6th  or  7th  century, 
but  to  the  monastic  foundations  established 
there  during  the  middle  ages  belongs  the  credit 
of  discovering  and  perpetuating  the  system  of 
viticulture  which  has  brought  its  wines  to  their 
present  high  degree  of  perfection.  During  the 
reli^ous  and  civil  conflicts  which  disturbed 


Germany  from  the  16th  century  to  the  end  of 
the  Napoleonic  wars,  the  most  famous  vine- 
yards gradually  passed  from  the  hands  of  the 
monks  to  those  of  the  dukes  of  Nassau,  the 
princes  of  Mettemich,  or  less  distinguished 
proprietors.  In  the  latter  half  of  the  last  cen- 
tury many  new  vineyards  were  planted  by 
persons  of  means  from  Mentz,  Frankfort,  and 
other  neighboring  cities;  and  by  the  con- 
junction of  capital  with  intelligent  labor  the 
Rheingau  has  become  the  most  highly  culti- 
vated wine-growing  region,  perhaps,  in  the 
world.  Within  a  comparatively  recent  period 
the  discovery  has  been  made  that  the  Riessling 
grape,  which  yields  the  bouquetted  wines,  de- 
velops its  finest  qualities  only  when  in  a  state 
of  over-ripeness,  without  concurrent  acetifica- 
tion.  This  has  led  to  a  complete  reform  in  the 
treatment  of  the  wines  in  the  cellar.  While 
formerly  young  wine  required  from  ten  to 
twenty  years  to  ripen,  it  is  now  perfected  in 
from  three  to  five  years,  with  a  perceptible 
improvement  in  quality.  In  like  manner  the 
large  casks  previously  used,  to  diminish  to  the 
utmost  the  loss  by  diffusion  and  evaporation, 
have  been  discarded,  as  they  were  found  to  be 
impediments  to  the  quick  maturation  of  wine 
by  diminishing  the  surface  accessible  to  oxygen. 
The  vineyards  of  Hochheim  lie  about  three 
quarters  of  a  mile  from  the  banks  of  the  Main, 
above  which  they  are  elevated.  100  ft.,  ana 
embrace  an  area  of  between  700  and  800  acres. 
The  finest  wine  is  produced  on  the  estate  known 
as  the  Dechanei,  or  deanery,  eight  acres  in 
extent,  which  has  an  admirable  exposure.  The 
Stein,  a  continuation  of  the  Dechanei,  yields 
wines  which  are  sometimes  said  to  surpass  the 
best  products  of  the  Rheingau.  These  vine- 
yards, formerly  the  property  of  the  dukes  of 
Nassau,  now  belong  to  the  emperor  of  Ger- 
many.— ^Entering  the  Rheingau  proper,  we  find 
a  famous  series  of  vineyards  extending  from 
the  village  of  Elfeld  to  Asmannshausen.  In 
the  centre  of  the  district,  on  a  gentle  eminence 
half  a  mile  from  the  Rhine,  lies  the  estate,  about 
46  acres  in  extent,  of  Schloss  Johannisberg, 
a  name  long  associated  with  the  choicest  pro- 
ducts of  the  Rhenish  vines.  It  yields  a  white 
wine,  which  in  respect  to  fulness  of  taste  and 
richness  of  bouquet  has  been  called  ^*  the  finest 
and  most  powerful  drink  on  earth."  Johan- 
nisberg was  ori^nally  a  Benedictine  abbey, 
founded  in  1106,  which,  after  various  changes 
of  ownership,  became  in  1816  the  property  of 
the  emperor  of  Austria,  who  bestowed  it  upon 
Prince  Metternich,  with  whose  descendant  it 
now  remains.  Notwithstanding  the  limited 
area  of  the  estate,  the  soil  varies  considerably 
in  different  parts,  which  are  marked  off  by 
stakes  with  numbers  aflSxed;  and  the  cultiva- 
tion and  the  vintage  are  especially  adapted  to 
each  part.  A  similar  practice  prevails  in  other 
celebrated  vineyards  of  the  Rheingau.  Great 
care  is  exercised  in  the  selection  of  grapes  for 
the  press,  the  first  picking,  or  Auslese^  of  over- 
ripe fruit  yielding  the  highest  quality  of  the 


774 


GERMANY  (Wikeb  of) 


wine  of  each  jear.  The  quantity  of  wine  an- 
nually produced  has  varied  from  25  pieces  of 
240  gallons  each  to  60  pieces.  The  wines  of 
inferior  quality,  produced  in  poor  years,  are 
sold  by  auction  immediately  after  the  spring 
racking,  and  only  the  select  qualities  are  kept 
in  the  cellars  of  the  estate.  At  the  age  of  four 
or  ^YQ  years  they  are  bottled,  after  which  they 
greatly  improve  in  bouquet.  The  largest  yield 
was  in  1857,  when  60  pieces,  or  14,400  gallons, 
realized  at  auction  $60,000.  The  difficulty  of 
obtaining  genuine  Schloss-Johannisberger  is 
very  great,  and  large  quantities  of  spurious 
wine  are  sold  under  tiie  name.  The  first  qual- 
ity has  been  known  to  command  from  $5  to  $8 
a  bottle ;  but  the  auction  wines  are  much  less 
valuable,  and  sell  for  from  $260  to  $1,000  the 
piece,  according  to  the  qualities  they  possess 
for  mixing. — Next  in  reputation  to  the  Johan- 
nisberger  wine,  if  not  its  equal,  is  that  pro- 
duced on  the  estate  of  Steinberg,  which  until 
1866  was  the  property  of  the  dukes  of  Nassau, 
but  in  that  year  passed  into  the  possession  of 
the  crown  of  Prussia.  The  Steinberg  is  a  hill 
8  m.  ttom  the  Bhine,  the  vine-growing  portion 
of  which  occupies  an  area  not  exceeding  60 
acres,  enclosed  by  a  massive  wall  of  masonry. 
This,  with  the  mountain  barrier  in  the  rear, 
effectually  screens  the  vineyard  from  chilling 
or  injurious  winds.  The  estate,  which  once 
belonged  to  the  wealthy  cloister  of  £berbach, 
includes  also  a  farm  of  450  acres,  maintained 
for  the  sole  purpose  of  producing  the  manure 
necessary  for  the  vineyard.  The  latter  has  va- 
rious undulations  and  hollows,  by  which  it  is 
divided  into  districts  yielding  different  qualities 
of  wine.  The  soil  is  heavier  than  that  of  the 
Bchloss  Johannisberg,  and  on  this  account  in 
warm  seasons  the  ripening  of  the  grape  is  not 
as  a  rule  effected  before  the  latter  has  reached 
its  full  maturity.  The  opposite  result  is  often 
witnessed  in  the  Johannisberg  vineyard.  Thus, 
during  the  years  1857,  1858,  and  1859,  which 
were  exceptionally  warm,  the  Steinberg  wines 
showed  a  marked  superiority  over  those  of  the 
Johannisberg.  The  discovery  that  the  over- 
ripe grapes  yield  the  best  wine  was  made  on 
this  estate  about  50  years  ago,  and  since  then  the 
vintage  has  always  been  very  late.  In  ordi- 
nary years  there  are  two  or  three  selections 
of  grapes,  from  the  first  of  which  is  made  the 
best  wine,  the  rest  hanging  10  or  15  days  longer. 
The  annual  product  of  the  estate  varies  from 
14,000  to  20,000  gallons,  valued  at  $350  to 
$8,500  the  piece,  the  latter  price  being  paid 
for  the  choicest  cabinet  wines  only.  The  Aus- 
lets  of  certain  exceptionally  fine  years  has 
sometimes  sold  in  the  cask  as  high  as  $5  a  bot- 
tle. The  ordinary  qualities,  like  those  of  the 
Johannisberg  wine,  are  sold  annually  by  auc- 
tion.— Scarcely  inferior  to  these  wines  are 
those  produced  on  l^he  Rtldesheim-Berg  and 
Hinterhans,  which  have  a  southerly  exposure, 
and  lie  so  near  the  Rhine  that  the  reflection 
of  the  sun  from  the  surface  of  the  river  greatly 
facilitates  the  ripening  of  the  grape.    The  vine- 


yards, comprising  an  area  of  about  800  acres, 
divided  among  a  number  of  proprietors,  are 
terraced  from  the  base  to  the  summit  of  the 
hills,  and  yield  wines  of  considerable  body  and 
fine  bouquet,  the  best  qualities  of  which  are 
liigh-priced.  A  short  distance  below  Rades- 
heim  is  Asmannshausen,  which  yields  the  only 
good  red  wine  of  the  Rheingau.  This  is  pro- 
duced from  the  black  Burgundy  grape  known 
as  the  pineau  noir^  whence  the  wine  is  often 
spoken  of  as  a  species  of  Rhenish  burgundy. 
It  has  a  soft  and  exceedingly  delicate  flavor, 
but  like  the  higher  class  of  burgundies  suffers 
from  transportation.  The  wines  produced  on 
the  estates  of  Marcobrunn,  Hattenheim  (first 
growth),  Grafenberg  (first  growth),  and  Geisen- 
heim-Rothenberg,  fdso  rank  as  of  the  highest 
quality,  and  in  favorable  seasons  conmiand  enor- 
mous prices.  Of  the  second  growth  of  the 
Rheingau  produce,  the  most  esteemed  varieties 
are  the  Johannisberg-Claua,  YoUraths,  and  Rau- 
enthal-Berg.  Among  the  third  growth  s  may  be 
mentioned  Hattenheimer,  Winkel,  Hallgarten, 
Rtldesheimer,  Geisenheimer,  Erbach,  Elfeld, 
and  Lorch,  which  may  be  regarded  as  the  or- 
dinary wines  of  commerce.  In  good  seasons, 
and  when  the  best  grapes  only  are  selected, 
these  latter  growths  sometimes  reach  a  high  de- 
gree of  excellence,  and  command  a  correspond- 
ingly high  price. — The  banks  of  the  Rhine 
from  Asmannshausen  to  Ooblentz  are  thickly 
planted  with  vineyards,  but  the  situations  be- 
ing for  the  most  part  unfavorable,  little  or  no 
wine  of  first-rate  quality  is  produced  on  this 
part  of  the  river.  But  in  the  valley  of  the 
little  river  Ahr,  which  enters  the  Rhine  about 
20  m.  below  Goblentz,  is  grown  a  pale  red 
wine,  called  the  Ahr-Bieichart,  having  certain 
strengthening  and  astringent  qualities,  and  an 
agreeable  burgundy  fiavor. — ^Rhenish  Bavaria 
or  the  Palatinate  produces  an  immense  quanti- 
ty of  wine,  the  yield  in  favorable  seasons  reach- 
hig  16,000,000  gallons,  which  is  noted  for  its 
medium  good  quality,  its  purity  and  freshness 
of  taste,  and  its  cheapness.  While  never  ap- 
proaching the  wines  of  the  Rheingau  in  bou- 
quet, it  not  unfreqnently  surpasses  them  in  rich- 
ness. The  vineyards  occupy  a  fertile,  undula- 
ting plain,  somewhat  elevated  above  the  valley 
of  the  Rhine,  and  bounded  on  the  west  by  the 
Haardt  mountains,  a  northerly  continuation  of 
the  Vosges  range.  About  25,000  acres  are  un- 
der cultivation.  The  wines  of  the  first  growth 
are  Rupertsberger,  Deidesheimer,  Wachenhei- 
mer,  and  Forster;  of  the  second,  Ungsteiner, 
Dflrkheimer,  and  KCnigsbach. — Rhenish  Hesse 
produces  wines  partaking  of  the,  qualities  of 
those  of  the  Palatinate  and  of  the  Rheingau. 
Well  known  growths  are  the  Liebfrauenmilch, 
produced  in  and  around  the  convent  garden  of 
the  Liebfrauen-Stift,  near  Worms,  an  agreeable 
middle-class  wine  of  fine  bouquet ;  the  Schar- 
laohberger  and  Fenerberger  of  Bingen  and  its 
neighborhood ;  and  the  wines  of  Laubenheim, 
Bodenheim,  Oppenheiro,  Nierstein,  and  Selzen, 
several  of  which  have  considerable  local  repu- 


GERMANY  (Winks  of) 


GEBOK 


775 


tation,  and  are  often  substituted  for  wines  of 
the  Rheingau.  The  district  of  Oberingelheira 
produces  much  red  wine,  resembling  burgun- 
dies of  the  second  and  third  class,  from  Bur- 
gundy grapes.  The  produce  of  the  Nahe  is 
nearly  related  to  the  middling  growths  of  the 
Palatinate. — The  Bavarian  wines,  grown  in 
Lower  Franconia,  in  the  valley  of  the  Main, 
are  distinguished  rather  for  Uieir  body  and 
strength  than  for  their  bouquet,  and  are  most- 
ly consumed  within  the  country.  The  only 
varieties  exported  are  those  produced  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Wtlrzburg,  where  about  4,600 
acres  are  under  cultivation.  The  best  vine- 
yards are  the  Leiste  and  the  Stein,  the  pro- 
ducts of  which  are  of  fine  quality  and  very 
exnensive.  Both  are  situated  on  the  Main, 
and  the  former  is  principally  owned  by  the 
king  of  Bavaria,  who  stores  the  wine  made 
from  the  estate  in  the  cellars  which  underlie 
the  royal  castle  of  Wfirzburg.  In  these  cel- 
lars are  more  than  280  large  casks,  some  hav- 
ing a  capacity  of  2,600  gallons.  Though  con- 
sidered in  the  last  century  indispensable  to 
the  proper  ripening  of  wine,  they  are  now  but 
little  used.  The  Leiste  wine  of  good  quality 
is  mostly  carried  to  Munich  and  drunk  at 
court,  and  only  a  small  quantity  enters  into 
trade.  The  Stein  wine,  which  is  also  very 
celebrated,  is  sold  in  short-necked  bottles  of  a 
peculiar  shape,  called  Bocksbeutel,  Much  of  the 
wine  passing  under  this  name  in  England  and 
the  United  States  is  the  product  of  the  Palat- 
inate, which  at  Mentz  and  elsewhere  is  put 
into  bottles  of  the  shape  of  the  BocJuibeuUl 
and  sold  as  Stein. — In  Baden  a  large  quan- 
tity of  third  or  fourth  class  wine  is  produced, 
the  best  growth  being  the  white  Markgr&fler 
and  the  Affentbaler,  a  light,  agreeable  red 
wine.  The  great  tun  in  the  castle  of  Heidel- 
berg was  formerly  filled  with  a  wine  grown 
in  a  district  known  as  the  Bergstrasse,  which 
commences  at  Zwingenberg,  in  the  province  of 
Starkenburg,  and  follows  a  range  of  hills  to 
Heidelberg. — More  than  half  of  the  wine  grown 
in  WUrtemberg  is  produced  in  the  valley  of  the 
Neckar,  and  though  not  of  high  grade  is  agree- 
able to  the  taste  and  wholesome.  From  its 
changeable  color  it  is  termed  Schiller. — ^The 
general  character  of  the  wines  grown  in  the 
valley  of  the  Moselle  is  that  of  thin  Rhine 
wine.  They  are  lighter  and  less  spirituous  tlian 
those  heretofore  described,  and  are  noted  for 
an  aromatic  flavor,  which,  however,  is  said  to 
be  i^enerally  communicated  to  the  wine  by 
mizmg  with  it  a  tincture  of  elder  flowers, 
called  also  the  "essence  of  muscatel,"  be- 
cause it  resembles  the  concentrated  flavor  of 
the  muscatel  grape.  Messrs.  Thudicum  and 
Dupr6,  in  their  **  Treatise  on  the  Origin,  Na- 
ture, and  Varieties  of  Wine  "  (London,  1872), 
say :  ^^  It  must  be  declared  with  emphasis  that 
there  is  not  a  grape  of  muscatel  grown  upon 
the  Moselle  fit  for  wine  making ;  that  there  is 
not  a  single  barrel  of  wine  made  there  which 
naturidly  has  the  muscatel  flavor;   and  that 


all  the  wine  having  the  flavor  which  imitates 
it  is  made  up  with  tiucture  of  elder  flowers," 
The  better  sorts  are  highly  esteemed  in  Germany 
for  their  supposed  medicinal  properties.  The 
wines  held  in  highest  repute  are  the  Braune- 
berger  and  Scharzbergcr,  the  latter  grown  on 
the  Saar,  a  tributary  of*  the  Moselle;  and 
scarcely  less  noted  are  the  Zeltinger,  Graacher, 
Dun,  Pieaporter  Auslese,  Josephshofi^  Berncas- 
tel,  GrQnhausen,  and  Scharzhoffberger.  The 
area  under  cultivation  comprises  about  28,000 
acres,  yielding  in  favorable  seasons  160  gallons 
to  the  acre. — About  60  years  ago  sparkling 
wines  were  first  manufactured  in  Germany 
at  Esslingen  and  Heilbronn,  from  the  Neckar 
grape ;  and  the  process  has  since  been  so  suc- 
cessfully carried  on  that  these  wines  may  be 
considered  in  some  degree  the  rivals  of  cham- 
pagne. Upward  of  2,000,000  bottles  of  spark- 
ling Moselle  and  sparkling  hock  are  annually 
made  at  Hochheim,  Mentz,  Coblentz,  and  oth- 
er places,  much  of  which,  by  means  of  false 
labels,  is  sold  as  champagne,  and  readily  passes 
for  such.  The  process  of  manufacture  is  pre- 
cisely similar  to  that  employed  in  making 
champagne.  (See  Fbanob,  Wines  of.)  The 
seasons  of  1871,  1872,  and  1878  were  the  most 
disastrous  known  to  German  vitioulturists. 

GEUffiBSHEU,  a  fortified  town  of  Rhenish 
Bavaria,  at  the  confluence  of  .the  Queich  and 
the  Rhine,  7  m.  S.  W.  of  Spire ;  pop.  in  1871, 
6,228.  It  has  several  churches  and  schools, 
and  an  active  trade  in  grain,  hemp,  flax,  and 
fruits.  Ship  building  and  fisheries  are  carried 
on,  and  gold  is  washed  from  the  sands  of  the 
Rhine.  Originally  a  Roman  stronghold,  the 
present  town  was  founded  by  the  emperor  Ru- 
dolph of  Hapsburg,  who  died  here  hi  1291. 
It  formed  part  of  the  electoral  Palatinate  from 
1880  to  1622,  when  it  was  conquered  by  Aus- 
tria. From  1644  to  1660  it  was  occupied  by 
the  French,  who  retook  and  devastated  the 
place  in  1674  under  Turenne.  After  the  death 
of  the  elector  Charles  (1686),  the  French  again 
claimed  possession,  whence  arose  the  Germers- 
heim  war  of  succession,  which  came  partly 
to  an  end  through  the  treaty  of  Ryswick 
(1697),  and  finally  through  the  arbitration  of 
the  pope  (1702).  It  was  subsequently  the 
scene  of  important  military  operations  up  to 
July,  1798,  when  the  French  were  here  de- 
feated by  the  Austrians.  Germersheim  having 
been  made  a  fortress  of  the  German  confede- 
ration, works  begun  in  1886,  together  with  the 
fortress  of  Landau,  distant  10  m.,  and  with  a 
t^te-de-pont  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine, 
make  it  a  strong  strategical  position. 

GERM  THEMIT  OF  DISEASE.  See  supple- 
ment. 

6ER0K,  Kari,  a  German  poet,  bom  at  Vai- 
hingen,  Wftrtemberg,  Jan.  80,  1816.  He  stud- 
ied at  Stuttgart,  held  ecclesiastical  oflices,  and 
in  1868  became  first  preacher  of  the  court 
and  chief  consistorial  councillor.  His  pub- 
lished sermons  have  passed  through  many 
editions,  and  his  religious  poems,  including 


776 


G£rOME 


GERSON 


J^ngstrosen  (4th  ed.,  1870)  and  Palmhldtter 
(17th  ed.,  1871),  have  made  him  famous.  Be- 
sides his  poems  Blumen  und  Stemen  (3d  ed., 
1870),  he  published  during  the  Franco-German 
war  of  18Vo-'71  patriotic  eflfusions  under  the 
title  of  Deutgche  Ostem. 

GJBROMf)  Jean  lion,  a  French  painter,  bom 
m  Vesoul,  May  11,  1824.  In  1841  he  went  to 
Paris  and  studied  under  Paul  Delaroche,  whom 
he  accompanied  to  Italy.  He  returned  to  Pa- 
ris in  184^,  and  exhibited  his  first  picture  in 
1847.  For  several  years  afterward  he  trav- 
elled in  the  East,  his  journeys  furnishing  him 
with  numerous  subjects  for  jHctures.  He  ob- 
tained medals  in  1847,  1848,  and  1855,  and  in 
the  last  year  received  the  decoration  of  the  le- 
gion of  honor.  In  1868  he  became  professor 
of  painting  in  the  school  of  fine  arts,  and  in 
1869  was  decorated  with  the  order  of  the  red 
eagle.  He  has  produced  many  pictures  of  the 
life  of  the  ancients,  which  have  placed  him  at 
the  head  of  a  school  of  art  designated  as  the 
Pompeiian  or  New  Greek;  and  several  of  his 
pictures  have  been  criticised  as  indelicate  to 
the  last  degree.  Among  his  works  are  ^^The 
Virgin,  the  Infant  Jesus,  and  St,  John," 
"Bacchus  and  Oupid,"  "A  Greek  Interior," 
the  frieze  of  the  vase  commemorative  of  the 
London  exhibition  of  1851,  ''The  Plague  at 
Marseilles,"  "The  Death  of  St.  Jerome,"  and 
"A  Lioness  meeting  a  Jaguar."  His  master- 
piece in  historical  art  is  ''  The  Age  of  Augustus 
and  the  Birth  of  Jesus  Christ,"  exhibited  in 
1855,  and  purchased  by  the  French  govern- 
ment. He  exhibited  in  London  in  1871  a 
naked  Nubian  girl,  entitled  "To  be  Sold,"  and 
"Cleopatra  brought  to  Csesar  in  a  Basket," 
the  latter  inferior  to  most  of  his  other  works. 
One  of  his  latest  pictures,  "  The  Gladiators," 
was  purchased  in  1873,  by  Mr.  A.  T.  Stewart 
of  New  York,  for  80,000  francs. 

GERONA.  L  A  province  of  Spain,  in  Cata- 
lonia, forming  the  N.  E.  extremity  of  the  pen- 
insula, bordering  on  France  and  the  Mediter- 
ranean, and  on  the  provinces  of  Barcelona  and 
L6rida ;  area,  2,272  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870  (esti- 
mated), 825,110.  The  surface  is  chiefly  cov- 
ered with  the  ramifications  of  the  Pyrenees, 
but  fertile  valleys  frequently  intervene.  The 
inhabitants  of  the  interior  are  mostly  engaged 
in  agriculture  and  cattle  rearing ;  those  of  the 
coast  in  ship  building,  fishing,  and  navigation. 
The  principal  rivers  are  the  Ter  and  the  Fluvia. 
Among  the  towns  are  Rosas  and  Figueras, 
both  fortified.  Clot,  and  Ripoll.  IL  A  city 
(anc.  Oerunda),  capital  of  the  province,  at  the 
confluence  of  Uie  Ter  and  Ofla,  52  m.  N.  E.  of 
Barcelona;  pop.  about  10,000.  The  chief  manu- 
factures are  linen  and  woollen  fabrics,  paper, 
soap,  earthenware,  and  hardware.  It  was  cap- 
tured by  Charlemagne,  regained  by  the  Moors, 
and  is  famous  for  the  sieges  it  has  sustained. 

GERRT,  Elbrldge,  an  American  statesman,  fifth 
vice  president  of  the  United  States,  bom  in 
Marblehead,  Mass.,  July  17, 1744,  died  in  Wash- 
ington, Nov.  28,  1814.    He  graduated  at  Har- 


vard college  in  1762,  and  was  elected  in  1772 
representative  from  Marblehead  to  the  legis- 
lature. He  at  once  became  a  political  leader, 
and  an  associate  of  Samuel  Adams,  Hancock, 
and  Warren.  Ho  was  placed  on  the  two  most 
important  committees,  those  of  safety  and  sap- 
plies,  which  sat  at  Cambridge,  on  the  day  pre- 
ceding the  battle  of  Lexington.  In  January, 
1776,  he  was  elected  a  delegate  to  the  conti- 
nental congress,  signed  the  Declaration  of  In- 
dependence, was  placed  on  the  most  important 
committees,  and  was  generally  chairman  of  the 
committee  of  the  treasury  till  the  organization 
of  the  treasury  board  in  1780,  of  which  he  be- 
came presiding  officer.  He  retired  from  con- 
gress in  that  year,  but  resumed  his  seat  in  1788. 
As  delegate  to  the  convention  which  met  in 
Philadelphia  in  1787  to  revise  the  articles  of 
confederation,  he  refused  to  sign  the  constitu- 
tion proposed,  but  lent  it  his  support  as  member 
of  congress  after  it  had  received  the  sanction 
of  the  people.  He  served  four  successive  years 
in  congress,  and  in  1795  retired  to  private  life, 
residing  in  Cambridge,  till  in  1797  he  was  ap- 
pointed to  accompany  Pinckney  and  Marshall 
on  a  special  mission  to  France.  He  was  in- 
vited to  remain  in  Paris,  though  his  associates 
were  ordered  to  quit  France,  and  he  then  ob- 
tained the  evidence  and  assurances  upon  which 
the  subsequent  commission  acted.  On  his  re- 
turn he  was  unsuccessfully  supported  by  the 
democratic  party  of  Massachusetts  for  the  ofiSce 
of  governor  in  1798,  and  again  in  1801,  but  was 
elected  after  an  excited  canvas  in  1810,  and  was 
reelected  in  1811.  In  1812  he  was  elected  vice 
president  of  the  United  States,  but  died  sud- 
denly in  the  second  year  of  his  term. 

GEB8,  a  S.  W.  department  of  France,  formed 
from  parts  of  Gascony  and  Guienne,  bordering 
on  the  departments  of  Lot-et-Garonne,  Tam- 
et-Garonne,  Haute-Garonne,  Hautes-Pyr^n^es, 
Basse8-Pyr6n6es,  and  Landes;  area,  2,425  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1872,  284,717.  The  surface  is  in 
general  hilly.  It  is  watered  by  the  Gers  (which 
rises  in  Hautes-Pyr6n6es,  and  flows  N.  into 
the  Garonne),  Save,  Adour,  and  several  other 
rivers.  The  most  important  vegetable  pro- 
ducts are  the  cereals,  flax,  and  onions.  Fmit 
is  scarce.  Large  quantities  of  wine  and  brandy 
are  made,  but  of  ordinary  quality.  The  min- 
erals are  of  little  consequence,  but  gypsam 
and  a  fusible  spar  used  in  making  glass  and 
porcelain  abound.  The  only  manufactures  are 
brandy,  coarse  woollens,  leather,  bricks,  glass, 
and  earthenware.  It  is  divided  into  the  ar- 
rondissementsof  Anch,  Mirande,  Condom,  Lec- 
tonre,  and  Lombez.    Capital,  Auch. 

GERSON,  Jean  Charlkr  de,  a  French  theolo- 
gian, bom  at  Gerson,  near  Rheims,  Dec.  14, 
1868,  died  in  Lyons,  July  12,  1429.  At  the 
age  of  14  he  went  to  Paris  to  study  the  ha- 
manities  and  theology,  and  in  1S87  he  was  se* 
lected  by  the  university  as  one  of  its  deputation 
to  the  antipope  Clement  YII.  at  Avignon  upon 
the  controversy  concerning  the  immaculate  con- 
ception.   About  1898  he  was  made  chancellor 


GERSON  BEN  JUDAH 


GERVINUS 


777 


of  the  university  of  Paris.  Charles  VL  had  j  oat 
fallen  into  insanity,  and  while  divisions  menaced 
the  state,  the  church  was  rent  hy  a  schism 
which  produced  two  and  afterward  three  pre- 
tenders to  the  pontificate.  Gerson  exerted 
himself  for  the  reform  of  morals  and  the  ban- 
ishment of  scholasticism  from  the  university, 
combated  astrology,  and  resisted  the  invasion 
of  the  pantheistic  doctrines  which  then  had 
their  seat  in  Brabant.  "When  the  duke  of  Or- 
leans was  assassinated  by  the  duke  of  Bargundy 
in  1407,  Gerson  denounced  the  marderer  and 
delivered  the  funeral  oration  of  his  victim. 
Pursued  by  John  the  Fearless,  he  saw  his  house 
pillaged,  and  was  obliged  to  conceal  himself  in 
the  vaults  of  Notre  Dame.  He  was  present  in 
the  council  of  Constance  as  theologian  of  the 
bishop  of  Paris ;  and,  as  the  council  had  been 
convened  for  the  purpose  of  electing  a  pope 
whom  all  Christendom  would  acknowledge,  he 
urged  the  deposition  of  the  two  pretenders  to 
the  papacy,  John  XXIII.  and  Benedict  XIIL, 
in  a  treatise  De  Au/erihilitate  Papa.  He 
wished  to  prove  that  there  are  circumstances 
in  which  the  assembled  bishops  of  the  whole 
church  can  compel  pretenders  to  the  papal  dig- 
nity to  renounce  their  claim,  and  depose  them 
if  they  refuse  to  abdicate.  The  schism  was  -at 
length  ended,  but  Gerson^s  efforts  to  check  the 
abuses  which  reigned  in  the  church  were  inef- 
fectual ;  and  as  civil  dissensions  did  not  permit 
his  return  to  France,  he  retired  to  the  moun- 
tains of  Bavaria,  where  he  wrote  De  Consola^ 
tione  Theologia^  and  the  MonoteMaran^  a  har- 
mony of  the  four  Gospels.  He  returned  to  his 
country  after  a  voluntary  exile  of  two  years, 
and  found  an  asylum  in  a  convent.  Though 
one  of  the  most  active  men  of  his  age,  he  was 
also  the  most  mystical  of  its  thinkers.  He  was 
the  first  who  sought  to  give  to  mysticism  the 
character  of  a  science.  He  recognized  in  the 
soul  two  classes  of  faculties :  the  cognitive  or 
intellectual,  whose  highest  act  is  simple  intui- 
tion of  divine  things ;  and  the  affective  facul- 
ties, whose  highest  act  is  ecstatic  delight  in 
God.  To  substitute  this  mystical  philosophy 
for  scholasticism  was  the  aim  of  his  writings. 
As  many  manuscripts  of  the  ^^  Imitation  of 
Jesus  Christ"  bear  the  name  of  Gersen,  that 
work  is  often  ascribed  to  Gerson.  (See  Kbmpis, 
Thomas  a.)  See  Vie  de  Gerson  (Paris,  1832) ; 
C.  Schmidt ;  Eeeai  $ur  Jean  Gereon  (Strasburg, 
1839) ;  and  R.  Thomassy,  Jean  Gerson  (Paris, 
1843).  The  best  edition  of  Gerson^s  works  is 
that  of  Dupin  (6  vols,  fol.,  Antwerp,  1706). 

GfSSON  BEM  JUDAH,  a  rabbi  of  France,  dis- 
tinguished by  the  appellations  Rabhenu  (our 
master),  Hazzaken  (the  old  man),  and  Meor 
haggoiah  (light  of  the  exiled),  bom  in  Germany 
about  960,  died  about  1030.  He  wrote  a  com- 
mentary on  the  Talmud,  of  which  only  slight 
fragments  remain,  and  is  celebrated  for  the  in- 
troduction of  various  reforms  among  the  Euro- 
pean Jews,  including  the  abolition  of  polygamy 
and  repudiation,  known  under  the  name  of 
^  institutions  (gezeroth)  of  Rabbenn  Gerson." 


GEBSTIcKEB,  Frledrt€fa,  a  German  traveller 
and  novelist,  bom  in  Hamburg  in  May,  1816, 
died  in  Vienna,  May  81,  1872.  After  a  brief 
term  in  a  commercial  school  he  was  appren- 
ticed to  a  grocer  in  Cassel ;  but  becoming  dis- 
satisfied, he  ran  away  on  foot  to  Bremen,  and 
in  the  spring  of  1837  engaged  as  cabin  boy  on 
board  a  vessel  bound  for  New  York.  He  led 
a  wandering  and  adventurous  life  in  the  Uni- 
ted States  for  several  years,  a  part  of  which 
was  spent  as  a  hunter  and  trapper  among  the 
savages  of  the  Indian  territory.  In  1842  he 
bought  a  hotel  at  Point  Couple,  Louisiana; 
but  this  having  proved  a  bad  speculation,  he 
returned  in  1843  to  Germany  and  engaged  in 
literary  pursuits,  publishing  Stretfund  Jagd- 
zage  dureh  die  Vereinigten  Staaten  Nordor- 
merikae  (1844) ;  Die  Eegulatoren  in  ArJcamae 
(1846);  Missiseippibilder  {1S4:7);  Die  Fluwpi- 
raten  dee  Miseiasippi  (1848);  Amerikanieche 
Wald'  und  Stromhilder  (1849);  and  several 
minor  works  and  translations.  In  March,  1849, 
he  set  .out  on  a  journey  around  the  world,  du- 
ring which  he  visited  South  America,  Califor- 
nia, the  Hawaiian  islands,  Australia,  and  Java, 
and  returned  to  Germany  in  1852,  making 
his  residence  at  Leipsic.  An  account  of  thia 
trip  was  published  under  the  title  of  Bei- 
sen  (5  vols.,  1853-4).  During  the  succeeding 
four  years  he  published  a  number  of  novels. 
In  1860  he  made  an  extensive  tour  through 
South  America,  visiting  Ecuador,  Peru,  Chili, 
Uruguay,  and  Brazil,  and  retumed  home  the 
following  year.  In  1862  he  accompanied  Duke 
Ernest  of  Goth  a  to  Upper  Egypt,  Nubia,  knd 
Abyssinia,  and  in  1863  he  visited  the  Central 
American  states.  He  set  out  in  1867  on  an- 
other journey  around  the  world,  visiting  first 
the  United  States,  Mexico,  and  South  America. 
He  went  thence  to  the  Pacific  isles,  and  after 
an  extended  tour  returned  to  Europe,  and  pub- 
lished a  number  of  novels  illustrative  of  the 
countries  through  which  he  had  passed.  Some 
of  his  later  works  are :  I^eue  JReieen  dureh  die 
Vereinigten  Stctaten^  Mexico,  Ecuador,  West- 
indien  und  Venezuela  (1868) ;  Die  Mimona/re 
(1868);  Die  Blauen  und  die  Gelben  (1870); 
jBuntes  Treihen  (1870);  In  Mexico  (1^71); 
JEfarnburger  Ndehrichten  (1871) ;  Herm  MahU 
huber^s  Reieecibenteuer  (1871).  Several  of  his 
works  have  been  translated  into  English. 

GERSTER,  EtelkJU    See  supplement. 

GERflNVS,  Ge«rg  Gottfried,  a  Germsn  histo- 
rian, bom  in  Darmstadt,  May  20,  1805,  died  in 
Heidelberg,  March  18,  1871.  He  was  educated 
at  the  university  of  Heidelberg,  and  in  1835  was 
appointed  extraordinary  professor,  after  spend- 
ing several  years  in  Italy.  He  had  already  pub- 
lished Geschiehte  der  Angehachsen  im  Ueber- 
Wicifc  (1880),  and  Historieche  Sehriften  {l%m\ 
and  in  1836  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
history  and  literature  at  G6ttingen.  He  had 
DOW  begun  Die  Geschiehte  der  poetischen  Na- 
tionalliteratur  der  Deutschen  (1835-'8),  which 
was  supplemented  by  the  Neuere  Geschiehte, 
&o.  (1840-'42).    In  the  latest  edition  (5  vols., 


778 


GESENIUS 


GETHSEMANE 


Leipsic,  1871)  these  two  works  are  comprised 
under  tiie  general  title  Oeachichte  der  deutschen 
Lichtung.  In  them  the  author  traces  the  de- 
velopment of  poetry  in  its  relations  to  the  pro- 
gress of  civilization  and  of  society.  He  lost  his 
chair  at  GOttingen  in  1837  by  signing  the  fa- 
mous university  protest  against  the  abolition 
of  the  Hanoverian  constitution.  In  1838  he 
made  another  journey  to  Italy,  renewed  his 
historical  researches  at  Rome,  and  returned  to 
Heidelberg,  where  he  became  honorary  pro- 
fessor in  1844.  He  now  took  part  in  the  po- 
litical affairs  of  Germany,  advocating  liberal 
ideas.  In  1847  he  was  one  of  the  founders  of 
the  Deutsche  Zeitung^  the  organ  of  the  con- 
stitutional party,  and  in  1848  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  Germanic  diet,  and  subsequent- 
ly of  the  parliament  at  Frankfort,  and  had  a 
prominent  part  in  forming  the  constitution 
eventually  adopted  by  the  latter  assembly.  In 
1850  he  went  to  England,  where  he  made  un- 
successful efforts  in  behalf  of  the  duchies  of 
Schleswig  and  Holstein,  and  on  his  return  to 
Heidelberg  resumed  his  historical  writings. 
Among  his  later  works  are:  Shahspeare  (4 
vols.,  1849-50);  Gesehiehte  dee  neunzehnten 
JakrhunderU  (8  vols.,  1855-^66,  besides  an 
introductory  volume  published  in  1854),  be- 
ginning with  the  fall  of  Napoleon  and  brought 
down  to  the  year  1831;  Hdndel  und  Shak- 
apeare  (1868);  and  ff&ndeVs  Oratorientexte^ 
published  posthumously  by  his  son  in  1873. 

GESESrms,  Friedrieh  Helnrieh  Wilhdm,  a  Ger- 
man orientalist,  born  in  Nordhausen,  Feb.  3, 
1786,  died  in  Halle,  Oct.  28, 1842.  He  studied 
at  the  universities  of  Helmstedt  and  GOttingen, 
and  was  appointed  in  1806  nuiguter  legens  at 
Gdttingen,  in  1809  professor  of  ancient  liter- 
ature in  the  gymnasium  of  Heiligenstadt,  in 
1810  subordinate,  and  in  1811  ordinary  pro- 
fessor of  theology  in  the  university  of  Halle, 
where  he  remained  to  the  end  of  his  life.  De- 
voting himself  to  the  study  of  the  Semitic 
languages,  and  particularly  of  the  Hebrew, 
Gesenius  founded  a  new  school  of  Biblical  ex- 
egesis, chiefly  based  on  an  accurate,  rational, 
and  historico-critical  study  of  philology.  His 
works  are:  "Hebrew  and  Chaldaic  Lexicon 
for  the  use  of  the  Old  Testament"  (2  vols., 
Leipsic,  1810-'12;  4th  German  ed.,  1834;  2d 
Latin  ed.,  1846;  translated  into  English  by  J. 
W.  Gibbs,  Andover,  1824,  and  by  Edward  Rob- 
inson, Boston,  1836 ;  new  and  greatly  enlarged 
editions,  1850  and  1856);  "Elementary  Course 
of  the  Hebrew  Language  "  ( 2  vols.),  compri- 
singa  "  Hebrew  Grammar  "  (Halle,  1813 ;  16th 
ed.  by  Rodiger,  Leipsic,  1851 ;  translated  into 
English  by  Moses  Stuart,  Andover,  1826,  and 
by  T.  J.  Conant,  Boston,  1839),  and  a  "  Hebrew 
Reader"  (Halle,  1814;  several  times  repub- 
lished by  different  editors) ;  "  Critical  His- 
tory of  the  Hebrew  Language  "  (Leipsic,  1815 ; 
2d  ed.,  1827)  ;  De  Pentateuchi  Samaritani 
Origine,  Indole  et  Auctoritate  (Halle,  1815); 
"  Grammatico-critical  System  of  the  Hebrew 
Language"  (2  vols.,  Leipsic,  1827)  ,*  "Transla- 


tion of  the  Prophet  Isaiah,  with  a  PhUologico- 
critico-historicfiJ  Comment"  (3  vols.,  Leipsic, 
1820-'21) ;  Scriptvra  LingtUBqiie  Phcenieia 
Monumenta  (3  vols.,  Leipsic,  1837) ;  and  The- 
saurus Philologico-critieus  Lingua  Hebrakm 
et  ChaldaicfB  Veteris  Testamenti  (3  vols.,  Leip- 
sic, 1829-53 ;  part  of  vol.  iii.  by  Rddiger). 

CrESNiXi  Kennd  von,  a  Swiss  naturalist  and 
philologist,  bom  in  Zurich,  March  26,  1516, 
died  there,  Dec.  13,  1565.  He  studied  at  Zu- 
rich, Strasburg,  Paris,  Basel,  and  Montpellier, 
and  was  successively  master  of  a  school  at 
Basel,  teacher  at  Lausanne,  and  practising 
physician  and  professor  at  Ztlrich.  His  first 
important  work  was  Bibliotheca  Universalis 
(ZtXrich,  1545-9),  containing  the  titles  of  all 
the  books  then  known  in  Hebrew,  Greek,  and 
Latin,  with  criticisms,  summaries,  and  speci- 
mens. In  1555  appeared  his  Mithridates  de 
Differentiis  Linguarum^  having  accounts  of 
130  ancient  and  modem  languages.  His  most 
important  work,  Historia  Animalium^  pub- 
lished between  1551  and  1556,  is  a  summary 
of  all  that  was  then  known  of  zo51ogy.  His 
Opera  Botaniea  (published  by  Schmiedel,  Nu- 
remberg, 1753-9)  gives  particular  attention  to 
the  flower  and  the  fruit,  and  suggests  the  possi- 
bility of  a  classification  by  means  of  the  organs 
of  fmctification. 

GESSHiai,  SilMioii,  a  Swiss  painter  and  poet, 
bom  in  Zurich,  April  1, 1730,  died  there,  March 
2,  1788.  His  father  attempted  in  vain  to  en- 
gage him  in  his  own  business  of  bookselling, 
and  allowed  him  to  follow  his  inclination  for 
poetry  and  landscape  painting.  He  resided 
successively  at  Berlin.  Hamburg,  and  ZCiricb, 
first  becoming  known  oy  his  poem  Die  Naeht^ 
which  was  followed  by  DaphniSj  a  pastoral  in 
three  cantos,  by  IdylUn,  Der  Tod  Abels  in 
prose,  some  moral  tales  and  dramas,  and  lectures 
on  landscaping.  Some  of  the  engravings  with 
which  he  illustrated  his  poems  are  excellent. 

GEFi)  ?•  SepttmliiSt    See  Caiugalla. 

GET^  a  Thracian  tribe  mentioned  by  Hero- 
dotus and  Thucydides  as  living  S.  of  the  Ister 
(Danube),  and  by  later  writers  among  the  tribes 
N.  of  that  rfver.  Some  critics  regard  them  as 
identical  with  the  Dacians,  others  with  the 
Goths.  Rawlinson,  in  his  notes  on  Herodotus, 
favors  the  latter  opinion,  and  points  to  the 
"striking  analogy  of  the  compounds  Massa- 
getffi,  Thyssagetffi,  and  Tyriget®,  to  the  later 
names  of  Visigoths  and  Ostrogoths." 

GETHSEMANE  (from  Heb.  gath  shemtn,  oil 
press),  a  garden  or  olive  ])lot  near  Jerusalem, 
and  across  the  brook  Kedron,  to  which  Jesus 
with  his  disciples  often  repaired,  notably  on 
the  night  of  his  betrayal.  The  brook  Kedron 
runs  through  a  deep  ravine,  parallel  with  and 
about  200  yards  from  the  E.  wall  of  Jerusa- 
lem. Immediately  beyond  it  rises  tlie  steep 
side  of  Olivet,  which  is  still  cultivated  in  rude 
terraces.  The  garden  or  olive  patch  of  Geth- 
semane  must  have  been  situated  somewhere  on 
the  slope.  The  precise  spot  is  still  an  open 
question.    There  is  a  modem  garden  in  which 


GETTYSBURG 

are  eight  anoieot  olive  trees,  with  Beveral 
Tonnger  ones,  which  have  been  planted  or 
have  sprang  up  fW>m  the  roots  of  older  trees. 
ThiB  spot  was  aeveral  jears  ago  bought  bj  the 
Latin  chnrob,  and  laid  ont  in  walks  and  How- 
er  beda.  In  it  is  pointed  ont  the  grotto  of  the 
agon;,  excavated  in  the  rook,  the  descent  to 
which  is  b;  a  flight  of  rndelj  ont  stepa.  The 
form  of  the  interior  ia  ciroolar,  about  15  ft.  in 
diameter,  the    roof,  supported   hj  pilasters, 


being  perforated  to  admit  light  The  Arme- 
nian and  Greek  churches  deu;  that  this  is  the 
true  site  of  Gethsemane,  and  thej  have  fixed 
apon  anotber  place  a  little  to  the  north.  Dr. 
Robinson  thin,ks  that  the  site  claimed  bj  the 
LetioB  is  that  believed  to  be  the  true  one  by 
Ensebius  and  Jerome,  and  aa  Ukelj  to  be  so  as 
an;.  Dr.  Thomson  thinks  both  sites  are  too 
near  the  cit;,  and  that  Gethgemane  was  in  the 
secluded  vallej  still  further  to  the  northeast. 

GEITYSBDR6,  a  borough  and  the  capital  of 
Adams  co.,  Pennsylvania,  situated  on  eleva- 
ted ground  in  a  rich  farming  oonntrj',  at  the 
termmns  of  the  Susquehanna,  Gettysburg,  and 
Potomac  railroad,  86  m.  8.  W.  of  Harris- 
burg;  pop.  in  1870,  8,074.  The  oonrt  house 
and  public  offices  are  oommodioas  brick  struc- 
tures; the  residences  are  general!;  neat  and 
substantial.  The  borough  is  eitensivel;  en- 
gaged in  the  manufacture  of  carriages,  is  sup- 
plied with  good  water  conve;Bd  in  iron  pipes 
nom  a  neighboHng  spring,  and  has  two  na- 
tional banks,  a  female  BemiaBr7,  two  week!; 
newspapers,  a  theological  quarterly,  and  eight 
ohurohee.    It  ia  the  aeat  of  Pennsylvania  ool- 


GETTYSBUKG  (Battle  of)       779 

lege  (Lutheran),  founded  in  1832,  and  having 
in  lB71-'2  11  professors  and  instructors  (8  in 
the  preparatory  department),  92  ooUegiate  and 
87  preparatory  students,  and  libraries  contMU- 
ing  18,300  volumes ;  and  of  a  Lutheran  theolo- 
gical seminary,  founded  in  1826,  and  having 
4  profesaors  and  a  lecturers,  46  studeute,  a  li- 
brary of  10,100  volumes,  and  an  endowment 
of  $100,000.  The  buildings  belonging  to  these 
institutions  are  large  and  beautiful  edifices. 
The  national  cemetery,  containing  the  remains 
of  Union  soldiers  who  fell  in  the  battle  of 
Gettysburg,  occupies  about  17  acres  on  Ceme- 
tery hill  adjacent  te  the  village  cemetery,  and 
was  dedicated  withimposingcaremonies,  and  an 
impressive  address  by  President  Lincoln,  Nov. 
19,  1868.  A  monument  occupying  the  crown 
of  the  hill,  dedicated  July  4,  1886,  is  BO  ft. 
high,  and  is  crowned  witii  a  statue  of  Liberty. 
At  the  base  of  the  pedestal  are  four  buttreasee, 
surmounted  by  statuea  representing  War,  Ui»- 
tory.  Peace,  and  Plenty.  Around  the  monu- 
ment, in  semioircnlar  elopes,  are  arranged  the 
dead,  the  space  being  divided  by  alleys  and 

Ethwaya  into  22  sections,  one  for  the  regO' 
'  army,  one  for  the  volunteers  of  each  stete 
representAd  in  the  battle,  and  three  for  the 
unknown  dead.  The  number  of  bodies  in- 
terred here  is  8,S64,  of  which  964  have  not 
been  identified.  Adjoining  the  national  ceme- 
tery is  a  national  soldiers'  orphans'  homestead, 
founded  at  the  close  of  the  war  b;  benevolent 
contributions  of  Sunday  schools  and  individu- 
als, containing  usually  about  100  orphans.  One 
mile  W.  of  the  borough,  near  tbo  spot  where 
Oen.  Key  nolds  fell  on  the  first  day  of  the  battle, 
are  the  Gettysburg  springs,  whose  waters,  de- 
nominated katalysine,  have  acquired  a  wide 
reputetiou  for  their  medicinal  qualities.  A  fine 
hotel  near  by  accommodates  me  patients  who 
resort  in  lai^e  numbers  to  these  sjirings  during 
the  snmmer.  Since  the  battle  Gettysburg  haa 
attracted  tourists  from  all  parts  of  the  world. 

eETTTSBUBC,  Battle  ef,  fought  July  1,  2,  and 
8,  I86S,  between  the  Union  army  of  the  Poto- 
mac under  Gen.  Meade,  and  the  confederate 
army  of  Nortliem  Vli^nia  under  Gen.  Lee. 
After  the  battle  of  Ghoncellorsville  (Hay  2-4, 
1663),  the  confederatea  resolved  upon  an  in- 
vasion of  the  north,  believing  that  a  decided 
success  there  would  bring  the  war  to  a  speed; 
close.  Their  whole  disposable  force'  except 
that  in  the  west  was  to  be  employed  in  this  en- 
terprise. Southern  Virginia  and  North  Oaro- 
lina  were  almost  stripped  of  troops  to  augment 
the  army  of  Northern  Virginia,  and  early  in 
June  a  force  of  nearl;  100,000  men,  of  whom 
15,000.  were  cavalry,  was  concentrated  in  the 
vicinity  of  Culpeper.  This  was  nearly  the 
largest  and  by  far  the  best  organized  and 
equipped  army  which  the  confederacy  ever 
placed  in  the  field.  It  was  formed  into  three 
corps,  under  Longstreet,  Ewell,  and  A.  V. 
Hill,  the  cavalry  being  commanded  by  Stuart, 
It  began  to  move  slowly  down  the  valley  of 
the  Shenandoah,  whereupon  Hooker,  who  then 


780 


GETTYSBURG  (Battle  of) 


commanded  the  Union  army,  broke  up  his 
camp  opposite  Fredericksburg,  and  moved 
northward,  on  a  line  {yirallel  with  that  of  Lee, 
the  Bine  Ridge  being  between  them.  Lee  en- 
deavored by  an  ostentations  stretching  ont  of 
his  force  to  indace  Hooker  to  pass  the  moun- 
tains and  assail  him.  Finding  this  unavailing, 
he  moved  toward  the  Potomac,  Winchester 
being  the  point  of  concentration  of  all  his 
corps.  Mih-oy,  with  10,000  men,  had  been  ly- 
ing here,  where  on  June  15  he  was  assailed 
by  the  confederate  van,  and  his  force  dis- 
persed, losing  2,800  prisoners.  Raids  were 
then  made  into  Maryland  and  Pennsylvania, 
meeting  with  so  little  resistance  that  an  inva- 
sion in  force  of  Pennsylvania  was  resolved 
upon.  On  the  24th  and  25th  the  Potomac  was 
crossed  at  two  points,  almost  within  sight  of 
the  battle  field  of  Antietam.  The  two  columns, 
uniting  at  Hagerstown,  Md.,  pressed  on  to- 
ward Chambersbnrg,  Pa.  Hooker  on  the  28th 
also  crossed  the  river  lower  down,  and  headed 
toward  Frederick  City,  Md.  Lee  had  by  this 
time  gone  so  far  from  the  river  as  to  leave  his 
communications  exposed,  and  Hooker  resolved 
to  fall  upon  these  rather  than  precipitate  a 
general  battle.  There  were  at  this  time  10,000 
Union  troops  at  Harper's  Ferry,  who  could  be 
of  no  use  there.  Hooker  asked  that  these 
should  be  united  with  his  army.  The  request 
was  refused  by  Halleck,  who  was  then  gene- 
ral-in-chief,  and  Hooker  thereupon  sent  in  his 
resignation,  which  was  accepted,  and  on  June 
28  Meade  was  appointed  in  his  place.  The 
confederate  corps  of  Swell  had  in  the  mean 
while  reached  Carlisle,  Pa.,  and  was  preparing 
to  advance  to  Harrisburg,  while  Longstreet 
and  Hill  halted  at  Chambersbnrg.  The  posi- 
tion was  now  such  that  Meade  by  a  rapid 
march  could  throw  his  whole  force  in  Lee's 
rear,  isolating  him  in  a  hostile  country,  and 
cutting  off  his  sources  of  supply.  Lee  per- 
ceived that  the  movement  northward  could  be 
carried  no  furtiier  until  he  had  routed  the  army 
which  hung  menacingly  upon  his  flank  and 
rear ;  and  he  resolved  to  concentrate  his  whole 
force  in  the  direction  of  the  enemy,  Gettys- 
burg being  fixed  upon  as  the  place  of  union. 
Meade,  learning  of  this  movement,  resolved  to 
concentrate  his  columns,  which  were  spread 
over  a  wide  space,  a  part  under  Reynolds 
being  at  Gettysburg,  and  a  part  under  Sedg- 
wick 85  m.  southward.  The  advance  was  to 
be  drawn  back,  and  the  rear  brought  forward 
to  a  point  on  Pipe  creek,  15  m.  S.  E.  of  Get- 
tysburg, where  Meade  resolved  to  await  the 
attack  of  the  enemy.  Lee  was  wholly  igno- 
rant of  the  position  of  his  enemy ;  for  when 
he  crossed  the  Potomac,  Stuart  with  the  cav- 
alry had  been  left  behind  to  harass  the  Union 
rear,  in  Virginia,  and  then  to  cross  the  river 
and  rejoin  the  army  at  Carlisle.  Stuart,  cross- 
ing at  a  point  below  that  where  Hooker  had 
just  crossed,  found  the  enemy  between  him  and 
Lee,  and  could  reach  Carlisle  only  by  making  a 
wide  detour ;  on  reaching  it,  July  1,  he  found  it 


evacuated,  and  the  army  in  movement  toward 
Gettysburg,  whither  he  hastened,  but  arrived 
too  late  to  take  part  in  the  actions  of  the  first 
two  days. — July  1.  On  the  morning  of  July  1 
Hill,  whose  corps  was  in  the  advance,  learned 
that  Gettysbm'g,  from  which  he  was  distant 
about  6  m.,  was  occupied  by  a  Union  force. 
Sending  back  to  urge  Longstreet  to  hasten  his 
march,  he  moved  on.  In  the  mean  while  Rey- 
nolds had  sent  out  a  cavalry  reconnoissance  in 
the  direction  whence  Hill  was  coming,  and  the 
forces  came  in  collision  about  2  m.  N.  W.  of 
Gettysburg.  Reynolds  sent  infantry  to  the 
support  of  his  cavalry,  and  the  action  opened. 
He  was  killed  at  the  beginning  of  the  fight,  and 
the  command  here  devolved  upon  Howard. 
At  first  the  Union  forces  were  superior,  and 
they  gained  decided  advantages,  taking  nearly 
1,000  prisoners.  But  in  a  few  hours  nearly 
the  whole  of  Hill's  corps  came  up  from  Cham- 
bersburg,  and  EwelPs  n-om  Carlisle,  both  nom- 
bering  about  50,000,  while  their  opponents 
were  less  than*  hdf  as  many*.  The  Union  force 
was  driven  back  in  confusion  through  Gettys- 
burg, losing  about  5,000  prisoners.  The  re- 
mainder took  up  a  strong  position  on  Cnlp'^s 
hill,  just  south  of  the  town.  The  Union  loss 
in  this  action  was  about  10,000,  half  of  whom 
were  killed  and  wounded.  The  confederate 
loss  in  killed  and  wounded  was  probably  some- 
what greater ;  in  prisoners  much  less.  Meade, 
who  was  15  m.  distant,  had  learned  that  there 
was  fighting  at  Gettysburg,  and  sent  Hancock 
with  orders  to  take  command  of  the  force 
there,  and  to  decide  what  should  be  done ;  for, 
as  it  happened,  Meade  knew  nothing  of  Get- 
tysburg. Hancock  decided  that  this  was  the 
Slace  to  give  battle,  and  sent  back  word  to 
[eade  to  hurry  all  his  troops  to  the  place. 
Some  of  these  came  up  during  the  night,  others 
early  in  the  following  morning^  and  finally, 
after  a  march  of  85  m.,  Sedgwick's  corps  in 
the  afternoon.  Lee  had  in  the  mean  while 
suspended  operations  untU  he  could  bring  up 
his  whole  army. — July  2.  Early  in  the  morn- 
ing the  bulk  of  the  two  armies  was  in  position. 
Southward  of  Gettysburg,  at  the  distance  of  a 
mile,  rises  Cemetery  ridge.  It  curves  first  north- 
ward, then  westward,  and  finally  runs  south- 
ward, the  whole  length  being  about  8  m.,  the 
shape  being  like  a  fish  hook.  It  rises  in  places 
into  several  craggy  hills,  each  having  its  own 
name.  That  on  the  extreme  south,  forming 
the  stem  of  the  fish  hook,  is  Round  Top,  sepa- 
rated by  a  ravine  from  Little  Round  Top ;  at 
the  bend  of  the  hook  is  Cemetery  hill ;  Gulp's 
hill  forms  the  barb.  The  Union  army  was  posted 
along  the  whole  line  of  Cemetery  ridge.  Op- 
posite this  is  Seminary  ridge,  upon  which  the 
greater  part  of  Lee's  army  was  posted ;  Ewell's 
corps,  however,  lay  at  the  foot  of  Gulp's  hill, 
2  m.  distant.  The  forces  present  or  dose  at 
hand  were  about  equal,  each  numbering  fh>in 
70,000  to  80,000  infantry  and  artillery.  Be- 
tween the  two  ridges  is  a  valley  in  which  and 
on  the  slope  of  Cemetery  ridge  were  fought  the 


GETTYSBURG  (Battijc  of) 


781 


782 


GETTYSBURG  (Battle  op) 


aotionfi  of  July  2  and  8.  It  is  clear  from  what 
followed  that  Lee  greatlj  underestimated  the 
force  opposed  to  him,  and  he  resolved  to  attack 
it  in  its  strong  position.  Longstreet  was  to 
assail  the  Union  left  at  Round  *  Top,  while 
Ewell  was  to  make  on  the  right,  at  Oulp^s  hill, 
"  a  demonstration,  to  be  converted  into  a  real 
attack  should  opportunity  offer/'  Meade  had 
intended  that  his  line  should  be  posted  on  the 
ridge  directly  between  Round  Top  and  Oeme- 
tery  hill.  But  this  ridge,  in  the  centre  where 
Sickles  was  placed,  is  comparatively  low,  sink- 
ing down  into  a  vaDey  a  few  hundred  yards 
wide,  beyond  which  rises  another  wooded  crest 
running  diagonally  to  the  former ;  and  Sickles 
supposed  this  to  be  the  one  which  he  was  to  oc- 
cupy. Before  the  error  could  be  corrected  the 
confederate  attack  had  begun,  and  Meade  de- 
cided to  support  Sickles  in  his  present  position, 
although  it  left  an  unoccupied  space  between 
him  and  Round  Top.  As  it  happened,  Hood's 
division  of  Longstreet's  corps  struck  this  open- 
ing. Moreover,  by  some  mischance  Little 
Round  Top  had  been  left  unoccupied,  and  this 
was  the  key  to  the  entire  Union  position ;  for 
if  the  enemy  could  seize  this,  and  piace  a  few 
guns  upon  it,  the  whole  line  would  be  enfiladed. 
The  confederates  perceived  this,  and  began  to 
swarm  up  the  rugged  sides.  But  just  in  time 
Warren,  who  as  engineer  was  examining  the 
line,  discovered  the  error,  and  brought  up  a  few 
regiments.  They  reached  the  summit  just  a 
moment  ahead  of  the  enemy,  and  forced  them 
back.  Again  and  again  until  nightfall  the 
assault  was  unsuccessfully  renewed.  In  the 
mean  time  the  remainder  of  Longstreet's  coi*ps 
were  pressing  fiercely  upon  Sickles,  who  was 
soon  borne  from  the  field  with  his  leg  shattered. 
His  corps  made  a  stubborn  resistance,  but  was 
forced  back  until  it  reached  the  crest  of  the 
ridge,  where  a  new  line  was  formed.  The  con- 
federates charged  this,  but  were  met  with  a  fire 
from  which  they  recoiled.  Hancock,  who  now 
commanded  the  centre,  ordered  a  counter- 
charge, by  which  the  enemy  were  driven  back  to 
the  ridge  previously  occupied  by  Sickles,  which 
they  continued  to  hold.  Swell's  demonstration 
on  the  Union  right  was  delayed  until  the  action 
on  the  left  was  nearly  over ;  but  as  most  of  the 
Union  force  had  been  withdrawn  from  Gulp's 
hill  to  aid  Sickles,  he  succeeded  in  effecting 
a  lodgment  within  the  Union  intrenchments. 
The  Union  loss  in  this  action  was  fully  10,000, 
half  of  which  was  in  Sickles's  corps,  which  lost 
nearly  half  its  numbers.  This  action  decided 
nothing;  for  the  ground  which  the  confede- 
rates had  won  on  the  Union  left  was  never 
meant  to  be  held  by  Meade,  and  he  would 
gladly  have  withdrawn  from  it  without  a  fight ; 
and  Ewell's  foothold  on  the  Union  right  was 
of  no  importance  unless  it  could  be  followed 
up.  Still  the  confederates  had  gained  some 
apparent  advantages;  and,  says  Lee,  *^ These 
partial  successes  determined  me  to  continue 
the  assault  the  next  day."  From  what  he  could 
then  know,  he  was  justified  in  this;  for  he  had 


every  reason  to  suppose  that  he  had  encounter- 
ed the  entire  Union  force,  while  less  than  half 
of  his  own  had  been  engaged. — July  3.  Lee's 
general  plan  of  attack  was  similar  to  that  of 
the  preceding  day.  Ewell  was  to  follow  up 
his  advantage,  while  the  main  attack  was  to  be 
made  on  the  centre.  But  early  in  the  morning 
Meade  had  taken  the  offensive  against  Ewell, 
and  forced  him  from  the  foothold  which  he 
had  gained.  By  some  unexplained  aocident 
Lee  was  never  informed  of  this  mishap,  by 
which  a  third  of  his  force  was  left  out  of  ac- 
tion, while  Meade  was  at  liberty  to  concentrate 
his  whole  strength  upon  any  point  which  might 
be  assailed.  AH  the  morning  was  spent  in 
preparation.  Seminary  ridge  formed  an  admi- 
rable position  for  the  confederate  artillery, 
and  here  directly  in  front  of  the  Union  line 
they  placed  120  guns.  A  great  part  of  Cem- 
etery ridge  is  so  rugged  that  artillery  could 
not  be  placed  there ;  so  that  although  Meade 
had  200  g^ms,  he  could  use  only  80  at  a  time.  At 
1  o'clock  the  confederates  opened  fire,  which 
was  immediately  returned.  Many  of  the  Union 
guns  were  disabled,  but  their  place  was  sup- 
plied by  others.  The  infantry  were  so  well 
sheltered  behind  the  crest  that  they  suffered 
little.  After  two  hours,  Hunt,  the  chief  of  ar- 
tillery, gradually  suspended  fire,  **in  order  to 
see  what  the  enemy  were  going  to  do."  Lee, 
supposing  that  the  Union  batteries  had  been 
silenced  and  that  the  infantry  must  be  demor- 
alized, now  ordered  the  grand  attack  of  the 
day.  This  was  to  be  made  mainly  by  Pickett's 
division  of  Virginia  veterans,  who  had  not  yet 
been  engaged.  They  were  to  be  aided  by  the 
brigades  of  Wilcox  and  Pettigrew.  Exclusive 
of  Wilcox,  who  did  not  fairly  advance,  the  at- 
tacking column  numbered  about  18,000.  Leo 
had  intended  to  advance  his  artillery  to  sup- 
port the  infantry,  but  found  at  the  last  moment 
that  the  ammunition  was  nearly  exhausted,  and 
there  was  no  time  to  replenish  it.  The  column 
moved  swiftly  down  the  slope  of  the  ridge,  and 
across  the  plain.  All  the  Union  batteries,  from 
Round  Top  to  Oemetery  hill,  opened  upon  them, 
ploughing  great  furrows  through  their  lines, 
which  were  closed  up  as  fast  as  made.  The 
column  at  first  headed  for  the  left  of  the  Union 
centre,  where  Doubleday  was  posted  with 
2,500  men,  a  little  in  advance  of  the-m^n  line 
and  protected  by  breastworks  of  rails  and  stones. 
To  avoid  this  the  column  bent  to  its  left  and 
exposed  itself  to  a  severe  fiank  fire.  Still  it 
pressed  on,  until  Pettigrew's  brigade  was  with- 
in 800  yards  of  Hancock's  line,  which  had  re- 
served its  fire.  In  five  minutes  the  whole 
brigade  was  streaming  back  in  wild  disorder 
Pickett's  division  pressed  steadily  on  until  it 
reached  Gibbon's  front  line  thinly  posted  be- 
hind a  low  stone  walL  They  charged  straight 
over  this,  among  the  federal  batteries,  and  for 
a  quarter  of  an  hour  there  was  a  struggle  with 
pistols  and  clubbed  muskets.  The  Union  troops 
hurried  from  all  sides  and  drove  the  enemy 
back  down  the  slope,  which  was  completely 


GEYSERS 


788 


commanded  by  mnsketry  and  artillery.  To 
advance,  retreat,  or  stand  still  was  alike  im- 
possible. The  men  flung  themselves  on  the 
ground,  holding  up  their  hands  in  token  of  sur- 
render. Of  the  whole  number,  not  one  in 
four  escaped ;  the  others  were  dead  or  prison- 
ers. The  attacking  column  being  thus  utterly 
routed  in  the  centre,  Meade  ordered  his  right 
to  advance  and  drive  back  the  division  of  Hood, 
which  had  been  held  in  check  upon  the  ridge 
they  had  won^the  preceding  day.  This  was 
easily  done,  and  many  prisoners  were  captured. 
The  confederate  loss  this  day  was  about  16,000 
in  killed,  wounded,  and  prisoners ;  the  Union 
loss  was  about  8,000.  During  the  night  Lee 
concentrated  his  force  behind  the  crest  of 
Seminary  ridge,  awaiting  and  probably  desiring 
an  attack.  In  the  morning  Meade  called  a 
council  of  war,  by  which  it  was  decided  to 
"  remain  a  day  and  await  the  development  of 
the  enemy's  plan.''  Before  night  a  heavy  storm 
set  in,  under  cover  of  which  Lee  began  his  re- 
treat to  the  Potomac,  leaving  a  strong  rear 
guard  to  defend  the  passes  through  the  moun- 
tains. He  reached  the  river,  40  m.  distant,  on 
the  7th.  The  stream,  which  he  had  crossed 
almost  dry-shod  a  fortnight  before,  was  now 
swollen  by  unusually  heavy  rains  and  unford- 
able.  A  bridge  which  he  had  flung  across  had 
been  destroyed  by  a  cavalry  dash  from  Harper's 
Ferry,  and  he  had  no  alternative  but  to  intrench 
himself  and  await  an  attack  or  the  falling  of  the 
waters.  Meade  advanced  slowly  by  a  much 
longer  route,  and  on  the  12th  came  in  front  of 
the  confederate  intrenchments.  He  called  a 
council  of  war,  which,  against  his  opinion,  voted 
to  postpone  the  attack  until  reconnoissances 
had  been  made.  On  the  evening  of  the  13th  an 
order  was  issued  for  an  advance  the  next  morn- 
ing ;  but  when  day  broke  the  enemy  had  dis- 
appeared. A  slight  bridge  had  been  construct- 
ed, and  the  river  had  fallen  so  as  to  be  fordable 
at  a  single  point.  EwelPs  corps  crossed  by  the 
ford,  the  others  by  the  bridge.  The  remains  of 
the  confederate  army  stood  safe  on  the  other 
side ;  and  the  invasion  of  the  north,  upon  which 
so  much  had  been  staked,  was  at  an  end. — The 
Union  loss  at  Gettysburg,  was  28,190,  of  whom 
2,834  were  killed,  18,718  wounded,  and  6,648 
missing.  The  confederate  loss  has  never  been 
officially  stated ;  but  by  the  best  estimates  it 
was  about  86,000,  of  whom  about  5,000  were 
killed,  28,000  wounded,  and  8,000  unwounded 
prisoners.  The  entire  number  of  prisoners, 
wounded  and  unwounded,  was  about  14,000. — 
At  almost  the  same  moment  when  the  final 
action  at  Gettysburg  took  place,  the  negotia- 
tions for  the  surrender  of  Vicksburg  were  con- 
cluded. These  twin  disasters  mark  the  epoch 
of  the  decline  of  the  confederacy. 

GETSERS  (Icelandic,  geysa^  to  burst  forth 
violently),  intermittent  hot  springs  found  in 
various  parts  of  the  world.  In  Iceland  the 
principal  geysers  are  in  the  S.  W.  part  of  the 
island,  about  85  m.  N.  W.  of  Hecla,  and  70  m. 
from  Beykiavik.  the  chief  town.  In  a  circuit 
857  VOL.  VII. — 50 


of  about  two  miles  are  more  than  100  springs 
which  send  forth  hot  water,  50  or  more  in  the 
space  of  a  few  acres.  These  are  on  the  lower 
slope  of  a  small  hill  of  trappeanrock,  and  above 
them  in  the  steeper  part  of  the  hill  under  the 
cliffs  of  this  rock  are  banks  formed  by  the  in- 
crustations of  ancient  and  now  nearly  extinct 
geysers.  The  springs  are  of  different  dimen^ 
sions,  and  exhibit  various  degrees  of  activity ; 
some  are  uniformly  full  and  quiet,  others  are 
constantly  boiling,  and  others  only  at  intervals, 
with  explosive  discharges  of  water  and  steam. 
The  vapors  rising  from  them  form  clouds  that 
are  seen  miles  away.  They  are  attended  with 
sulphurous  odors ;  and  the  geysers  of  other  lo- 
calities on  the  island  deposit  sulphur  derived 
from  the  decomposition  of  the  iron  pyrites  in 
the  clays  through  which  the  hot  waters  pene- 
trate. The  chief  spouting  springs  of  the  group 
are  the  Great  geyser  and  the  Great  and  Little 
Strokr.  The  Great  geyser  when  quiet  presents 
the  appearance  of  a  circular  mound  of  silicious 
incrustations,  enclosing  a  pool,  with  sides  slo- 
ping inward  at  an  average  angle  of  13^,  and  out- 
ward at  a  mean  inclination  of  8°.  The  height  of 
the  mound  is  about  20  ft.  on  the  lower  side,  but 
only  half  as  much  on  the  upper  side.  The  di- 
ameter of  the  basin  varies  from  50  to  60  ft., 
and  its  average  depth  is  4  ft.  In  its  centre  is 
the  mouth  of  the  vertical  tube  which  connects 
it  with  the  subterranean  passages.  This  tube  is 
about  9  ft.  in  diameter  at  its  mouth,  and  70  ft. 
in  depth.  When  the  geyser  is  inactive,  the  ba- 
sin is  filled  to  the  edge  with  clear  water,  which 
has  a  mean  temperature  of  185^  F.  and  runs 
gently  down  the  mound,  emitting  clouds  of 
steam ;  but  for  several  hours  after  an  eruption 
the  tube  is  empty  to  the  depth  of  4  or  5  ft.  At 
intervals  of  about  an  hobr  and  a  half  a  rum- 
bling noise  is  heard,  and  the  water  heaves  up 
in  the  centre,  throwing  an  increased  quantity 
over  the  margin.  The  great  eruptions  take 
place  at  irregular  intervals,  sometimes  exceed - 
mg  80  hours.  At  these  times  loud  explosions 
are  heard  beneath  the  surface,  the  water  is 
thrown  into  violent  agitation,  it  boils  furious- 
ly, and  at  last  is  suddenly  sent  forth  in  a  suc- 
cession of  jets,  which  increase  in  force  till  they 
become  an  immense  fountain  that  is  lost  to 
view  in  the  clouds  of  steam  in  which  it  is  en- 
veloped. The  heights  reached  by  these  jets 
have  been  variously  estimated  by  different  trav- 
ellers. The  lowest  estimate  is  60  or  70  ft. ; 
that  of  Von  Troil  in  1772  is  92  ft. ;  of  Sir  John 
Stanley  in  1789,  96  ft. ;  of  Lieut.  Ohlsen,  a 
Danish  officer,  in  1804,  determined  by  a  quad- 
rant, 212  ft. ;  of  Sir  George  Mackenzie  in  1810, 
90  ft. ;  and  of  Henderson  in  1815,  150  ft.  La- 
ter visitors.  Lord  Dufferin,  Mme.  Ida  Pfeiffer,  J. 
Boss  Browne,  and  others,  estimate  the  height 
at  from  60  to  70  ft.  The  eruptions  appear  to 
be  diminishing  in  force  and  frequency,  and  it 
is  not  improbable  that  they  will  cease  altogeth- 
er before  the  lapse  of  another  century.  The 
discharge  continues  only  about  fiv^  minutes, 
when  the  geyser  subsides  to  a  state  of  tranquil- 


784 


GEYSERS 


lity.  The  Great  Strokr,  so  named  either  from 
the  Icelandic  word  meaning  cborn,  or  from 
stroka^  to  agitate,  is  only  800  or  400  ft.  from 
the  Great  geyser,  from  which  it  differs  in  ap- 
pearance in  being  an  irregularly  formed  well, 
incrusted  with  silicions  deposits,  but  having  no 
basin  at  its  month.  Its  orilice  is  about  8  ft.  in 
diameter,  diminishing  to  about  10  in.  at  the 
depth  of  27  ft. ;  the  whole  depth  is  a  little  over 
44  ft.  The  water  for  the  greater  part  of  the 
time  is  10  or  12  ft.  below  the  surface,  and  is 
continually  boiling  and  seething,  but  at  inter- 
vals of  about  half  a  day  it  breaks  forth  in  a 
great  eruption,  throwing  its  water  generally 
from  40  to  60  ft. ;  but  Bunsen,  who  saw  it  in 
1846,  estimates  it  to  be  151  ft.  high.  By  throw- 
ing turf  or  stones  into  the  well  of  the  Strokr, 
an  eruption  can  be  brought  on  in  a  few  minutes. 
The  Little  Strokr  exhibits  the  same  phenomena 
on  a  smaller  scale.  In  the  same  vicinity  are 
two  large  and  quiet  wells  remarkable  for  their 
beautifully  blue  water.  These  were  once  ac- 
tive, and  one  of  tliem  is  described  by  an  Eng- 
lish traveller  as  the  Roaring  geyser.  It  be- 
came tranquil  immediately  after  an  earthquake 
in  1789,  when  the  Great  Strokr  first  broke 
forth.  The  deposits  of  silica  which  accumu- 
late around  the  geysers  are  derived  from  the 
small  amount  of  this  material  which  is  taken  up 
in  solution  by  the  hot  water.  By  the  analysis 
of  Dr.  Black,  made  upon  10,000  grains  (about 
5|  gills),  it  would  appear  that  the  whole  amount 
of  solid  matter  remaining  dissolved  in  the  cold 
water  is  only  a  little  more  than  y^^  of  the 
whole,  the  quantity  examined  yielding  as  fol- 
lows: soda,  0*95;  alumina,  0*48;  silica,  5*40; 
muriate  of  soda,  2*46 ;  dry  sulphate  of  soda, 
1  *46 ;  in  all,  10*75.  An  analysis  of  the  geyserite, 
or  solid  deposit,  made  by  Forchhammer,  gave 
the  following  result :  silica,  84*43 ;  water,  7*88 ; 
alumina,  8*07;  iron,  1*91;  lime,  0*70;  soda 
and  potassa,  0*92 ;  magnesia,  1*06 ;  total,  99*97. 
As  the  water  evaporates  and  is  chilled,  the  ex- 
cess of  silica  is  added  to  the  surface  around, 
filling  the  interstices  of  the  mosses  and  grass, 
and  making  of  these  silicions  petrifactions, 
while  the  living  plants  still  thrive  and  shoot 
above  the  strong  substance  that  binds  together 
their  roots  and  stems.  Where  the  waters  are 
found  at  a  temperature  of  98°  0.  (208*4**  F.),  M. 
Descloiseaux  observed  that  the  confervea  still 
flourished.  The  true  theory  of  the  cause  of 
geyser  eruptions  is  due  to  Bunsen.  When  in 
Iceland  in  1846,  he  proved  by  a  series  of  care- 
ful experiments  that  the  temperature  of  the 
water  in  the  geyser  tube  varies  at  difierent 
depths,  as  also  at  difierent  periods  between 
two  eruptions,  the  changes  always  taking  place 
in  the  same  manner  and  with  considerable 
regularity.  Immediately  before  the  eruptions 
there  is  a  maximum  temperature  at  the  bottom 
of  the  well  estimated  at  260*6''  F.,  and  a  mini- 
mum immediately  after  of  263*4''.  The  tem- 
perature of  boiling  water  at  the  depth  reached 
by  the  thermometer  should  be  about  276°  F. 
The  water  therefore  in  no  part  of  the  tube  is 


hot  enough  to  generate  steam  ander  the  condi- 
tions. But  the  higher  you  ascend  in  the  tube, 
the  lower  is  the  temperature  at  which  water 
will  boil.  If  then  the  column  be  thrown  np 
by  the  generation  of  steam  in  the  underground 
channels,  the  water  at  the  bottom,  which  is 
near  the  boiling  point,  is  brought  to  a  height 
where  it  is  sufiiciently  relieved  from  pressure 
to  be  converted  into  steam.  The  water  in  the 
tube  is  lifted  still  higher,  until  the  steam  con- 
denses by  contact  with  the  cooler  water,  to 
which  it  imparts  its  latent  heat.  Each  con- 
densation makes  a  detonation,  the  subterranean 
explosion  which  precedes  an  eruption.  Bj 
successive  efforts  enough  of  the  superincnm- 
bent  column  is  thrown  off  to  raise  nearly  all 
the  water  in  the  tube  to  the  boUing  point,  until 
at  last  the  relief  ft'om  pressure  is  sufficient  to 
permit  the  ejection  of  the  contents  of  the  tube. 
This  ejection  continues  until  all  the  reservoirs 
around  the  geyser  are  emptied,  when  it  sub- 
sides until  the  proi)er  conditions  are  established 
again.  A  boiling  spring  becomes  in  time  a 
geyser  if,  in  building  up  around  itself  a  mound 
of  precipitated  mineral,  it  forms  a  vertical  tube 
of  sufficient  height  and  regularity  to  give  a 
certain  pressure  of  confined  water ;  and  when 
the  tube  reaches  such  an  altitude  that  the  wa- 
ter below  cannot,  in  consequence  of  the  in- 
creased pressure,  reach  the  boiling  point,  the 
eruptions  cease  and  the  geyser  becomes  a  mere 
cistern.  It  is  a  singular  fact  in  the  history  of 
Iceland  that  no  mention  is  made  of  the  geysers 
until  they  are  spoken  of  by  Svenson,  bishop 
of  Skalholt,  in  the  17th  century;  and  this  is 
the  more  remarkable,  as  Ari  Frode,  who  wrote 
of  the  geography  and  history  of  the  island  in 
the  11th  century,  spent  his  youth  in  their  im- 
mediate vicinity.  They  bear  unmistakable  evi- 
dences of  having  been  in  operation  in  this 
district,  if  not  in  the  exact  places  where  they 
are  now  found,  from  remote  periods. — The 
geysers  of  New  Zealand  are  in  the  island  of 
New  Ulster,  the  most  northerly  of  the  group. 
About  the  centre  of  the  island,  near  the  ever 
active  yolcano  of  Tongariro,  thermal  springs, 
mud  fountains,  and  geysers  rise  in  more  than 
1,000  places,  exhibitmg  phenomena  more  re- 
markaole  than  those  in  Iceland.  A  portion 
of  Lake  Taupo  boils  and  smokes  as  if  heated 
by  subterranean  fires,  and  the  average  temper- 
ature of  its  water  is  about  100°  F.  North  of 
it,  a  valley  through  which  the  Waikato  river 
fiows  contains  a  great  number  of  geysers,  76 
having  been  counted  in  one  group.  These  jets 
of  water  are  of  various  height,  and  play  alter- 
nately. About  half  way  between  the  lake  of 
Taupo  and  Plenty  bay,  on  the  coast,  is  the 
little  lake  of  Rotomahana,  covering  120  acres, 
whose  temperature,  raised  by  the  hot  springs 
which  feed  it,  is  about  78°  F.  This  lake  is 
surrounded  by  springs  and  fissures,  from  which 
steam,  sulphurous  gases,  water,  and  mud  are 
continually  escaping.  The  most  remarkable 
of  these,  the  Tetarata  (tattooed  rock),  is  at  the 
N.  £.  end  of  the  lake,  about  80  fL  above  its 


GEYSERS 


785 


level.  It  is  described  hj  Von  Hochstetter  as 
a  crater-like  excavation,  with  steep  reddish 
sides,  80  to  40  ft.  high,  which  are  open  toward 
the  lake  only.  The  basin  of  the  spring  is  aboat 
80  ft.  long  and  60  wide,  and  is  filled  to  the  brim 
with  clear  transparent  water,  which  against 
the  white  incrusted  sides  appears  of  a  beaoti- 
ftd  blue  color.  Immense  clouds  of  steam  con- 
tinually rise  from  it,  obstructing  the  view  of 
the  surface,  and  the  noise  of  boiling  is  always 
audible.  At  the  margin  the  temperature  is 
183®  F.,  but  in  the  centre,  where  the  water  is 
continually  in  a  state  of  ebullition  to  the  height 
of  several  feet,  it  probably  reaches  the  boiling 
point.  The  deposit,  like  that  of  the  Iceland 
springs,  is  silicious,  and  the  incrustations  made 
by  the  overflow  have  formed  on  the  slope  a 
system  of  terraces,  from  2  to  6  ft.  in  height, 
as  white  and  almost  as  regular  as  if  cut  from 
marble,  on  each  of  which  are  circular  basins, 
resplendent  with  blue  water.  These  terraces, 
which  cover  an  area  of  about  three  acres,  have 
the  appearance  of  a  cataract  plunging  over 
natural  shelves,  which  as  it  falls  is  suddenly 
turned  into  stone.  Each  stage  has  a  small 
raised  margin,  from  which  slender  stalactites 
hang  down  on  the  next  below.  At  ordinary 
limes  but  very  little  water  ripples  over  these 
terraces,  and  only  the  principal  discharge  on 
the  side  forms  a  hot  steaming  fall ;  but  some- 
times, say  the  natives,  the  whole  body  of  water 
is  thrown  up  in  an  enormous  column,  empty- 
ing the  pool.  On  the  highest  stage  is  an  ex- 
tensive platform,  with  a  number  of  basins,  from 
5  to  6  ft.  deep,  the  water  showing  a  temper- 
ature of  from  90°  to  llO**  F.  In  the  middle  of 
this  platform  rises,  close  to  the  brink  of  the 
main  basin,  a  rock  island,  about  12  ft.  high, 
covered  with  mosses  and  ferns.  From  it  a  ftill 
view  may  be  had  of  the  interior  of  the  boil- 
ing caldron,  without  danger.  The  rocks  from 
which  these  springs  derive  their  silica  are 
rhyolites  and  rhyolithic  tufas,  which  contain 
over  70  per  cent,  of  it.  An  analysis  of  the  so- 
lidified mcrustation  of  the  Tetarata,  made  by 
Mayer,  gave  the  following  result :  silica,  84r'78; 
water  and  organic  substances,  12*86;  sesqni- 
oxide  of  iron  and  alumina,  1*27;  lime,  mag- 
nesia, and  alkalies,  1*09;  total,  100. — In  the 
United  States,  volcanic  boiling  springs  exist  in 
numerous  localities  west  of  the  Rocky  moun- 
tains. In  the  Colorado  desert,  between  lat. 
83**  and  84°,  and  Ion.  115°  and  116°,  are  re- 
markable mud  volcanoes  and  boiling  springs. 
The  desert  at  this  point  is  below  the  level  of 
the  sea.  The  springs  cover  a  space  not  more 
than  a  quarter  of  a  mile  square.  This  area  is 
covered  with  soft  mud,  through  which  water 
and  steam  are  constantly  escaping,  with  a  noise 
audible  at  a  distance  of  ten  miles.    In  some 

E laces  the  vapor  rises  steadily,  with  a  sharp 
issing  sound;  in  others  it  bursts  forth  with 
a  loud  explosion,  throwing  water  and  mud  to 
the  height  of  100  ft.  Some  of  the  boiling 
springs  throw  up  a  column  of  water  20  or  80 
ft. ;  some  have  cones  formed  around  them,  and 


some  have  basins  100  ft.  in  diameter,  in  which 
the  blue  paste-like  mud  is  ever  bubbling  and 
hissing.  Many  are  incrusted  with  carbonate 
of  lime,  others  with  deposits  of  sulphur.  The 
steam  which  rises  from  them  is  strongly  im- 
pregnated with  sulphur.  Similar  springs  exist 
in  New  Mexico  and  in  some  of  the  other  terri- 
tories.— The  so-called  geysers  of  California  are 
in  Sonoma  county,  in  a  lateral  gorge  of  the 
valley  of  Napa,  called  the  "DeviPs  Cation," 
near  the  Pluton  river.  The  narrow  ravine, 
which  is  always  filled  with  vapor,  is  shut  in  by 
steep  hills,  the  sides  of  which,  marked  with 
evidences  of  volcanic  action,  are  smoking  with 
heat  and  bare  of  vegetation.  A  multitude  of 
springs  gush  out  at  the  base  of  the  rocks.  Hot 
and  cold  springs,  boiling  springs,  and  quiet 
springs  lie  within  a  few  feet  of  each  other. 
They  differ  also  in  color,  smell,  and  taste.  Some 
are  clear  and  transparent,  others  white,  yellow, 
or  red  with  ochre,  and  stUl  others  are  of  an 
inky  blackness.  Some  are  sulphurous  and  fetid 
in  odor,  and  some  are  charged  with  alum  and 
salt.  The  *^  Steampipe  "  is  an  orifice  in  the  hill- 
side, about  8  in.  in  diameter,  fh)m  whtch  a 
volume  of  steam  rises  with  a  continuous  roar  to 
a  height  varying  from  50  to  200  ft.  In  a  cavity 
called  the  *^  Witches'  Caldron"  amass  of  black 
fetid  mud  is  ever  bubbling  with  heat,  the  vapor 
from  it  depositing  black  fiowers  of  sulphur  on 
the  rocks  around.  The  surface  of  the  ground 
about  the  springs,  which  is  too  hot  to  walk 
upon  with  thin  shoes,  is  covered  with  the  mine- 
rals deposited  by  the  waters,  among  which  are 
sulphur,  sulphate  of  magnesia,  sulphate  of 
aluminum,  and  various  salts  of  iron.  These 
springs,  none  of  which  are  properly  geysers,  are 
about  1,700  ft.  above  the  sea. — The  geysers  at 
the  head  waters  of  the  Yellowstone  and  Mis- 
souri rivers  are  probably  the  most  wonderftil  on 
the  globe,  even  those  in  Iceland  and  New  Zea- 
land sinking  into  insignificance  when  compared 
with  them.  The  country  lying  between  lat.  48° 
and  47°  N.,  and  Ion.  110°  and  114°  W.,  compri- 
sing portions  of  the  territories  of  Idaho,  Wyo- 
ming,  and  Montana,  is  dotted  with  groups  of  hot 
springs,  the  remains  of  most  remarkable  vol- 
canic manifestations,  which  began  probably  in 
the  tertiary  period.  Earthquake  shocks  are  still 
common  throughout  this  region,  and  at  some 
seasons  of  the  year  are  very  severe.  The  most 
of  these  springs  are  not  geysers,  but  simply  boil- 
ing mineral  springs  and  mud  volcanoes.  The 
geysers  proper  are  in  the  N.  W.  comer  of  Wyo- 
ming territory,  on  the  Fire-Hole  river,  the  mid- 
dle fork  of  the  Madison,  which  is  one  of  the 
three  principal  sources  of  the  Missouri.  The 
basin  in  which  they  are  situated  was  visited  first 
by  a  party  under  Cook  and  Folsom  in  1869.  In 
1870  Gen.  Washbume,  surveyor  general  of 
Montana,  explored  it  with  a  party,  among  whom 
were  Lieut.  G.  C.  Doane  and  N.  P.  Langford; 
and  in  1871  it  was  surveyed  by  Dr.  F.  V.  Hay- 
den,  United  States  geologist,  and  by  Col.  J.  W. 
Barlow  and  Capt  D,  P.  Heap,  of  the  United 
States  engineer  corps.    Dr.  K.  W.  Raymond, 


United  States  coiamimioner  of  mining  statastica, 
also  Tieited  and  duscribed  tlie  region  in  the 
same  jear.  The  gejsera  lie  in  two  large  groups, 
In  what  are  called  the  npper  and  lower  ge;- 
■er  basioB,  The  lover  basin,  beginning  near 
the  junction  of  the  East  and  Middle  forks  of 
tike  Madison,  comprises  an  area  of  aboot  30  sq. 
m.  The  springe  are  diviuble  into  three  classes: 
1,  those  which  are  oonstantlj  boiling-  2,  tho«e 
which  are  agitated  only  at  particular  periods; 
8,  those  which  ore  always  tranqnil.  In  the 
geysers  proper  the  water  ia  nsnally  qpiet  nntil 
a  short  time  before  an  eruption.  Dr.  Peale, 
who  examined  them  in  1871,  in  connection 
with  Prof.  Hayden,  divides  the  springs  into 
seven  principal  gronps.  In  the  first  groap,  at 
the  N.  end  of  the  baun,  the  temperatore  of 
67  springs,  oecnpyingaspaceof  aboataqoarter 
of  a  mile  wide  by  two  miles  long,  was  reoorded. 
The  lowest  was  100°  F.,  the  highest  ]08°.  The 
temperatore  of  the  air  was  50'.  Some  of  these 
are  geysers,  projecting  the  water  from  2  to 
fi  ft.,  bnt  most  of  them  are  simply  silicioos 
springs,  a  few  being  chalybeate.  The  second 
gronp,  which  lies  2^  m.  further  S.,  nearer  the 
centre  of  the  basin,  occupies  an  area  of  about 


Tbs  Thud  ()<;•«. 

three  fourths  of  a  mile.  Sixteen  springs  here 
ranged  in  temperatore  from  140°  to  196°. 
The  temperature  of  the  air  was  from  55°  to 
69°.  This  group  is  composed  principally  of 
geysers,  many  of  them  throwing  water  from  5 
to  10  ft.  high.  The  principal  one,  on  the  slope 
of  a  hill,  is  about  20  ft.  in  diameter,  with  a  rim 
S  ft.  wide  and  5  ft.  high.  The  colnran  of  water 
thrown  from  it  is  very  wide,  and  reaches  the 
height  of  60  ft.  Another  is  named  the  Thud 
geyser,  from  the  dull  suppressed  sound  giren 
off  as  the  water  rises  and  recedes.  Jthasaboan- 
tifnl  scalloped  rim,  with  small  baaias  around  it. 
This  group  of  geysers  is  said  to  resemble  a 
factory  Tillage,  the  steam  rising  in  jets  from 
more  than  100  orifices.  The  third  group  lies 
three  fourths  of  a  mile  S.E.  of  the  second,  at  the 
base  of  a  spur  of  the  mountains,  and  extending 
up  a  ravine  about  1 ,000  yards.  They  cover  a 
space  500  yards  in  width.  The  temperature 
of  20  Bpringa  ranged  from  130°  to  18B  ,  Near 
the  centre  of  the  group  is  a  small  lake,  600  ft. 
long  by  160  wide,  on  the  E.  shore  of  which  is  a 
geyser  spouting  to  the  height  of  from  IS  to  20 
ft.     There  are  three  sulphur  springs  here,  the 


only  ones  in  the  r^on,  and  S.  E.  of  tbt 
lake  is  an  iron  spring.  About  1,000  yards  far- 
ther S.  is  the  Iburth  gronp,  in  a  ravine  about 
1}  m.  long  and  SCO  yards  wide.  It  contains 
many  springs  and  geysers,  the  temperature  of 
42  of  which  ranged  from  112°  to  198°,  the 
temperature  of  the  air  being  about  60°.  The 
principal  geyser  is  at  the  uiouth  of  the  ravine. 
Its  basin  is  circular  and  about  60  ft.  in  diameter, 
and  its  spring,  in  the  centre,  from  IS  to  20  ft. 
The  water  ia  blue,  and  is  constantly  agitated. 
When  in  eruption  the  column  is  projected  100 
ft.  high,  and  is  accompanied  by  immense  clouds 
of  steam.  Near  the  upper  end  of  the  rann« 
is  a  spring  around  which  the  deposit  is  black, 
instead  of  the  usual  white.  The  fifth  group, 
on  the  banks  of  the  Fire-Hole  river,  is  the 
largest  of  all,  covering  nearly  a  square  mil« 
and  comprising  a  great  number  of  springs  and 
geysers.  The  temperature  of  96  examined 
ranged  from  112°  to  196°,  the  ur  at  the  tim« 
being  70°.  None  of  them  are  of  much  ini' 
portanca.  One,  from  its  reeemblanoe  to  a  sliell, 
IS  named  the  Oonch  spring ;  its  basin  is  trian- 
gular, from  6  to  10  ft.  m  diameter.  A  little  be- 
low It,  on  the  bank  of  the  river,  there  is  a  Sd« 
geyser,  with  a  crater  8  ft.  high.    The  Horn 

Seyaer  has  a  crater  like  a  horn,  abont  a  foot  in 
iameter  at  the  top  and  6  ft.  at  the  base;  !t  is 
in  constant  ebullition.  The  Bath  spring  has  a 
square  basin  80  ft.  across,  of  unknown  depth. 
The  Cavern  has  a  basin  15  by  20  ft.  wide  and 
20  ft.  in  depth ;  the  water  is  of  a  bright  blue 
tint,  and  of  wonderful  oleamess.  The  mad 
springs  of  this  group  are  from  an  inch  or 
two  to  20  or  SO  ft.  in  diameter,  their  contents 
varying  from  turbid  water  to  stiff  mud.  They 
are  in  a  constant  state  of  agitation.  The  mnd  is 
of  different  colors,  beiog  pure  white  in  some,  in 
others  brown,  black,  or  blue.  The  sixth  group 
is  2  m.  8.  W.,  on  a  small  stream  flowing  into 
the  Fire-Hole.  They  are  in  an  open,  prairie* 
like  valley,  for  the  most  part  marshy.  The 
temperature  of  Si  of  the  springs  varied  fh>ni 
106*tol98°.  Oneof  tbera  is  strongly  chalyb- 
eate. The  seventh  group  is  on  the  Fire-Hole 
:,  abont  2i  m.  S.  of  the  preceding.    The 


The  largest  has  a  basin  over  400  ft.  in 
diameter.  Below  it  is  another  hnge  spring, 
named  the  Caldron,  the  view  of  which  is  d- 
most  obscured  by  the  dense  clouds  of  steam 
rising  from  it.  The  upper  geyser  basin  lies  in 
the  valley  of  the  same  river,  about  8  m.  S.  irf" 
lower  basin.    It  is  not  so  large  as  the  latter. 


covering  an  area  of  only  about  8  a 


exhibited  are  far  more  remarkable.  Most  of 
the  springs  and  geysers  are  near  the  river,  ex- 
tending along  on  both  banks  about  3  m.  The 
temperature  of  106  of  them  ranged  from  1 13° 
to  ]SG°,  the  average  being  over  170°,  the  tem- 
perature of  the  air  being  67°.  At  the  head  of 
the  valley,  at  its  southern  extremity,  stands 
Old  Faithful,  a  geyser  so  called  for  its  regn* 


/aritf;  it  iponta  Kt  inteiralsof  aboDt  an  hoar, 
throwing  a  colamn  of  water  G  ft  in  diameter 
to  a  maiimnm  height  of  180  ft.,  and  holding  it 
up  b7  a  sacceaaiou  of  impnises  from  4  to  6 
roinfites.  The  great  mass  of  the  water  falls 
directly  back  into  the  basin,  flowing  over  the 
edgea  and  down  the  Bides  in  streams.  When 
the  action  ceases,  the  water  recedes  ont  of 
eight,  and  nothing  bat  the  occasional  hiss  of 
steam  is  heard  nntil  the  time  approaches  for 
another  emption.  Its  crater  is  a  conical  monnd 
of  prejserite  abont  13  ft.  high,  measaring  at 
the  base  146  by  SIS  ft.  and  at  the  top  64  by 


80  ft.  Near  it  are  foar  extinct  geyser  cones. 
On  the  oppoaite  aide  of  the  river  are  the  Bee- 
hive and  the  Giantess.  The  former  is  a  sili- 
ciooB  cone  8  ft.  in  beJKbt,  20  ft  in  circnm- 
ference  at  the  base,  and  8  by  4  ft.  in  diameter 
at  the  top,  with  an  oval  oriSce  8  by  2  ft.  in 
diflmeter.  When  in  action,  which  occurs  once 
in  about  34  honra,  it  throwa  a  colamn  of  water 
entirely  filling  the  crater  to  aheight  which,  says 
Langford,  waa  found  by  triangnlar  measore- 
ment  to  l>e  219  ft.  The  eruption  lasted  16 
minatea,  and  the  atream  did  not  deflect  more 
than  4"  or  6°  team  a  vertical  line.    Dr.  Hay- 


BBS  787 

den  witneased  three  emptlona,  which  lasted 
from  4i  tolSminutes;  be  measured  tlie  height 
of  bnt  one,  which  was  over  100  ft  He  de- 
Bcribea  the  colamn  as  fan-ahaped,  and  aaya  that 
no  water  fails  from  it,  but  it  is  resolved  into 
spray  which  appears  to  evaporate  as  aoon  aa 
formed.  At  200  yards  from  the  Beehive  is 
the  GiantMS,  a  large  geyaer  with  an  oval  aper> 
tore  described  by  Langford  to  be  18  by  26  ft, 
in  diameter.  The  inside  of  the  tabe  ia  corru- 
gated and  covered  with  a  whitish  ailiciOQS  de- 
pout.  When  not  in  action,  no  water  can  be 
aeen  in  its  basin,  although  its  aides  are  viuble 
to  the  depth  of  100  ft.,  bat  a  gni^ling  sound 
can  be  heard  at  a  great  distance  below.  When 
an  eruption  is  abont  to  take  place,  the  water 
riaea  in  the  tube  with  much  spluttering  and 
hisnng,  eending  off  vast  clouda  of  ateam.  it 
will  atand  sometimes  for  several  minntes  within 
40  or  60  ft.  of  the  anrface,  foaming  and  gur- 
gling, and  spurting  jets  of  hot  water  nearly  to 
its  mouth.  When  it  finally  bursta  forth,  it 
throws  up  a  column  of  water  ibe  fai]  size  of  ita 
aperture  to  the  height  of  60  ft.,  and  through 
thia  rise  five  or  aii  smaiier  Jets,  varying  ttota 
6  to  16  in.  in  diameter,  to  the  height  of  260 
ft.  The  eruption,  which  takes  place  at  irregn- 
lar  intervals,  coDtinuea  for  about  20  minntes. 
Dr.  Hayden,  who  examined  it  in  Acgnst,  1873, 
saya  the  basin  meosurBs  2S|  b?  82^  ft.  in 
diameter,  and  that  the  water  in  it,  which  ia 
level  with  the  rim,  is  fl8  ft.  deep.  The  only 
eruption  witneiseo  by  him  lasted  17  min- 
utes, and  the  maximum  height  of  the  water 
was  89  ft.,  the  etenm  rising  to  69  ft.  Alter 
the  eraption  the  water  sank  20  tt.  in  the 
basin.  It  probably  differs  in  appesrsnce  in 
different  seasons.  Further  down  the  river 
on  the  aama  side  is  the  Sawmill  geyser,  which 
throws  a  small  stream  10  or  ]5  ft.  high  al- 
most nniutorrnptedly.  Near  it  ia  the  Grand 
geyser,  one  of  the  uioet  powerful  in  the  basin. 
Within  a  single  basin  62  ft.  in  diameter  are 
two  orifices.  One,  which  is  oblong,  2^  by  4  ft., 
Jiaa  no  rim,  and  is  surrounded  for  the  space  of 
10  ft.  by  rounded  masses  of  ulica,  from  a  few 
inohea  to  S  ft.  in  diameter,  looking  like  spongi- 
form coral.  When  not  in  eruption  the  water 
in  this  spring  is  quiet  and  la  as  clear  as  cryatal. 
This  is  the  Grand  geyser.  The  aecond,  called 
the  Tnrban  geyaer,  is  20  ft.  from  the  firat.  It 
has  a  ba«n  of  irregnlar  form,  28  by  11  ft.  in 
diameter  and  S  ft.  deep.  The  mouth  of  ita 
tube,  which  is  at  one  side  of  the  basin,  ia  4  by 
3  ft.  wide.  This  spring,  which  apjiarently  haa 
no  connection  with  the  former,  is  in  a  state  of 
agitation  as  often  as  once  in  20  minutes,  and 
throws  its  water  to  the  height  of  from  16  to 
25  ft.  It  is  never  wholly  quiet.  The  two 
eruptions  of  the  Grand  geyser  witnessed  by 
Piot.  Hayden's  party  in  ISTl  occurred  at  so 
interval  of  82  hours.  In  1872  three  eruptions 
seen  by  Hayden  took  place  at  intervals  of  28 
and  m  bonrs.  An  eruption  is  preceded  by  a 
rumbling  and  a  shaking  of  the  groand,  followed 
by  a  column  of  steam  shooting  up  from  the  era- 


ter,  immediatelf  after  which  the  water  bursts 
forth  in  a  sucaesdioa  of  jets,  apparently  6  ft.  in 
diuneter  at  the  bottom,  and  tapering  to  a  point 
at  the  top,  to  a  beigljC  of  from  ITd  to  200  fL, 
while  the  steam  ascends  to  1,000  ft.  or  more. 
This  immense  hodj  of  water  is  hept  np  to  this 
height  for  ahont  20  minntes,  when  it  gradually 
recedes  and  again  becomes  quiescenL  On  the 
oppoflite  Bide  of  the  river  ie  the  Castle,  so  called 
from  its  resemblance  to  the  rains  of  a  tower. 
It  stands  upon  a  platform  measnring  76  by  100 
ft.  and  8  h.  in  height,  above  which  it  rises 
abont  12  ft.  ProC  Hayden  witnessed  three 
emptioDBof  this  geyser  in  1872.  The  maii- 
mom  height  of  the  first  was  34  ft.,  and  of  the 
second  93  ft. ;  that  of  the  third  was  not  ascer- 
tained. The  eraptions  lasted  each  abont  an 
hoar  end  20  minotes.  The  Giant  geyser  has  a 
mgged  crater,  like  a  broken  bom,  10  ft.  in 
height  and  24  by  35  ft.  at  the  base.  The  top 
is  aboat  8  ft.  in  diameter,  with  an  irregular 
orifice  of  6  or  6  ft.  in  width.    The  cone  is  open 


Ths  OluC  Qejta. 

on  one  side,  having  a  ragged  apertnre  from 
the  groand  upward.  Its  discharges  are  irregu- 
lar, and  oontinne  for  irregular  periods.  When 
Prof.  Ilayden  saw  it  in  1S71,  it  played  an  boar 
and  20  minutes,  throwing  the  water  140  ft. ; 
but  Lioat.  Doane,  who  visited  it  the  year  be- 
fore, states  that  it  played  3^  hours  at  one  time, 
to  a  height  varying  from  SO  to  200  ft.  The 
Grotto,  the  Punch  Bowl,  the  Riverside,  the 
Soda,  and  the  Fan  geysers,  and  numerous 
others  wliich  have  not  yet  even  been  named, 
merit  notice.  There  are  wonderful  groups  also 
on  the  S.  W.  side  of  Shoshone  lake,  the.  head 
of  one  of  the  principal  forks  of  the  Shoshone 
or  Snake  river ;  and  on  Gardiner's  river  are 
some  of  the  most  remarkable  spriogB  in  the 
world.  The  springs  in  action  among  the  latter 
are  not  so  nnmerons  nor  so  powerful  as  those 
of  the  Fire-Hole  basin,  but  are  far  more  won- 
derful in  their  calcareous  deposits,  which  ex- 
ceed even  those  of  the  New  Zealand  geysers. 
In  one  place  a  hill  200  ft.  high  has  been  formed 


in  a  system  of  terraces,  ornamented  with  semi- 
circnlar  bawns,  and  with  beailwork  of  beau- 
ful  colors  on  a  snow-white  groand.  These 
calcareous  deposits  cover  en  area  of  about  two 
miles  square.  The  active  springs  extend  from 
the  margin  of  the  river  to  an  elevation  of  1,000 
fL  above,  the  highest  being  6,522  ft.  above  th« 
sea.  The  geysers  of  the  Fire-Hole  basin  aro 
from  fl,eoO  to  7,000  ft.  above  the  sea.  Tli« 
valley  of  the  Madison,  with  its  branches,  is 
ebut  in  by  high  volcanic  mountains,  gashed 
with  deep  gorges,  strewn  npon  their  sides  and 
at  their  boiies  with  fragments  of  trachyte  and 
obsidian,  and  covered  with  tall  pines,  lie- 
tween  the  sources  of  the  Madison  and  the 
Yellowstone  these  mountains  rise  to  B,000  or 
10,000  ft.  above  the  sea.  The  valley  of  the 
Fire-Hole  river  is  covered  with  the  uiicioas 
deposits  of  the  springs,  and  resembles  an  al- 
kali flat.  The  bed  of  the  stream  is  lined  with 
white  silica.  Beneath  this  formation  are  lake 
or  local  drift  deposits,  and  still  lower  ba-«alt. 
The  surface  deposit  is  chiefly  geyserite.  The 
most  of  it  is  of  an  opaque  white  color,  but  in 
the  lower  basin  pink  specimens  are  found  which 
are  translucent.  Some  of  it  is  greenish  gray 
and  some  nearly,  like  enamel;  and  it  assumes 
forms  similar  to  those  in  Iceland.  Some  have 
a  cauliflower-like  form,  and  break  very  easily ; 
others  ore  beaded,  and  others  covered  with 
small  stalagmitic  processes.  The  texture  varies 
ft-om  porous  to  compact,  the  most  being  porous 
and  arranged  in  layers.  The  geyser  conea  are 
generally  compact,  and  often  have  an  enamel- 
like  coating.  A  specimen  of  the  white  gey- 
serite, of  caulillower  form,  contained  silica 
B3'88,  water  11'02,  chloride  of  magnesium  4; 
total,  9S-85.  The  water  contains  very  little 
solid  matter.  A  specimen  brought  back  b^ 
Dr.  Peale  was  as  clear  as  when  bottled  at 
the  springs,  showing  no  deposit ;  it  contained 
836|  j  milligrammes  of  solid  matter  to  the  litre, 
consisting  mainly  of  silica;  chloride  of  lime 
and  sulphate  of  magnesia  were  present  in  small 
quantity,  and  there  was  a  slight  trace  of  irOD. 
— The  geysers  of  Iceland  are  treated  of  in 
"Letters  on  Iceland,"  by  Von  Troil  (1772); 
"  Travels  in  Iceland,"  by  Sir  George  Mackenz)« 
(1610);  "Journal  of  a  Residence  in  Iceland 
during  the  years  1814  and  1815,"  by  Ebenezer 
Henderson ;  "  Visit  to  loaland  in  the  Snmniier 
of  1834,"  by  John  Barrow,  jr.;  "A  Visit  to 
Iceland,"  by  the  Hon,  A.  Dillon  (1840);  ob- 
servations of  M.  Descioiseani  in  Annalm  <£• 
eAimi>etif«pAy»totM(April,  1847),  and  "Philo- 
sophical Magazine  (vol. iii. p.  397);  ''Tracings 
of  Iceland  and  the  Faroe  Islands,"  by  R.  Cham- 
bers(1956)i  "  A  Yacht  Voyage.*' by  Lord  Duf- 
ferin  (Ix>nilon,  185B) ;  "  Iceland!,  its  Scenes  and 
Sagas,"  by  Sabine  Baring-Gould  (188.3);  "  The 
Land  of  Thor,"  by  J.  Ross  Browne{1867) ;  and 
"A  Summer  in  Iceland,"  by  C.  W.  Paijkull, 
translated  from  the  Swedish  by  the  Rev.  M. 
E.  Barnard  (1868),  For  an  accoont  of  the 
New  Zealand  geysers  see  Naa-Seelaad,  by  Fer- 
dinand von  Hochstctter  (Stuttgart,  1863).    For 


GFRORER 


GHAUTS 


789 


ffejsers  in  tbe  United  States,  see  report  of 
Lieut.  G.  0.  Doane  (1871),  and  the  fifth  and 
sixth  annnal  reports  of  the  ^^  United  States 
Geological  Survey  of  the  Territories,"  by  F.  V. 
Hayden  (1872  and  1878). 

GFROrER,  iigast  Friedrlch,  a  German  his- 
torian, bom  in  Calw,  March  5,  1808,  died  in 
Carlsbad,  July  10,  1861.  He  studied  theology 
at  Ttibiugen  from  1821  to  1825,  was  appointed 
in  1828  tutor  in  the  theological  seminary  of 
that  city,  in  1880  librarian  at  Stuttgart,  and 
in  1846  professor  of  history  in  the  university 
of  Freiburg.  His  first  work,  Philo  und  die 
wdisch'dUxandrinuehe  Theosophis  (2  vols., 
Stuttgart,  1881),  was  written  from  the  critical 
standpoint  of  the  Tubingen  school ;  but  while 
preparing  his  Gesehiehte  des  Urehriatenthufns 
(8  vols.,  1888),  he  changed  his  views,  and  ar- 
rived at  length,  during  the  publication  of  his 
AUgemeine  KirehengeschichU  (4  vols.,  1841- 
'6),  at  the  opinion  that  the  Roman  Catholic 
church  is  the  true  church  of  Christ;  but  he 
did  not  join  that  communion  till  1868.  Besides 
the  works  already  mentioned,  he  wrote  Ouster 
Adolf,  Kania  von  Schvseden  (2  vols.,  1886-7) ; 
Geichiehte  der  osU  and  toeslfr&nJcUehen  Karo- 
linger  (2  vols.,  Freiburg,  1868) ;  Urgeeehiehte 
dee  memehliehen  Oeeehleehts  (2  vols.,  Schafi- 
hansen,  1855);  Papet  Gregor  VIL  und  eein 
Zeitalter  (7  vols.,  1859-'61);  Gesehichte  dee  18. 
Jahrhunderts  (edited  by  Weiss,  8  vols.,  1862- 
*d)  ;  and  Zur  Gesehichte  deuUeher  Volkereehte 
(edited  by  Weiss,  2  vols,,  1866). 

CIHADAMiS,  or  GadnMS,  a  town  of  Africa,  in 
an  oasis  near  the  S.  £.  comer  of  the  Algerian 
part  of  the  desert  of  Sahara,  about  800  ra. 
S.  W.  of  Tripoli;  pop.  about  7,000,  mainly 
Arabs,  Moors,  and  negroes.  It  contains  many 
gardens,  several  hot  springs,  six  mosques,  and 
seven  schools.  Woollen  good 9  are  manufac- 
tured, and  there  is  a  large  trade  in  ivory,  wax, 
hides,  ostrich  feathers,  caoutchouc,  &c.  The 
adjacent  region  abounds  with  relics  of  Roman 
cities,  imd  the  town  is  believed  to  occupy  the 
site  of  the  ancient  Cydamum.  It  retains 
considerable  importance  from  being  the  focus 
of  four  commercial  roads.  The  first  crosses 
Fezzan,  the  second  passes  through  the  great 
desert  and  leads  to  Timbuctoo,  the  third  con- 
nects with  Lake  Tchad,  and  the  fourth  passes 
S.  of  the  Atlas  chain  of  mountains,  and  con- 
nects with  Morocco. 

CHARA.    See  Sutler. 

GHARDEIA.    See  Gabdaia. 

CrHAVTS  (literally,  mountain  pass;  whence, 
through  the  Teutonic  languages,  tlie  English 
word  gate\  the  name  of  two  ranges  of  moun- 
tains in  S.  Plindostan.  The  principal  of  these 
is  the  Western,  which  extends  nearly  1,000  m. 
N.  N.  W.  from  near  Cape  Comorin  to  the  river 
Taptee,  at  the  mouth  of  which  is  Surat.  The 
general  direction  of  the  chain  is  parallel  with 
the  coast  of  the  Indian  ocean,  which  it  ap- 
proaches in  one  place  within  6  m. ;  but  it  is 
for  the  most  part  at  a  distance  of  20  to  40  m. 
On  its  western  side  it  presents  a  front  which 


rises  boldly  from  the  hilly  country  between 
the  ranges  and  the  coast ;  but  on  the  east  it 
gradually  slopes  away,  or  spreads  in  table 
land,  having  an  average  elevation  of  about 
8,000  ft.  above  the  sea,  or  is  continued  in  long 
spurs,  which  stretch  out  through  this  central 
region,  known  as  the  Deccan.  The  country  on 
the  west,  which  embraces  the  Malabar  coast,  is 
comparatively  low,  its  average  elevation  being 
roughly  estimated  at  200  ft.  above  tide.  It  is 
hilly,  but  also  penetrated  by  creeks  and  bays 
making  back  from  the  sea;  and  it  is  traversed 
l)y  extensive  ravines,  which  are  shaded  with 
forest  and  jungle.  But  few  gaps  break  the 
continuity  of  the  chain,  and  only  one  of  these 
is  deep  enough  to  drain  the  waters  on  the  £. 
slopes  into  the  Indian  ocean.  This  point  is  in 
the  S.  part  of  the  range  against  the  Coimba- 
tore  country,  from  which  the  river  Ponany 
flows  through  a  break  16  m.  wide.  Opposite 
this  break  it  is  thought  that  ships  navigating 
the  Indian  ocean  experience  the  N.  £.  mon- 
soons in  greater  fury  than  elsewhere.  The  av- 
erage height  of  the  Western  Ghauts  is  esti- 
mated at  4,000  ft.,  but  some  of  the  peaks  rise 
much  higher.  Bonasson  is  said  to  be  7,000  ft. 
high,  and  Dodabetta  in  the  Neilgherries  8,760 
ft.  The  range  is  not  remarkably  rough  or 
rocky.  A  deep  rich  soD  covers  the  surface, 
and  even  upon  the  summits  supports  stately 
forests.  The  bamboo  attains  an  unusual  height ; 
the  teak  covers  the  mountain  sides;  and  on 
the  lower  hills  are  forests  producing  pepper, 
cassia,  frankincense,  and  other  aromatic  spices 
and  gums.  In  the  most  elevated  regions  no 
undergrowth  or  jungle  is  encountered,  but 
roads  are  maintained  only  at  great  cost,  owing 
to  the  violence  of  the  torrents  of  water  during 
the  rainy  season ;  hence  the  passes  across  the 
range  are  few  and  difiScult.  These  are  occu- 
pied by  fortresses. — The  Neilgherries,  among 
which  are  some  of  the  most  elevated  peaks  of 
the  range,  occupy  a  tract  of  some  7,000  sq.  m. 
£.  of  the  main  chain  N.  of  Coimbatore.  Here 
the  Eastern  Ghauts  are  usually  regarded  as 
diverging  from  the  Western;  but  some  trace 
them  further  S.  through  the  Camatic  in  the 
range  of  hills  which  meet  the  Western  Ghauts 
a  short  distance  from  Cape  Comorin.  Both 
this  range  and  the  Neilgherries  extend  across 
toward  the  Coromandel  coast,  meeting  near 
lat.  12**  K.,  and  thence  the  chain  of  the  Fast 
Ghauts  continues  with  the  coast,  some  say 
even  to  Balasore,  which  is  within  125  m.  of. 
Calcutta ;  but  it  is  commonly  regarded  as  run- 
ning out  before  reaching  the  river  Kistnah, 
the  range  being  thus  limited  to  about  600  m. 
in  length.  Its  hills  are  naked  and  rocky,  and 
seldom  attain  the  altitude  of  8,000  ft.  The 
drainage  of  this  region  is  all  toward  the  bay 
of  Bengal.  The  S.  W.  monsoons  commence  in 
May  and  June,  with  terrific  storms  of  thun- 
der and  rain,  which  vent  their  greatest  fury 
upon  the  Western  Ghauts.  This  continues 
until  October,  and  during  this  time  that  part 
of  the  Coromandel  coast  under  the  lee  of  the 


790 


GHAWAZI 


GHENT 


Eastern  Ghauts  receives  no  rain.  In  October 
these  winds  fail,  and  the  regular  N.  £.  trades 
or  monsoons  set  in  with  terrible  thunder  and 
lightning  and  hurricanes  on  the  baj  of  Ben- 
'gal,  producing  while  they  last,  which  is  to 
about  the  close  of  the  year,  the  rainy  sea- 
son on  the  Ooromandel  coast  and  the  Eastern 
Ghauts.  But  under  the  lee  of  the  western 
range  this  is  the  dry  season,  a  season  of  fair 
weather  with  occasional  southern  gales.  The 
quantity  of  rain  which  falls  on  the  Western 
Ghauts  during  the  summer  is  unequalled  in  any 
other  part  of  the  world  in  the  same  length  of 
time.  At  the  station  of  Mahabuleshwar  it  has 
been  found  to  measure  289  inches. — In  their 
geological  structure  both  ranges  of  the  Ghauts 
appear  to  agree  with  other  great  N.  and  S. 
mountain  chains  of  the  world.  Their  rocks 
are  the  metamorphic  schists,  which  contain  rich 
metals  and  valuable  ores.  Gk)ld  is  diffused 
along  their  course,  and  is  especially  abundant 
in  the  Neilgherries.  Copper  ores  are  worked 
in  the  Eastern  Ghauts  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Cuddapah.  In  the  same  region  of  the  Oarnatic 
diamonds  have  been  found ;  and  S**  further  N. 
is  G^lconda,  celebrated  as  the  depot  of  precious 
gems  found  in  the  regions  watered  by  the  Pen- 
nar  and  Eistnah  rivers.  From  the  table  lands 
of  Mysore,  which  border  the  Eastern  Ghauts 
on  the^  west,  are  brought  the  ruby,  topaz, 
chrysolite,  cat's-eye,  garnet,  beryl,  &c.  The 
region  of  the  camelian.  is  in  the  province  of 
Guzerat,  which  is  beyond  the  N.  extremity 
of  the  Western  Ghauts,  the  outlet  of  which  is 
Oambay.  (See  Oabnelian.)  The  famous  dia- 
mond region'  of  Pannah  in  Bundelcund  is  also 
beyond  the  limits  of  the  Ghauts,  in  the  Yin- 
dhya  mountains,  which,  stretching  across  cen- 
trsi  Hindostan^onnect  the  N.  terminations 
of  the  E.  and  W.  chains.  Rich  iron  ores  are 
found  in  abundance  along  the  Ghauts. 

GHAWiZI.    See  Almeh. 

GHAZEPOOE,  or  Ghaieepere,  a  town  of  British 
India,  in  a  district  of  the  same  name,  division 
of  Benares,  Northwest  Provinces,  situated  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Ganges,  42  m.  N.  E.  of 
Benares;  pop.  about  40,000.  It  stands  on 
high  ground,  enclosed  by  beautiful  groves  of 
banyan  and  pipal,  and  is  noted  for  its  healthy 
climate;  but  it  presents  a  mean  appearance, 
the  principal  buildings  being  in  ruins  and  the 
dwellings  being  mostly  of  mud.  The  Oliales- 
toon,  or  palace  of  the  40  pillars,  at  the  east 
end  of  the  town,  now  ruinous  but  used  as  a 
custom  house,  is  the  only  edifice  worthy  of 
notice.  In  the  plain  N.  of  the  town  is  a  monu- 
ment to  Lord  Cornwallis,  who  died  here  in 
1805. — The  district,  which  is  contiguous  to 
Azimgurh,  Shahabad,  Benares,  and  Jaunpore, 
has  an  area  of  2,187  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871, 
1,487,888.  It  is  a  low,  level  country,  with 
many  shallow  lakes,  drained  by  the  Ganges 
and  its  tributaries,  the  Gogra,  Karamnassa, 
Tons,  &G.  The  chief  productions  are  rose 
water  and  attar  of  roses,  grain,  rice,  indigo,  oil 
seeds,  gram,  tobacco,  cotton,  opium,  and  sugar. 


GHEE,  a  kind  of  butter  used  in'  many  parts 
of  India,  prepared  generally  from  the  milk  of 
buffdoes.  Ihe  milk  is  successively  boiled, 
cooled,  and  mixed  with  a  little  curdled  milk. 
The  process  is  completed  by  churning  the  cur- 
dled mass,  to  which  some  hot  water  is  once 
added.  It  is  an  article  of  commerce  in  India, 
but  unpalatable  to  Europeans  from  its  strong 
smell  and  flavor.  It  may  be  kept  from  rancid- 
ity by  boiling  till  all  the  water  is  evaporated, 
and  then  adding  curdled  milk  and  siEdt,  and 
preserving  it  in  close  jars. 

GHEEL,  a  town  and  commune  of  Belgium,  in 
the  province  and  26  m.  £.  by  S.  of  the  city  of 
Antwerp ;  pop.  in  1867, 11,200.  It  has  several 
churches  and  some  manufSactures.  The  com- 
mune has  been  from  the  18th  century  a  sort  of 
asylum  for  insane  persons,  who  are  lodged  and 
boarded  in  the  houses  of  the  peasantry,  by 
whom  in  many  cases  they  are  employed  in  field 
and  other  labor. 

GHENT  (Flem.  Gend;  Fr.  Gand;  Ger.  GmU)^ 
a  city  of  Belgium,  capital  of  the  province  of 
East  Flanders  ;  pop.  in  1871,  128,765.  It 
is  situated  at  the  junction  of  the  Scheldt 
and  the  Lys,  80  m.  N.  W.  of  Brussels,  and 
intersected  by  a  great  number  of  navigable 
canals,  which  communicate  with  those  rivers, 
and  form  26  islands  connected  with  each  other 
by  about  80  bridges.  The  streets  are  spaoioua, 
and  the  fantastic  variety  of  gable  ends,  rising 
stepwise  or  ornamented  with  scroll  work  and 
carving,  imparts  great  picturesqueness  to  the 
stately  houses.  It  has  about  800  streets  and 
80  public  squares,  fine  promenades,  and  a  great 
number  of  churches.  The  sumptuous  cathe- 
dral of  St.  Bavon  contains  the  masterpieces  of 
Jan  and  Hubert  van  Eyck.  The  city  hall,  with 
its  Moorish  front,  the  famous  belfry,  and  the 
Vrydags  markt,  or  Friday  square,  where  Jacob 
van  Artevelde  kindled  the  flames  of  civil  war, 
and  where  the  duke  of  Alva  lighted  the  fires  of 
the  inquisition,  are  celebrated  for  their  histor* 
ical  associations.  The  city  is  rich  in  charita- 
ble, industrial,  artistic,  literary,  and  scientific 
institutions,  and  possesses  a  university  at- 
tended by  about  400  students,  with  an  exten- 
sive library  and  a  botanical  garden.  There  are 
4bout  20  public  hospitals,  of  which  that  called 
Bylogue,  founded  in  1225,  can  accommodate 
600  persons.  The  palaU  de  justiGe^  the  cen- 
tral prison,  and  the  B^guinage,  the  principal 
establishment  in  Bel^um  of  the  Beguin  nuns, 
are  worthy  of  special  mention.  The  cotton 
manufacture  employs  upward  of  80,000  per- 
sons. Sugar  renning  is  also  extensively  car- 
ried on.  The  principal  articles  of  trade  are 
com,  oil,  seeds,  wine,  and  Flemish  linens. — 
Ghent  is  first  mentioned  as  a  town  in  the  7th 
century.  Toward  the  end  of  the  12th  centory 
it  became  the  capital  of  Flanders,  subsequent- 
ly joined  the  Hanse  league,  and  obtained  tlie 
free  navigation  of  the  Bhine  and  other  priri- 
leges;  and  by  the  end  of  the  18th  century  it 
had  so  much  increased  in  wealth  and  power 
diat  it  surpassed  Paris.    Charles  Y.  was  bom 


In  Ghent,  as  was  bIm  John  of  Gaant,  "  time- 
honored  Ijincsst«r,"  who  derived  from  it  his 
appeUation.  As  early  &b  the  latter  part  of  the 
14th  centnry,  Froiasart  estimated  the  nomber 
of  fighting  men  that  Ghent  could  bring  into 
the  field  at  80,000.  Under  Jacob  van  Arte- 
Telde  it  revolted  against  the  count  of  Flan- 
ders, and,  with  all  Flanders,  maintained  its 
independence  from  IDSS  to  184G.  The  revolt 
was  renewed  nnder  big  bod  Philip  in  I8B2. 
(See  Abteveldb.)  Soon  afterward  it  passed 
into  the  possession  of  the  dukee  of  Bnrgnndy, 
against  whom  it  rose  in  vain  in  1460.  At  tlie 
end  of  the  IQth  century'there  wss  no  town  in 
Christendom  to  be  compared  with  it  for  power, 
pnlitioal  constitution,  or  the  cultore  of  its  in- 
habitants. By  its  jurisdiction  over  many  large 
boC  subordinate  towns,  Ghent  controlled  more 
than  its  own  immediate  population,  which  has 
been  estimated  as  high  as  200,000.    The  consti- 


NT  791 

tntioD  of  the  city  was  very  liberal,  and  in  all  but 

name  it  was  a  repablic.  All  tliis  prosperity  wss 
destroyed  by  the  insurrection  that  brolie  out  in 
1SS9,  occasioned  by  an  attempt  to  force  upon 
Flanders  the  payment  of  400,000  dncats,  Ixiing 
the  third  part  of  a  subsidy  granted  by  the 
Netherlands  to  Charles  V.  'Jhis  claim  was 
resisted  by  Ghent  as  a  violation  of  the  great 
charter  granted  to  tbe  city  by  Mary,  sister  of 
the  emperor  and  regent  of  the  Netherlands- 
Charles  V.  pnnished  this  resistance  by  depri- 
ving the  city  of  oil  its  privileges  and  immuni- 
ties (1640).  A  number  of  the  principal  citi- 
zens were  executed ;  the  revenues,  and  all 
property  held  by  the  corporation  or  the  tra- 
ders in  common,  were  conQscated  ;  tbe  ancient 
form  of  government  was  abolished  ;  the  right 
to  appoint  tbe  city  magistrates  was  vested 
in  the  crown ;  a  new  system  of  laws  and  po- 
litical administration  was  established ;  and  oi> 


the  FLua  St.  FtlUI]ld^  ud  OtUway  et  Iha  Old  CuUe  ot  Iha  Coouti  of  f  loudan. 


ders  wore  given  for  erecting  a  strong  citadel 
in  order  to  bridle  the  revolntiooary  spirit  of 
the  population.  A  fine  of  150.000  dncate,  in 
addition  to  the  400,000,  was  imposed  opon  the 
citizens,  as  well  as  an  annnal  contribution  of 
6,000  for  the  support  of  the  garrison.  A  con- 
gress assembled  in  Ghent  in  1676  to  form  a 
confederacy  for  the  expulsion  of  the  Spaniards 
from  the  Netherlands,  The  massacre  of  Ant- 
werp and  the  eloquence  of  the  prince  of  Orange 
prodaced  a  Quickening  effect  apon  its  deliber- 
ations, which  had  proceeded  with  decorum 
while  the  citadel  was  being  cannonaded.  The 
latter  fell  on  the  same  day  (Nov.  8,  ]5Tfl)  which 
saw  the  conclusion  of  tlie  treaty  known  as  the 
"PociSoation  of  Ghent,"  and  in  the  following 
year  it  was  razed  to  the  ground.  In  the  stormy 
period  which  followed,  in  which  the  revolt 
agunst  tbe  Spanish  authority  was  varied  by 


intestine  dissensions,  the  city  became, a  prey  to 
riot  and  anarchy.  Early  in  the  spring  of  1684 
a  formal  resolution  was  passed  by  the  govern- 
ment of  Ghent  to  open  negotiations  with  Spaim 
and  within  three  months  otlcr  tlie  murder  of 
William  of  Orange,  whose  pohcy  hod  saved  the 
city  on  many  occasions,  it  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  duke  of  Parma,  the  Spanish  viceroy  (Sept. 
17, 1684).  The  citadel  was  rebuilt,  and  about  a 
third  of  the  population  left  tlie  city.  In  1696 
Ghent,  with  the  other  cities  and  provinces  of  ■ 
the  Netherlands,  was  severed  from  the  Spanish 
crown  in  favor  of  Isabella,  daughter  of  Philip 
II.,  who  married  Albert,  son  of  the  emperor 
of  Germany.  Ixiuis  SIV,  took  it  in  1678,  but 
restored  it  soon  after  to  Spwn  in  the  peace  of 
Nimeguen.  Daring  the  war  of  the  Spanish  suc- 
cession, at  the  end  of  which  it  was  given  by 
the  treaty  of  Bastadt  to  Austria,  Ghent  was 


792 


GHERARDESCA 


GHIBERTI 


alternately  in  the  hands  of  both  contending  par- 
ties. It  was  also  taken  by  the  French  in  the 
war  of  the  Austrian  succession,  and  twice  in 
the  campaigns  of  the  revolution,  when  it  be- 
came the  capital  of  the  French  department  of 
the  Scheldt  After  the  downfall  of  Napoleon 
in  1814  it  was  attached  to  the  kingdom  of  the 
Netherlands.  During  the  hundred  days  Louis 
XVII I.  took  refuge  in  Ghent.  The  revolution 
of  1830  made  Ghent,  with  Flanders,  a  part  of 
the  new  kingdom  of  Belgium.  Ghent  is  asso- 
ciated with  American  history  by  the  treaty 
concluded  there,  Deo.  24,  1814,  which  ter- 
minated the  second  war  between  Great  Britain 
and  the  United  States. 

GHEEARDESCA,  UgoUno  deUa,  an  Italian  parti- 
san leader,  died  in  Pisa  in  1289.  His  ances- 
tors originally  came  from  Tuscany  and  removed 
to  Pisa  as  prominent  Ghibellines.  In  order  to 
secure  his  supremacy  in  Pisa,  he  induced  the 
Guelph  leader  Giovanni  Visconti  to  marry  his 
sister,  but  he  and  his  brother-in-law  were  ex- 
pelled. Aided  by  the  forces  of  Florence  and 
Lucca,  he  soon  gained  victories  over  the  op- 
posing faction,  and  was  recalled  to  Pisa  in 
1276.  In  the  warfare  between  Pisa  and  Genoa 
in  1284  he  contrived  the  defeat  and  capture 
of  the  Pisan  squadron  near  the  island  of  Me- 
loria  (Aug.  6).  The  Pisans,  unaware  of  his 
perfidy,  continued  to  accord  him  their  confi- 
dence, and  he  again  betrayed  them  by  ceding 
a  number  of  castles  and  forts  to  the  enemies 
of  the  republic,  who  thereupon  established  a 
protectorate  over  Pisa  with  his  connivance. 
His  grandson  Nino  de  Gallura  led  an  unsuc- 
cessful revolt  against  him  in  concert  with  both 
Ghibelline  and  Guelph  leaders;  and  Ugolino 
wreaked  unsparing  vengeance  on  his  oppo- 
nents. Ruggiero  Ubaldini,  the  archbishop, 
whose  nephew  had  been  one  of  the  victims, 
subsequently  headed  a  general  rising  against 
Ugolino,  who  was  at  last  (July  1, 1288)  arrested, 
together  with  his  sons,  Gaddo  and  Uguccione, 
and  three  grandsons.  At  the  instigation  of 
the  archbishop  they  were  doomed  to  starva- 
tion in  the  Gualandi  tower,  hence  called  torre 
di  fame,  Dante  describes  their  terrible  death 
in  the  83d  canto  of  the  l7\ferno, 

GHEEIAH,  or  Vlziadroog,  a  town  and  fort  of 
the  province  of  Bombay,  British  India,  in  the 
coUectorateof  Rutnagherry,  South  Concan,  170 
m.  S.  of  Bombay.  It  has  a  safe  harbor  at  the 
mouth  of  the  river  Kunvee,  unobstructed  by  a 
bar  and  with  a  depth  of  three  or  four  fathoms. 
The  fort,  built  by  the  Mahratta  chief  Seviyee 
in  1662,  stands  on  a  bold  promontory  on  the 
coast  of  the  Indian  ocean.  It  received  the 
name  of  Gheriah  from  the  Mohammedans, 
while  by  the  Mahrattas  it  was  commonly  known 
as  Viziadroog.  During  the  maritime  contests 
of  the  latter  people  with  the  Mogul  emperors 
in  the  17th  century,  one  of  their  chieftains, 
named  Con^jee  Angrin,  revolted  against  the 
Mahrattas  with  part  of  the  fleet,  and  made 
himself  master  of  the  coast  from  Tanna  to  Ra- 
japoor.    Under  this  adventurer  and  his  suc- 


cessors, who  all  bore  the  family  name  of  Angria, 
Gheriah  became  the  centre  of  a  vast  system 
of  piracy,  which  infested  the  adjacent  seas  for 
upward  of  50  years.  Several  attempts  w^ere 
made  to  disperse  the  corsairs.  The  Portuguese 
and  English  attacked  them  in  1719,  and  the 
English  again  in  1722;  the  Dutch  in  1724. 
In  March,  1756,  a  British  fleet,  followed  by 
some  Mahratta  vessels,  attacked  the  Angria's 
fleet  at  Severndroog.  The  pirates  escaped 
by  fast  sailing,  but  the  town  was  bombarded 
and  partly  burned.  Toward  the  end  of  the 
same  year  reSnforcements  arrived  from  Eng- 
land, and  the  reduction  of  Gheriah  was  at  once 
determined  upon.  On  Feb.  11,  1756,  Admiral 
Watson,  with  800  Europeans  and  1,000  sepoys 
commanded  by  Col.  Olive,  arrived  off  the  pro- 
montory, while  a  Mahratta  army  approached 
on  the  land  side.  The  pirate  fleet  was  soon 
burned;  a  furious  bombardment  silenced  the 
guns  from  the  fort;  the  troops  were  landed, 
and  on  the  18th  the  place  was  taken.  It  was 
given  up  to  the  peishwa  under  a  treaty  con- 
cluded with  the  Mahrattas  the  same  year,  and 
passed  with  the  rest  of  his  dominions  into  the 
hands  of  the  East  India  company  in  1818. 
GHlBEUlNESt     See  Guelphs  and  Guibel- 

LINES. 

GHIBERTI,  Lereezt,  an  Italian  sculptor,  archi- 
tect, and  painter,  born  in  Florence  about  1880, 
died  there  about  1455.  The  son  of  a  goldsmith, 
he  early  learned  to  imitate  ancient  medals,  and 
began  to  exercise  himself  in  painting.  The 
seignory  and  merchants  of  Florence  determined 
in  1401  to  procure  for  the  baptistery  of  San 
Giovanni  a  bronze  folding  door  to  correspond 
with  that  already  made  by  Andrea  Pisano,  for 
which  a  prize  was  offered.  Each  artist  was 
allowed  a  year  in  which  to  execute  a  panel  in 
bronze  representing  in  bass  relief  the  **  Sacrifice 
of  Isaac. ^'  Ghiberti  was  proclaimed  victor  even 
by  his  most  eminent  rivads,  Donatello  and  Bra- 
nelleschi.  Intrusted  therefore  with  this  im- 
mense labor,  he  devoted  21  years  to  its  accom- 
plishment, dividing  each  half  of  the  door  into 
ten  panels,  each  of  which  contains  a  bass  re- 
lief representing  a  subject  taken  from  the  New 
Testament.  In  1424  this  door  was  placed  in 
one  of  the  side  entrances  of  the  baptistery,  and 
its  success  led  to  his  being  commissioned  to  ex- 
ecute another.  This  was  commenced  in  1428, 
was  divided  into  ten  panels  filled  with  subjects 
from  the  Old  Testament,  occupied  him  nearly 
as  long  as  the  other,  and  was  superior  to  it, 
being  declared  by  Michel  Angelo  worthy  to  be 
the  gate  of  paradise.  During  the  40  years  that 
he  was  engaged  upon  these  doors  he  executed 
several  other  works  in  bronze,  among  which 
were  a  statue  of  John  the  Baptist,  two  bass 
reliefs  for  the  cathedral  of  Siena,  a  *'  St.  Mat- 
thew "  and  "  St.  Stephen,"  and  the  reliquary 
of  St.  Zenobius  surmounted  by  six  angels.  Tlie 
last,  and  the  "  St.  Matthew  "  and  the  second 
door  of  San  Giovanni,  are  the  masterpieces  of 
modelling  in  the  15th  century,  and  the  door 
is  perhaps  still  unrivalled.     As  an  architect, 


GHILAN 


GIANT 


793 


Ghiberti  was  associated  with  Brnnelleschi  in 
constructing  the  cupola  of  Sta.  Maria  del  Fiore. 
He  excelled  in  painting  upon  glass,  and  in 
the  goldsmith^s  art.  He  also  left  a  treatise 
on  sculpture,  a  part  of  which  has  been  pub- 
lished by  Gicognara ;  a  treatise  on  proportions, 
jet  unpublished ;  and  a  treatise  on  Italian  art, 
first  published  in  1841. 

GHILABT,  a  province  of  Persia,  bounded  N. 
by  Russia,  E.  and  N.  E.  bj  the  Caspian  sea, 
8.  E.  by  the  province  of  Mazanderan,  S.  and 
S.  W.  by  Irak-^emi,  and  N.  W.  by  Azerbijan. 
It  is  about  120  m.  long  and  40  ni.  wide;  pop. 
about  100,000.  Its  inland  boundary  on  the 
south  and  west  is  formed  by  the  Elburz  range 
of  mountains,  averaging  from  6,000  to  8,000 
ft.  above  the  sea.  The  interior  is  covered, 
excepting  where  cleared  for  cultivation,  with 
dense  forests,  and  much  of  the  country  is 
level  and  swampy.  The  rainfall  is  excessive, 
and  the  climate  unhealthy.  In  the  woods  lurk 
the  tiger,  the  panther,  the  wild  boar,  and  the 
jackal;  and  the  marshes  are  filled  with  wild 
fowl.  The  soil  is  fertile,  and  the  productions 
include  barley,  hemp,  hops,  fruits,  and  espe- 
cially rice,  the  production  of  which  has  more 
than  doubled  since  1866,  on  account  of  the 
failure  of  the  silk  crop,  which,  however,  has 
greatly  improved  since  1870.  There  are  ex- 
tensive sturgeon  fisheries  along  the  Caspian, 
but  they  are  mostly  in  the  hands  of  Russians. 
There  are  few  towns,  most  of  the  people  living 
in  small  hamlets.  The  capital,  Resht,  is  a  clean 
town,  with  extensive  bazaars.  Enzeli,  the  only 
seaport,  has  a  harbor  deep  enough  for  vessels 
of  260  tons. 

CrHIRLINDAIO  (otherwise  called  Corradi,  or 
BiooRDi),  DoMENico  DBL,  au  Italian  painter, 
the  master  of  Michel  Angelo,  bom  in  Florence 
in  1461,  died  there  in  1496.  His  father  was  a 
goldsmith,  called  Ghirlandaio  from  the  silver 
ornaments  in  the  shape  of  garlands  which  he 
manufactured ;  and  the  son,  who  was  brought 
np  to  the  same  calling,  inherited  the  name. 
Domenico  early  manifested  an  extraordinary 
aptitude  for  portraiture,  and,  after  studying 
under  Alessio  Baldovinetti,  went  to  Rome  to 
assist  in  the  decoration  of  the  Sistine  chapel. 
Of  the  pictures  executed  by  him  there,  but  one 
now  exists,  the  "  Calling  of  St.  Peter  and  St 
Andrew.^'  Upon  returning  to  Florence  he 
painted  a  chapel  of  the  Vespucci  family  in  the 
church  of  Ognissanti,  in  one  of  the  compart- 
ments of  which  he  introduced  a  portrait  of  the 
navigator,  Amerigo  Vespucci.  Of  greater  ex- 
cellence was  his  series  of  frescoes  in  the  Sas- 
setti  chapel  in  Santissima  Trinitd,  representing 
the  life  of  St.  Francis.  In  these  works,  as  in 
the  frescoes  in  the  choir  of  Sta.  Maria  Novella 
depicting  the  lives  of  John  the  Baptist  and  the 
Virgin,  he  introduced  excellent  portraits  of 
many  eminent  Florentines  of  the  period.  He 
painted  many  easel  pictures  in  oil  and  distem- 
per ;  but  his  frescoes,  in  the  coloring  of  which, 
as  well  as  in  the  mechanical  and  technical  parts 
of  his  art,  he  excelled  all  previous  painters,  are 


incomparably  his  finest  works.    He  is  said  to 
have  created  aSrial  perspective,  and  to  have 

Ejrfected  the  art  of  mosaic.  Two  brothers, 
enedetto  and  Davide,  and  a  son,  Ridolfo, 
were  also  painters  of  some  distinction. 

€HIZ£H.    See  Gizbh. 

GHrZMI,  GhlzBce,  or  Ghazaa,  a  fortified  city 
of  Afghanistan,  on  the  river  Ghuzni,  80  m.  S. 
S.  W.  of  Cabool ;  pop.  estimated  at  from  8,000 
to  10,000.  It  is  a  commercial  entrepot  between 
the  Pui\}aub  and  Cabool.  It  lies  on  the  W. 
extremity  of  a  range  of  low  hilts,  which  rises 
above  the  plain ;  and  as  the  plain  itself  is  high, 
the  site  is  7,726  ft.  above  the  sea.  The  for- 
tress is  an  irregular  squaro,  with  a  circuit  of 
about  a  mile  and  a  quarter.  The  wall,  which 
is  flanked  by  numerous  towers,  has  a  wet  ditch 
supplied  with  water  from  the  river  Ghuzni, 
which  flows  around  the  W.  angle.  In  the  N. 
part  of  the  enclosed  town  is  the  citadel.  In 
former  times  Ghuzni  was  a  magnificent  city, 
filled  with  palaces,  mosques,  fountains,  reser- 
voirs, and  baths.  Two  lofty  minarets,  the 
smaller  of  which  is  more  than  100  ft.  high, 
several  tombs,  and  a  quantity  of  ruins  scattered 
over  a  wide  area  8  m.  K.  £.  of  the  modem 
town,  are  the  only  relics  of  its  former  gran- 
deur.— About  970  Alp-Teghin,  governor  of 
Khorasan  under  the  king  of  Bokhara,  revolted 
against  his  sultan  and  established  at  Ghuzni 
the  seat  of  an  independent  empire,  including 
Cabool  and  Candahar.  Under  Mahmoud,  the 
third  prince  of  this  new  dynasty,  Ghuzni  ac- 

Suired  historical  importance  as  the  centre  of 
3e  first  permanent  Mussulman  conquests  in  In- 
dia. Mahmoud  extended  his  victories  from  the 
Tigris  to  the  Ganges,  from  the  Indian  ocean  to 
the  Ox  us.  He  made  twelve  great  military  ex- 
peditions, breaking  idols,  plundering  temples, 
and  rendering  his  capital  one  of  the  richest 
cities  of  Asia.  He  built  a  mosque  of  granite 
and  marble,  and  lavished  upon  it  ornaments  of 
such  magnificence  that  throughout  the  East  it 
was  known  as  the  *^  celestial  bride.^^  He  found- 
ed and  endowed  a  university,  patronized  lite- 
rature, and  filled  his  court  with  poets  and 
philosophers.  After  his  death  (about  1080) 
Ghuzni  declined.  In  1162  it  was  taken  by  the 
princes  of  Ghore.  In  1889  it  was  stormed  by 
the  British  under  Sir  J.  Eeane.  In  1842  it  sur- 
rendered to  the  Afghans,  but  was  retaken  by 
Gen.  Sir  William  Nott,  who  brought  back  to 
India  the  famous  gates  of  Somnauth,  which 
Mahmoud  had  carried  off  from  Guzerat. 

GIANT  (Gr.  yiyac,  gen.  yiyavrocy  from  y^y  the 
earth,  and  obsolete  yHetVy  to  be  bom,  earth- 
born),  a  person  of  extraordinary  stature.  The 
Hebrew  word  nephilim  (Gen.  vi.  4.),  which  the 
Septuagint  renders  giants  (ylyavreg),  has  had  a 
variety  of  interpretations.  Some  suppose  it 
to  mean  men  of  great  size ;  others,  men  sur- 
passing in  physical  or  mental  strength ;  and 
others,  apostates  from  the  worship  of  the  true 
God.  But  there  are  other  passages  in  the  Old 
Testament  which  indicate  the  existence  of 
men  of  huge  dimensions.    The  Rephaim,  the 


794 


GIANT 


Anakim,  the  Emim,  and  the  Zazim  are  de- 
scribed  as  giants.  The  sons  of  Anak  were 
"men  of  great  stature,**  before  whom  the  chil- 
dren of  Israel,  as  their  frightened  scouts  re- 
ported, were  **  as  grasshoppers."  Of  Og,  king 
of  Bashan,  and  of  Goliath,  sufficient  particu- 
lars are  given  to  leave  little  room  for  doubt 
that  they  were  of  enormous  stature. — The 
fables  of  the  giants  and  Titans  in  classical  my- 
thology probably  had  their  origin  in  terrestrial 
natursd  phenomena.  The  scene  of  their  con- 
tests is  usually  laid  in  volcanic  districts.  Ac- 
cording to  Homer,  a  race  of  giants  who  dwelt  in 
the  distant  west  were  destroyed  by  the  gods ; 
Hesiod  represented  the  giants  as  divine  beings, 
who  sprang  from  the  blood  of  Uranus  as  it 
fell  on  the  earth ;  and  by  later  poets  they  were 
described  as  enemies  of  Jupiter,  who  vainly 
attempted  to  take  Olympus  by  storm.  Scan- 
dinavian mythology  is  peopled  with  giants 
(jotuns),  who  dwelt  in  forests  and  caves,  amid 
treasures  of  gold  and  silver.  They  may  be  a 
reminiscence  of  some  hostile  race  of  the  early 
times,  who  had  sought  refuge  in  the  natural 
fastnesses  of  the  land.  Giants  abound  in  Ger- 
man legends,  and  may  often  be  traced,  like  the 
clasfflcfd  myths,  to  an  origin  connected  directly 
with  meteorological  or  terrestrial  phenomena. 
In  considering  the  accounts  of  giants  with 
which  classical  literature  is  filled,  it  must  be 
borne  in  mind  that  all  the  ancient  nations  were 
accustomed  to  magnify  the  stature  of  their 
kings  and  heroes.  To  be  thought  a  giant  in 
strength  and  in  size  was  the  ambition  of  every 
warrior.  Alexander  the  Great,  in  one  of  his 
Asian  expeditions,  caused  to  be  made  and  left 
behind  him  a  suit  of  armor  of  huge  propor- 
tions, for  the  purpose  of  inducing  a  belief 
among  the  people  he  had  conquered  that  he 
was  of  great  stature.  Homer  exaggerates  the 
size  and  strength  of  the  heroes  of  the  Trojan 
war,  and  declares  that  the  race  of  man  in  his 
day  had  degenerated  in  size.  More  recent 
writers  are  not  free  from  similar  fictions.  King 
Arthur  and  his  knights  and  Charlemagne  and 
his  paladins  were  represented  to  be  greater  in 
stature  than  common  men.  Roland,  the  hero 
of  Roncesvalles,  was  said  to  be  of  gigantic  size ; 
but  when  Francis  I.  opened  his  tomb  and  tried 
on  his  armor  it  fitted  him,  although  he  was  no 
larger  than  other  men  of  his  age.  The  body 
of  William  the  Conqueror,  examined  400  years 
after  burial,  was  currently  reported  to  be  eight 
feet  in  length ;  but  Stqwe  says  that  when  his 
tomb  in  Caen  was  broken  open  in  1562,  his 
bones  w^ere  found  to  be  not  remarkable  for 
size.  The  Germans  and  Gauls  appeared  to  the 
Romans  to  be  of  immense  stature.  Csdsar 
says :  "  Our  shortness  of  stature,  in  comparison 
with  the  great  size  of  their  bodies,  is  generally 
a  subject  of  much  contempt  to  the  men  of 
Gaul.''  Tacitus  describes  the  Germans  as  of 
robust  form  and  of  great  stature ;  and  Strabo 
says  that  he  had  seen  Britons  at  Rome  who 
were  half  a  foot  taller  than  the  tallest  Ital- 
ians.   Tet  there  is  no  proof  that  the  men  of 


these  nations  were  any  larger  in  ancient  times 
than  now ;  on  the  contrary,  the  remains  found 
in  graves  and  barrows  are  usually  under  the 
average  height  of  men  of  the  same  races  of 
the  present  day.  It  is  the  same  with  Egyp- 
tian mummies.  According  to  Athenffios,  a 
man  of  four  cubits  or  six  feet  in  height  was 
considered  of  "  gigantic  size  "  m  Egypt  Apol- 
lodorus  gives  the  height  of  the  "gigantic 
Hercules''  as  four  cubits;  and  Phya,  the 
woman  who  was  selected  on  account  of  her 
peat  height  to  personate  Minerva  at  Athens, 
in  the  time  of  Pisistratus,  was  only  about  5 
ft.  10  in.  Were  it  possible  to  get  at  the  truth 
concerning  the  accounts  of  the  giants  of  an- 
tiquity, there  is  little  doubt  that  half  of  them 
would  prove  to  be  myths,  and  the  greater 
part  of  the  remainder  gross  exaggeratioiis. 
Pliny's  assertion  that  mankind  is  gradually  de- 
creasing in  size  rests  on  no  good  foundation. 
On  the  contrary,  a  vast  amount  of  evidence 
can  be  adduced  to  show  that  the  men  of  to-daj 
are  equal  if  not  superior  in  stature  to  the  an- 
cients. The  size  of  the  armor,  weapons,  finger 
rings,  and  architecture  of  antiqui^,  and  the 
measures  of  length  derived  from  the  human 
form  that  have  come  down  to  us,  all  go  to 
prove  this.  But  we  must  not  therefore  con- 
clude that  all  the  giants  of  the  classical  writers 
are  imaginary.  The  diversity  in  the  height 
and  size  of  ^e  hnman  family  that  now  prerails 
has  doubtless  existed  in  all  ages.  Instances 
are  not  wanting  of  individuals  of  8  and  even 
9  ft.  in  height.  Pliny  tells  of  an  Arabian  giant 
named  Gabbara  who  was  over  9  ft.  high,  and 
of  two  others,  Pusis  and  Secondilla,  whose 
skeletons,  9^  ft.  in  length,  were  preserved  in 
the  Sallustian  gardens.  According  to  Julius 
Capitolinus,  the  emperor  Maximin  exceeded  8 
ft.  In  more  modem  times  we  have  numer- 
ous records  of  men  of  gigantic  stature.  Die- 
merbrock  says  that  he  saw  in  Utrecht,  in  1665, 
a  man  Si  ft.  high,  who  was  bom  of  parents  of 
ordinary  stature.  Charles  Bime,  an  Irishman, 
measured  8  ft.  4  in. ;  he  died  in  1783,  aged  22^ 
and  his  skeleton,  now  in  the  college  of  surgeons. 
London,  is  8  ft.  long.  Edmond  Malone,  also 
Irish,  bom  in  1682,  stood  7  ft  7  in.  with  his 
shoes  ofiT;  and  Patrick  Cottar,  still  another  Hi- 
bernian, is  said  to  have  been  8  ft.  7}  in.  high. 
Walter  Parsons,  porter  to  King  James  I.  of 
England,  was  7  ft.  7  in. ;  and  Maximilian 
Christian  Miller,  a  native  of  Leipaic,  who  died 
in  London  in  1784,  was  nearly  8  ft.  The 
brothers  Knipe  were  each  about  7  ft.  2  in. ; 
and  M.  Louis^  a  Frenchman,  was  7  ft.  6  in. ; 
the  latter  had  two  sisters  nearly  as  tall  as  him- 
self and  a  brother  who  was  stiU  taller.  Miles 
Darden,  of  Tennessee,  was  7  ft.  6  in.  (See 
Dardbn.)  Buffbn  gives  a  number  of  well  au- 
thenticated oases  in  which  men  have  reached 
an  extraordinary  height  The  giant  of  Thores- 
by,  England,  was  7  ft.  5  in. ;  a  porter  of  t^e 
duke  of  Wftrtemberg  was  7i  ft. ;  Cf^anns,  of 
Finland,  was  8  ft.,  as  was  also  a  Swedish  peas- 
ant   One  of  the  guards  of  the  duke  of  Brans- 


GIANTS'  CAUSEWAY 


796 


wick  measured  8i  ft. ;  Gilli,  a  giant  of  Treot, 
in  Tjrol,  was  8  ft.  2  in. ;  and  a  Strede  in 
the  celebrated  grenadier  guard  of  Frederick 
William  I.  of  Praasia  stood  8^  ft.— Tliere  is 
probablj  not  a  single  well  authenticated  case, 
among  the  many  given  bj  ancient  writers,  of 
men  whose  statnre  has  exceeded  the  oataral 
limits,  that  boa  not  been  equalled  in  a  compar- 
atively modern  period.  Giants  fnllj  6  fi.  high 
are  not  nnfrcquentl;  exhibited.  The  enormoUB 
skeletons,  found  in  times  past,  of  20, 80,  50,  and 
100  ft  in  length,  were  without  donbt  uie  fossil 
remains  of  animals  of  the  primitive  world, 
which  only  ignorance  could  have  ascribed  to  a 
human  origin.  The  progress  of  comparative 
enatomj  has  aided  to  dispel  the  errors  long 
prevalent  in  relation  to  giants,  and  there  is  lit- 
tle fear  that  men  of  science  of  the  present  age 
will  be  deceived,  as  Bngbn  was,  into  represent- 
ing  Bs  baman  the  hones  of  an  elephant. 
*  GUNTS'  CAE8EWAT,  a  series  of  columnar  ba- 
saltic rocks  in  the  county  Antrim,  on  the  N.  E. 
ooaat  of  Ireland,  between  Bengore  Head  and 


Port  Bash.  For  8  to.  along  the  coast,  from 
Bengore  to  Fairhead,  the  land  abnts  Dpoa  the 
sea  in  cliffs  of  basalt,  many  of  which  are  made 
up  in  great  part  of  rade  vertical  columns  which 
alternate  with  layers  of  amorphoos  1>eds  of  the 
same  class  of  rock.  Ranges  of  these  piled 
npon  each  other  sometimes  reach  the  height 
of  400  and  at  Fairhead  even  660  (i.  As  seen 
from  the  sea  in  front,  the  nniformitj  of  the 
arrangement  of  vertical  columns  and  horizontal 
beds  suggests  rade  resemblances  to  architectu- 
ral fonna.  At  the  base  of  the  cliffs  is  a  taluB 
of  ruins  that  have  fallen  from  the  structure* 
above  and  slope  down  to  the  water.  But 
though  tlie  name  of  Giants'  Causeway  is  often 
applied  to  all  this  coast  range,  it  is  properly- 
applicable  to  but  a  small  portion  of  it,  a  local- 
ity quite  unpretending  in  its  extent  or  in  the 
grandeur  of  it«  features.  It  is  a  platform  of 
basalt,  composed  of  closely  arranged  colcmns, 
ranging  from  16  to  SG  ft.  in  height.  This  plat- 
form extends  fh>m  a  steep  cliff  down  into  the 
sea,  till  it  is  lost  below  low-water  mark.    Its 


Qluli'  Ctauany. 


fengtb  exposed  at  low  water  is  differently  given, 
bat  probably  is  leas  than  600  tt.  It  is  divided 
across  ita  breadth  into  three  ptortions,  which 
are  called  the  Little,  the  Middle,  end  the  Large 
or  Grand  Canseway ;  the  first  being  that  on 
the  east.  These  are  separated  from  each  oth- 
er by  dikes  of  amorphous  basalt.  The  Great 
Canseway,  which  is  the  principal  object  of  in- 
terest, is  only  from  20  to  80  ft.  wide,  though 
detached  ontliers  of  the  same  columnar  struc- 
ture standing  on  the  shore  near  by  might  be 
added  to  increase  the  width.  They  no  donbt 
connect  with  the  same  group  below  the  sur- 
face. The  columna  are  for  the  most  part  hex- 
agonal prisms ;  but  tbey  are  found  also  of  five, 
seven,  eight,  and  nine  sides,  and  in  one  instance 


at  least  of  three  sides.  They  ere  all  jointed 
into  short  irregular  lengths  from  a  few  inches 
to  a  few  feet  each,  the  artioalations  being  per- 
fectly  fitted  by  a  convex  end  entering  the  con- 
cavity of  the  adjoining  piece,  so  that  the  hlocka 
form  a  true  column.  There  is  no  uniformity  in 
the  arrangement  of  the  convexities  and  con- 
cavities, bnt  generally  the  upper  part  of  this 
section  is  concave.  The  diameter  is  variable, 
but  ranges  generally  from  IG  to  28  in.  The 
columns  fit  together  with  the  utmost  precision, 
the  corresponding  faces  of  adjacent  prisms  b«- 
ing  alivays  equal,  and  so  continuing  trom  the 
top  of  the  platform  till  the  lines  of  separation 
are  lost  beneath  the  ground.  It  is  said  that 
water  even  cannot  penetrate  between  adjoin- 


796 


GIAODE 


iog  colaiunB.  This  portion  is  abont  100  yards 
in  length,  extending  from  bigh-wat«r  Diark  to 
within  20  ft.  of  the  cliff.  The  other  portionB 
are  more  uneven,  and  the  colnrans  in  them 
are  not  uniformly  vertical,  but  slope  outward 
along  the  sides.  The  name  canseu'ay  is  given 
to  the  gr<iup  from  tlie  circumstance  of  the  col- 
umns terminating  at  a  nearly  uniform  height, 
nnJ  thaa  presenting  a  tolerably  smooth  area 
gently  inclining  to  the  water.  The  colnrans 
of  basalt  do  not  retain  tlieir  articalated  char- 
acter throughout  the  clitfs.  At  Feirhead  tliey 
rise  in  Mngfe  pieces,  and,  as  measured  by  the 
olficers  of  the  ordnance  trigonometrical  sur- 
vey of  Ireland,  some  are  found  to  stand  317  ft. 
in  height,  with  sides  occasionally  of  5  ft.  in 
breadth.  These  are  flat  at  their  extremities. 
The  formation  is  intersected  by  narrow  dikes 
of  columnar  basalt,  in  which  the  prisms  are 
piled  horizontally,  ranging  across  the  line  of 
the  dikes.  (See  Basalt.)  In  this  re^on  it  ap- 
pears to  have  been  protruded  alter  the  period 
of  the  deposition  of  the  lias  and  chalk,  the 
strata  of  these  formations  being  penetrated  by 
its  dikes  and  overlaid  by  its  horizontal  beds. 

GllODK,  a  terra  of  insult  applied  by  the 
Turks  to  all  unbelievers  in  Mohammedanism, 
and  especially  to  Christians.  The  sultan  Mah- 
raoud  II.  forbade  his  subjecta  to  apply  it  to  any 
European  Christian,  It  is  a  corruption  of  the 
Arabic  iiqfir,  and  is  equivalent  to  "  heathen," 
"pagan,"  or  "infidel." 

GIBBDH  {kyiobatet).  a  genns  of  apes,  some- 
times called  wood-walkers  from  their  aatonish- 
ing  agility  in  swinging  from  tree  to  tree.  They 
seem  to  form  a  connecting  link  between  the 


[^ 


Gibbon  (Hj'lobMo). 

apes  and  the  baboons,  having  in  a  small  degree 
the  posterior  OBllosities  of  the  latter.  The 
arms  are  of  enormons  length,  the  chest  capa- 
cious, the  legs  short,  the  hair  soft,  and  the 
voice  very  loud.  They  rarely  eiceed  i  ft.  in 
height,  and  many  are  under  8 ;  the  arms  reach 


GIBBON 

to  the  gronnd,  and  when  e3t«nded  are  twice 
the  length  of  the  body.  The  vhite-handed 
gibbon  (H.  lar)  varies  iff  color  from  black  to 
brown,  the  hands  being  mnch  lighter ;  it  is  an 
inhabitant  of  Malacca  and  Siam.  The  agile 
gibbon  (If.  agilU)  end  the  silvery  gibbon  {H. 
Uueiievt),  of  the  same  countries,  are  nearly 
ailied  species,  or  perhajis  mere  varieties.  The 
gibbons  are  the  most  active  of  the  quadrumana 
in  the  trees,  bnt  very  awkward  on  the  ground ; 
very  shy  in  their  native  haants,  in  captivity 
they  are  the  most  docile  and  gentle  of  the 
apes;  they  generally  live  in  pairs.  One  vari- 
ety is  sometimes  called  hoolock. 

eiBBON,  Edwtri,  an  English  historian,  bom  in 
Putney,  April  27, 1787,  died  in  London,  Jan.  16, 
1794.  He  was  the  eldest  of  a  family  of  six  sons 
and  a  daughter,  all  the  rest  of  whom  died  in 
infancy,  and  be  was  so  feeble  in  his  youth  that 
he  seemed  likely  to  share  their  fate.  At  the 
age  of  seven  a  domestic  tutor,  John  Kirbr, 
taught  him  tlie  elements  of  Latin.  In  his  ninth 
year,  during  "  a  lucid  interval  of  health,"  u 
he  says  in  his  "Memoirs,"  he  was  sent  to 
the  grammar  school  of  Kingston-upon-Thames, 
where  he  remained  two  years.  His  mother  hav- 
ing died  in  1747,  he  removed  with  his  father  and 
aunt  to  Buriton,  Hampshire,  where  he  began 
to  read  voluminously.  In  January,  1749,  his 
aunt  opened  a  hoarding  house  for  Westmin^l^r 
scholars,  and  Gibbon  eqjoyed  her  care  while 
he  attended  the  school,  but,  owing  to  delicate 
health,  learned  little.  In  his  ISth  year  bis 
health  improved,  a  sudden  change  took  place 
in  his  constitution,  his  mind  seemed  to  gain 
new  activity,  and  he  read  assiduously,  chiedy 
on  historical  snhjecta.  In  1752  he  went  to  Ox- 
ford, and,  neglected  by  his  tutor,  gave  himself 
to  general  reading.  He  was  then  fond  of  ori- 
ental research,  and  bought  the  BSiliotkiqv* 
orientate  of  D'Herbelot  with  his  spare  money. 
He  began  to  write  a  treatise  on  toe  "Age  of 
Sesostris,"  which  was  probably  a  crude  effort, 
for  be  burned  it  20  years  afterward.  He  bu^ed 
himself  also  with  religious  invoatigation,  and 
having  read  Bossuet's  "  YoriaCions  of  Protes- 
tantism" and  "Exposition  of  Catholic  Doc- 
trine," as  well  as  other  controversial  writings, 
became  a  Roman  Catholic.  He  went  from 
Oxford  to  London,  and  there,  before  a  Catholic 

Sriest,  abjured  Protestantism,  and  announced 
is  act  to  his  father  in  a  long  letter.  The 
father  revealed  the  secret,  and  Gibbon  was  ex- 
pelled from  Oxford,  after  a  residence  there  of 
14  months.  He  was  next  consigned  to  Switz- 
erland in  a  kind  of  exile,  and  placed  under 
the  care  of  M.  Pavillard,  a  Colvinistic  minister 
at  I^aasanne,  who  it  was  hoped  would  recon- 
vert him.  He  lived  in  n  plain  manner  in  M. 
Pavillard's  house,  and  at  first  lamented  the  loss 
of  Englbh  luxury.  But  soon  his  passion  for 
study  revived ;  he  read  systematically  the 
Latin,  Greek,  and  French  classics,  Cronsaz, 
Locke,  and  Grotius,  and  was  especially  delight- 
ed with  the  "Provincial  Letters"  of  Pascal, 
from  which  he  learned  "  to  manage  the  weapon 


GIBBON 


797 


of  grave  and  temperate  iroDj,  even  on  subjects 
of  ecclesiastical  solemnity.^'  During  the  five 
years  of  his  exile  he  made  the  French  language 
more  familiar  to  him  than  the  English.  He 
returned  to  Protestantism  on  Christmas,  175i, 
18  months  after  his  conversion  to  Catholicism, 
and  from  that  time  he  cared  little  for  theologi- 
cal differences.  At  Lausanne  he  formed  an 
attachment  for  Susanue  Curchod,  the  daughter 
of  a  Swiss  pastor;  but  his  father  disapproving 
of  the  connection,  Gibbon  philosophically  re- 
signed the  object  of  his  love,  who  afterward 
became  the  wife  of  the  banker  Necker.  ^*I 
sighed,^'  he  says,  "  as  a  lover,  but  obeyed  as  a 
son.*^  He  returned  to  England  in  the  summer 
of  1758,  and  passed  two  years  chiefiy  in  study 
at  the  family  seat,  Bnriton,  during  which  he 
accomplished  a  course  of  classical  reading 
equalled  by  few  of  his  con  tern  i:)orarie8.  After 
residing  several  months  in  London,  he  joined 
with  his  father  the  Hampshire  militia,  and  for 
more  than  two  years  studied  practically  the 
military  art.  Even  in  the  camp  he  found  time 
for  books,  and  meditated  a  number  of  great 
literary  projects.  In  1761  he  published  his 
JEtuai  sur  Vetttde  de  la  litt&rature^  which  he 
had  commenced  at  liausanne,  designed  to  de- 
fend classical  studies  against  the  attacks  of 
the  French  philosophers.  The  essay  was  com- 
mended by  foreign  critics,  though  scarcely  no- 
ticed in  England.  He  travelled  in  1768,  and 
on  his  way  to  Lausanne  spent  three  months 
in  Paris.  His  essay  had  given  him  some  re- 
nown, and  he  frequently  met  D^Alembert,  Di- 
derot, Baron  d^Holbach,  and  the  other  philos- 
ophers. After  remaining  at  Lausanne  nearly 
a  year,  he  passed  in  1764  into  Italy.  As  he 
approached  Rome  he  occupied  his  mind  with 
its  antiquities  and  topography.  He  read  Kar- 
dini,  Donati,  Cluverius ;  be  filled  his  common- 
place books  with  copious  extracts,  and  stored 
nis  memory  with  abundant  learning  before  he 
ventured  to  cross  the  forum  or  ascend  the  Cap- 
itoline  hill.  **  It  was  at  Rome,"  he  writes,  ^^  on 
the  16th  of  October,  1764,  as  I  sat  musing  amid 
the  ruins  of  the  capitol,  while  barefooted  friars 
were  singing  vespers  in  the  temple  of  Jupiter, 
that  the  idea  of  writing  the  decline  and  fall  of 
the  city  first  started  to  my  mind.  But  my 
original  plan  was  circumscribed  to  the  decay 
of  the  city,  rather  than  of  the  empire;  and 
though  my  reading  and  reflections  began  to 
point  toward  that  object,  some  years  elapsed, 
and  several  avocations  intervened,  before  I  was 
aeriously  engaged  in  the  execution  of  that  labo* 
nous  task."  He  went  south  to  Naples,  return- 
ed to  Paris,  and  reached  his  father's  house  in 
June,  1 765.  At  Lausanne  in  his  earlier  visits  he 
had  formed  an  intimacy  with  M.  Deyverdun,  a 
young  Swiss  of  fine  scholarship,  who  now  visit- 
ed him  yearly  at  Buriton.  With  his  aid  Gib- 
bon began  writing  a  history  of  the  liberty  of 
the  Swiss.  After  two  years  of  study  and  prep- 
aration, the  first  book,  which  was  written  in 
French,  was  read  as  an  anonymous  production 
before  a  literary  club  of  foreigners  in  London, 


by  whom  it  was  at  once  condemned,  and  the 
work  went  no  further.  He  next,  in  connection 
with  Deyverdun,  started  the  Memoires  litte- 
raires  de  la  Orande  Bretagne,  It  was  de- 
signed to  be  annual,  but  two  volumes  only 
were  printed  (1767-'8),  when  Deyverdun  went 
abroad.  His  next  work  was  an  anonymous 
and  acrimonious  attack  on  that  portion  of  War- 
burton's  "  Divine  Legation  of  Moses  "  in  which 
the  6th  book  of  the  ^neid  is  represented  as 
containing  an  allegorical  account  of  the  initia- 
tion of  ^neas  in  the  character  of  a  lawgiver 
into  the  Eleusinian  mysteries.  Though  War- 
burton  was  the  ruling  critic  of  the  time.  Gib- 
bon's "Critical  Observationis "  (1770)  were  ad- 
mitted to  have  overthrown  his  hypothesis. 
The  subject  was  one  that  could  have  but  little 
general  interest,  but  the  unknown  author  was 
mentioned  by  Heyne  of  GOttingen  as  a  doetua 
et  elegantissimvB  Britannvs,  His  father  hav- 
ing died  in  November,  1770,  Gibbon  settled  in 
London,  and,  with  a  considerable  though  some- 
what embarrassed  estate,  lived  in  studious 
ea^e,  and  began  to  labor  more  directly  upon  his 
"  Decline  and  Fall,"  which  he  had  been  wont  to 
"contemplate  at  awful  distance."  In  1774  he 
entered  tne  house  of  commons  as  member  for 
the  borough  of  Liskeard,  and  held  the  seat  for 
eight  years  a  silent  supporter  of  the  measures  of 
Lord  North.  Such  was  his  timidity  that  he  was 
never  able  to  address  the  house;  more  than 
once  he  prepared  himself  to  speak,  but  when 
the  moment  for  action  came  his  courage  wholly 
deserted  him.  Near  the  close  of  1775  the  first 
volume  of  his  history  was  completed.  It  was 
refused  by  the  bookseller  Elmsley,  but  accepted 
by  Cadell  and  Strahan.  It  appeared  in  Febru- 
ary, 1776 ;  its  success  was  immediate,  and,  for 
a  quarto  and  a  grave  historical  production, 
unpreceden  ted .  Th e  first  edition  was  exhausted 
in  a  few  days ;  a  second  and  third  were  soon 
called  for.  Hume  and  Robertson,  to  whom  he 
sent  copies,  wrote  him  congratulatory  letters. 
His  splendid  theme  and  imposing  style  fixed 
the  attention  of  the  public,  while  his  views  of 
Christianity  in  the  last  two  chapters  called 
forth  numerous  replies.  Watson,  Taylor,  Mil- 
ner.  Lord  Hailes,  Davies  of  Oxford,  and  Dr. 
Priestley  were  the  most  noted  of  his  assailants ; 
but  to  Davies  alone  would  the  historian  con- 
sent to  reply,  because  this  critic  had  questioned 
not  his  faith,  but  his  historical  fidelity.  His 
"Vindication"  soon  appeared,  in  which  he 
freed  himself  from  the  charge  of  misquotation. 
Meantime  he  studied  chemistry  and  anatomy 
for  recreation.  He  wrote  a  political  pamphlet 
in  French,  in  defence  of  the  ministry,  and  was 
rewarded  with  a  sinecure  place  in  the  board  of 
trade  worth  £800  a  year.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  Literary  club,  and  a  noted  conversationist. 
The  second  and  third  volumes  of  his  historv 
were  published  in  1781,  and  were  received  with 
avidity.  On  the  fall  of  Lord  North's  ministry 
and  the  loss  of  his  salary  by  the  abolition  of  the 
board  of  trade,  Gibbon  thought  himself  too  poor 
to  live  in  England,  and  went  to  Lausanne  in 


798 


GffiBON 


GIBBS 


1788  to  reside  witli  his  friend  Deyverdnn.  His 
fourth  volumef  embracing  the  reign  of  Justin- 
ian and  the  chapter  on  the  Institutes,  was 
already  finished,  but  on  the  borders  of  the  lake 
of  Geneva  he  allowed  nearly  a  year  to  pass 
before  he  vigorously  resumed  his  work.  He 
was  fond  of  society,  and  became  highly  popu- 
lar among  the  Swiss;  he  gave  balls  and  sup- 
pers, frequented  assemblies,  received  many 
eminent  visitors,  and  even  after  he  was  fairly 
reseated  at  his  task  mingled  gayety  with  con- 
stant study.  He  wrote  steadily  and  rapidly 
till  he  completed  his  work,  June  27,  1787.  He 
went  to  England  bearing  the  manuscript  of  the 
last  three  volumes  with  him,  and  on  his  5l8t 
birthday,  the  period  selected  by  himself,  they 
were  issued.  Tlie  work  was  already  estab- 
lished in  fame ;  it  was  translated  into  German, 
French,  and  Italian.  His  profit  from  all  the 
volumes  is  stated  to  have  been  £6,000,  and 
that  of  the  booksellers  £60,000.  The  later 
volumes  were  reproached  for  indecencies,  veil- 
ed for  the  most  part  in  the  learned  languages 
in  the  notes.  Gibbon  returned  to  Lausanne 
in  July,  1788,  to  find  his  friend  Deyverdun 
dying.  He  now  wrote  his  own  "Memoirs," 
which  were  published  posthumously.  The 
French  revolution  disturbed  his  repose.  Lau- 
sanne was  filled  with  French  emigrants;  the 
Neckers  with  their  daughter,  afterward  Mme. 
de  Sta^l,  were  his  neighbors  at  Coppet.  Lady 
Sheffield,  the  wife  of  his  intimate  friend  Lord 
Sheffield,  died  about  this  time,  and  Gibbon, 
partly  in  the  hope  of  consoling  his  friend,  partly 
in  fear  of  the  revolution,  set  out  for  England 
in  the  spring  of  1793.  He  had  long  suffered 
from  hydrocele,  which  he  had  studiously  con- 
cealed, and  he  died  calmly  after  undergoing 
three  painful  operations.  He  was  buried  in 
Lord  Sheffield's  family  burial  place  at  Fletch- 
ing,  in  Sussex,  and  his  epitaph  was  written  by 
Dr.  Parr. — In  appearance  Gibbon  was  heavy 
and  dull,  his  countenance  showed  no  trace  of 
intellect,  and  his  features  were  unattractive. 
He  was  fond  of  fine  dress,  and  his  manners 
were  well  bred  but  pompous.  He  conversed 
with  fluency  in  sounding  language  and  well 
ordered  periods.  His  "  Decline  and  Fall  of  the 
Roman  Empire  '^  is  admitted  to  be  the  greatest 
historical  work  in  the  English  language,  and  one 
of  the  greatest  creations  of  any  single  intellect. 
It  is  hardly  less  than  the  history  of  the  world  for 
nearly  13  centuries,  for  it  comprises  an  account 
of  all  the  nations  who  influenced  the  destinies 
of  the  Roman  empire  both  in  the  West  and 
East.  Its  vast  design,  including  the  decay  and 
ruin  of  an  ancient  civilization  and  the  birth 
and  formation  of  a  new  order  of  things;  its 
lucid  arrangement,  subordinating  an  infinite 
variety  of  subjects  to  one  main  and  predom- 
inant idea,  tracing  the  progress  of  hostile  re- 
ligions, the  infinx  of  successive  hosts  of  bar- 
barians from  remote  and  opposite  quarters, 
the  development  of  the  Roman  law,  the  details 
of  ecclesiastical  history,  and  the  general  rise 
of  modern  states,  according  to  the  impressions 


which  they  made  on  the  tottering  fabric  of 
Roman  greatness ;  its  singular  condensation  of 
matter,  general  accuracy,  and  splendid,  impo- 
sing, and  picturesc|ue  style,  are  among  the  qud- 
ties  which  secure  its  eminence  in  historical  ht- 
erature.  "Christianity  alone,"  says  Milman, 
"  receives  no  embellishment  from  the  magic  of 
Gibbon^s  language ;  his  imagination  is  dead  to 
its  moral  dignity ;  it  is  kept  down  by  a  general 
tone  of  jealous  disparagement,  or  neutralized 
by  a  painfully  elaborate  exposition  of  its  darker 
and  degenerate  periods."  The  best  editions 
are  those  edited  by  the  Rev.  H.  H.  Milman  (12 
vols.,  London,  1888-'9 ;  2d  ed.,  1845),  which 
embodies  notes  by  the  editor,  and  by  Guizot 
and  others,  and  that  by  William  Smith  (8  vols., 
1854-^5),  containing  many  new  notes.  Dr. 
Smith's  abridgment,  "  The  Student's  Gibbon," 
is  valuable  as  a  concise  summary  of  the  work. 
Gibbon's  memoirs  and  miscellaneous  writings 
were  published  under  the  care  of  Lord  Shef- 
field (2  vols.,  London,  1796,  to  which  a  third 
volume  was  added  in  1815). 

GIBBONS,  GriiUng,  an  English  wood  carver 
and  sculptor,  bom  about  1650,  died  in  Lcmdon, 
Aug.  8,  1721.  He  was  the  son  of  a  Dutch- 
man who  settled  in  London ;  and  as  he  early 
excelled  in  his  art,  Evelyn  recommended  him 
to  Charles  II.,  who  attached  him  to  the  board 
of  public  works,  and  employed  him  in  the 
chapel  of  Windsor  castle,  for  which  he  carved 
the  foliage,  and  in  the  choir  of  St.  Paul's  and 
the  great  room  at  Petworth,  the  decorations  of 
the  latter  being  regarded  as  his  masterpiece. 
Among  his  other  carvings  are  the  font  m  St 
James's,  Piccadilly,  and  the  base  of  the  eques- 
trian statue  of  Charles  I.,  in  Charing  cross.  His 
best  known  sculpture  is  the  statue  of  James 
II.  in  front  of  Whitehall.  His  fame,  however, 
rests  mainly  on  his  wood  carving,  in  which 
his  touch  was  so  graceful  and  delicate  that  his 
carved  feathers  can  hardly  be  distinguished 
from  real  ones. 

GIBBONS,  Orlando,  an  English  composer,  bom 
in  Cambridge  in  1583,  died  in  1625.  At  the 
age  of  21  he  was  made  organist  of  the  royal 
chapel.  In  1 622  the  degree  of  doctor  of  music 
w^  conferred  on  him  by  the  university  of  Ox- 
ford. He  was  principally  distinguished  for  his 
church  music,  his  anthems  being  regarded  in 
their  day  as  model  compositions  of  that  class. 
He  was  also  a  skilful  composer  of  madrigals. 

GIBBS,  Jwlali  Willard,  an  American  philologist, 
bom  in  Salem,  Mass.,  April  80,  1790,  died  in 
New  Haven,  March  25,  1861.  He  graduated 
at  Yale  college  in  1809,  and  was  tutor  in  that 
institution  from  1811  to  1815.  In  1824  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  sacred  literature  in  the 
theological  department  of  Tale  college,  a  post 
which  he  held  until  his  death.  In  his  special 
department,  and  in  philological  and  grammati^ 
cal  studies  generally,  he  was  a  thorough  and 
accurate  scholar.  His  principal  publications 
are:  a  translation  of  Storr's  ^* Essay  on  the 
Historical  Sense  of  the  New  Testament"  (Bos- 
ton, 1817) ;  translation  of  Gesenius's  ^^  Hebrew 


GIBBS 


GIBRALTAR 


799 


Lexicon  of  the  Old  Testament"  (Andover, 
1824) ;  '^  Manual  Hebrew  and  English  Lexi- 
con," abridged  from  Gesenius  (Andover,  1828) ; 
"Philological  Studies"  (New  Haven,  1867); 
and  "  Latin  Analyst"  (New  Haven,  1868).  He 
contributed  also  to  several  important  philo- 
logical works,  including  the  revised  edition  of 
Webster's  dictionary  and  W.  0.  Fowler's  work 
on  the  English  language ;  and  furnished  valu- 
able papers  to  the  ^^  American  Journal  of 
Science"  and  other  critical  periodicals. 

6IBIKL  WolMtt,  an  'American  chemist,  bom 
in  New  York,  Feb.  21, 1822.  He  graduated  at 
Columbia  college  in  1841,  and  studied  chem- 
istry under  Prof.  Hare  at  Philadelphia,  and 
medicine  at  the  New  York  college  of  phy- 
sicians and  surgeons,  taking  his  degree  in  1844. 
He  then  went  to  Europe,  and  studied  under 
Liebig  and  Rammelsberg.  On  his  return,  in 
1849,  he  was  elected  professor  of  chemistry 
and  physics  in  the  New  York  free  academy. 
In  1863  he  became  professor  in  Harvard  uni- 
versity, and  lecturer  on  the  application  of 
science  to  the  useful  arts,  which  cnair  he  still 
occupies.  He  was  a  member  of  the  United 
States  sanitary  commission  during  the  civil 
war,  and  was  appointed  by  President  Grant 
scientific  commissioner  to  the  Vienna  exhibi- 
tion in  1873.  His  writings  relate  exclusively 
to  chemical  and  physical  subjects.  He  has  pub- 
lished about  60  papers,  mainly  in  the  "  Ameri- 
can Journal  of  Science." 

61BE0N  (Ileb.,  hiU  city),  one  of  the  princi- 
pal cities  of  Palestine,  about  6  m.  N.  W.  of  Je- 
rusalem. Before  the  conquest  of  Canaan  by 
Joshua,  it  was  inhabited  by  Hivites,  who  by 
stratagem  secured  their  own  safety  and  pro- 
tection from  Israel ;  though  when  the  decep- 
tion was  discovered  the  Gibeonites  were  de- 
graded to  the  condition  of  hereditary  "  hewers 
of  wood  and  drawers  of  water  unto  all  the 
congregation."  It  is  not  mentioned  as  one  of 
the  royal  cities  of  the  Canaanites,  though  de- 
scribed as  a  great  city,  and  as  one  of  the  royal 
cities.  When  the  five  kings  of  the  Amorites 
besieged  Gibeon  because  of  its  having  made 
peace  with  Israel,  Joshua  marched  against 
them,  and  at  his  command,  as  we  are  told  after 
the  poetical  book  of  Jasher,  **the  sun  stood 
still,  and  the  moon  stayed,  until  the  people  had 
avenged  themselves  upon  their  enemies"  (Josh. 
X.  1-14).  The  Gibeonites  were  persecuted  and 
nearly  exterminated  by  Saul.  On  the  division 
of  Canaan,  Gibeon  fell  to  the  tribe  of  Benja- 
min; afterward  it  was  given  to  the  Levites; 
toward  the  close  of  David^s  and  in  the  begin- 
ning of  Solomon's  reign,  the  sanctuary  was 
there,  and  there  dwelt  the  high  priest.  Near 
to  it  was  a  pool,  probably  the  "  great  waters" 
referred  to  by  Jeremiah,  where  Abner  was  de- 
feated by  Joab,  and  also  a  great  stone,  or  monu- 
mental pillar.  It  is  identified  with  the  modern 
El-Jib,  an  irregular  village,  seated  on  the  sum- 
mit of  a  hill,  and  containing  massive  ruins. 

GIBRiLTiR  (Arab.  Jehel  aUTarik^  mount  of 
Tarik),  a  fortified  rock  on  the  S.  coast  of  An- 
868  VOL.  viL— 61 


dalusia,  Spain,  belon^ng  to  Great  Britain,  and 
giving  name  to  a  town  and  bay  on  its  W.  side, 
and  to  the  strait  connecting  the  Atlantic  and 
the  Mediterranean.  Europa  point,  its  S.  ex- 
tremity, is  in  lat.  86°  6'  N.,  Ion.  6°  21'  W. 
The  rock  forms  a  promontory,  3  m.  long  from 
N.  to  S.  and  about  7  m.  in  circumference.  A 
low  sandy  isthmus,  1^  m.  long  and  f  m.  broad, 
connects  it  with  the  mainland  of  Spain,  having 
the  bay  of  Gibraltar  on  the  west  and  the  Med- 
iterranean on  the  east.  Two  parallel  rows  of 
sentry  boxes  across  this  fiat  mark  the  Spanish 
and  English  lines,  the  space  between  them  be- 
ing called  the  **  neutral  ground."  The  N.,  E., 
and  S.  sides  of  the  rock  are  steep  and  precipi- 
tous, and  almost  inaccessible.  On  the  west  it 
slopes  down  to  the  water ;  here  are  the  town  and 
the  principal  fortifications.  The  highest  point 
is  about  1,400  ft  above  the  sea.  The  rock  is 
composed  of  gray  primary  limestone  and  mar- 
ble, and  was  uplifted  probably  at  a  recent  geo- 
logic period,  as  a  marine  beach  exists  more  than 
460  ft.  above  the  sea.  It  is  perforated  by  a 
number  of  remarkable  natural  caverns,  all  of 
which  are  difiScult  of  access.  The  largest, 
called  St.  MicbaeFs,  has  a  hall  hung  with  sta- 
lactites reaching  fix>m  roof  to  floor.  Its  en- 
trance is  1,000  ft.  above  the  sea,  and  it  is  con- 
nected with  other  caverns  beneath  it  of  un- 
known depth.  From  the  sea  the  surface  ap- 
pears barren ;  but  acacia,  flg,  and  orange  trees, 
and  a  variety  of  odoriferous  plants,  grow  in 
sheltered  places.  The  animal  productions  are 
a  few  kinds  of  birds,  wild  rabbits,  snakes, 
and  monkeys.  The  latter,  the  only  wild  mon- 
keys in  Europe,  are  of  a  fawn  color  and  with- 
out tails.  The  climate  is  temperate  and  gen- 
erally healthy,  but  about  once  in  12  years  an 
endemic  fever,  known  as  the  Gibraltar  fever, 
prevails.  Immense  sums  of  money  and  a  vast 
amount  of  labor  have  been  expended  on  the 
fortifications  of  this  stronghold.  The  most  re- 
markable of  the  works  are  the  galleries  tun- 
nelled in  tiers  through  the  solid  rock,  alonff 
the  N.  front.  They  are  2  or  8  m.  long,  and 
are  wide  enough  to  admit  a  carriage.  At 
every  12  yards  they  are  pierced  with  ports  for 
guns,  so  as  to  command  the  bay  and  neutral 
ground.  On  the  summit  of  the  rock  are  bar- 
racks and  fortresses,  and  strong  batteries  frown 
fdl  along  the  slope  on  the  W.  side.  More  than 
1,000  guns  are  now  in  position.  The  garrison 
consisted  in  1872  of  4,808  men.  The  cost  of 
maintaining  the  fortress  in  1867-'8  was  £420,- 
466;  estimate  for  1872-'8,  £219,417.— The 
town  of  Gibraltar  lies  on  a  shelving  ledge  on 
the  W.  side  of  the  rook,  near  its  N.  extremity, 
65  m.  S.  E.  of  Cadiz;  pop.  in  1871  (exclusive 
of  the  garrison),  16,464,  English,  Spaniards, 
Jews,  and  Moors.  It  consists  chiefiy  of  one 
spacious  dtreet,  called  the  Main  or  Waterport 
street,  about  \  m.  long  and  well  paved  and 
lighted.  The  town  appears  to  be  more  popu- 
lous than  it  really  is,  from  the  number  of 
strangers  visiting  it.  Great  care  is  taken  to 
prevent  the  increase  of  new  residents^  and 


800  GIBR. 

foreignerB  are  allowed  to  remain  onlj  dnring 
gpecilied  periodB,  &ii<!  on  giving  securitj  fur 
good  belinvior.  The  principal  buildings  are 
the  residences  of  the  (governor  &nd  lieutenimt 
governor,  the  admiralty,  naval  Iiospital,  bar- 
racks, and  storehousea.  Tliere  are  also  Prot- 
estant and  Roman  Catholic  charchos,  four 
Jewish  Bvnagognes,  seven  regimental  and  two 
pablic  Bchoola,  a  tlieatre,  several  hotels,  a  hi' 
natio  asjlam,  and  an  almshouse.  The  garri- 
son library,  toiinded  in  1793,  contains  upward 
of  20,000  volumes.  The  water  used  in  the 
town  and  by  tbe  garrison  is  collected  entirely 
&om  I^e  roofs  in  the  runy  season  and  kept  in 
tanks  under  the  houses.  Althuagh  a  free  port, 
Gibraltar  has  but  little  trade,  tiritisb  mana- 
&cturea  for  the  Barbnry  states  and  for  other 
coantrica  bordering  on  uie  Mediterranean  are 
diatribiitod  throogh  it  to  some  extent.    The 


chief  imports  are  cotton  and  woollen  goods 
IVom  Enfrlund ;  tobacco,  rice,  and  Sour  from 
the  United  States;  sugar  and  rum  from  the 
West  Indies;  and  wines,  silks,  spices,  tea,  and 
wax  from  the  East,  The  chief  export  is  wine. 
The  revenues  are  usually  about  £30,000,  and 
the  expenditures  nearly  the  same.  The  ea 
tire  sdininistrstion  of  affairs  is  in  the  handa 
of  the  military  governor. — The  bay  of  Gibral- 
tar, sometimes  called  Algeciras  bay,  is  formed 
by  tlie  promontory  of  Gibraltar  on  tbe  ea^t 
and  the  mainland  terminating  in  Point  St. 
Garcia  on  the  west.  It  is  4^  m.  nide  from  £. 
to  W.,  and  about  6  m,  long  from  N.  to  8.  Iti 
depth  of  water,  which  is  260 11.  at  the  entrance, 
gradually  diminishes  toward  the  head  of  the 
bay,  affording  good  anchorage.  The  tide  rises 
4  or  6  n.  Several  einall  streams  empty  into 
it  on  the  west  and  nortlt.    Opposite  Gibraltar, 


on  the  W.  side,  is  the  Spanish  town  of  Alge- 
oiraa.  On  the  British  side  shipping  is  pro- 
tected by  two  long  moles. — The  strait  of  Gib- 
raltar, the  channel  connecting  the  Atlantic  and 
the  Mediterranean,  lies  between  the  southern- 
most part  of  Spwn,  from  Cape  Europa  to  Cape 
Trafalgar,  and  the  African  coast  opposite,  from 
Centa  point  on  tbe  east  to  Cape  Spartel  on  the 
west.  ll»  length  from  E.  to  W,  is  about  36  m. 
The  narrowest  point  is  S.  of  Tarifa,  where  the 
opposite  coasts  are  but  B  m.  apart  From  Eu- 
ropa to  Cents  point  is  abont  15  m.,  and  from 
Trafalgar  to  Spartel  about  So.  Tlie  greatest 
depth  of  water  is  ddO  fathoms,  Through  the 
strait  a  strong  central  current,  from  3  to  G  m. 
an  hour,  sets  constantly  from  the  Atlantic  into 
the  Mediterranean ;  and  two  smaller  currents, 
one  along  each  coast,  ebb  and  flow  with  the 
tide,  running  alternately  into  the  Atlantic  and 
tlie  Mediterranean.    The  excess  of  water  thus 


flowing  into  the  latter  sea  is  necessary  la 
supply  the  loss  by  evaporation. — The  rock  of 
Gibraltar,  though  well  known  to  the  ancients, 
was  not  occupied  until  a  comparatively  modern 
period.  By  the  Pbceuicians  it  was  called 
Alube,  whicli  the  Greeks  corrupted  into  Calpe. 
Ceuta,  tlie  African  point  opposite,  called  by 
the  English  Ape's  liill,  was  the  ancient  Abvlo. 
Those  two  hilja  constituted  the  pillars  of  Her- 
cules, named,  not  from  the  Greek  hero,  bat 
from  the  Tjrian  deity,  whoso  worship  the 
Phcenicians  introduced  into  all  their  scllle- 
ments.  The  strait  was  long  regarded  as  tiie 
western  boundary  of  the  world.  The  value 
of  Gibraltar  as  a  strategio  point  was  first  dl!>- 
covered  by  the  Saracens,  who,  under  their 
leader  Tarik  (or  Tarif)  ben  Zeyad,  landed  there 
in  April,  Til.  In  the  following  year  Tank 
built  a  fortification  on  the  beiglit,  and  it  w.oa 
called  thenceforward  after  bia  name.     In  7^3 


GIBRALTAR 


GIBSON 


8t)l 


was  erected  the  castle  which  is  still  standing 
at  the  N.  end  of  the  rock.  The  fortifications 
were  further  strengthened  in  1161  under  the 
direction  of  Alhaug  Yaix,  a  celebrated  Moorish 
engineer.  In  1809  the  place  was  captured  bj 
the  Christians  under  Guzman  the  Good,  and 
recaptured  by  the  Moors  in  1833.  In  1849 
siege  was  laid  to  it  again  by  Alfonso  XL  of 
Castile,  but  raised  in  the  following  year  on  ac- 
count of  the  plague,  which  carried  off  the  king. 
Gibraltar  was  finally  captured  by  the  Christians 
under  the  duke  of  Medina  Sidonia  in  1462. 
Under  the  Spanish  crown  it  was  so  strength- 
ened as  to  be  considered  impregnable ;  but  it 
was  taken  Aug.  4,  1704,  by  a  combined  Eng- 
lish and  Dutch  fieet  under  Sir  George  Rooke 
and  the  prince  of  Hesse-Darmstadt,  and  held  till 
1718,  when  it  was  confirmed  to  Great  Britain 
by  the  treaty  of  Utrecht.  Early  in  1727  the 
Spaniards  attacked  it  with  a  large  force,  but 
raised  the  siege  on  the  signing  of  preliminaries 
of  a  peace  with  Great  Britain  in  May  of  the 
same  year.  But  the  most  memorable  siege  of 
Gibraltar  was  that  of  1779- 83,  sustained  against 
the  combined  land  and  naval  forces  of  France 
and  Spain.  By  June  21,  1779,  all  communica- 
tion between  the  rock  and  the  mainland  was 
cut  off,  and  in  July  the  fortress  was  completely 
blockaded.  The  cannonading  began  in  Sep- 
tember on  the  part  of  the  besieged,  but  the 
Spaniards  did  not  open  their  fire  until  January, 
1780.  The  attack  and  defence  which  followed 
fixed  the  attention  of  Europe  for  the  next 
three  years.  On  the  part  of  the  besiegers  all 
the  resources  of  war  were  brought  to  bear 
both  by  land  and  sea.  The  best  engineers  of 
France  and  Spain  directed  the  approaches; 
a  powerful  fleet  anchored  in  the  bay,  and  for 
three  weeks  an  incessant  bombardment  was 
kept  up  from  80  mortars  and  200  pieces  of 
battering  cannon.  The  garrison,  commanded 
by  Sir  Gilbert  Eliott  (afterward  Lord  Heath- 
field),  and  numbering  7,000  men,  made  a  he- 
roic resistance.  On  Nov.  27,  1781,  they  de- 
stroyed the  enemies'  works  in  a  sortie,  but  the 
allies  at  once  reconstructed  them,  and  soon 
brought  1,000  pieces  of  artillery  to  play  against 
the  fortress,  while  47  ships  of  the  line  and  in- 
numerable smaller  vessels  menaced  it  by  sea, 
and  an  army  of  40,000  men  conducted  the 
operations  on  land.  The  whole  enterprise  was 
directed  by  the  duke  de  Crillon.  Meanwhile 
Admiral  Rodney,  having  defeated  the  fieet  of 
Count  de  Grasse,  succeeded  in  throwing  relief 
into  the  fort.  In  September,  1782,  the  allies 
attempted  to  silence  the  British  fire  by  means 
of  10  enormous  fioating  batteries  constructed 
by  the  chevalier  d' Argon  in  such  a  manner  as 
to  bo  deemed  invulnerable.  Each  was  manned 
by  a  picked  crew  and  mounted  from  6  to  21 
guns.  On  the  13th  they  were  put  in  motion, 
and  one  of  the  most  dreadl'ul  cannonadings 
known  in  history  was  opened  on  both  sides. 
It  continued  for  several  hours  with  little  ad- 
vantage to  either  party,  but  late  in  the  after- 
noon the  effect  of  the  red-hot  shot  from  the 


garrison  became  apparent,  and  soon  after  mid- 
night nine  of  the  batteries  were  on  fire.  Of 
their  crews  about  400  men  were  saved  by  the 
exertions  of  the  British ;  the  rest  perished  by 
the  flames,  explosions,  or  drowning.  The  be- 
sieged had  16  killed  and  68  wounded.  Several 
attempts  to  storm  the  rock  by  land  proved 
equally  disastrous.  The  British  received  fresh 
refenforcements^  and  in  February,  1783,  the 
siege  was  raised  on  the  signing  of  prelimina- 
ries of  peace.  In  1868  a  proposal  to  surrender 
Gibraltar  to  Spain  was  agitated  in  England, 
but  did  not  meet  with  public  favor.  As  the 
key  to  the  Mediterranean  and  one  of  the  chain 
of  fortresses  connecting  Great  Britain  with 
her  East  Indian  possessions,  it  is  of  incalculable 
value  for  a  coaling  station,  a  depot  for  war 
material,  and  a  port  of  refuge. 

GIBSOlf.  L  AW.  county  of  Tennessee,  drain- 
ed by  Forked  Deer  and  Obion  rivers ;  area,  520 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  25,666,  of  whom  6,856 
were  colored.  The  surface  is  generally  even 
and  the  soil  fertile.  The  Mobile  and  Ohio  and 
the  Memphis  and  Louisville  railroads  pass 
through  it.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  116,869  bushels  of  wheat,  106,775  of 
Indian  corn,  16,819  of  peas  and  beans,  28,440 
of  Irish  and  60,275  of  sweet  potatoes,  248,746 
lbs.  of  butter,  879  tons  of  hay,  and  9,815  bales 
of  cotton.  There  were  5,631  horses,  2,955 
mules  and  asses,  5,470  milch  cows,  6,888  other 
cattle,  14,118  sheep,  and  53,108  swine ;  6  man- 
ufactories of  agricultural  implements,  10  of 
bricks,  13  of  carriages,  5  of  furniture,  3  of  iron 
castings,  1  of  kindling  wood,  7  of  saddlery  and 
harness,  1  of  sashes,  doors,  and  blinds,  6  wool 
carding  and  cloth  dressing  establishments,  11 
flour  mills,  1  planing  mill,  and  15  saw  mills. 
Capital,  Trenton.  II.  A  8.  W.  county  of  In- 
diana, bordering  on  Illinois,  area,  449  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870, 17,571.  It  contains  coal,  and  has 
an  undulating  surface  and  a  rich  soil,  watered 
by  the  Wabash  and  Patoka  rivers,  Uie  for- 
mer of  which  forms  the  W.  boundary.  The 
Wabash  and  Erie  canal  and  the  Evansville 
and  Crawfordsville  railroad  intersect  it.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  457,260  bushels 
of  wheat,  757,938  of  Indian  com,  39,807  of 
oats,  22,979  of  potatoes,  102,812  lbs.  of  butter, 
87,440  of  wool,  182,081  of  tobacco,  and  7,564 
tons  of  hay.  There  were  5,206  horses,  8,795 
milch  cows,  6,026  other  cattle,  15,038  sheep, 
and  28,222  swine;  11  manufactories  of  car- 
riages, 1  of  furniture,  9  of  saddlery  and  har- 
ness, 4  of  woollen  goods,  8  distilleries,  12  flour 
mills,  and  6  saw  mills.    Capital,  Princeton. 

CrlBSON)  John,  an  English  sculptor,  born  at 
Conway,  North  Wales,  in  1791,  died  in  Rome, 
Jan.  27,  1866.  His  father,  who  was  a  market 
gardener,  removed  to  Liverpool,  and  young 
Gibson,  after  endeavoring  to  prevail  on  his 
parents  to  allow  him  to  study  painting,  was 
apprenticed  at  the  age  of  14  to  a  cabinet  ma- 
ker, and  soon  after  to  a  wood  carver.  He  at- 
tracted the  attention  of  Messrs.  Francis,  mar- 
ble cutters,  who  purchased  his  indentures  and 


8(e 


GIDDINGS 


GIDEON 


took  him  into  their  employment.  Through  one 
of  the  partners  in  this  firm  he  was  introduced 
to  William  Roscoe,  the  historian,  who  encour- 
aged him  to  pursue  the  direer  of  a  sculptor, 
and  was  instrumental  in  raising  a  fund  in  Liv- 
erpool to  enable  him  to  study  in  Italy.  In 
1817  he  went  to  Rome,  with  letters  from  Flax- 
man  to  CanoTa,  who  received  him  as  a  pupil 
and  gave  him  all  the  assistance  in  his  power. 
In  1821  he  produced  his  first  important  work, 
a  group  of  ^^Mars  and  Cupid,  ^'  now  at  Chats- 
worth.  On  the  death  of  Canova  in  1822,  Gib- 
son studied  for  a  short  time  with  Thorwaldsen. 
In  1827  he  sent  his  "  Psyche  and  the  Zephyrs  " 
to  the  exhibition  of  the  royal  academy,  of  which 
he  was  elected  an  associate  in  1888,  and  a  mem- 
ber in  1836.  Most  of  his  works  are  portrait 
Statues,  and  ideal  pieces  founded  on  classic 
models.  Of  the  former,  the  best  known  are  ' 
his  statues  of  Queen  Victoria  in  Buckingham 
palace,  at  Osborne,  and  in  the  new  palace  at 
Westminster,  those  of  Huskisson  in  Liverpool, 
and  of  Sir  Robert  Peel  and  George  Stephen- 
son. His  ideal  figures  and  bass  reliefs  are  im- 
bued with  the  spirit  of  Greek  art.  Refinement 
of  feeling,  high  poetical  imagination,  exceeding 
gracefulness  of  form  and  expression,  and  an 
almost  nnrivalled  delicacy  of  execution  char- 
acterize this  class  of  his  sculptures.  He  was 
the  first  of  modern  sculptors  who  had  the  dar- 
ing to  introduce  color  into  their  works.  In 
some  of  the  subordinate  details  the  statue  of 
the  queen  and  the  Aurora  were  slightly  tinted, 
but  the  Venus,  which  attracted  much  attention 
at  the  international  exhibition  in  1862,  showed 
the  innovation  carried  to  its  farthest  limit. 
This  statue  is  entirely  colored  of  a  fiesh  tint, 
and  the  eyes,  hair,  and  parts  of  the  drapery 
counterfeit  the  resemblance  to  actual  life  as 
nearly  as  color  can  do  it  Gibson  also  adhered 
to  the  practice  of  habiting  his  modem  figures 
in  classic  costume.  With  the  exception  of  a 
few  short  visits  to  England,  he  lived  almost 
uninterruptedly  in  Rome. — See  "  Life  of  John 
Gibson,''  edited  by  Lady  Eastlake  (1869). 

GIDDINGS,  JwhiA  Reed,  an  American  states- 
man, bom  at  Athens,  Pa.,  Oct.  6,  1795,  died 
in  Montreal,  May  27,  1864.  In  his  infancy  his 
parents  removed  to  Canandaigua,  N.  Y.,  where 
they  remained  till  he  was  10  years  old,  when 
they  emigrated  to  Ashtabula  co.,  Ohio,  among 
the  first  settlers  in  that  part  of  the  Western 
Reserve. .  In  1812  he  enlisted  as  a  soldier,  and 
was  one  of  the  expedition  sent  to  the  peninsula 
north  of  Sandusky  bay,  where,  in  two  battles 
on  one  day  with  a  superior  force  of  Indians, 
it  lost  nearly  one  fifth  of  its  number  in  killed 
and  wounded.  At  the  close  of  his  term  of 
service  he  commenced  school  teaching,  and  in 
'1817  began  the  study  of  the  law,  and  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  in  1820.  In  1826  he  was 
chosen  a  representative  to  the  state  legislature, 
and  in  1838  was  elected  to  congress,  where  he 
became  at  once  a  prominent  champion  of  the 
abolition  of  slavery  and  the  slave  trade  in  the 
District  of  Columbia  and  the  territories  under 


the  jurisdiction  of  the  national  government 
On  Feb.  9,  1841,  he  delivered  his  first  anti- 
slavery  speech,  upon  the  Indian  war  in  Florida, 
which  he  contended  was  begun  and  carried  on 
in  the  interest  of  slavery.  In  1842  he  brought 
before  congress  a  series  of  resolutions  in  rela- 
tion  to  the  slaves  on  the  Creole,  who  had  cap- 
tured that  vessel  on  her  passage  from  Virginia 
to  New  Orleans,  and  carried  her  into  Nassau, 
where  their  right  to  freedom  was  recognized 
by  the  British  authorities.  His  resolutions  jus- 
tified the  conduct  of  the  slaves  on  the  ground 
of  their  abstract  right  to  freedom,  and  declared 
that  they  had  violated  no  law  of  the  United 
States,  and  that  any  attempt  to  reSnslave  them 
was  nnauthorized  by  the  constitution  and  in< 
compatible  with  the  national  honor.  The  great 
excitement  which  they  caused  induced  him  to 
withdraw  them,  but  he  was  nevertheless  cen- 
sured by  a  congressional  vote  of  125  to  69,  and 
resigned.  He  was  reelected  by  a  large  m^ority, 
and  resumed  his  seat  after  an  absence  of  but  six 
weeks.  He  was  returned  by  successive  rejec- 
tions until  March  4,  1859,  making  his  period 
of  service  20  years,  during  which  he  continued 
upon  every  opportunity  (acting  in  coiyunc- 
tion  with  John  Quincy  Adams  till  his  death) 
to  advocate  his  views  on  slavery,  while  at- 
tending closely  to  the  general  bnsineBS  of  legis- 
lation. He  acted  generally  with  the  whig  party 
till  1848,  giving  his  hearty  support  to  Gen. 
Harrison  and  Henry  Clay,  but  refused  on  anti- 
slavery  grounds  to  support  Gen.  Taylor.  In 
the  election  of  1848  he  acted  with  the  firee-soil 
party.  In  1850  he  took  a  prominent  part  in 
opposing  the  enactment  of  the  **  compromise 
measures,^'  especially  the  fugitive  slave  law. 
He  was  conspicuous  also  in  the  debates  upon 
the  repeal  of 'the  Missouri  compromise,  and  in 
those  upon  the  subsequent  troubles  in  Kansas. 
On  May  8,  1856,  while  addressing  the  house, 
he  suddenly  fell  to  the  fioor  in  a  state  of  nnoon- 
sciousness,  from  which  he  soon  revived,  though 
in  a  condition  of  great  weakness.  On  Jan.  17, 
1858,  he  fell  again  in  the  same  way,  and  for 
some  minutes  was  supposed  to  be  dead.  He 
slowly  returned  to  consciousness,  but  was  com- 
pelled for  a  time  to  be  absent  irom  his  post. 
His  disease  was  an  afi^ction  of  the  nervous 
system  operating  upon  the  heart.  In  1861  he 
was  appointed  consul  general  for  tlie  British 
North  American  provinces,  a  position  which 
he  held  nntil  his  death.  In  1843  Mr.  Giddings 
wrote  a  series  of  political  essays,  signed  ^*  Paci- 
ficus,^'  which  attracted  considerable  attention. 
A  volume  of  his  speeches  was  published  in 
1858.  He  also  wrote  "  The  Exiles  of  Florida  ■' 
(Columbus,  1858),  and  "The  Rebellion,  its 
Authors  and  Causes"  (New  York,  1864). 

GIDEON,  surnamed  Jerabbaal,  the  fifth  judge 
in  Israel,  was  the  son  of  Joash,  of  the  tribe  of 
Manasseh,  and  dwelt  at  Ophrah.  His  history 
is  narrated  in  Judges  vi.-ix.  Israel  had  been 
for  seven  years  humbled  by  the  Midianites  and 
Amalekites,  when  Gideon  by  a  double  miracle 
was  roused  to  become  their  deliverer.    When 


GIEN 


GIFFORD 


803 


he  had  fulfilled  his  mission,  the  Israelites  so- 
licited him  to  become  their  king,  but  he  de- 
clined, and  held  for  40  years  the  office  of  judge. 

GIEN)  a  town  of  France,  in  the  department 
of  Loiret,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Loire, 
crossed  here  by  a  fine  stone  bridge  of  12  arches, 
38  m.  8.  E.  of  Orleans;  pop.  in  1866,  6,717. 
It  is  built  on  a  hill,  and  has  an  ancient  castle, 
now  nsed  for  public  offices.  The  lower  part » 
of  the  town  is  often  overflowed  by  the  rising 
of  the  Loire.  Pottery,  leather,  and  fine  car- 
riages are  manufactured,  and  there  is  a  trade 
in  wine,  wool,  saffron,  coal,  &c,  Gien  is  first 
mentioned  at  the  close  of  the  8th  century  as 
the  site  of  a  castle  built  by  Charlemagne.  The 
castle  was  restored  and  enlarged  in  1494  by 
Anne  of  Beaqjen,  daughter  of  Louis  XI. 

GIESEBRECHT,  FrMrich  WSMm  Be^laHli  tm, 
a  German  historian,  bom  in  Berlin,  March  5, 
1814.  His  father.  Earl  Heinrich  Ludwig,  was 
a  dramatist,  and  his  uncle,  Heinrich  Ludwig 
Theodor,  was  a  poet  and  historian.  He  stud- 
ied under  Ranke,  and  became  a  professor  at 
the  gymnasium  of  Berlin,  in  1857  at  the  uni- 
versity of  KOnigsberg,  and  in  1862  at  that  of 
Munich,  where  he  also  presides  over  the  his- 
torical seminary,  and  succeeded  Sybel  as  per- 
manent secretary  of  the  historical  committee. 
He  wrote  the  history  of  the  emperor  Otho  II. 
for  Rankers  Jahrbucher  de»  deutsehen  Eeich$ 
(Berlin,  1840) ;  and  having  discovered  and  pub- 
lished the  Annates  AltahenseSy  a  long  missing 
manuscript  of  the  11th  century,  the  Prussian 
government  enabled  him  to  reside  from  1843  to 
1845  in  Italy  to  collect  ori^nal  materials  for  his 
most  important  work,  Gesehiehte  der  deutsehen 
Kaiserzeit  (8  vols.,  Brunswick,  1868-^6 ;  8d  ed., 
1868).  In  1874  he  undertook  a  revised  edition 
and  continuation  of  Heeren  and  Ukert^s  Eu- 
Topdisehen  Staatengesehichte  (72  vols.,  Gotha, 
1823-74  et  seq.). 

GIESHLEB,  Johann  Karl  Lidwig,  a  German 
church  historian,  born  at  Petershagen,  March 
8,  1792,  died  in  Gottingen,  July  8,  1854.  He 
interrupted  his  studies  in  the  university  of 
Halle  to  serve  as  a  volunteer  in  the  campaign 
of  1813.  In  1815  he  resumed  his  studies, 
which  he  combined  with  teaching.  In  1818 
appeared  his  Historiseh-hritischer  Versuck 
uher  die  Entstehung  unddiefruhern  Sehieksale 
der  ichrtftliehen  Evangelien,  and  in  1819  he 
was  appointed  professor  of  theology  in  the 
tmiversity  of  Bonn,  and  in  1831  at  Gdttingen. 
His  principal  work  is  Lehrhueh  der  Kirchen- 
gesehiehte.  The  ^ve  volumes  published  during 
his  lifetime  brought  the  history  down  only  to 
the  peace  of  Westphalia  in  1648 ;  but  from  the 
notes  and  manuscripts  which  he  left,  it  was 
continued  to  the  present  century  by  his  pupil 
Redepenning.  An  English  translation  of  the 
entire  work  has  beenpublished  under  the  edi- 
torial care  of  Prof.  Henry  B.  Smith  (4  vols.. 
New  York,  1856-'8).  It  is  especially  valuable 
for  the  fulness  of  its  citations,  the  source  for 
each  important  statement  being  given  at  length 
in  notes,  which  in  volume  far  exceed  the  text. 


GIESSElVy  a  town  of  Germany,  capital  of  the 
province  of  Upper  Hesse,  in  the  grand  duchy  of 
Hesse-Darmstadt,  situated  at  the  confluence  of 
the  Wieseck  with  the  Lahn,  30  m.  N.  of  Frank- 
fort; pop.  in  1871,  12,245.  It  was  originally 
fortified,  but  its  ramparts  have  been  levelled 
and  converted  into  promenades.  The  town  is 
well  though  irregularly  built,  and  contains  an 
old  castle,  a  hospital,  arsenal,  and  two  churches. 
The  university,  which  was  founded  in  1607,  has 
58  teachers  and  about  400  students,  a  library 
of  40,000  volumes,  an  observatory,  botanical 
garden,  and  museum.  Its  school  of  organic 
chemistry  under  Liebig  has  been  especially 
distinguished.  Besides  the  university  Giessen 
has  a  gymnasium  and  several  other  superior 
schools.  Its  manufactures  consist  of  hosiery, 
hats,  soap,  candles,  red  and  white  leather,  jew- 
elry, weapons,  liqueurs,  vinegar,  and  tobacco. 
It  has  also  breweries  and  oil  mills,  and  a  con- 
siderable trade  in  cattle. 

GIFFORD,  Helen  SeUu,  countess  of,  an  Eng- 
lish poetess,  born  in  1807,  died  June  18,  1867. 
She  was  a  daughter  of  Richard  Brinsley  Sheri- 
dan, and  sister  of  the  duchess  of  Somerset  and 
of  the  Hon.  Mrs.  Norton.  She  married  in 
1825  Price  Blackwood,  a  captain  in  the  navy, 
afterward  fourth  Baron  Dufferin,  who  died 
July  21,  1841.  In  order  to  be  better  able  to 
attend  her  intimate  friend,  the  earl  of  GiflTord, 
in  his  illness,  she  married  him  in  1862,  about 
ten  weeks  before  his  death.  She  was  cele- 
brated for  her  wit,  and  in  her  early  days  for 
her  beauty,  and  wrote  many  songs  and  bal- 
lads, including  **  The  Irish  Emigrant's  Lament  '^ 
and  "  The  Farewell  of  Terence."  The  present 
Earl  Dufferin,  governor  general  of  Canada,  is 
her  eldest  son. 

CLIFFORD,  Robert  Swafai,  an  American  painter, 
bom  in  Naushon,  Mass.,  Dec.  23,  1840.  He 
studied  in  New^  York  with  Albert  Van  Beest, 
and  in  1869  made  an  extensive  sketching  tour 
through  Oalifomia  and  Oregon,  and  furnished 
for  Appleton's  "  Picturesque  America  "  (1872- 
'3)  views  of  the  Columbia  river,  northern  Cali- 
fornia, and  the  coast  of  California.  He  spent 
the  year  1870  and  a  part  of  1871  in  Europe^ 
Egypt,  and  northern  Africa,  making  sketches. 
Among  his  best  works  are  "  The  Rock  of  Gib- 
raltar" and  "A  Lazy  Day  in  Egypt." 

GIFFORD,  Sandford  Robinson,  an  American 
painter,  bom  in  Greenfield,  Saratoga  co.,  N. 
y.,  July  10,  1823.  His  childhood  and  youth 
were  passed  at  Hudson,  and  in  1842  he  entered 
Brown  university,  where  he  remained  till  1844, 
when  he  went  to  New  York  and  studied  draw- 
ing, perspective,  and  anatomy,  with  a  view  to . 
figure  painting ;  but  in  1845  he  determined  to  • 
devote  himself  to  landscapes.  In  1851  he  be- 
came an  associate  of  the  national  academy, 
and  in  1854  an  academician.  In  May^  1855,  h'e 
went  to  Europe,  spent  the  summer  sketching  - 
in  England  and  Scotland,  passed  the  followin^^ 
winter  in  Paris,  and  in  the  summer  of  185B 
made  a  pedestrian  tour  through  Belgium,  Hol- 
land, Switzerland,  and  Italy.    The  nezt.wintor 


804 


GIFFORD 


GIFT 


he  passed  in  Rome,  and  the  summer  of  1857 
in  a  sketching  tour,  in  company  with  Albert 
Bierstadt,  through  the  Abruzzi  and  around 
Naples,  and  later  through  parts  of  Austria.  He 
returned  to  New  York  in  September.  In  1861, 
at  the  outbreak  of  the  civil  war,  he  joined  the 
7th  New  York  regiment  and  accompanied  it  to 
Washington.  He  was  also  out  with  it  in  1862 
and  1868.  In  1868  he  went  abroad  again,  and 
spent  two  years  sketching  in  Italy,  Greece, 
Syria,  and  Egypt.  Among  the  best  of  Gif- 
ford's  pictures  are  the  following :  "  Kauterskill 
Clove,"  "Twilight"  (1859),  " Bivouac  of  the 
7th  Regiment  at  Arlington  Heights"  (1861), 
"Baltimore,  1862,"  "A  House  in  the  Wilder- 
ness" (1866),  "Hunter  Mountain"  (1866), 
"Sunrise  on  the  Seashore"  (1867),  "Shrews- 
bury River"  (1868),  "Mansfield  Mountain" 
(1869),  "  San  Giorgio"  (1869),  "Fishing  Boats 
of  the  Adriatic"  (1870),  "Pallanza"  (1870), 
"Tivoli"  (1870),  "A  Venetian  Twilight,  Santa 
Maria  di  Salute  "  (1871),  "Monte  Ferro,  Lake 
Maggiore  "  (1871),  "  The  Golden  Horn  "  (1872), 
"  Schloss  Rheinstein  "  (1873),  and  "  Sunset  on 
the  Sweetwater,  Wyoming  Territory"  (1874). 

GIFFORD,  Winian,  an  English  author,  bom 
in  Ashburton,  Devonshire,  in  April,  1757,  died 
in  London,  Dec.  81,  1826.  He  was  left  an  or- 
phan in  childhood,  and  apprenticed  to  a  shoe- 
maker. His  master  refused  to  allow  him  time 
for  reading,  but  he  contrived  by  stealth  to  ac- 
quire a  considerable  knowledge  of  mathematics, 
and  occasionally  wrote  verses.  Some  of  the 
latter  came  into  the  hands  of  Mr.  Cookesley,  a 
surgeon,  who  raised  a  subscription  to  purchase 
his  freedom.  In  two  years  he  enterea  Exeter 
college,  Oxford,  where  he  was  appointed  Bi- 
ble reader.  Lord  Grosvenor  invited  him  to 
live  with  him,  and  subsequently  sent  him  to 
the  continent  as  the  travelling  tutor  of  his 
son.  After  his  return  to  England,  he  pub- 
lished in  1794  his  "Baviad,"  a  paraphrase 
on  the  first  satire  of  Persius,  in  which  the 
popular  Delia  Cruscan  poetry  of  the  day  was 
nappily  ridiculed  and  effectually  put  down; 
and  in  1795  the  "MsDviad,"  an  imitation  of 
Horace,  directed  against  the  corruptions  of 
the  drama.  His  "JEpistle  to  Peter  Pindar," 
published  in  1800,  is  one  of  the  bitterest  at- 
tacks ever  directed  against  an  opponent.  Be- 
ing now  known  as  a  keen  political  writer,  he 
wrote  with  George  Ellis  and  Frere  for  the 
"Anti-Jacobin"  upon  its  commencement  by 
Canning,  and  from  this  connection  received 
two  offices  under  government,  which  he  held 
for  life.  In  1802  he  published  a  spirited  trans- 
lation of  Juvenal,  with  his  own  autobiography. 
He  also  translated  Persius,  and  edited  the  dra- 
matic works  of  Massinger,  Ben  •  Jonson,  Ford, 
and  Shirley.  Upon  the  establishment  of  the 
"  Quarterly  Review  "  in  1809  he  became  its 
editor,  a  post  which  he  retained  until  about 
two  years  before  his  death. 

GIFT,  a  voluntary  transfer  of  property  of  any 
kind.  The  word  "  give  "  is  generally  employed 
among  the  words  of  transfer  in  deeds  of  land ; 


but  by  gifts,  in  law,  are  usually  meant  trensfers 
of  chattels  or  presents  which  are  wholly  with- 
out any  pecuniary  consideration,  or  any  other 
consideration  which  the  law  recognizes  as 
valid.  They  are  usually  divided  into  gifts  inter 
tivos  and  gifts  causa  mortis.  The  latter  are 
called  in  English  gifts  in  prospect  of  death; 
and  the  former  phrase,  or  gifts  between  the 
'living,  is  not  accurate,  as  describing  but  one 
class  of  gifts,  because  it  applies  to  all,  as  only 
the  living  can  give,  and  they  can  give  only  to 
the  living.  But  gifts  cavsa  mortis  may  be  de- 
fined as  gifts  made  by  one  believing  himself,  on 
reasonable  grounds,  to  be  very  near  his  death, 
and  made  m  view  of  and  because  of  this  appre- 
hension; and  gifts  inter  vivos  are  all  those 
which  are  not  gifts  cavsa  mortis. — First,  as  to 
gifts  int^r  tivos.  Any  person  competent  to 
transact  ordinary  business  may  give  whatever 
he  or  she  owns  to  any  other  person.  Tlie 
usual  disabilities  for  legal  action  would  apply 
here.  Thus,  a  gift  by  an  infant  (i.  «.,  a  minor), 
a  married  woman,  an  insane  person,  or  a  person 
under  guardianship,  would  be  wholly  void,  oi 
would  be  voidable  by  the  giver  or  one  having 
authority  to  represent  the  giver,  in  much  tlie 
same  way  that  a  transfer  for  consideration 
would  be.  Gifts,  by  persons  competent  to 
give,  of  property  which  they  have  a  right  t(. 
give,  to  persons  competent  to  receive,  and 
which  are  completed  and  effectual,  are  regard- 
ed by  the  law  as  executed  contracts,  founded 
upon  mutual  consent.  It  is  absolutely  essen- 
tial to  the  validity  of  a  gift  that  it  should  go 
into  effect  at  once  and  completely.  If  it  be 
not  a  thing  of  the  present,  now  done  and  fin- 
ished, tlien  it  is  no  longer  an  act,  but  a  prom- 
ise. And  as  it  must  be,  if  a  promise,  wholly 
without  consideration,  because  otherwise  it  is 
not  a  gift,  it  comes  under  the  rule  of  law  which 
makes  promises  without  consideration  of  no 
legal  validity,  and  incapable  of  legal  enforce- 
ment. Hence,  the  very  first  rule  in  the  law 
of  gifts  is,  that  delivery  is  essential  to  a  gift. 
And  this  delivery  must  be  to  the  donee ;  even 
if  the  giver  deliver  the  money  to  a  third  per- 
son with  orders  to  give  it  to  the  donee,  and 
will  therefore  be  bound  if  this  third  person 
give  it  to  the  donee  before  revocation,  the 
giver  may,  at  any  time  before  the  delivery  to 
the  donee,  annul  his  directions  to  tlie  party 
holding  the  money,  and  revoke  and  reclaim 
the  gift.  Generally,  a  court  having  equity 
powers  will  not  interfere  to  enforce  or  com- 
plete a  gift  which  is  merely  intended  and 
promised.  Nor  will  the  transfer,  if  without 
delivery,  be  any  the  more  effectual  for  being 
made  in  writing.  As  there  must  be  actufd 
delivery,  so  there  must  be  actual  acceptance ; 
in  other  w^ords,  the  thing  given  must  pass  out 
of  the  present  power  and  possession  of  the 
giver,  and  into  that  of  the  donee.  It  is  never- 
theless true  that  a  thing  may  be  given,  of 
which  the  present  and  immediate  manual  de- 
livery is  impossible.  The  delivery  may,  in 
such  a  case,  be  constructive,  or  symbolic,  or 


GIFT 


GIGNOUX 


805 


any  sach  delirerj  as  the  nature  and  actaal  po- 
sition of  the  thing  at  the  time  may  permit  and 
require;  as  a  delivery  of  a  key  which  com- 
mands access  to  the  thing,  or  a  delivery  of  a 
part  for  the  whole,  where  the  whole  is  too 
bulky  to  be  delivered  otherwise.  So  also  the 
delivery  may  be  by  an  order  upon  a  ware- 
houseman or  other  person  having  the  thing  in 
his  custody ;  but  in  this  case  the  gift  is  not  com- 
plete and  effectual  until  the  order  has  been 
presented  and  completed  or  performed  by  the 
party  on  whom  it  is  drawn.  From  the  same 
necessity  of  completing  the  gift  by  delivery 
and  acceptance,  and  from  the  same  rules  which 
make  a  mere  promise  without  consideration 
voidable,  it  follows  that  if  a  gift  be  made  by  a 
note,  or  any  instrument  not  under  seal  (for  a 
seal  is  the  equivalent  of  a  consideration),  it 
may  be  revoked  by  the  donor.  So  if  it  be 
made  by  a  check,  draft,  bill,  or  order,  the 
giver  may  revoke  it  at  any  time  before  it  is 
paid  or  executed,  or  accepted  in  such  a  way  as 
to  bind  the  drawee.  A  gift  by  a  competent 
party,  made  perfect  by  delivery  and  accept- 
ance, is  then  irrevocable  so  far  as  the  donor 
himself  is  concerned ;  but  it  may  still  be  re- 
voked or  annulled,  and  the  property  re- 
sumed, by  the  creditors  of  the  ^ver,  if  the 
giver  at  the  time  of  the  gift  was  insolvent,  and 
by  the  gift  diminished  the  fund  to  which  his 
creditors  were  entitled.  But  it  is  thus  void 
only  in  reference  to  existing  creditors,  and  not 
as  to  persons  becoming  creditors  subsequently, 
unless  made  when  the  insolvency  was  actual 
or  immediately  expected,  or  with  actual  fraud- 
ulent purpose  as  to  future  creditors.  All  vol- 
untary transfers,  as  settlements  of  every  kind 
and  the  like,  if  made  in  fraud  of  creditors,  are 
considered  as  gifts  in  the  law,  and  are  void. 
In  most  of  the  United  States  the  statutes  re- 
specting insolvency  provide  especially  for  all 
oases  of  this  kind. — Gifts  causa  mortis  can  be 
made  only  when  the  donor  has  reason  to  be- 
lieve that  death  is  impending.  The  law 
watches  over  gifts  causa  mortis  with  great 
jealousy,  and  restrains  them  by  rigorous  prin- 
ciples and  wise  precautions,  for  the  same  rea- 
sons which  induce  it  to  lay  down  such  precise 
and  rigid  rules  in  relation  to  wills  and  all  testa- 
mentary dispositions.  This  reason  is  not  any 
unwillingness  that  the  wishes  of  the  dead  or 
of  the  dying  should  have  their  full  effect,  but 
from  the  extreme  difficulty  of  giving  them  this 
effect,  and  yet  closing  the  door  effectually 
against,  on  the  one  hand,  false  and  suppositi- 
tious expressions  of  his  will,  or,  on  the  other 
hand,  undue  and  ii^urious  influence  exerted 
upon  him  as  to  the  disposition  of  his  prop- 
erty. Both  of  these  reasons  apply  as  strong- 
ly and  directly  to  gifts  made  in  prospect  of 
death  as  to  wills,  or  perhaps  more  so.  In- 
deed, as  these  gifts  are  not  unfrequently  made 
in  substitution  of  wills,  and  to  avoid  the  special 
requirements  made  by  the  law  in  respect  to 
wills,  this  is  another  reason  why  the  law  re- 
gards them  with  the  suspicion  felt  toward  acts 


which  are  evasions  of  law.  Much  that  was 
^said  of  gifts  inter  vicos  is  equally  or  indeed 
'much  more  strongly  applicable  to  gifts  causa 
mortis.  Thus,  there  must  be  not  only  delivery 
and  acceptance,  but  this  must  be  strictly  actu- 
al, if  that  be  possible  without  extreme  incon- 
venience ;  and  if  impossible,  in  that  case  it  must 
be  something  that  is  as  near  actual  delivery  as 
may  be  possible.  It  has  even  been  said  that 
no  mere  possession,  although  previous  and  con- 
tinuous, is  sufficient  without  delivery ;  as  if  the 
^ver  should  say,  "  You  may  have  and  keep  as 
your  own  the  watch  I  have  permitted  you  to 
wear  for  a  year,  and  which  is  now  in  your 
pocket,"  this  would  not  pass  the  property  in 
the  watch  unless  the  giver  took  it  into  his  own 
hands  and  gave  it  back  to  the  donee ;  but  we 
doubt  whether  the  rule  would  be  applied  with 
so  much  severity.  We  have  no  doubt  that  the 
giver,  if  physically  incapable,  or  perhaps  if  only 
unwilling  to  make  the  effort,  might,  without 
doing  anything  himself,  as  well  and  effectually 
direct  another  in  his  presence  to  take  such  a 
thing  and  give  it  to  such  a  donee,  to  be  kept  by 
him  as  his  own.  After  some  fluctuation  it  seems 
now  to  be  settled  that  the  donor^s  own  note, 
or  his  own* check,  draft,  or  bill^  not  paid  or  ac- 
cepted before  his  death,  is  not  a  valia  gift  causa 
mortis  ;  that  is,  the  executor  or  administrator 
of  the  deceased  may  refuse  to  pay  his  note,  and 
may  revoke  his  bill  or  draft,  and  order  the 
drawer  not  to  pay  it.  But  bank  notes  certain- 
ly, and  probably  all  notes  of  other  parties  pay- 
able to  bearer,  or  indorsed  in  blank,  and  per- 
haps all  notes,  bonds,  and  other  written  con- 
tracts of  other  parties,  may  be  the  subjects  of 
a  valid  gift  causa  mortis.  One  rule  is  perfectly 
certain :  one  who  makes  a  gift  in  prospect  of 
death  may  revoke  his  gift  at  any  time  during 
his  life,  although  it  be  completed  and  executed 
by  delivery  and  acceptance.  Any  such  distri- 
bution of  his  property  is,  in  the  language  of 
the  law,  ambulatory,  or  changeable  at  his  own 
pleasure,  so  long  as  he  remains  alive ;  and  it  is 
sometimes  said  that  his  recovery  does  of  itself 
revoke  and  annul  such  a  gift  made  in  prospect 
of  death,  because  the  cause  and  ground  of  it 
have  ceased  to  exist.  We  should  say,  howev- 
er, that  if  the  giver,  with  full  means  of  actual 
revocation,  did  not  choose  to  revoke  his  gift, 
it  became  changed  by  his  recovery  from  a  gift 
causa  mortis  to  a  gift  inter  vivos.  Within  these 
rules  and  restrictions  there  seems  to  be  no 
limit  in  law  to  the  possible  amount  of  a  gift 
caiLsa  mortis.  It  should  be  added  that  gifts 
in  prospect  of  death  are  equally  void  as  against 
existing  creditors  with  gifts  inter  vivos. 

GIGNOUX,  Francois  R^^  a  French  painter, 
horn  in  Lyons  in  1816,  His  art  education  was 
acquired  chiefly  in  Paris,  where  he  was  under 
the  instruction  of  Delaroche,  Vernet,  and  other 
eminent  masters.  In  1840  he  settled  in  New 
York,  and  devoted  himself  to  landscape  paint- 
ing. Among  his  best  works  are  "  The  Dismal 
Swamp  in  Autumn,"  *'  Niagara  in  Winter," 
"  Virginia  in  Indian  Summer,"  "Four  Seasona 


806 


GIGOUX 


GILBERT 


in  America,"  "First  Snow,"  "  Winter  in  Ver- 
mont," and  "  Bernese  Alps  by  Sonrise."  Since 
1870  he  has  lived  in  France. 

GIfiOIJX,  Jeaa  Fruif^is^  French  painter,  bom 
in  Besan^on  in  1806.  He  is  said  to  have  been 
originally  a  blacksmith,  and  became  famous  in 
1885  by  his  "Death  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci." 
In  1850  he  exhibited  "The  Dead  Christ"  and 
"  The  Death  of  Cleopatra,"  and  in  1862  "  Ga- 
latea," which  he  has  also  engraved.  One  of 
his  largest  works,  executed  for  the  coancil  of 
state  and  representing  "  Charlemagne  dictating 
his  Oapitalaries,"  was  bnmed  in  1871. 

CrUOIf.  a  seaport  of  Astorias,  Spain,  on  the 
bay  of  Biscay,  in  the  province  and  15  m.  N. 
N.  £.  of  the  city  of  Oviedo ;  pop.  about  10,500. 
It  is  built  on  a  low  headland,  surmounted  by 
a  hill.  Some  ancient  walls  surround  the  up- 
per or  old  town,  and  a  fortress  and  batteries 
guard  the  new  town,  which  reaches  down  to 
the  shore.  The  former  Augustinian  convent  is 
used  as  a  cigar  manufactory,  employing  1,400 
persons.  There  are  active  fisheries,  and  some 
coasting  trade.  The  harbor  is  safe,  though  not 
easily  accessible.  The  first  quay  was  built  here 
under  Charles  V.  in  1652-^4,  and  a  new  one  was 
constructed  in  1768.  The  Spanbh  armada  was 
repaired  here  in  1588.  In  1810  the  town 
was  sacked  and  its  shipping  destroyed  by  the 
French,  under  Bonnet. 

GILA,  a  river  of  New  Mexico  and  Arizona, 
the  principal  tributary  of  the  Colorado  river 
of  the  West.  It  rises  in  the  Sierra  Madre 
mountains  in  Socorro  co..  New  Mexico,  flows 
S.  W.  to  near  the  Arizona  boundary,  where  it 
bends  S.  and  then  pursues  a  general  W.  course 
through  that  territory  to  its  junction  with  the 
Colorado,  about  180  m.  above  its  mouth.  Its 
sources  are  about  5,000  ft.  above  the  sea.    The 

grincipal  tributaries  from  the  north  are  the 
lio  Nutroso,  Prieto,  Bonito,  San  Carlos,  Salt 
river  or  Rio  Salado,  and  Agua  Fria  creek ;  from 
the  south  the  Rio  San  Domingo  and  San  Pedro, 
llie  Santa  Cruz  river,  after  a  course  of  nearly 
100  m.,  is  lost  in  the  sands  of  the  desert,  and 
seldom  discharges  its  waters  into  the  Gila.  For 
more  than  half  its  entire  length,  which  is  nearly 
500  m.,  the  Gila  passes  through  mountains,  and 
in  some  places  is  unapproachable,  being  buried 
between  walls  of  perpendicular  rock  nearly 
1,000  ft.  high.  It  emerges  from  the  mountains 
in  Ion.  111°  25'  W.,  after  which  its  course  is 
through  an  open  and  comparatively  level  coun- 
try to  its  termination.  In  the  last  300  m.  it 
has  an  average  fall  of  5  ft.  per  mile,  and  av- 
erages 60  ft.  in  width,  8  ft.  in  depth,  and  in  ve- 
locity 2  m.  an  hour.  In  the  lower  portion  the 
valley  is  from  1  to  3  m.  wide ;  about  150  m. 
from  its  mouth  there  is  a  considerable  bend  to 
the  north,  where  the  valley  for  25  m.  is  from  5 
to  10  m.  wide.  The  valley  is  in  many  places 
covered  with  mezquite  and  cottonwood,  and  on 
its  margin  with  the  willow.  Several  varieties 
of  cactus,  including  the  pitahaya  (eereus  gigan- 
teus\  grow  on  the  table  land  near  the  river, 
but  never  in  the  alluvial  lands  in  its  valley. 


The  ruined  edifices,  broken  pottery,  and  traces 
of  irrigating  canids  found  along  this  river, 
show  that  its  former  population  was  much 
larger  than  at  present.  One  of  these  structures 
is  three  stories  high  and  in  good  preservation. 
The  others  are  in  a  mined  state,  and  present 
little  more  than  dilapidated  walls,  tumuli, 
mounds,  &c.,  of  crumbling  adobe,  of  which 
the  buildings  were  constructed.  (See  Cas^s 
Gbandeb.)  About  200  m.  from  the  Colorado, 
in  one  of  the  finest  portions  of  the  valley,  is 
the  reservation  of  the  Maricopa  and  Pimo  In- 
dians. It  is  intersected  in  all  directions  by  ir- 
rigating canals,  and  produces  abundant  crops. 
Further  £.,  among  the  mountains,  are  many 
luxuriant  valleys  where  once  existed  a  consid- 
erable population,  as  is  evident  from  the  traces 
of  cultivation  and  the  ruins  which  remain. 

CUiBQlT,  Sir  Hmpkrsy,  an  English  naviga- 
tor, half  brother  of  Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  bom  at 
Dartmouth  in  1639,  lost  at  sea  about  the  eod 
of  1588.  He  was  educated  at  Eton  and  Ox- 
ford, followed  the  military  profession,  and  was 
knighted  in  1570  for  his  services  'in  Ireland. 
Being  interested  in  geographical  discovery, 
both  from  love  of  fame  and  of  adventure,  he 
sailed  in  1583  with  five  vessels  and  260  men, 
prepared  to  take  possession  of  the  northern 
parts  of  America,  and  founded  a  colony  in 
Newfoundland,  which,  however,  did  not  prove 
permanent.  On  the  return  his  vessel^  of  only 
10  tons  burden,  foundered,  and  all  perished. 
He  published  a  book  in  1576,  *^  A  Discourse  of 
a  Discovery  for  a  new  Passage  to  Cathay,*^  to 
prove  the  possibility  of  a  N.  W.  passage. 

GILBERT.  Sir  Jehn,  an  English  painter,  bom 
in  1817.  He  exhibited  in  1836  a  water-color 
drawing,  "The  Arrest  of  Lord  Hastings,^^  in 
the  Suffolk  street  gallery,  and  an  oil  painting  in 
the  royal  academy.  In  1839  he  first  exhibited 
in  the  British  institution,  where  he  has  been 
represented  almost  every  year  since.  He  has 
made  many  illustrations  for  books  and  picto- 
rial newspapers,  especially  for  the  British  clas- 
sics, concluding  with  an  edition  of  Shakespeare, 
and  for  the  **  Illustrated  London  News."  In 
1852  he  was  elected  an  associate,  in  1853  a 
member,  and  in  1871  (when  he  was  knighted) 
president  of  the  society  of  painters  in  water 
colors.  He  is  an  associate  of  the  royal  acade- 
my, and  honorary  president  of  the  Liverpool  so- 
ciety of  water-color  painters.  His  best  known 
oil  paintings  are  "  Don  Quixote  giving  advice 
to  Sancho  Panza,"  and  other  subiects  from 
Cervantes;  "The  Education  of  Gil  Bias;"  "A 
Scene  from  Tristram  Shandy;"  "Othello  be- 
fore the  Senate;"  "The  Murder  of  Thomas 
k  Becket;"  "The  Phiys  of  Shakespeare,"  in- 
troducing the  principal  characters  in  each  play; 
"  Charge  of  Cavaliers  at  Naseby ;"  "  A  Draw- 
ing-room at  St.  James's;"  "A  Regiment  of 
Royalist  Cavalry;"  "Rubens  and  Teniers;" 
"The  Studio  of  Rembrandt;"  "Wolsey  and 
Buckingham;"  "A  Convocation  of  Clergy;" 
and  "  The  Entry  of  Joan  of  Arc  into  Orleans." 

GILBERT,  WlOiam  &    See  supplement 


GILBERTINES 


GILDING 


807 


filLBEBTIXiS,  an  English  religious  order,  so 
called  from  the  foander,  St.  Gilbert  of  Sem- 
pringham  (bom  in  1083,  died  Feb.  4, 1 1 89).  They 
were  s\ao  called  the  *^  Order  of  Sem pringham/' 
Gilbert,  who  was  by  birth  lord  of  Sempring- 
ham  and  Tirington,  had  become  as  a  priest  pas- 
tor of  both  places.  He  first  built  a  convent 
near  the  church  of  St.  Andrew  for  seven  poor 
maidens,  which  became  so  flourishing  that  he 
was  called  upon  to  establish  several  others  in 
various  parts  of  the  kingdom.  Having  in  vain 
endeavored  to  unite  these  houses  to  t£ie  order 
of  Oiteauz,  Gilbert  built  a  monastery  of  canons 
regular  near  each  convent,  gave  to  the  canons 
the  rule  of  St.  Augustine,  to  the  nuns  that  of 
St.  Benedict,  and  placed  the  lay  brethren  who 
served  them  under  the  rule  of  Citeauz.  This 
order  with  its  constitutions  was  approved  by 
Eugenius  III.,  and  confirmed  by  his  successors. 
It  numbered  "at  the  founder's  death  18  double 
convents,  besides  hospitals  for  the  sick  and 
asylums  for  widows,  orphans,  and  the  poor, 
with  800  monks  and  upward  of  1,200  nuns. 
The  Giibertines  were  confined  to  England. 
Sempringham  afforded  an  asylum  to  Thomas  4 
Beoket  during  his  quarrel  with  Henry  II.  At 
the  suppression  of  monasteries  under  Henry 
VIII.  the  order  possessed  21  houses  and  11 
double  convents.  The  Gilbertine  rule  is  given 
in  full  by  Holstenius.  See  also  Hurter,  Ge- 
schichte  des  Papstes  Innocem  III,  und  seiner 
Zeitgenanen. 

GILBERT  ISLAND8,  or  KligsiillI  CSioap,  a  clus- 
ter of  coral  islands  in  the  Pacific,  on  both  sides 
of  the  equator,  between  Ion.  172*^  and  IH"* 
80'  £. ;  pop.  estimated  at  60,000.  The  largest 
are  Taputeouea  or  Drummond,  and  Tarawa 
or  Oook  islands,  the  former  80  m.  long  by 
about  i  or  }  m.  wide,  and  the  latter  20  m.  long. 
Almost  the  only  cultivated  products  are  the 
cocoanut  and  pandanus,  which  form  the  sta- 
ples of  food,  and  a  species  of  taro  (arum  oordi- 
folium\  highly  prized  by  the  natives.  The 
breadfruit  is  found  on  the  northern,  though 
not  on  the  southern  islands.  The  climate  is 
equable,  and  though  warm  is  not  very  oppres- 
sive. The  inhabitants  resemble  the  Malays. 
The  people  are  divided  into  three  classes, 
chiefs,  landholders,  and  slaves.  There  is  no 
general  authority  recognized  throughout  the 
group,  but  there  are  several  kings,  one  of 
whom  rules  over  three  of  the  islands,  while 
others  are  scarcely  respected  in  any.    In  some 

f)lace8  the  government  is  administered  by  pub- 
ic assemblies.  The  islanders  are  fond  of  war 
and  prone  to  suicide,  but  they  are  kind  to 
their  children,  generous,  hospitable,  and  more 
considerate  of  women  than  is  usual  among 
savages.  They  are  said  to  eat  human  flesh 
occasionally,  but  are  not  habitual  cannibals. 
Their  clothing  is  made  of  the  leaves  of  the 
pandanus;  their  houses  and  canoes,  though 
constructed  of  rude  materials,  are  superior  in 
size,  strength,  and  elegance  to  any  others  in 
the  Pacific.  The  islands  have  several  good 
harbors,  but  are  seldom  visited  by  vessels. 


CnLBOA,  a  mountiun  in  Palestine,  between 
the  river  Jordan  and  the  plain  of  Esdraelon, 
the  scene  of  the  defeat  and  death  of  Saul  and 
Jonathan.  The  name  Gilboa  signifies  a  bub- 
bling fountain,  and  was  probably  taken  from 
a  large  fountain  at  the  northern  base,  called 
in  Scripture  the  well  of  Harod,  or  the  fountain 
of  Jezreel.  The  ancient  name  is  preserved  in 
the  village  on  the  mountain,  caUed  now  Jelbun, 
and  in  the  time  of  Jerome  Gelbus.  The  foun- 
tain is  now  known  as  Ain  Jalud.  The  moun- 
tain rises  not  more  than  600  ft.  above  the  plain, 
but  extends  £.  and  W.  about  10  m.  Its  sides 
are  white  and  barren.  Near  the  fountain  of 
Jezreel  was  the  ancient  city  of  that  name,  and 
at  this  place  the  Israelites  encamped  before  the 
battle;  while  the  Philistines  pitched  at  Shunem 
(now  Solam),  8  or  10  m.  north,  upon  the  op- 
posite rising  ground.  The  battle  was  fought, 
according  to  the  common  chronology,  in  the 
year  1066  B.  0. 

GItDiS,  surnamed  '<the  Wise,"  a  British 
historian,  bom,  according  to  some  authorities, 
in  498,  according  to  others  in  611,  died  in  670 
or  690.  He  was  the  son  of  Oaw,  a  British 
prince  who  emigrated  to  Wales  to  avoid  sub- 
jection to  the  Anglo-Saxons,  and  the  Welsh 
bard  Aneurin  is  supposed  to  have  been  the 
same  person  or  his  brother.  (See  Aneubin.) 
His  only  complete  work  extant  is  a  short  Latin 
composition  on  British  history,  entitled  De 
Cctlamitate^  Exeidio  et  Conqueetu  BritannicB^ 
in  which  he  mourns  over  the  ruin  of  his  coun- 
try, and  inveighs  against  the  British  kings  and 
clergy.  It  was  first  published  by  Polydore 
Vergil  in  1626,  and  has  been  often  reprinted. 
The  best  edition  is  by  Stevenson,  under  the 
care  of  the  English  historical  society  (London, 
1838).  Translations  have  been  published  by 
Habington  (1638),  and  by  Dr.  Giles  in  **  Bohn's 
Antiquarian  Library"  n848).  It  is  said  by 
Wright  that  there  is  no  independent  authority 
for  the  existence  of  Gildas,  or  for  the  historical 
truth  of  the  work  attributed  to  him,  which  he 
regards  as  a  forgery  of  the  7th  century. 

GILDEMEISTER,  Otto,  a  German  writer,  bom 
in  Bremen,  March  IS,  1823.  He  studied  at 
the  university  of  Bonn,  and  became  in  1846 
connected  with  and  in  1860  editor-in-chief  of 
the  Weserzeitung.  In  1862  he  was  chosen 
secretary  of  the  Bremen  senate,  in  1867  sena- 
tor, in  1866  representative  in  the  diet  of  the 
North  German  confederation,  and  in  October, 
1871,  burgomaster.  He  has  translated  into 
German  the  complete  works  of  Byron  (6  vols., 
Berlin,  1864),  and  many  plays  of  Shakespeare 
for  Bodenstedt^s  complete  edition ;  and  his 
version  of  Shakespeare's  sonnets  was  published 
in  1871. 

GILDUfG,  the  covering  of  the  surfaces  of 
bodies  with  a  thin  coating  of  gold.  This 
method  of  economizing  the  precious  metal, 
and  imparting  to  solid  bodies  the  appearance 
of  being  wholly  composed  of  it,  was  practised 
at  very  remote  periods.  The  sacred  books  al- 
lude to  it ;  in  Exod.  xxvi.  29  there  is  a  com- 


808 


GILDING 


mand  to  overlay  boards  and  bars  with  gold. 
That  the  early  Egyptians  understood  it  well  is 
evident  from  the  gilding  of  the  coffins  of  The- 
ban  mummies,  in  which  the  gold  leaves  resem- 
ble those  now  prepared.  Homer  makes  men- 
tion of  it,  and  the  later  Greeks  thus  decorated 
the  exterior  sculpture  of  their  temples  and 
statues.  The  Romans  after  the  destruction  of 
Carthage  applied  the  process  to  ornamenting 
the  ceilings  of  their  public  buildings,  and  at 
last  of  their  private  houses  also.  The  thick- 
ness of  the  leaf  is  spoken  of  by  Martial  as  like 
a  vapor,  and  by  Lucretius  the  substance  is 
compared  to  a  spider's  web.  According  to 
Pliny,  an  ounce  of  gold  was  made  into  750 
leaves,  each  four  fingers  square.  This  is  about 
three  times  the  thickness  of  the  leaf  now  in 
common  use;  but  some  qualities  are  so  thin 
that  290,000  sheets  make  a  pile  only  one  inch 
in  height;    and  specimens  have  been  made 

only  yiT?lnn7  ^^  *^  ^^^^^  thick,  which  is  1,200 
times  thinner  than  ordinary  printing  paper. 
In  modern  times  the  use  of  gilding  in  archi- 
tecture has  been  carried  to  the  greatest  extent 
by  the  nations  of  Further  India.  It  is  practised 
by  them  with  great  skill  and  in  the  most  pro- 
fuse manner. — Besides  the  method  of  gilding 
by  covering  objects  with  gold  leaf,  there  are 
processes  of  modern  invention,  distinguished 
as  chemical  gilding,  in  which  the  gold  is  incor- 
porated with  the  substance  of  the  article  it 
covers,  and  the  same  quantity  is  thus  made 
not  merely  to  spread  over  a  much  larger  sur- 
face, but  to  be  permanently  attached  to  me- 
tallic bodies,  so  as  to  withstand  the  action  of 
heat  and  of  atmospheric  agents  without  injury ; 
an  art  incompatible  with  the  attainments  of 
the  ancients  in  chemistry. — Gilding  with  gold 
leaf  is  distinguished  as  the  mechanical  branch 
of  the  art ;  and  of  this  there  are  two  distinct 
processes,  one  of  which  is  called  burnish  gild- 
ing or  gilding  in  distemper,  and  the  other  oil 
gilding.  In  the  former  the  article  to  be  orna- 
mented, as  the  moulding  of  a  picture  frame,  is 
received  from  the  joiner  before  it  is  made  up. 
A  priming  of  hot  size  and  whiting  is  first 
applied,  and  when  dry  all  irregularities  in  the 
moulding  are  corrected  with  the  same  com- 
position, made  of  the  consistency  of  putty, 
which  then  receives  four  or  five  coats  of  the 
priming.  This,  which  is  now  ^  to  -j^  of  an 
inch  thick,  is  carefully  trimmed  around  the 
edges  and  smoothed  with  pumice  stone  and 
glass  paper.  This  is  the  foundation  for  the  so- 
called  gold  size  (the  bed  upon  which  the  gold 
leaf  is  to  be  laid),  a  composition,  of  clay,  red 
chalk,  plumbago,  suet,  and  bullock's  blood  ;  or, 
as  used  by  the  French,  of  a  pound  of  Arme- 
nian bole  to  two  ounces  of  red  hematite  and 
as  much  galena,  each  ground  by  itself  in  water, 
then  mixed  and  ground  with  a  spoonful  of  olive 
oil,  and  at  last  tempered  with  a  clear  white 
glue  carefully  prepared  from  sheep  skins. 
When  used,  it  is  first  melted  with  thin  size, 
and  while  warm  is  laid  on  with  a  brush. 
The  leaf  is  then  laid  on  by  means  of  a  brush 


called  a  tip,  an  operation  which  requires  con- 
siderable dexterity.  When  the  whole  is  cover- 
ed and  dried,  the  work,  or  any  portion  of  it,  is 
burnished  with  smooth  agates  or  flints  set  in 
handles  for  this  use. — Oil  gilding  is  practised 
by  several  different  methods.  For  large  objects 
especially  those  exposed  to  the  weather  and 
of  metallic  composition,  the  priming  used  in 
Paris  is  white  lead  mixed  with  linseed  oil  and  a 
little  oil  of  turpentine.  For  equipages  and  in- 
door work  a  varnish  polish  is  much  used  over 
the  gold.  For  elaborately  designed  frames  oil 
gilding  and  burnish  gilding  are  often  employed 
upon  the  same  piece,  care  being  taken  that  the 
applications  for  the  former  do  not  tonch  the 
spots  intended  to  be  burnished,  which  are 
treated  in  the  manner  already  described.  The 
frames  intended  for  this  process  are  furnished 
to  the  gilder  made  up.  They  are  then  thor- 
oughly washed,  and  afterward  receive  two  or 
three  coatings  of  thin  white,  and  more  npon 
the  parts  to  be  burnished.  A  strong  size  called 
clear  cole  is  then  laid  in  several  coats  over 
those  parts  only  intended  for  oil  gilding,  and 
npon  this  the  oil  gold  size,  a  mixture  of  boiled 
linseed  oil  and  ochre.  By  standing  over  night 
this  becomes  ready  for  the  gilding,  which  is 
effected  without  using  water.  The  gold  leaf  is 
pressed  with  cotton  wool  into  all  the  depressed 
portions,  and  when  all  is  laid  the  work  is  smooth- 
ed over  with  a  brush,  by  which  its  irregulari- 
ties are  removed,  and  the  gold  is  nniformly 
distributed. — Book  covers  are  ornamented  with 
gilt  letters  and  figures  in  the  following  manner. 
If  of  cloth,  the  leaf  is  laid  on  over  the  parts 
to  be  ornamented,  and  the  cover  is  then  placed 
in  a  press,  in  which  a  heated  metallic  block, 
having  the  intended  designs  cut  upon  its  face, 
is  powerfully  pressed  against  the  cover  as  in 
printing.  The  heat  of  the  block  causes  the 
glue  on  the  back  side  of  the  cloth  txy  melt  and 
come  through,  and  thus  fasten  the  figure  to  the 
fabric.  Leather  covers  receive  an  application 
of  gelatine  or  of  the  white  of  eg^  dissolved  in 
water,  upon  which  when  dry  an  almost  imper- 
ceptible application  of  oil  is  made  with  a  rag, 
and  the  gold  leaf  is  then  laid  to  be  pressed  as 
in  the  case  of  the  cloth.  The  edges  of  the  leaves 
are  gilded  in  the  bookbinder's  press,  the  same 
gelatine  solution  and  oil  being  applied,  npon 
which  the  gold  leaf  is  laid  and  afterward  bur- 
nished. Chemical  gilding  is  particularly  ap- 
plicable to  metallic  surfaces,  but  other  snrfac^ 
as  of  wood,  leather,  or  paper,  may  be  coated 
with  some  preparation  by  which  they  are  ren- 
dered fit  for  it. — Wash  or  water  gilding  is  the 
branch  of  this  art  in  which  the  gold  is  applied 
by  means  of  an  amalgam  of  gold  and  mercury. 
In  other  processes  it  is  deposited  from  its  solu- 
tion. Copper,  or  an  alloy  of  copper  with  a  lit- 
tle zinc,  or  zinc  and  nickel,  or  brass,  is  well 
suited  for  the  amalgamation  process;  the  nearer 
the  color  is  to  that  of  gold  the  better.  The 
surface  to  be  gilded  must  first  be  thoroughly 
cleaned  and  brightened  and  freed  from  oil; 
and  it  is  then  advisable  to  wash  it  over  with  a 


GILDING 


GILES 


809 


solutioD  made  of  100  parts  by  weight  of  mer- 
cury in  110  of  nitrio  acid,  of  specific  gravity 
1*33,  dilated  with  25  times  the  weight  of  the 
whole  of  pure  water.  This  application  leaves 
a  coating  of  mercury  upon  the  metal,  which  is 
more  ready  to  take  the  amalgam  than  is  the 
metal  itself.  Both  the  mercurial  solution  and 
amalgam  are  sometimes  applied  together  by 
means  of  the  gilder's  scratch  brush,  which  is 
dipped  into  the  former  and  immediately  rubbed 
over  the  latter,  and  then  applied  to  the  metal ; 
the  process  being  repeated  as  often  as  neces- 
sary. After  the  application  the  article  is 
washed  in  water  and  exposed  to  glowing  char- 
coal to  expel  the  mercury.  The  amalgam  is 
prepared  by  heating  small  particles  of  gold  to 
redness  and  throwing  them  into  a  quantity  of 
mercury  heated  so  as  to  emit  fumes,  and  stir- 
ring with  an  iron  rod  till  the  gold  is  dissolved. 
There  should  be  about  eight  times  as  much 
mercury  as  gold,  the  excess  of  the  former  be- 
ing removed  by  squeezing  the  amalgam  throagh 
buckskin.  The  composition  then  contains  about 
67  parts  of  mercury  to  33  of  gold.  The  gold 
thus  deposited  is  of  a  dull  yellow,  and  still  re- 
tains some  mercury,  which  is  removed  after 
washing  and  scrubbing  the  article  with  a  scratch 
brush  acidulated  with  vinegar,  by  applying 
gilding  wax,  and  again  heating.  The  wax  is  a 
mixture  of  beeswax  with  some  of  the  following 
substances,  viz. :  red  ochre,  verdigris,  copper 
scales,  alnm,  vitriol,  borax.  When  the  wax  is 
burned  oflT,  the  color  of  the  gilding  is  found  to 
be  improved,  and  it  is  still  further  heightened 
by  burnishing.  The  amalgamation  process  is 
not  well  adapted  for  gilding  articles  of  iron  and 
steel,  an  oxide  of  iron  being  produced  by  the 
acid  applications,  which  prevents  the  adhesion 
of  the  amalgam.  For  these  the  best  method 
is  to  cover  them  with  gold  leaf.  Copper  may 
be  treated  in  the  same  way.  The  metal  is 
heated  till  it  begins  to  assume  a  blue  color;  a 
sheet  of  gold  leaf  is  then  laid  on  and  gently 
pressed  with  a  burnisher,  and  the  article  is 
again  heated.  Other  sheets  are  laid  over  the 
first  to  the  desired  thickness  and  heated,  and 
the  last  is  burnished  down  cold.  The  surface 
of  iron,  whether  wrought  or  cast,  or  of  steel,  is 
sometinaes  covered  with  a  coat  of  copper. — To 
gild  silver,  a  very  good  process  is  that  called  cold 
gilding.  Sixty  grains  of  fine  gold  and  12  of  rose 
copper  are  dissolved  in  two  ounces  of  aqua  regia. 
The  whole  of  the  solution  is  absorbed  by  linen 
rags,  which  are  then  dried  and  burned  to  ashes. 
The  black  powder  thus  obtained  is  applied 
upon  the  silver,  which  has  been  annealed  and 
polished,  and  is  rubbed  with  a  piece  of  moist- 
ened cork  or  washed  leather.  Burnishing  com- 
pletes the  process. — A  method  of  gilding  but- 
tons and  other  articles  by  immersing  them  in 
solutions  of  gold  was  introduced  into  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  Messrs.  Elkington,  in  Birming- 
ham, in  1836,  by  which  the  injurious  effects  of 
the  amalgamating  process  on  the  health  of  the 
workmen  were  avoided.  To  a  solution  of  chlo- 
ride of  gold  prepared  from  one  part  of  gold, 


80  parts  of  bicarbonate  of  potassa  are  gradu- 
ally added,  and  then  80  parts  more  of  bicar- 
bonate dissolved  in  200  parts  of  water.  The 
whole  is  then  boiled  two  hours,  and  the  color  of 
the  liquid  changes  from  yellow  to  green.  The 
articles,  being  perfectly  well  cleaned  and  an- 
nealed, are  immersed  for  an  instant  in  a  mix- 
ture of  equal  parts  of  nitric  and  sulphuric  acids, 
to  whicli,  if  the  gold  is  intended  to  have  a  dead 
appearance,  a  little  chloride  of  sodium  is  add- 
ed. The  articles,  washed  in  water,  are  plunged 
in  the  gold  solution,  and  left  half  a  minute, 
when  they  are  removed,  again  washed,  and 
dried  in  hot  sawdust.  Articles  of  German  sil- 
ver, of  platinum,  or  of  silver,  may  be  gilded  by 
suspending  them  by  copper  or  zinc  wires  for  a 
time  in  the  liquid. — For  gilding  porcelain  or 
glass,  gold  precipitated  by  sulphate  of  iron  is 
mixed  with  -j^^  its  weight  of  oxide  of  bismuth 
and  a  small  quantity  of  borax  and  gum  water, 
and  the  mixture  is  then  applied  with  a  camePs 
hair  pencil.  The  article  is  heated  in  a  muflie, 
and  when  taken  out  the  gold  is  burnished,  and 
finally  cleansed  with  vinegar  or  white  lead. 
Vases  and  articles  not  exposed  to  wear  may  be 
gilded  by  fixing  gold  leaf  upon  them  with  copal 
varnish.  Silks  or  other  woven  fabrics  may  be 
gilded  by  immersing  them  in  a  neutral  solution 
of  terchloride  of  gold,  or  moistening  them  with 
it  in  design,  and  then  exposing  them  to  the 
action  of  hydrogen,  which  reduces  the  gold  to 
a  metallic  state. 

GULEAD,  the  name  of  a  mountain  group  in  the 
eastern  division  of  ancient  Palestine.  From 
it  the  southern  districts  of  the  same  division 
were  also  called  Gilead,  which  is  often  men- 
tioned in  contradistinction  to  Bashan  in  the 
north,  but  exceptionally  also  as  including  the 
latter  region.  This  was  rich  in  pastures,  and 
renowned  for  its  aromatic  simples,  from  which 
balsam  was  prepared.  Among  its  rivers  were 
the  Jabbok  and  the  Amon. 

GILES.  I.  A  S.  W.  county  of  Virginia,  in- 
tersected by  Kanawha  or  New  river;  area, 
350  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  5,876,  of  whom  698 
were  colored.  The  surface  is  high  and  rugged, 
the  mean  elevation  being  1,600  ft.  above  the 
sea;  the  principal  summits  are  Peter's  and 
Walker's  mountains.  The  soil  of  the  uplands 
is  poor,  but  the  valleys  and  river  bottoms  are 
very  fertile.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  58,598  bushels  of  wheat,  12,638  of  rye, 
105,402  of  Indian  corn,  23,474  of  oats,  and 
1,851  tons  of  hay.  There  were  1,295  horses, 
1,346  milch  cows,  2,095  other  cattle,  4,471. 
sheep,  and  5,247  swine.  Capital,  Pearisburg. 
II.  A  S.  county  of  Tennessee,  bordering  on 
Alabama,  watered  by  Elk  river  and  some  of 
its  branches;  area,  600  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
32,413,  of  whom  12,738  were  colored.  It  has 
a  slightly  uneven  surface  and  a  fertile  soil. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  145,635 
bushels  of  wheat,  2,054,163  of  Indian  corn, 
70,612  of  oats,  32,556  of  Irish  and  28,074  of 
sweet  potatoes,  228,660  lbs.  of  butter,  1.644 
tons  of  hay,  and  8,867  bales  of  cotton^     There 


810 


GILES 


GILLIES 


were  7,672  horses,  8,458  mules  and  asses,  6,536 
miloh  cows,  9,886  other  cattle,  18,658  sheep, 
and  47,700  swine;  2  mannfaotories  of  cotton 
goods,  7  of  saddlery  and  harness,  1  of  tin,  cop- 
per, and  sheet-ironware,  2  flour  mills,  11  saw 
mills,  6  tanneries,  and  5  currying  establish- 
ments.    Capital,  Pulaski. 

GULES)  Henryi  an  American  clergyman  and 
lecturer,  born  in  county  Wexford,  Ireland, 
Nov.  1, 1809.  He  was  educated  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  church,  but  after  various  changes  of 
opinion  joined  the  Unitarians,  and  officiated 
as  pastor  in  Greenock  for  two  years,  and  in 
Liverpool  for  three  years.  In  1840  he  came 
to  America,  where  he  has  been  extensively  en- 
gaged in  lecturing,  with  occasional  services  in 
different  parishes  as  a  preacher.  He  has  pub- 
listed  ^^  Lectures  and  Essays  ^*  (2  vols.,  Boston, 
1845),  "Christian  Thoughts  on  Life"  (1850), 
and  "Illustrations  of  Genius  in  some  of  its 
applications  to  Society  and  Culture"  (1854). 
He  has  also  written  much  for  periodicals,  has 
addressed  literary  societies  and  library  asso- 
ciations, and  given  a  course  of  lectures  before 
the  Lowell  institute  in  Boston  on  the  "Ge- 
nius and  Writings  of  Shakespeare."  He  now 
(1874)  resides  in  Quincy,  Mass. 

GILES,  WUttam  Brandi,  an  American  states- 
man, born  in  Amelia  co.,  Ya.,  Aug.  12,  1762, 
died  at  "  The  Wigwam,"  in  the  same  county, 
Dec.  4, 1830.  He  entered  Princeton  college,  N. 
J.,  but  left  it  before  completing  the  usual  course. 
He  studied  law  with  Chancellor  Wythe,  was 
admitted  to  the  bar,  and  practised  for  five  or 
six  years.  In  1790  he  was  elected  by  the  fed- 
eral party  in  the  Petersburg  district  to  fill  a 
vacancy  in  congress,  and  was  several  times 
rejected.  His  opposition  to  the  bill  creating 
a  bank  of  the  United  States  led  to  his  estrange- 
ment i^om  the  federal  party,  and  to  his  affilia- 
tion with  the  democrats.  On  Jan.  23,  1793, 
he  made  in  the  house  an  attack  upon  Alexan- 
der Hamilton,  then  secretary  of  the  treasury, 
charging  him  with  corruption  and  peculation. 
Hamilton  vindicated  himself  triumphantly  in 
a  report,  and  Giles  replied  by  proposmg  resolu- 
tions censuring  the  secretary  for  undoe  assump- 
tion of  power,  and  for  want  of  respect  for  the 
house.  These  resolutions  were  laid  on  the 
table  by  very  large  mtgorities.  In  1796  Giles 
strongly  opposed  the  creation  of  a  navy  and 
the  ratification  of  Jay's  treaty  with  Great 
Britain,  and  in  1798  the  proposed  war  with 
France  for  her  outrages  on  American  com- 
merce. In  the  latter  year  he  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  legislature  of  Virginia,  where  he 
cooperated  with  Madison  in  procuring  the  pas- 
sage of  the  celebrated  resolutions  of  '98.  In 
1801  he  was  again  elected  to  congress.  In 
1804  he  was  chosen  United  States  senator, 
and  took  at  once  the  position  of  democratic 
leader  in  the  senate,  and  held  it  till  1811, 
when  he  openly  manifested  his  opposition  to 
the  administration  of  President  Madison.  He 
abandoned  public  life  in  1815,  and  remained 
in  retirement  till  1826,  when  he  was  induced 


to  become  a  member  of  the  legislature  of  Vir« 
ginia,  principally  from  his  strong  oppo^tion 
to  the  project  of  calling  a  convention  to  revise 
the  constitution  of  the  state.  In  the  same  year 
he  was  elected  governor,  and  held  the  office 
for  three  years.  The  bill  for  calling  a  conven- 
tion was  revived  and  passed  at  the  session  of 
1827-8,  and  Mr.  Giles  while  governor  was 
chosen  a  member  of  it  The  convention  sat 
in  1829-^80,  and  he  took  a  distinguished  part 
in  its  deliberations.  He  published  in  1813 
"  Political  Letters  to  the  People  of  Virginia," 
and  subsequently  various  letters. 

.  GILniiLiN,  CSc«rge,  a  Scottish  author,  bom 
at  Comrie,  Perthshire,  in  1818.  The  son  of  a 
minister  of  the  Secession  church,  he  was  edu- 
cated for  the  same  profession,  and  has  officiated 
since  1886  as  minister  of  the  School  wynd 
congregation  in  Dundee.  His  first  literary 
sketches  appeared  about  1842  in  the  "Dum- 
fries Herald,"  and  were  collected  in  1845  un- 
der the  title  of  "  A  Gallery  of  Literary  Por- 
traits;" a  second  series  appeared  in  1849.  and 
a  third  series  in  1855.  He  has  also  published 
"  Bards  of  the  Bible  "  (1850) ;  "  The  Book  of 
British  Poesy,  Ancient  and  Modern"  (1851); 
"  The  Martyrs,  Heroes,  and  Bards  of  the  Scot- 
tish Covenant"  (1852);  "The  Grand  Dis- 
covery "  (1854) ;  "  History  of  a  Man  "  (1856) ; 
"  Christianity  and  our  Era  "  (1857) ;  "  Alpha 
and  Omega,"  a  coUection  of  sermons  (1860) ; 
and  "Night,"  a  poem  (1867).  He  has  con- 
tributed much  to  periodicals,  and  has  edited  a 
collection  of  "British  Poets,"  in  48  vols. 

GILL,  Edmmid*    See  supplement. 

€ILLESP1£,  a  S.  W.  central  county  of  Texap, 
watered  by  affluents  of  the  Colorado;  area, 
925  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  8,566,  of  whom  77 
were  colored.  It  has  a  hilly  surface,  about 
one  tenth  of  which  is  suitable  for  farming, 
while  the  remainder  furnishes  good  pa^urage. 
Iron  ore,  limestone,  and  coal  are  the  most  im- 
portant minerals.  The  chief  productions  in 
1870  were  15,588  bushels  of  wheat,  82,185  of 
Indian  corn,  and  916  tons  of  hay.  There  were 
880  horses,  20,024  cattle,  2,178  sheep,  and  8,846 
swine.    Capital,  Fredericksburg. 

GILLESPI£,  WiliUm  HltdicU,  an  American  au- 
thor, bom  in  New  York  in  1816,  died  there, 
Jan.  1,  1868.  He  graduated  at  Columbia  col- 
lege in  1884,  and  spent  nearly  ten  years  in 
Europe  in  travel  and  study.  On  his  return  to 
New  York  in  1845,  he  was  appointed  professor 
of  civil  engineering  in  Union  college,  a  post 
which  he  held  until  his  death.  His  pu billed 
works  are :  "  Rome  as  seen  by  a  New  Yorker, 
1843-'44"  (1845);  "Roads  and  Railroads;  a 
Manual  for  Road-making"  (1845;  10th  ed., 
1871) ;  "  Philosophy  of  Mathematics,"  from  the 
French  of  Auguste  Comte  (1851) ;  "  The  Prin- 
ciples and  Practice  of  Land  Surveying  (1855); 
and  "  Treatise  on  Levelling,  Topography,  and 
Higher  Surveying,"  edited  by  C.  Staley  (1870). 

GILLIES,  John,  a  Scottish  historian,  bom  in 
Brechin,  Forfarshire,  Jan.  18,  1747,  died  in 
Clapham,  near  London,  Feb.   15,  1836.    He 


GILUFLOWER 

was  educated  at  the  aairerait?  of  Glasftow, 
where  he  becarae  professor  of  Greek.  In  1778 
he  pnhliahed  a  tranalation  of  the  "  Or&tions  of 
Ljs\aa  and  lsocrat«s."  Id  1786  he  publiahed 
in  London  hia  "  History  of  Ancient  Greece." 
In  1793,  on  the  death  of  Dr.  Robertaon,  lie 
wa«  made  historiographer  royal  for  Scotland. 
His  principal  worka,  besides  those  abovenained, 
are  a  "Translation  of  Aristotle's  Ethics  and 
Politics  "  (1804) ;  the  "  Iliatory  of  the  Ancient 
World  from  Alexander  to  Angnstns  "  (London, 
ISO?),  which  was  afterward  republished  as  thu 
second  part  of  hia  "History  of  Greece;"  and 
a  "  Translation  of  Aristotle's  Ehetorio  "  (1823). 
CIUJTLOWra,  the  trivial  name  of  the  garden 
species  of  mathicla,  usually  called  Blocks  by 
the  florista,  and  Hometimes  stock  gilliflowers 
and  giUiea.  The  name  gillifiower  has  a  cnriooa 
origin :  the  French  applied  to  thia  and  other 
apicy-amelling  flowers  the  term  girofiie,  olove- 


GaLOTT 


811 


scented ;  this,  through  the  old  spellings  of 
gylhtfer  and  gilofre  (with  the  o  lonfr),  has 
become  our  gilliflower.  Floriste  divide  the 
plants  into  ten-weeks,  intermediate,  Brompton, 
and  emperor  stocks,  and  each  of  these  into 
neveral  sabdiviaions.  The  ten-weeks  and  in- 
termediate stocks  are  annaals,  and  are  garden 
varieties  of  M.  annua,  a  native  of  the  seacoaat 
of  Europe,  and  a  member  of  the  large  order 
erueiferm;  the  flower  in  the  wild  state  is  red- 
dish, but  caltivation  has  produced  a  great  va- 
riety of  colors  from  pure  white  to  dark  parple; 
the  seedsmen's  catalogues  present  new  varieties 
each  year.  The  double  varieties  do  not  produce 
seeds,  bat  such  is  the  tendency  to  depart  from 
the  normal  state  that  tlie  seeds  of  single  flowers 
will  produce  plants  one  half  or  more  of  which 
will  be  double ;  the  seeds  are  imported  from 
Germany,  where  groat  pains  are  taken  in  their 
production.  The  seeda  of  these  varieties  may 
be  sown  in  the  open  groimd  when  the  soil 
beeomes  warmed,  and  treated  aa  ordinary  an- 


nuals, or  they  may  be  sown  in  a  hotbed,  the 
young  plants  potted  when  large  enough,  and 
later  turned  out  into  the  open  border.  Seeds 
may  also  be  sown  in  August  and  September, 
and  the  young  plants  potted  and  kept  over 
winter  in  a  cool  greenhonse,  to  be  turned  oat 


in  spring.  The  Brompton  stocks  must  be 
treated  as  biennials,  as  the  original  species, 
M.  ineana,  is  a  biennial  or  a  abort-lived  peren- 
nial. It  does  not  endure  our  winters,  and  the 
plants  must  he  potted  and  kept  either  in  a  frame 
or  a  light  cellar  until  apring,  or  brought  into 
bloom  in  the  greenhoose  or  window  during 
winter.  Choice  varieties  may  be  increased  by 
onttings ;  and  if  the  plant  after  flowering  is 
beaded  back,  it  may  be  kept  for  several  years. 

GIUJIORi:,  QalMf  UiBs,  an  American  soldier 
and  engineer,  born  at  Black  River,  Lorain  co., 
Ohio,  Feb.  28,  1825.  He  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  L849,  and  served  in  the  engineer  corps 
and  as  assistant  instmctor  at  West  Point  till  the 
ontbreak  of  the  civil  war,  when  he  disttngoished 
himself  by  his  services  at  Hilton  Head,  S.  0. 
(1881),  in  the  siege  and  oaptnre  of  Fort  Pn- 
laski,  Ga.  (1862),  and  especially  in  the  reduc- 
tion of  Forts  Somter  and  Wagner  (1883-'4). 
He  was  made  m^or  general  of  volunteers  July 
10,  1863,  resigned  this  commission  Deo.  6,  1886, 
and  now  (18T4)  ranks  as  m^or  in  the  corps  of 
engineers,  and  is  engineer  in  charge  of  the  de- 
fences of  the  Atlantic  coast.  He  has  published 
"  8i^^  and  Reduction  of  Fort  Pulaski "  (New 
York,  1883);  "Practical  Treatise  on  Limea, 
Hydraulic  Cements,  and  Mortars  "  (1883) ;  and 
"  Engineer  and  Artillery  Operations  agwnst  the 
Defences  of  Charleston  Harbor  in  1863  "  (18BQ). 

GILLOTT,  Jwcpb,  an  English  manufacturer, 
born  in  Warwickshire  about  1800,  died  in  Bir- 
mingham, Jan.  6,  18T3.  He  began  life  as  a 
grinder  of  cutlery  in  Sheffield.  Then  he  re- 
moved to  Birmingham,  and  with  the  assistance 
of  his  wife  began  the  manufactore  of  steel  pens. 
It  is  said  that  he  made  them  in  a  garret  and 
Bold  them  to  small  shopkeepers  about  the  town. 


812 


GILLRAY 


GILMER 


They  were  the  black  "  barrel "  pens^  and  were 
very  stiff  and  scratchy  compared  with  the  quills 
which  they  were  intended  to  supersede.  In 
1820  Gillott  made  the  first  great  improvement 
by  cutting  three  slits  instead  of  one,  wliich 
gave  an  immediate  impetus  to  the  trade.  Then 
by  the  introduction  of  machinery  he  greatly 
reduced  the  price,  and  by  successive  minor  im- 
provements made  his  pens  still  more  popular, 
until  he  was  able  to  build  a  large  factory  in 
Birmingham,  and  they  were  sold  all  over  the 
world.  The  price  of  one  steel  pen  when  he 
entered  business  would  buy  900  at  the  time  of 
his  death.  Ills  works  now  use  live  tons  of 
steel  weekly,  and  make  160,000,000  pens  an- 
nually. Gillott  acquired  immense  wealth,  and 
was  a  connoisseur  in  the  fine  arts,  having  a 
celebrated  gallery  of  paintings  at  his  country 
residence,  near  Edgbaston. 

GILLRAY,  Jaaes,  an  English  engraver  and 
caricaturist,  bom  in  Chelsea  about  1757,  died 
in  London,  June  1, 1815.  He  was  the  son  of  a 
Chelsea  pensioner,  studied  in  the  royal  acade- 
my, and  about  1784  became  known  as  a  success- 
ful engraver.  Between  1779  and  1811  he  pub- 
lished 1,200  caricatures,  many  of  which  were 
etched  at  once  upon  the  copper  without  the 
assistance  of  drawings.  The  royal  family  and 
prominent  cabinet  ministers  and  politicians  of 
the  day  were  ridiculed  by  him  without  mercy. 
He  died  of  delirium  tremens.  His  w^orks  ap- 
peared singly,  but  a  collection  of  them  was 
published  in  London  in  1830 ;  an  edition  edited 
by  Bohn  in  1851;  and  a  new  and  complete 
edition,  with  a  "  History  of  his  Life  and  Times," 
by  Thomas  Wright,  in  1874. 

GILBIAN,  Chandler  RoMns,  an  American  phy- 
sician, bom  at  Marietta,  Ohio,  Sept.  6,  1802, 
died  at  Middletown,  Conn.,  Sept.  26,  1805. 
During  his  childhood  his  father  removed  to 
Philadelphia.  He  took  the  degree  of  M.  D.  in 
1824  at  the  university  of  Pennsylvania,  and 
soon  afterward  removed  to  New  York,  where 
the  whole  of  his  active  professional  life  was 
spent.  In  1840  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
obstetrics  and  the  diseases  of  women  and  chil- 
dren in  the  college  of  physicians  and  surgeons, 
to  which  was  added  in  1861  the  subject  of 
medical  jurisprudence.  In  this  chair  Prof.  Gil- 
man  continued  until  his  death,  although  for  the 
last  year  or  two  he  was  incapacitated  by  fail- 
ing health.  His  principal  publications  were : 
a  translation,  prepared  with  the  assistance  of 
Dr.  Theodore  Tellkampf,  of  Bischoff's  mono- 
graph "  On  the  Periodical  Discharge  of  the 
Ovum  "  (New  York,  1847) ;  "  On  the  Relations 
of  the  Medical  to  the  Legal  Profession"  (1856); 
and  an  edition  of  Beck's  "  Medical  Jurispru- 
dence" (Philadelphia,  1860). 

GILHAN,  John  l^ylor,  an  American  statesman, 
bom  in  Exeter,  N.  H.,  Dec.  19,  1753,  died 
there,  Sept.  1,  1828.  On  the  morning  after 
the  news  of  the  battle  of  Lexington  and  Con- 
cord reached  Exeter,  he  marched  with  100 
other  volunteers  to  Cambridge,  Mass.,  where 
be  served  in  the  provincial  army.    Soon  after, 


'  hia  father  being  made  treasurer  of  the  state,  he 
became  his  assistant  in  the  office.  In  1780  he 
was  a  delegate  from  New  Hampshire  to  the 
convention  which  met  at  Hartford  to  take 
measures  for  the  defence  of  the  country.  In 
1782  and  1788  he  was  a  member  of  the  conti- 
nental congress,  and  in  the  latter  year  suc- 
ceeded his  father  as  treasurer  of  New  Hamp- 
shire. He  was  one  of  the  three  commissioners 
appointed  by  the  govemment  of  the  old  con- 
federation to  settle  the  accounts  of  the  states. 
In  1797  he  was  chosen  governor,  was  annually 
reelected  for  10  successive  years,  and  again  in 
1818,  U4,  and  *16,  after  which  he  declined  to 
be  a  candidate.  He  was  a  zealous  federalist, 
and  his  popularity  in  New  Hampshire  was  so 
great  that  he  was  frequently  chosen  governor 
when  his  party  was  in  the  minority. 

GILMAN*  It  Suiiel,  an  American  clergyman, 
bom  in  Gloucester,  Mass.,  Feb.  16,  1791,  died 
in  Kingston,  Mass.,  Feb.  9,  1858.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Harvard  college  in  1811,  studied  the- 
ology, and  was  tutor  in  mathematics  at  Cam- 
bridge from  1817  to  1819,  when  he  married 
Miss  Caroline  Howard,  and  was  ordained  pas- 
tor of  the  Unitarian  church  in  Charleston,  S. 
C,  in  which  office  he  remained  till  his  death. 
He  contributed  many  papers  to  reviews  and 
other  periodicals,  on  subjects  connected  with 
philosophy  and  general  literature,  and  in  1850 
published  in  Boston  a  volume  of  ^^Contribn- 
tions  to  Literature,  Descriptive,  Critical,  and 
Humorous,  Biographical,  Philosophical,  and 
Poetical."  His  other  prose  works  are  the 
"  Memoirs  of  a  New  England  Village  Choir  " 
(1829),  of  which  three  editions  were  issued,  and 
the  ^^  Pleasures  and  Pains  of  a  Student's  Life  -' 
(1852).  He  translated  the  satires  of  Boilean, 
and  published  some  original  poems,  among 
which  are  the  "  History  of  a  Ray  of  Light," 
and  a  poem  read  before  the  Phi  Beta  Kappa 
society  of  Harvard  .college.  In  Charleston  he 
took  a  prominent  part  in  promoting  the  tem- 
perance cause,  as  well  as  the  interests  of  litera- 
ture. IL  €ar«liBe,  an  American  authoress,  wife 
of  the  preceding,  bom  in  Boston,  Oct.  8,  1794. 
She  is  a  daughter  of  Samuel  Howard  of  Boston. 
At  the  age  of  16  she  wrote  a  poem  entitled 
"Jephthah's  Rash  Vow,"  and  soon  after  an- 
other on  "  Jairus's  Daughter,"  which  was  pub- 
lished in  the  "  North  American  Review."  In 
1819  she  married  the  Rev.  Samuel  Oilman,  and 
removed  with  him  to  Charleston,  S.  0.  She 
has  published  *'  Recollections  of  a  New  Eng- 
land Housekeeper,"  "  Recollections  of  a  South- 
ern Matron,"  **  Ruth  Raymond,  or  Love's  Pro- 
gress," ^*  Poetry  of  Travelling  in  the  United 
States,"  "  Verses  of  a  Lifetime,"  ''  Mrs.  Gil- 
man's  Gift  Book,"  "Oracles  from  the  Poets'' 
(1854),  "The  Sibyl,  or  New  Oracles  from  the 
Poets  "  (1854),  and  "  Stories  and  Poems  by  a 
Mother  and  Daughter  "  (1 872).  Since  the  civil 
war  she  has  resided  in  Cambridge,  Mass. 

GILHEK.  I.  A  N.  W.  central  county  of  West 
Virginia,  watered  by  Little  Kanawha  river; 
area,  512  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  4,338,  of  whom 


GILOLO 


GIN 


813 


27  were  colored.  It  has  a  rough  surface,  much 
of  which  is  thickly  wooded,  and  a  rich  soil, 
suitable  for  grain  and  pasturage.  There  are 
several  salt  springs  and  iron  mines.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  9,830  bushels  of 
wheat,  106,036  of  Indian  corn,  17,592  of  oats, 
44,929  lbs.  of  butter,  and  1,636  tons  of  hay. 
There  were  1,114  horses,  1,295  milch  cows, 
1,697  other  cattle,  6,100  sheep,  and  8,907 
swine.  Capital,  Glenyille.  IL  A  N,  county 
of  Georgia,  drained  by  Ooosawattee  and  other 
rivers;  area,  about  500  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
6,644,  of  whom  117  were  colored.  Several 
spurs  of  the  Blae  Ridge,  abounding  in  beautiful 
scenery,  and  alternating  with  fertile  valleys, 
traverse  parts  of  the  county.  The  mineral 
products,  comprising  gold,  marble,  and  iron,  are 
valuable  and  abundant.  The  chief  productions 
in  1870  were  8,103  bushels  of  wheat,  10,417 
of  rye,  169,099  of  Indian  com,  12,333  of  oats, 
13,546  of  sweet  potatoes,  and  67,128  lbs.  of 
butter.  There  were  764  horses,  1,922  milch 
cows,  8,369  other  cattle,  6,461  sheep,  and 
10,701  swine.     Capital,  Xllijay. 

GILOLO,  or  HilHalierty  an  island  of  the  Indian 
archipelago,  in  the  Molucca  group,  between 
Celebes  and  New  Guinea,  separated  from  the 
former  by  the  Molucca  passage  and  from  the 
latter  by  Gilolo  strait;  area,  about  5,780  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  estimated  at  27,000.  It  is  crossed  by 
the  equator,  and  lies  between  lat.  2"*  30'  N.  and 
1^  a,  and  Ion.  127"  and  129°  E.  The  outline 
somewhat  resembles  that  of  Celebes.  The  isl- 
and consists  of  four  peninsulas  radiating  from 
a  centre  situated  in  about  lat.  0""  40'  N.  Of  these 
peninsulas  two  trend  N.  and  S.  respectively, 
along  or  near  the  128th  meridian ;  one  extends 
toward  the  N.  £. ;  and  the  fourth  stretches  to 
the  S.  £.,  terminating  in  Cape  Tabo,  the  most 
easterly  point  of  the  island.  The  length  of 
Gilolo  is  nearly  250  m.  The  range  of  smaller 
islands  to  which  the  name  Moluccas  was  origi- 
nally applied,  including  Ternate,  Tidore,  Morty, 
Makian,  and  Batchian,  skirts  the  southerly  part 
of  the  W.  coast.  Gilolo  is  of  volcanic  forma- 
tion. From  tha  sea  coast,  which  is  itself  de- 
scribed as  in  many  parts  mountainous,  lofty 
mountains  are  visible  in  the  interior,  some  of 
which  are  said  to  be  volcanoes.  According 
to  Wallace,  the  surface  seems  to  have  under- 
gone changes  of  elevation  within  a  recent 
period ;  and  the  upheaval  of  a  mountain  at 
Gamakonora  in  the  northern  peninsula  is  re- 
ported to  have  occurred  in  1 673.  Fringes  of 
coral  reef  interfere  with  navigation  along  many 
portions  of  the  coast.  The  inland  regions  are 
but  very  slightly  known  ;  they  appear  to  con- 
sist largely  of  elevated  tracts  of  forest.  The 
clove  tree  is  indigenous  to  the  island.  About 
four  fifths  of  the  inhabitants  are  ruled  by  the 
sultan  of  Ternate,  whose  residence  was  for- 
merly at  the  town  of  Gilolo,  on  the  W.  coast 
of  the  northern  peninsula.    The  Malay  element 

Eredomi nates,  but  the  active  and  energetic  in- 
abitants  of  the  northern  peninsula  belong  to 
an  indigenous  race   called  Alfuros,  differing 


both  from  the  Malays  and  the  Papuans,  yet 
possessing  some  of  the  characteristics  of  each. 
The  government  of  the  Netherlands  maintains 
an  insignificant  military  station  at  Dodingo,  a 
village  opposite  Ternate.  The  principal  pro- 
ducts of  Gilolo  are  sage,  spices,  tortoise  shell, 
and  tropical  fruits. 

GILPIN,  a  N.  central  county  of  Colorado,  lying 
chiefiy  in  the  foot  hills ;  area,  about  150  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  5,490.  The  average  altitude  of 
the  county  is  about  9,000  ft.,but  the  climate  is 
mild.  The  surface  is  broken  by  mountain 
ranges.  The  valleys,  watered  by  small  streams, 
are  fertile.  It  is  one  of  the  richest  gold-mining 
regions  in  the  world,  and  contains  more  than 
90  quartz  mills.  In  1870  it  produced  bullion 
to  the  value  of  about  $2,000,000.  There  are 
9  hotels,  6  churches,  5  scliools,  2  founderies,  2 
smelting  works,  1  chlorine  reduction  establish- 
ment, and  2  newspapers.  The  chief  agricultu- 
ral productions  in  1870  were  21,065  bushels 
of  potatoes  and  172  tons  of  hay.  Capital,  Cen- 
tral City. 

GILPIN,  Bemard,  an  English  ecclesiastic,  born 
in  Kentmire,  Westmoreland,  in  1517,  died  in 
Houghton,  Durham,  in  1583.  He  was  educa- 
ted at  Oxford,  became  a  convert  to  Protes- 
tantism after  a  disputation  with  Peter  Mar- 
tyr, and  in  1552  was  made  vicar  of  Norton  in 
the  diocese  of  Durham.  On  the  accession  of 
Mary  he  went  abroad  for  three  years.  On  his 
return  his  uncle.  Dr.  Tunstall,  bishop  of  Dur- 
ham, appointed  him  his  archdeacon,  and  gave 
him  the  living  of  Houghton,  of  which  he  remain- 
ed rector  till  his  death,  declining  the  bishopric 
of  Carlisle,  which  was  offered  to  him  by  Queen 
Elizabeth.  His  parish  and  the  neighboring 
neglected  parishes,  which  he  regularly  visit- 
ed, comprised  a  wild  rugged  district  on  the  Scot- 
tish border,  whose  inhabitants,  from  centuries 
of  marauding  warfare,  were  in  a  half  savage 
state.  He  went  fearlessly  among  them,  and  by 
his  preaching  and  benevolence  acquired  great 
infiuenoe  over  them.  He  preached  so  boldly 
against  the  vices  of  the  times,  and  especial- 
ly of  the  clergy,  that  complaints  were  made 
against  him  successively  to  the  bishop  of  Dur- 
ham and  the  bishop  of  London.  He  built  and 
endowed  a  grammar  school  in  his  parish  for  the 
instruction  of  the  children  of  the  poor,  and 
regularly  educated  at  his  own  house  24  lads  of 
promise  whom  he  ultimately  sent  to  the  nni' 
versity.  His  life  has  been  written  by  George 
Carleton  (London,  1628),  and  by  William  Gilpin 
(London,  1751). 

GIN,  or  Geneva  (Fr.  genihre^  juniper),  an  al- 
coholic liquor,  distilled  generally  from  rye 
and  barley  and  fiavored  with  juniper.  It  was 
made  originally  in  Holland,  whence  it  is  some- 
times called  ^^hollands,"  and  it  is  still  manu- 
factured largely  at  Schiedam,  Gouda,  and  Am- 
sterdam. In  the  distilleries  of  Schiedam  two 
parts  of  unmalted  Riga  rye  are  used  to  one 
part  of  malted  bigg  or  barley.  This  is  mashed 
with  water,  at  a  temperature  of  from  162"  to 
168",  in  the  proportion  of  36  gallons  to  every 


814 


GINDELY 


1)  owt.  of  meal.  'When  tlie  magma  has  been 
made  UDiform  b;  stirring,  the  ton  is  covered  to 
confine  the  heat,  and  it  is  left  thns  for  two 
hoars.  It  is  then  etiired  np  agiuc,  the  trans- 
parent spent  wash  of  a  preceding  mashing  is 
added,  and  afterward  cold  water  enongb  to  re- 
duce the  temperature  to  S5°.  Flanders  j'east 
is  introdaced  next,  in  the  proportion  of  1  lb.  to 
everj  100  galloca  of  the  mixture.  Fermenta- 
tion epeedilj  sets  in,  and  the  attenaation  is 
complete  in  from  48  to  60  hours,  A  part  of 
the  jeast  is  nsually  skimmed  off  from  the  fer- 
menting tuns,  hj  which  the  prodnctioo  of  spirit 
is  obstructed,  but  the  quality  of  the  liqnor  i^ 
improved  hy  preventing  its  impregnation  with 
yeasty  particles.  The  wash  and  groins  ore  then 
transicrred  to  the  still  and  converted  into  low 
wines,  into  every  100  gallons  of  wliich  are  put 
two  ponnds  of  juniper  berries  and  about  a 
quarter  of  a  pound  of  salt.  The  whole  is  then 
pat  into  the  low-wine  atil]  and  the  spirit  drawn 
off  by  a  well  regulated  heat.  The  quantity 
of  spirit  varies  from  IS  to  21  gallons  to  the 

Siiarter  of  grain.  There  are  800  distilleries  of 
lis  iignor  at  Schiedam.  English  gin,  mann- 
factnred  largely  in  London  and  other  places  in 
Great  Britain,  is  made  usuall;  from  the  impure 
products  of  the  distillation  of  Scotch  and  Eng- 
lish whiskey,  rectified  by  one  or  more  distilla- 
tions, and  flavored  with  varioos  substances, 
such  as  the  oil  of  turpentine,  oil  of  juniper,  cori- 
ander seeds,  cardamoms,  capsicum,  &o.  This 
gin  is  the  common  alcoholic  drink  of  the  lower 
classes  in  England,  and  almost  every  London 
dealer  has  his  private  receipt  for  increasing  its 
pungency  and  strength.  It  is  adnlterated  prob- 
ably more  than  any  other  liqnor.  Pure  gin 
contains,  according  to  Brande,  GlflO  parts  of 
alcohol  in  every  100  pwta, 

GINDELT,  AiIh,  a  German  historian,  bom 
in  Pragne,  Sept.  8,  1829.  He  became  in  1863 
professor  of  the  German  language  and  litera- 
tnre  at  the  Bohemian  OherreaUehuh  in  Pragne, 
and  in  1802  of  Austrian  history  in  the  univer- 
sity of  that  city  oad  archivist  of  Bohemia.  He 
has  published  many  historical  works,  including 
Sudolf  II.  vnd  teine  Zeit  (2  vols.,  Prague, 
1862-'G),  Mtmumenta  HUtorim  Bohemiea  (4 
parts,  18e4-'T),  and  Getehiehle  dea  DreUaig- 
jakrigm  Kriegt  (1869). 

6IKGER,  the  scraped  and  dried  rhizoma  of 
nngiber  offieiiuiU,  a  plant  of  the  order  zijigi- 
beraeea,  a  native  of  Hindostan,  but  cultivatad 
both  in  the  East  and  West  Indies,  and  in  Sierra 
LeoDO.  It  has  a  tuberona  root,  an  annnal 
stem  3  or  S  fL  high,  and  smooth,  lanceolat'C 
leaves,  6  or  6  in.  long.  Its  flowers  are  yellow- 
ish and  emit  an  aromatic  odor.  Its  medicin^ 
virtues  reside  in  its  root,  of  which  two  varie- 
ties are  found  in  the  market,  the  black  and  the 
white  or  Jamaica  ginger.  The  diflerence  is 
chiefly  in  the  retention  or  removal  of  the  epi- 
dermis, and  perhaps  a  sabeequent  bleaching 
process  applied  to  the  lighter  variety.  In  com- 
merce the  whole  ginger  is  called  race  ginger. 
A  preserve  is  made  by  boiling  the  young  and 


GINGEO 

tender  roots  in  sugar ;  large  quantities  of  it  are 
imported  from  China.  Ginger  is  used  both  for 
cooking  and  as  a  medicine.  Its  odor  is  aromatic 
and  characteristic,  its  taste  spicy  and  pungent 
It  contains  a  volatile  oil  and  resins,  with  other 
constituentB  of  less  importance,  and  enters  into 


Glugsr  (Oiigllwr  offldDBle). 

many  officinal  preparations,  its  virtues  being 
usually  extracted  by  aloohol ;  but  an  infuNon 
may  he  used.  The  popular  aromatic  stimulant 
sold  as  extract  of  Jamaica  ginger  is  s  oonceo- 
trated  alcoholic  tincture.  Ginger  is  a  gratefiil 
stimulant  and  carminative,  and  is  chiefly  used 
either  alone  or  in  combination  in  disorders  of 
the  alimentary  canal.  It  will  olten  relieve  flat- 
ulence and  the  griping  pains  of  a  mild  colic 
It  renders  bitter  infusions  and  tinctnres  more 
acceptable  to  the  stomach,  and  may  be  advan- 
tageonsly  combined  with  tonic  powders.  In 
many  coses  it  polliates,  if  it  does  not  allay,  the 
distress  of  seasickness.  The  dose  of  tbe  pow- 
der is  10  grs.  or  more;  the  fluid  extract  and 
tincture  are  tbe  best  form  for  administration- 

CINGXO  {SalMuria  adiantifolia),  a  large 
tree  from  China  and  Japan,  belonging  to  the 
yew  suborder  of  ciM\fertt.  No  tree  can  ap- 
pear less  like  a  member  of  the  pine  family  than 
the  ginkgo;  it  is  a  rapid  grower,  withastraight 
truA  clothed  with  a  light  gray  bark  ;  its  de^ 
ciduous  leaves  are  alternate,  fan-shaped  ol 
wedge-shaped,  with  the  broad  apex  notched 
or  ent  more  or  less  deeply,  frequently  two- 
lobed,  thick  and  leathery,  with  fine  lon^tn- 
dinal  ribs,  and  of  a  light  yellowish  green  color. 
The  leaves  are  ao  like  tliose  of  some  maiden- 
bwr  ferns  that  it  is  by  some  colled  the  maiden- 
hair tree.  Tbe  ataminate  and  pi.'^tillate  dowers 
are  borne  upon  separate  trees ;  the  former  are 
in  slender  catkins  about  li  inch  long,  while 
the  female  flowers  are  either  solitary  or  in  small 
clusters  at  tbe  ends  of  the  branches;  the  female 
flower,  which  consists  only  of  a  naked  ovnle, 
is  seated  in  a  small  cup-Uke  disk ;  this  increases 


GINGKO 

in  size  and  covers  the  baM  of  the  ripe  fniit, 
which  ia  a  globular  or  ovate  nut.  In  its  nativo 
coantries  the  ginkgo  attains  a  large  luze ;  Bnnge 
mentiona  one  40  (1  in  circa ml'ereuoe  and  still 
vigorous;  a  specimen  in  the  botanio  garden  at 
Piaa  is  T5  ft.  high.  It  is  supposed  that  it  was 
introduced  into  Enrope  from  Japan  bj  the 
Dutch ;  it  was  flrat  planted  in  this  country  in 
1784  by  Mr.  Alexander  HamUton,  who  lived 
near  Philadelphia;  the  trees  are  still  standing, 
though  the  groDQds  have  been  converted  into 
a  rural  cemetery ;  there  are  also  some  fine 
specimens  in  Boston.  The  wood  is  of  a  yel- 
lowish color  without  any  resinous  qualities,  and 
useful  as  lumber,  thoagh  the  Chiuese  cultivate 
the  tree  maiuly  for  its  nuts,  which  are  edible 
but  iiuipid  ;  medicinal  virtues  are  attributed 
to  them,  and  they  are  considered  essential, 
roasted  or  boiled,  at  entertaiaments.  Though 
the  tree  was  for  mauy  years  regarded  as  a  great 
rarity  in  the  United  States,  it  is  now  not  un- 
common in  cultivation,  and  is  used  in  the  oraa- 
mentation  of  lawns  and  pleasure  grounds ;  it 


GINGUENE 


815 


Olngka  (SiBsbuib 

ahonld  be  planted  where  the  peculiarity  of  its 
foliage  can  be  readily  observed.  By  frequently 
heading  back  the  branches,  it  can,  if  desired, 
be  kept  in  the  form  of  a  large  bush.  As  it  is 
perfectly  hardy  at  Boston,  it  will  probably  en- 
dure the  climate  in  most  parts  of  the  ooontry. 
It  is  raised  from  seeds,  cuttings,  and  layers; 
it  has  not  ft-uited  to  any  great  extent  in  this 
country,  but  has  done  so  abundantly,  in  Europe, 
and  the  seeds  are  imported  by  seed  dealers. 
Cuttings  of  the  old  wood  or  of  the  partly  ri- 

Kned  new  wood  take  root  readily,  as  do  layers, 
&es  grown  from  cuttings  and  layers  are  not 
likely  to  be  so  well  shaped  as  those  obtained 
from  seed.  Gingko  is  one  of  the  Chinese  names 
for  the  tree,  and  was  adopted  by  Linnnus  as 
the  generic  name ;  he  described  it  in  1771  aa 
gingko  lUoha.  but  Sir  James  Edward  Smith, 
considering  the  name  "  nnconth  and  barba- 


rous," in  1^90  altered  it  to  Salitivria,  in  honor 
of  R.  A.  Saliabnry,  an  English  botaiiist ;  the 
specific  name  recognizes  Uie  resemblance  of 
the  leaves  to  the  fronds  of  adiantum,  the  maid- 
en-hair fern.  Although  this  change  of  name 
was  against  the  rules  of  scientific  nomenclature, 
and  strongly  protested  against  at  the  time,  later 
botanists  have  generally  adopted  it. 

CUIGRAS,  a  N.  E.  oo.  of  Dakota  territory, 
recently  formed,  and  not  ioclnded  in  the  cen- 
Bos  of  1670;  area,  about  1,46Q  sq.  m.  Dakota 
or  James  river  rises  here,  and  Cheyenne  river 
flows  through  the  N.  part. 

filNGIi'EN^  Pierre  Laoli,  a  French  historian, 
born  in  Benoes,  April  25,  1748,  died  in  Paris, 
Not.  18,  1816.  He  went  to  Paris  in  1772, 
being  then  acquainted  with  claseicoj,  French, 
Italian,  and  English  literature,  and  music.  He 
had  written  before  leaving  Rennes  a  poem  en- 
titled La  eo7\fe*tion  de  Zulmi.  He  showed 
it  to  many  of  his  friends,  copies  were  taken, 
and  in  1777  it  was  published  without  his  con- 
sent and  disfigurea  by  innumerable  errors. 
Several  persons  claimed  the  authorship,  and 
he  finally  published  it  correctly  under  his  own 
name  in  1770.  He  afterward  published  sev- 
eral other  poems.  Is  1776  the  celebrated  com- 
poser Piccini  arrived  in  Paris,  and  soon  alter  , 
a  violent  quarrel  broke  oat  between  his  ad- 
mirers and  those  of  Gluok,  in  which  Gingne- 
n£  was  the  most  effective  supporter  of  Pic- 
cini's  cause.  About  1780  he  obtained  a  clerk- 
ship in  the  otiice  of  the  minister  of  finance. 
The  moderation  of  his  views  brought  upon 
him  the  hostility  of  the  revolutionists,  and  in 
1798  he  was  thrown  into  prison,  and  only  re- 
leased on  the  overthrow  of  Robespierre.  He 
was  soon  after  appointed  a  member  of  the 
executive  commission  of  public  instructjon,  and 
was  director  general  of  that  branch  of  the  ad- 
ministration from  179S  to  1797.  In  1794,  in 
company  with  Chamfort,  he  commenced  the 
Decade  pkihiophigue  litteraire  et  poUtiqut. 
After  thv  abolition  of  the  republican  calendar 
the  title  was  changed  to  Betiite,  and  be  con- 
tinued to  write  for  it  till  1807,  when  it  waa 
merged  in  the  Mereure  de  I^anee.  In  1798  he 
wont  to  Turin  as  mini8t«r  plenipotentiary,  but 
remaned  only  seven  months.  In  1799  he  was 
chosen  a  member  of  the  tribunate.  His  conrse 
there,  especially  his  opposition  to  special  tri- 
bunals, eicited  the  anger  of  Bonaparte,  and 
he  was  removed  f^om  the  office  in  1B02.  In 
1802- '3  and  1805-'6  he  delivered  lectures  on 
Italian  literature  at  the  athensum  of  Paris, 
which  attracted  crowded  audiences,  including 
a  large  number  of  the  most  distinguished  lit- 
erary men  of  France.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  commission  established  to  continue  the 
Hittoire  litteraire  de  la  France,  of  which  12 
volumes  had  been  completed  by  the  Benedic- 
tines; to  the  succeeding  volumes  he  contrib- 
uted many  articles,  mostly  on  the  lives  and  pro- 
ductions of  tlie  troubadours.  He  also  wrote 
much  for  the  Biograpkie  vniveruUe  and  the 
MotiiteuT.     But  bis  great  work  ia  tho  Et*' 


816 


GINSENG 


toirt  mtiraire  d'ltalU  {9  voIb.,  1811-'19).  A 
small  portion  of  the  7th  volnine  and  abont 
liftlf  of  the  8th  and  Bth  were  written  by  Fran- 
owco  Salfi,  who  added  a  10th  entirely  his  own, 
bringing  it  down  to  the  ctoBO  of  the  16th  oen- 
tnry.  This  work  was  received  with  great  favor 
all  over  Europe,  and  espeoialjy  ii  Italy,  where 
many  editions  and  traoHlations  of  it  have  been 
pablished.  A  second  edition  (14  vols.,  Paris, 
1624^'85)  was  published  nnder  the  snpervision 
of  Dannon. 

CIKSMG,  the  root  of  the  perenniai  herb  for- 
merly called  panax  quinqui^oliian,  bnt  now 
placed  in  tbe  geans  aralia.  The  Chinese  gin- 
aeng  is  probably  derived  from  another  species 
of  the  same  genus.  The  root  of  the  plant  grow- 
ing in  the  United  States  is  of  interest  or  valne 
chiefly  as  an  article  of  exportation  to  Ohina, 
where  it  is  anpposed  to  possess  remarkable  vir- 
tneiiDthe treatmentofnearlyalldiseaeeB.  The 
fleshy  root,  from  4  to  9  in.  long,  throws  op  a 


simple  stem  about  a  foot  high,  which  bears 
at  the  top  three  long-petioled  leaves,  each  of 
which  has  five  divisions,  and  a  small  umbel  of 
inconapicQoua,  greenish  white  flowers,  which 
we  sncceeded  by  small  berry-like  red  fmita. 
Before  the  introduction  of  tbe  American  root, 
ginseng  is  said  to  have  brought  ita  weight  in 
gold  at  Peking.  There  is  no  reason  to  sap- 
pose  ila  efficacy  is  other  than  imaginary.  It 
la  chewed  by  some  persons  in  liis  country,  but 
is  not  used  in  medicine,  except  as  a  demulcent. 
eiOBEBTI,  doTIMil  iatMle,  an  Italian  chem- 
ist, born  at  Mangardino,  Piedmont,  Oct.  2S, 
irei,  died  Sept.  14,  1884.  He  introduced  the 
principles  of  Lavoisier  into  Italy  ^  in  1790  be- 
came perpetual  secretary  of  the  society  of  agri- 
cnltnre  at  Turin,  in  which  science  he  effected 
great  improvements;  was  a  member  of  the 
provioonal  government  established  by  the 
French  in  17B8,  and  was  imprisoned  by  the 
Anatriansiu  1?9S.  In  1800  he  was  made  pro- 
fessor in  the  nniversity  of  Torin.    The  Giober- 


GIOBERn 

tine  tincture,  discovered  by  him,  is  a  prepaia- 
tion  for  restoring  ancient  writings  which  have ' 
become  illegible,  either  from  the  fading  of  the 
ink,  or  from  the  partial  waahing  away  of  the 
original  writing  to  make  room  for  another. 
It  was  found  that  by  the  application  of  dilated 
mnriatio  acid  and  of  pmssiate  of  potash  to  the 
parchment  previously  moistened  in  water,  the 
oldest  and  most  fad^d  US.  was  almost  wholly 
restored.     (See  FALmpsEST.) 

ClOBiXTI,  Vtueiu,  an  Italian  philosopher, 
bom  in  Turin,  April  G,  1801,  died  in  Paria,  Oct. 
2fl,  ises.  Eestadiedatthenniversityof  Tnrin, 
and  in  1626  waa  ordtuned  priest.  Becoming 
professor  of  theology  at  Tnrin,  he  spent  sev- 
eral years  in  scboiaMio  retirement.  Reli^on 
and  patriotism  were  the  twin  motives  with 
which  he  inspired  bis  pupils.  On  the  aoceasion 
of  Charles  Albert  he  was  appointed  court 
cbaplwn,  bnt  resigned  the  office  m  1888.  This 
step  and  the  libera]  tone  of  his  university  lec- 
tnree  made  him  suspected  as  sn  accomplice  of 
the  revolutionary  schemes  of  "  yonng  Italy," 
and  he  was  suddenly  arrested.  Although  no 
direct  connection  with  the  "  young  It&ly  "  so- 
cieties was  proved,  he  was  sentenced  to  four 
months'  imprisonment  and  to  baiushment 
The  first  year  of  his  exile  he  spent  in  Paris,  for 
the  purpose  of  pursuing  his  studies  in  philos- 
ophy. He  then  went  to  Bmsaels,  where  he 
occupied  for  eleven  years  a  humble  position 
as  teacher  in  a  private  school.  He  resumed 
his  interrupted  studies,  and  prodnced  his  philo- 
sophical works,  the  Teoria  del  lovrannaturaU 
(Hmasels,  1888),  and  the  Introdunoiu  aUc 
itudio  d«lia  JiUmJia  (2  vols.,  BmBsels,  1840). 
The  mastery  diaplayed  in  the  latter  'work  at 
once  of  the  highest  problems  of  theology, 
philosophy,  and  history,  its  profound  eipod- 
tions  and  hostile  criticisms  of  the  principal 
modem  philosophical  systems,  and  its  brilliant 
and  novel  subjection  of  science  to  revelation, 
and  of  all  the  culture  of  life  to  religion,  caused 
him  to  be  immediately  recognized  as  one  of  the 
chiefs  of  Oatholic  philosophy.  It  was  rather 
by  the  remarkably  original  form  erf  its  state- 
ments than  by  the  novelty  of  its  ideas  that 
the  Ifitrodunotu  exerted  its  influence,  and 
OBusad  Gioberti  to  be  hailed  as  the  reconstmc- 
tor  of  modem  philosophy.  It  wns  quoted  with 
applause  in  the  charges  of  French  and  Italian 
bishops,  and,  though  assailed  by  ft  portion  of 
the  Catholic  press,  was  examined,  j  ad ged,  and 
commended  by  Pope  Gregory  XVI.  Eloquent, 
passionate,  and  full  of  bold  and  felicitons  di- 
gressions, it  contains  more  pages  on  literature, 
art,  and  especially  politics,  than  on  the  pfailo- 
sopbioal  theory  which  it  introduces.  In  his 
work  Ikl  hMo  (Bmssels,  1841)  he  applied  his 
philosophy  to  eesthetics.  The  flnrt  work  that 
made  him  popularly  known  was  the  Del  pri- 
mato  morale  e  ewiU  dtgli  Italiani  (Brussels, 
1848),  whose  object  was  to  restore  in  Italynol 
only  the  philosophy  of  the  Cliristian  fathers 
but  the  Gnetph  policy  of  the  papacy.  Italy, 
he  maintaina,  is  the  sacerdotal  nation  of  So- 


GIOBERTI 


817 


man  Catholic  Europe,  being  elected  by  Provi* 
denoe  to  guard  the  second  dispenBation,  as 
Israel  was  to  guard  the  first.  He  affirms  that 
the  priesthood  has  attempted  to  retain  the 
people  in  tutelage  beyond  the  proper  time, 
after  it  has  lost  its  former  moral  and  intel- 
lectnal  superiority  over  them.  Hence  a  fatal 
schism  exists  between  the  ecclesiastical  and 
temporal  orders,  between  spiritnal  and  seen- 
lar  culture,  which  is  the  source  of  all  the  evils 
that  afflict  modem  society.  He  proposes  a 
voluntary  cession  by  the  priesthood  of  a  do- 
minion which  has  become  incompatible  with 
modem  civilization,  and  a  thorough  alliance 
of  sacerdotal  and  lay  culture.  He  calls  upon 
the  Italians  and  the  Italian  clergy  to  inau- 
gurate this  new  civilization,  urging  the  latter 
to  put  themselves  at  the  head  of  social  move- 
ments, and  to  be  the  champions  and  not  the 
enemies  of  the  demands  of  the  age  for  free  in- 
stitutions. He  claims  for  the  pope  an  arbitra- 
torship  in  the  affairs  of  the  European  nations, 
founded  on  his  spiritual  authority.  The  pro- 
gramme which  he  proposed  for  immediate 
Italian  politics  was:  a  confederation  of  the 
states;  the  introduction  of  reforms;  a  religious 
head,  the  pope ;  a  military  head,  the  king  of 
Sardinia;  a  capital,  Rome;  a  citadel,  Turin; 
and  above  all,  a  sentiment  of  nationality  in  the 
Italian  princes.  From  the  publication  of  the 
Primato^  Gioberti  was  regarded  as  the  lead- 
er of  the  moderate  liberal  party.  Few  works 
have  been  received  with  greater  enthusiasm, 
or  have  wrought  a  greater  influence  upon  tiie 

Sublio  opinion  of  a  nation.  It  was,  however, 
istrusted  by  the  Jesuits^  to  whom  Gioberti  re- 
plied in  the  ProlegotMni  of  the  second  edition 
(Brussels,  1845).  In  1846  he  removed  to  Paris. 
The  accession  of  Pius  IX.,  who  had  studied 
with  favor  the  writings  of  the  exiled  philoso- 
pher, and  the  liberal  measures  which  he  grant- 
ed at  the  same  time  that  constitutional  princi- 
ples were  proclaimed  by  the  court  of  Turin, 
promised  to  Gioberti  the  speedy  realization 
of  his  ideal.  He  wrote  a  severe  and  passionate 
answer  to  the  attacks  of  the  Jesuits,  under  the 
title  of  II  Geauita  modemo  (5  vols.,  Lausanne, 
1847),  which  was  followed  by  their  expulsion 
fVom  Sardinia.  At  the  revolution  of  1848  he 
returned  to  Italy  after  an  absence  of  15  years, 
and  Turin  was  illuminated  in  his  honor  several 
nights  in  succession.  He  advocated  a  union  of 
the  states  under  the  supremacy  of  the  house  of 
Savoy,  and  he  visited  the  principal  cities  of  the 
peninsula,  haranguing  the  troops,  the  universi- 
ties, and  the  populace,  and  was  everywhere  re- 
ceived with  enthusiasm.  But  Mazzini,  the  head 
of  ^'  young  Italy,"  was  his  rival  in  popularity 
and  his  bitter  opponent ;  and  discord  prevailed 
also  among  the  princes,  some  of  whom  with- 
drew the  forces  which  they  had  sent  to  aid  Sar- 
dinia against  Austria.  Gioberti,  elected  to  the 
Piedmontese  parliament  (which  assembled  on 
May  8)  by  both  Genoa  and  Turin,  placed  him- 
self at  the  head  of  the  constitutional  royalist 
party  in  the  chamber  of  deputies,  and  was  ap- 


pointed its  president  by  acclamation.  In  July 
ne  entered  the  Oasati  ministry,  which  after  the 
military  reverses  of  Charles  Albert  gave  place 
to  that  of  Bevel,  which  accepted  an  armistice 
that  resembled  an  abandonment  of  the  war  of 
independence,  and  therefore  was  at  once  un- 
popular. Gioberti  united  with  his  opponents 
of  the  extreme  democratic  party  in  efforts 
to  overthrow  this  ministry,  and  at  the  same 
time  resumed  his  idea  of  a  political  league, 
and  became  president  of  the  society  for  an 
Italian  confederation,  representatives  of  which 
from  all  parts  of  Italy  assembled  in  Turin  in 
October.  His  conduct  won  general  admiration, 
even  from  "young  Italy,"  and  he  was  enthusi- 
astically placed  at  the  head  of  the  cabinet  which 
in  December  succeeded  that  of  Revel.  Though 
he  had  announced  a  new  campaign  in  Lombardy, 
he  was  convinced  that  it  could  only  be  fruitless, 
and  broke  with  the  party  which  had  yielded 
to  him  and  shared  with  him  the  ministry,  ab- 
sorbed in  himself  all  the  energy  and  responsi- 
bility of  the  cabinet,  and,  renouncing  the  war 
of  independence,  resolved  to  employ  the  Pied- 
montese armies  in  restoring  the  thrones  of  the 
peninsula  which  had  been  carried  away  by  the 
popular  commotions.  He  designed  to  surround 
them  witii  constitutional  guarantees,  and  to 
make  them  not  less  liberal  than  anti-republican. 
Two  obstacles  prevented  his  beginning  the  ex- 
ecution of  the  plan :  the  refusal  of  the  Italian 
princes  to  trust  their  restoration  to  the  court 
of  Turin,  and  the  energetic  resistance  of  the 
other  Piedmontese  ministers  to  such  a  move- 
ment. The  king  himself  formally  opposed  the 
programme,  and  Gioberti  resigned  his  office 
on  Feb.  21, 1849,  declaring  that  with  him  had 
fallen  the  cause  of  Italian  renovation.  After 
the  disaster  of  Novara  (March  28),  he  entered 
the  new  cabinet  as  minister  without  a  portfolio, 
and  was  soon  after  sent  to  Paris  as  plenipoten- 
tiary. The  mission  being  hardly  more  than  an 
honorable  exUe,  he  solicited  the  appointment 
of  a  successor,  and  retired  from  public  life. 
He  resumed  his  studies,  and  published  his  I>el 
rinnoeamento  eiviU  €PItalia  ^2  vols.,  Paris  and 
Turin,  1851),  in  which  he  criticises  the  conduct 
of  parties  in  the  movement  of  1848,  and  affirms 
that  he  repents  of  no  counsel  which  he  gave 
or  political  act  which  he  performed  during  his 
public  career.  The  end  of  his  efforts  he  de- 
clares to  have  been  "to  establish  in  Italy  a 
Piedmontese  hegemony,  and  in  Europe  the 
moral  supremacy  of  Italy."  He  resided  from 
this  time  in  Paris,  and  was  engaged  in  a  phi- 
losophical work  on  ProtolD^iOy  or  first  science, 
when  his  death  occurred  suddenly  by  apo- 
plexy. Gioberti  refhsed  to  submit  to  the  papal 
condemnation  of  his  Oemiita  fnodemoy  and  all 
his  works  have  been  placed  on  the  index  at 
Rome.  Besides  those  already  mentioned,  he 
wrote  letters  in  French  Sur  les  erreurs  reli' 
gietues  delf.de  Lamennau  (Bmssels,  1840), 
and  Sur  le$  doetrinei  philoMphiquea  et  poli- 
tique deM.de  Lamennau  (1842),  and  a  treatise 
iMgli  errari  JUoiqfiei  di  Ant  Roemini  (1841), 


818 


GIOCONDO 


GIORGIONE 


charging  both  of  these  philosophers  with  ten- 
dencies to  pantheism ;  Del  huono  (1848),  in 
which  he  applies  his  philosophical  system  to 
ethics;  Apologia  del  libro  intitolato  II  Gesuita 
moderno  (Paris  and  Brussels,  1848) ;  and  Ojje- 
rette  politiche  (2  vols.,  Lngano,  1851).  A  nni- 
form  edition  of  his  earlier  works  was  published 
at  Brussels  (9  vols.,  1 843-  '5).  The  edition  of  his 
posthumous  works,  edited  by  6.  Massari  (Paris 
and  Turin,  1856),  has  never  been  completed. 

GIOCONDO)  or  J«euiduB,  Fra  Glovauil,  an  Ital- 
ian architect,  bom  in  Verona  about  1450,  died 
in  Rome  about  1680.  He  was  a  Dominican 
friar,  studied  archseology  in  Rome,  and  collect- 
ed in  that  city  upward  of  2,000  ancient  inscrip- 
tions, which  he  presented  to  Lorenzo  de'  Me- 
dici. He  designed  the  fortifications  of  Treviso, 
saved  the  lagoons  of  Venice  from  inundation 
by  diverting  the  waters  to  the  sea  near  Ohiog- 
gia,  and  in  1494-^8  was  architect  to  the  empe- 
ror Maximilian  at  Verona,  where  he  built  the 
Sal  ace  of  the  council  and  the  church  of  Sta. 
[aria  della  Scale.  In  1500-^7  he  was  em- 
ployed by  Louis  XII.  in  building  the  bridges 
(since  restored)  of  Notre  Dame  and  of  the  H6- 
tel  Dieu.  He  afterward  constructed  in  Ven- 
ice a  great  warehouse  on  the  rialto,  known 
as  the  Fondaco  de'  Tedeschi,  for  which  Titian 
and  Giorgione  made  decorations;  but  the 
greater  part  of  it  being  destroyed  by  fire  in 
1514,  he  left  Venice  because  the  authorities, 
instead  of  permitting  him  to  rebuild  it  in  stone, 
ordered  another  structure  of  wood  by  an  in- 
ferior architect.  Bramante  dying  in  the  same 
year,  Giocondo  was  appointed  by  the  pope  to 
succeed  him  as  architect  of  St.  Peter's,  and 
labored  on  that  grand  edifice  simultaneously 
with  Raphael.  He  instructed  Scaliger  in  Latin 
and  Greek,  and  was  proficient  in  philosophy, 
theology,  and  classical  literature.  Having  been 
the  first  to  prepare  a  design  of  Julius  Gessar's 
bridge  across  the  Rhine,  he  wrote  notes  on  the 
latter's  ^*  Commentaries,'*  which  were  issued 
in  1517  by  Aldus  Manutius  the  elder,  who  also 
published  (1608-'14)  Pliny's  correspondence 
with  Tri^an,  which  Giocondo  had  discovered 
while  in  Paris. 

GIOJA,  or  GI4*  dal  Colle,  a  town  of  Italy,  in 
the  province  of  Bari,  situated  on  the  crest  of  the 
E.  branch  of  the  Apennines,  on  the  road  from 
Bari  to  Taranto,  18  m.  £.  by  S.  of  Altamura ; 
pop.  in  1862,  17,005.  It  derives  great  pros- 
perity from  the  rich  local  products  of  cereals 
and  oil.  The  outskirts  were  in  former  times 
covered  with  woods,  which  the  emperor  Fred- 
erick II.  enclosed  for  a  park. — There  is  also  a 
town  of  Gioja  on  the  W.  coast  of  Calabria, 
which  gives  its  name  to  a  gulf. 

GIOJA,  FbiTi*.    See  Compass,  vol.  v.,  p.  186. 

GIOJA,  Helchlorre,  an  Italian  political  econ- 
omist, bom  in  Piacenza,  Sept.  20,  1767,  died 
in  Milan,  Jan.  2,  1829.  He  studied  in  his  na- 
tive city  at  the  college  Alberoni,  and  received 
holy  orders.  He  lived  in  retirement  till  the 
changes  caused  initaly  by  the  victories  of  Na- 
poleon.   The  institute  of  the  Cisalpine  republic 


having  proposed  the  question,  "  Which  of  aQ 
free  governments  is  the  best  for  Italy?"  he 
answered,  ^^  The  republican,"  in  a  dissertation 
which  obtained  the  prize.  He  was  subsequent- 
ly appointed  historiographer  of  the  state.  His 
liberal  views  caused  him  a  temporary  imprison- 
ment in  1799.  Having  lost  his  situation  as 
historiographer  by  a  treatise  on  divorce  (1803), 
and  been  removed  from  the  board  of  statistics 
on  account  of  articles  criticising  the  manage- 
ment of  public  afiairs,  he  revenged  himself  by 
a  sarcastic  article  entitled  Ilpovero  diatolo^  in 
consequence  of  which  he  was  obliged  to  leave 
Italy.  He  was  recalled  after  some  years,  and 
intrusted  with  the  elaboration  of  the  statistics 
of  the  kingdom  of  Italy.  Suspected  of  parti- 
cipation in  the  liberal  movements  of  1820,  be 
was  aiTested  by  the  Austrian  government,  but 
set  free  after  eight  months'  imprisonment.  He 
was  a  disciple  of  Bentham  and  Locke,  and  his 
numerous  works  on  political  economy  are  among 
the  best  in  the  Italian  language. 

GIORDANO,  Lica,  an  Italian  painter,  born  in 
Naples  in  1682,  died  there,  Jan.  12,  1705.  He 
studied  at  first  under  Ribera,  and  afterward 
went  to  Rome  and  studied  under  Pietro  da 
Cortona.  He  painted  with  unequalled  rapid- 
ity ;  which  circumstance,  as  well  as  his  nick- 
name of  Fa  Presto,  was  perhaps  due  to  tlie 
avarice  of  his  father,  an  inferior  artist,  who  in 
Luca's  youth  sold  his  works  at  a  high  price, 
and  was  continually  urging  him  on  with  the 
words,  Luca^  fa  presto  (**  Luca,  make  haste  "). 
He  visited  Parma,  Venice,  Bologna,  and  Flor- 
ence, leaving  everywhere  products  of  his  tal- 
ent and  facility.  Invited  to  Madrid  by  Charles 
II.,  he  remained  in  Spain  a  number  of  years, 
and  executed  an  immense  number  of  frescoes 
in  the  Escurial,  and  in  the  churches  and  pal- 
aces of  Madrid,  Toledo,  &o.  The  skill  with 
which  he  imitated  the  manner  of  other  artists 
gained  him  the  title  of  the  Prot«us  of  painting. 
Among  the  most  admired  of  his  numerous 
works  are  the  "  Triumph  of  the  Church  Mili- 
tant" in  the  Escurial,  the  **  Virgin  and  the 
Child  Jesus "  in  the  Pitti  palace  at  Florence, 
and  the  "Judgment  of  Paris  '*  in  the  Louvre. 

CrIORGIONE  (Giorgio  Babbarelli),  one  of 
the  founders  of  the  Venetian  school  of  color- 
ists,  bom  at  Castelfranco,  near  Treviso,  in 
1477,  died  of  the  plague  in  1511.  He  was  called 
Giorgione,  according  to  Lanzi,  from  a  certain 
grandeur  conferred  upon  him  by  nature,  no 
less  of  mind  than  of  form.  He  was  edncated 
in  the  school  of  the  Bellini  at  Venice,  where 
Titian  was  one  of  his  fellow  students ;  but  fol- 
lowing the  bent  of  his  genius,  he  broke  away 
from  their  stiff  and  constrained  manner,  and 
fanned  a  style  of  his  own,  distinguished  by 
boldness  of  outline,  grace  and  expression  in 
the  countenances  as  well  as  the  motions  of  his 
figures,  well  graduated  and  rich  coloring,  and 
effective  chiaroscuro.  The  last  of  these  bo 
probably  acquired  by  studying  the  works  of 
Leonardo  da  Vinci,  although  he  approaches 
the  style  of  Correggio  more  nearly  than  that 


GIOTTO 


GIRAFFE 


819 


of  any  other  Itali  an  painter.  Giorgione's  works 
in  fresco,  of  which  he  execated  many  on  the 
facades  of  Venetian  palaces,  are  almost  en- 
tirely obliterated,  bat  his  portraits  in  oil,  among 
the  most  admirable  ever  painted,  and  remark- 
able for  the  warmth  of  their  coloring,  particu- 
larly in  the  flesh  tints,  as  well  as  their  grace 
and  animated  expression,  are  in  good  preserva- 
tion, although  they  are  not  numerous.  Of  his 
historical  paintings,  the  ^^  Moses  rescued  from 
the  Nile,^'  in  the  Pitti  palace  at  Florence,  is 
esteemed  his  ehefcTauvre, 

GIOTTO,  called  also  Giotto  di  Bondone  from 
his  father,  and  by  some  Ahbrooiotto,  the  regen- 
erator of  Italian  art,  born  at  Vespignano,  near 
Florence,  in  1276,  died  in  the  latter  place  about 
1337.  Tradition  relates  that  the  painter  Gima- 
bue  discovered  him,  a  shepherd  boy  in  the  val- 
ley of  Vespignano,  in  the  act  of  drawing  upon 
a  smooth  piece  of  slate  the  figure  of  a  sheep 
grazing  near  him,  and  was  so  struck  with  the 
genius  which  the  work  evinced  that  he  took 
him  into  his  own  house  in  Florence  and  taught 
him  his  art.  Giotto  speedily  excelled  his  mas- 
ter, who  undoubtedly  at  the  close  of  his  life 
conformed  his  style  to  that  of  his  pupil.  Art 
was  then  feebly  struggling  to  free  itself  from 
the  trammels  of  the  Byzantine  style.  Cimabue 
and  Duccio  di  Siena  had  indeed  attempted  to 
improve  on  existing  models,  but  Giotto  reject- 
ed them  altogether.  The  symbolic  represen- 
tation of  a  subject,  according  to  conventional 
rules,  had  hitherto  been  the  highest  aim  of  the 
artist.  Giotto  first  gave  life  to  art  by  making  his 
works  truly  reflect  nature.  From  the  remote- 
ness of  the  epoch  in  which  he  painted,  it  is  not 
surprising  that  many  of  his  works  have  perish- 
ed ;  but  from  the  specimens  that  remain  and 
the  traditions  of  those  that  are  lost  it  is  easy  to 
account  for  his  influence  over  central  Italy, 
from  Padua  to  Naples.  Social  and  political 
revolutions,  the  quality  of  the  OLaterials  used, 
the  effects  of  climate,  and  the  vandalism  of  his 
own  and  of  later  times,  have  destroyed  or 
hopelessly  iiigured  his  choicest  works.  Some 
of  them  have  been  whitewashed  over,  among 
them  his  portraits  of  Dante  and  other  eminent 
citizens  of  Florence,  one  of  his  earliest  works 
painted  on  the  walls  of  the  chapel  of  the  Po- 
dest4,  now  the  Bargello  or  prison  in  Florence, 
which  Mr.  Richard  H.  Wilde  and  Mr.  Bezzi 
brought  to  light  in  1840.  These  are  said  by 
Vasari  to  be  the  first  successful  attempts  at  por- 
traiture. The  record  of  Giotto's  life  is  not  very 
clear,  but  it  is  certain  that  before  the  death  of 
Cimabue  his  reputation  was  such  that  Pope 
Boniface  VIII.  summoned  him  to  Rome,  where 
he  designed  his  famous  mosaic  of  the  Navicella^ 
representing  the  disciples  at  sea  in  a  tempest 
and  Christ  raising  Peter  from  the  waves.  It 
is  now  in  St.  Peter's,  but  frequent  restorations 
have  left  little  of  the  original  work  besides  the 
composition.  We  next  hear  of  him  at  Padua, 
where  about  1806  he  executed  in  the  chapel 
of  the  Madonna  dell'  Arena  his  42  paintings 
representing  the  life  of  the  Virgin.    He  here 


met  his  friend  Dante,  then  exiled  from  Flor- 
ence, to  whose  influence  the  allegorical  ten- 
dency which  these  and  many  of  \i\s  subsequent 
works  exhibit  is  justly  ascribed.  An  instance 
of  this  is  aflbrded  in  the  majestic  figures  of 
Poverty,  Chastity,  and  Obedience,  representing 
the  three  vows  of  the  order  of  St.  Francis,  over 
whose  tomb  they  are  painted  in  the  famous 
abbey  church  of  the  Franciscan  order  at  AssisL 
the  repository  of  so  many  curious  specimens  of 
old  Italian  art.  Robert  of  Naples  entertained 
him  honorably  at  his  court,  where  he  painted 
the  sacraments  for  the  Incoronata ;  and  he  is 
even  said  to  have  followed  Clement  V.  to  Avi- 
gnon, and  to  have  painted  there  and  elsewhere 
in  France.  The  wonder  and  enthusiasm  which 
his  works  excited  are  perhaps  without  a  paral- 
lel in  the  history  of  Italian  art  A  contempo- 
rary writer  naively  illustrates  the  feeling  of  the 
time  by  expressing  his  surprise  that  in  Giotto's 
pictures  ^*  the  personages  who  are  in  grief  look 
melancholy,  and  those  who  are  joyous  look 
gay."  Boccaccio  says  that  ^Hhrough  Giotto 
that  art  was  restored  to  light  which  had  been 
for  many  centuries  buried."  Giotto  excelled 
also  in  sculpture  and  architecture.  The  famous 
Campanile  of  Florence,  erected  in  1884,  was 
from  his  designs.  His  school  fiourished  for 
upward  of  a  century  after  his  death. 

filOVIOy  Piolo  (Paulub  Jovirs),  an  Italian 
Latin  historian,  born  in  Como,  April  19,  1488, 
died  in  Florence,  Dec.  11, 1552.  He  studied  at 
Pavia,  abandoned  medical  for  historical  inqui- 
ries, was  protected  by  Popes  Leo  X.  and  Clem- 
ent VII.,  by  Charles  V.  and  Francis  I.,  wield- 
ed a  venal  pen,  was  loaded  with  honors  and 
favors,  and  having  lost  all  that  he  possessed 
when  in  1527  Rome  was  sacked  by  the  army 
of  the  constable  of  Bourbon,  was  rewarded 
with  the  bishopric  of  Nocera.  His  most  impor- 
tant work  is  a  **  History  of  his  own  Time  "  in 
45  books,  6  of  which  are  wanting.  His  ve- 
racity is  not  to  be  relied  on. 

GIRAFFE,  or  Caaelopard  {giraffa  eamelopar' 
dalis  of  most  authors ;  eenms  eamelopardalis 
of  LinnsBUs),  an  African  genus  of  the  rumi- 
nants, with  persistent  horns,  common  to  both 
sexes,  having  but  a  single  species,  as  above. 
The  characteristics  of  this  singular  animd, 
.which  appears,  in  some  particulars,  to  parti- 
cipate in  the  qualities  of  the  camel,  the  ox,  and 
the  antelope,  are  these :  The  lip  is  not  grooved, 
is  entirely  covered  with  hair,  and  is  very  much 
produced  before  the  nostril ;  the  tongue  is  ex- 
tremely long  and  prehensile,  capable  of  being 
protracted  or  retracted  at  will,  and  of  being 
tapered  so  as  to  enter  the  ring  of  a  small  key  ; 
the  neck  is  very  long,  the  body  short,  hind  part 
lower;  false  hoofs  none;  tail  elongate,  with 
a  tuft  of  thick  hair  at  the  end.  The  horns 
constitute  the  principal  generic  characteristic, 
since  they  are  of  neither  the  bovine  nor  cervine 
form,  but  are  in  fact  bones,  exhibiting  through- 
out precisely  the  same  structure  as  the  other 
bones,  united  to  the  frontal  and  parietal  bones 
by  a  distinct  suture,  covered  with  a  hairy  skin. 


and  tenniDatisg  in  a  ring  of  bristly  haira  at  the 
Bninmit,  sinTounding  a  bare  apei.  These  bris- 
tles, according  to  somo  naturalists,  want  only 
the  gluten  to  cement  tbem  into  trne  horns,  and 
embodj  the  aninial  in  the  syBtematio  arrange- 
ment of  the  eavieomia.  The  giraffe  ie  aasiiai- 
kted  to  the  oarael  hj  the  length  of  its  neck, 
b;  the  ctUlositieB  on  ils  chest  aod  knees,  and  by 
ita  having  no  false  hoofs ;  to  the  other  mmi- 
Donts  by  the  structnre  of  its  Btomacb  and  di- 
gcstive  organs  generally,  and  by  its  non-pos- 
Bcsaion  of  the  reticulated  water  bag.  To  the 
antelopes  it  is  aBsimikt«d  by  the  fact  that  the 
coils  of  its  colon  are  spiral,  and  that  its  ofecnm 
is  fflmple.  With  the  solid-homed  deer,  which 
shed  and  renew  those  appendages  annually,  it 
la  connected  hy  the  assamed  fact  of  its  having 
no  gall  bladder.  In  its  dental  system,  the  gi- 
raffe offers  the  same  formula  with  the  deer, 
goat,  antelope,  sheep,  and  ox,  namely :  ind- 
sora  {,  canines  {,  molars  {:f  =  83.    The  nos- 


Glnlfe  (Qlnb  (wnulopiudallt). 

trils  are  provided  with  cutaneous  sphincter 
maacles,  and  can  be  shut  at  will  like  Uie  eyes. 
The  eyes  are  beautiful,  oitremely  large,  soft  and 
brilliant,  and  are  so  placed  that  the  animal  can 
seemach  of  what  is  passing  on  all  sides  and  even 
behind  it.  Thus  it  is  approached  with  the  greats 
eat  difficulty ;  and  if  surprised  or  ran  down,  it 
can  direct  the  rapid  storm  of  kicks  by  which 
it  defends  itself  in  the  most  accurate  manner. 
Its  horuy  hoofs  are  divided,  and  it  wants  the 
two  small  lateral  toes  generally  seen  in  the  true 
raminanta,  from  which  this  again  distingnishes 
it.  The  immense  length  of  its  legs  and  height 
at  the  witliers,  raising  the  insertion  of  the  neck 
BO  far  from  the  gronnd  that  the  animal  can 
graze  on  an  even  surface  only  with  difficulty 
and  by  straddling  the  fore  legs  wide  apart, 
enables  it  to  feed  on  whet  it  prefers  as  food, 
the  delicate  and  saoculent  leaves  and  twigs  of 
the  tallest  trees,  particnlarly  those  of  a  spe- 


cies of  acacia  pecalisr  to  the  districta  which  it 
inhabits.  The  peculiar  conformation  of  the 
tongue,  which  ia  famished  with  rough  papillce 
capable  of  volnntary  erection,  enables  it  to 
gather  and  collect  into  little  bundles  the  soft 
leaves  which  it  likes.  Its  speed,  which  is  far 
from  contemptible,  is  shown  by  the  statement 
of  hunters  who  have  pursued  it,  particnlarly 
Oapt.  Gordon  Gumming;  all  of  whom  tectify 
that,  being  timid  and  wary,  and  always  aecn- 
ring  a  good  start,  it  is  not  eawly  overtaken, 
except  by  a  swift  horse.  Its  pacee  are  a  trot, 
a  pace  with  both  legs  moved  cm  the  same  ade, 
and  a  regular  gallop,  by  changing  from  one  to 
the  other  of  which,  with  no  apparent  diminu- 
tion of  its  speed,  it  can  keep  up  a  considerable 
rate  of  going  for  a  long  continued  time  and 
distance.  Le  Yaillant,  the  first  well  informed 
modem  zoologist  who  saw  it  in  a  state  of  na- 
ture, aaserta  t£at  he  "  knows  beyond  a  doubt 
that  by  its  kicking  it  often  tires  out,  diseonrages, 
and  even  beats  off  the  lion."  The  same  fact  is 
shown  by  Capt.  Gumming.  Of  the  adaptation 
of  the  giraffe  to  the  conntry  and  scenery  he 
inhabits,  this  observant  naturalist  and  sports- 
man speaks  as  follows ;  "  I  have  often  traced 
a  remarkable  resemblance  between  the  animal 
and  the  general  appearance  of  the  locality  in 
which  it  is  fonnd.  .  .  .  And  as  the  ^rafie  is 
invariably  met  with  timong  venerable  forests, 
where  innumerable  blasted  and  weather-beaten 
trunksand  stems  occur,  I  have  been  repeatedly 
in  donbt  as  to  the  presence  of  a  troop  of  them, 
nntil  I  had  recoorse  to  my  spy-glass ;  and  on 
referring  the  case  to  my  savage  attendants,  I 
have  known  even  their  optics  to  fail — at  one 
time  mistaking  the  dilapidated  tmnks  for  cam- 
eloparda,  and  again  confonnding  real  camelo- 
pards  with  those  aged  veterans  of  the  forest." 
This  anunal  when  fall-grown  sometimes  attain* 
a  height  of  IB  Ifi,  and  even  17  ft.  It  was  for- 
merly believed  almost  universally  that  the  fore 
legs  are  mnch  longer  than  the  hiuder  ones,  but 
in  fact,  taking  the  legs  only  from  the  setting  on, 
the  hind  legs  are  the  longer  by  about  one  inch. 
The  great  development  and    height  of  the 


The  color  of  the  giraffe  varies,  both  in  its 
intensity  and  in  the  mode  of  ita  variegation. 
The  head  is  generally  of  a  uniform  reddish 
brown ;  the  neck,  back,  and  ddes,  outside  of 
the  shoulders  and  thighs,  are  varied  with  large 
tessellated,  dull,  rust-colored  marks  of  a  square 
form,  with  white  narrow  divisions;  on  the 
Ndes  the  marks  are  less  regular ;  the  belly  and 
\egB  are  whitish,  faintly  spotted;  the  part  of 
the  tail  next  to  the  body  ia  covered  with  short, 
smooth  hair;  its  trunk  is  very  slender,  and 
toward  the  end  the  hairs  are  very  long,  black, 
and  coarse,  and  form  a  great  tuft  hanging  far 
beyond  Ilie  tip  of  the  tail.  The  coloring  of 
the  female  is  less  vivid  thsn  that  of  the  male ; 
she  is  somewhat  smaller,  and  has  the  peculiar 
protuberance  of  the  frontal  bone  between  the 
eyes,  which  by  some  writers  has  been  ooUed  • 


GIRALDUS  OAMBRENSIS 


6IRABD 


821 


radimental  horn,  less  strongly  developed  than 
the  male. — The  giraffe  has  been  long  known 
to  history.  It  is  represented  on  the  painted 
walls  of  the  sekos  of  the  Memnonium,  dis- 
covered and  described  by  Belzoni;  and  also 
on  the  celebrated  Preenestine  pavement,  said 
to  have  been  constructed  by  the  orders  of 
Sulla,  who  had  served  as  quffistor  in  Numidia. 
It  was  exhibited  in  the  eireus  maximus  by  Ju- 
lius CfiBsar,  alive,  for  the  first  time  in  Europe, 
but  was  afterward  a  frequent  spectacle  at  the 
cruel  shows  of  Rome.  Gordian,  the  third  of 
the  name,  once  exhibited  10  together.  It  con- 
tinned  to  be  known  and  described  by  travellers, 
but  was  not  brought  into  Europe  until  a  much 
later  period.  During  the  last  40  years  several 
specimens  have  been  seen  in  the  zoological 
burdens  of  London  and  Paris,  and  many  have 
been  brought  to  this  country,  where  they  seem 
to  thrive.  In  its  natural,  as  in  its  domesti- 
cated state,  it  is  gentle,  timid,  shy,  and  in- 
offensive; it  is  extremely  docile  in  confine- 
ment, feeds  from  the  hand,  licks  the  hand 
which  feeds  it,  and  becomes  the  friend  of  those 
who  are  kind  to  it.  Its  natural  range  appears 
to  be  all  the  wooded  parts  of  eastern,  central, 
and  southern  Africa,  from  Sennaar  and  Abys- 
sinia to  the  vicinity  of  the  settlements  of  the 
Gape  of  Good  Hope,  although,  like  all  wild  ani- 
maJs,  it  recedes  before  the  approach  of  civili- 
zation. In  domestication  it  serves  no  purpose 
but  to  gratify  curiosity  and  to  promote  the 
study  of  nature,  since  it  is  unfit  for  draught ; 
and  although  its  fiesh  is  said  by  hunters  to  be 
eatable,  it  is  not  suitable  for  furnishing  either 
meat  or  milk. 

filEALDUS  CAMBRENSIS.  See  B  asbt,  Gebald. 

(iIBAIlD)  PUttppe  de,  a  French  inventor,  bom 
near  Avignon,  Feb.  1, 1775,  died  in  Paris,  Aug. 
26, 1845.  In  1806  he  exhibited  an  improve- 
ment in  lamps,  and  in  the  same  year  made 
some  improvement  in  the  steam  engine,  pro- 
ducing a  rotary  motion  without  a  walking 
beam.  His  principal  invention  was  a  machine 
for  fiax  spinning,  to  which  subsequently  he 
applied  steam,  and  for  which  he  received  the 
emperor^s  medal  in  1810,  and  another  medal 
from  tlie  national  exposition  of  industry  in 
1844.  He  invented  several  other  machines, 
and  for  many  yeai's  was  interested  in  extensive 
manufactories  of  linen  in  Poland  and  in  Aus- 
tria, as  well  as  in  France. 

GIRAED,  Stepben,  an  American  merchant  and 
banker,  born  near  Bordeaux,  France,  May  24, 
1750,  died  in  PhUadelphia,  Dec.  26, 1881.  He 
was  the  son  of  a  seaman,  and  sailed  about 
1760  as  cabin  boy  to  the  West  Indies  and  New 
York.  Rising  by  degrees  to  be  master  and  part 
owner  of  an  American  coasting  vessel,  he  ac- 
cumulated in  the  course  of  a  few  years  a  sum 
sufficient  to  establish  him  in  business  as  a  small 
trader  in  Philadelphia  in  1776.  He  married 
about  this  time  the  daughter  of  a  ship  builder 
of  that  city,  but  the  union  was  unhappy.  Mr. 
Girard  applied  for  a  divorce,  and  his  wife  ulti- 
mately died  insane  in  a  public  hospital.    Mean- 


while Girard  trafficked  with  the  West  Indies 
with  variable  success,  until  his  maritime  ven- 
tures were  suspended  by  the  war  of  the  revo- 
lution. He  then  opened  a  grocery  and  liquor 
shop,  at  first  in  Philadelphia,  and  during  the 
British  occupation  of  that  city  at  Mount 
HoUy,  where  he  drove  a  profitable  trade  with 
the  American  soldiers.  In  1780  he  resumed 
his  dealings  with  the  West  Indies  and  New 
Orleans,  and  some  time  afterward  was  in 
partnership  for  a  few  years  with  his  brother 
John.  The  connection  was  dissolved  in  1790, 
Stephen  having  gained  while  it  lasted  about 
$30,000.  The  foundation  of  his  subsequent 
wealth,  however,  seems  to  have  been  a  lease 
which  he  took  of  a  range  of  stores,  at  a 
time  when  rents  were  much  depressed  by 
the  war ;  these  he  underlet  at  a  large  profit 
Another  source  of  gain  was  the  negro  insur- 
rection in  Hayti.  Two  of  his  vessels  were 
then  in  one  of  the  ports  of  the  island,  imd 
many  of  the  planters  placed  their  treasures  in 
them  for  safety,  but  were  afterward  cut  off 
with  their  entire  families.  About  $50,000 
worth  of  property  whose  owners  coald  not  be 
found  thus  remained  in  Mr.  Girard^s  hands. 
With  a  remarkable  capacity  for  business  and  a 
habit  of  strictness  in  money  matters,  he  rapid- 
ly multiplied  his  wealth,  and  before  long  came 
to  be  recognized  as  one  of  the  richest  mer- 
chants in  the  city.  During  the  prevalence  of 
the  yellow  fever  in  Philadelphia  in  1798,  '7,  and 
^8,  when  it  raged  with  a  violence  never  before 
seen  in  America,  Mr.  Girard  not  only  gave 
money  liberally,  but  performed  in  person  the 
duties  of  physician  and  nurse,  undertook  the 
most  disagreeable  offices  in  the  hospitals,  and 
for  two  months  kept  charge  of  the  hospital  on 
Bush  hill.  In  1812,  having  purchased  the 
building  and  a  large  part  of  the  stock  of  the 
old  United  States  bank,  he  commenced  busi- 
ness as  a  private  banker,  with  a  capital  of 
$1,200,000,  which  was  afterward  increased  to 
$4,000,000.  Besides  the  benefit  which  this 
institution  proved  to  the  national  currency,  it 
enabled  Mr.  Girard  to  make  heavy  loans  to 
the  government  in  times  of  public  embarrass- 
ment ;  and  during  the  war  of  1812,  when  out 
of  a  loan  of  $5,000,000  proposed  by  the  secre- 
tary of  the  treasury  only  $20,000  could  be  ne- 
gotiated, he  subscribed  for  the  whole  amount 
He  was  active  in  procuring  the  charter  of  the 
second  United  States  bai&,  of  which  he  be- 
came a  director.  He  contributed  liberally  to 
all  public  improvements,  and  adorned  the  city 
of  Philadelphia  with  many  handsome  build- 
ings. He  was  frugal  and  parsimonious,  but 
not  avaricious ;  profuse  in  his  public  charities, 
but  stem  in  exacting  the  last  fraction  that  was 
due  him.  His  kindness  to  the  sick  was  ex- 
traordinary, but  he  never  had  a  friend.  His 
appearance  was  very  plain.  He  was  unedu- 
cated ;  was  a  free  thinker  in  religion,  and  an 
admirer  of  the  school  of  Voltaire  and  Rous- 
beau,  after  whom  he  was  fond  of  naming  his 
ships.    His  property  at  the  time  of  his  death 


822 


GIRARD 


GIRARDIN 


amonnted  to  aboat  $9,000,000.  Oomparative- 
\j  little  of  it  was  bequeathed  to  bis  relatives. 
To  the  Pennsylvania  hospital  he  willed  $30,- 
000;  to  the  Pennsylvania  institution  for  the 
deaf  and  dnmb,  $20,000;  to  the  orphan  asy- 
lum  of  Philadelphia,  $10,000 ;  to  the  Phila- 
delphia public  schools,  $10,000;  to  the  city 
of  Philadelphia,  for  the  distribution  of  fuel 
to  the  poor  every  winter,  $10,000;  to  the 
society  for  the  relief  of  distressed  masters  of 
ships,  $10,000 ;  to  the  masonic  loan,  $20,000 ; 
to  the  city  of  New  Orleans,  a  large  amount  of 
real  estate;  to  the  city  of  Philadelphia,  for 
improvement  of  its  streets,  buildings,  &c., 
$500,000 ;  for  the  improvement  of  canal  navi- 
gation in  Pennsylvania,  $300,000.  His  princi- 
pal bequest  was  $2,000,000,  besides  the  residue 
of  a  certain  portion  of  his  estate  out  of  which 
some  legacies  were  to  be  paid,  together  with  a 
plot  of  ground  in  Philadelphia,  for  the  erec- 
tion and  support  of  a  college  for  orphans. 
The  most  minute  directions  were  given  for  the 
construction,  size,  and  materials  of  the  build- 
ing, which  was  begun  in  July,  1838,  and  open- 
ed Jan.  1,  1848.  It  is  surrounded  by  a  stone 
wall  10  ft.  high,  enclosing  41  acres  laid  out  in 
play  grounds,  grass  plats,  gardens,  &c.  The 
main  building  is  the  nnest  specimen  of  Grecian 
architecture  in  America,  and  is  even  said  to  be 
the  finest  of  modem  times.  The  outer  walls, 
staircases,  flooi*s,  and  roof  are  of  white  mar- 
ble; the  inner  walls  of  brick.  It  is  in  the 
form  of  a  Oorinthian  temple,  surrounded  by  a 
portico  of  84  columns,  each  55  ft.  high  and  6 
ft.  in  diameter.  Its  length  is  169  ft.,  its  width 
111  ft.,  and  its  height  97  ft  The  entrances 
are  on  the  N.  and  S.  fronts,  each  door  being 
16  ft.  wide  and  32  ft.  high ;  the  E.  and  W. 
sides  are  pierced  each  by  24  windows.  The 
structure  rests  on  a  basement  of  11  steps  ex- 
tending around  the  entire  building.  A  marble 
statue  in  the  lower  vestibule  covers  the  re- 
mains of  Mr.  Girard.  There  are  five  other 
buildings  within  the  enclosure,  one  of  which 
is  used  as  a  laboratory,  bakery,  wash  house, 
&c.  The  others  stand  two  on  each  side  of  the 
main  building,  and  are  of  marble,  each  two 
stories  high,  125  ft.  long,  and  52  ft.  wide. 
The  cost  of  the  edifices  was  upward  of  $1,980,- 
000.  As  many  poor  white  male  orphans  as 
the  endowment  can  support  are  admitted  be- 
tween the  ages  of  6  and  10  years,  fed,  clothed, 
and  educated,  and  between  the  ages  of  14  and 
18  are  bound  out  to  mechanical,  agricultural, 
or  commercial  occupations.  In  a  recent  re- 
port the  directors  say  that,  the  apprenticeship 
system  as  it  existed  in  Mr.  Girard's  time  hav- 
ing become  obsolete,  the  execution  of  that 
part  of  the  will  is  now  difficult.  By  a  provi- 
sion of  the  will  of  the  founder  no  ecclesiastic, 
missionary,  or  minister  of  any  sect  whatever, 
is  to  hold  any  connection  with  the  college,  or 
be  admitted  to  the  premises  even  as  a  visitor ; 
but  the  officers  of  the  institution  are  required 
to  instruct  the  pupils  in  the  purest  principles 
of  morality,  leaving  them  to  adopt  their  own 


religions  opinions.  The  officers  consist  of  a 
president,  secretary,  two  professors,  five  male 
and  five  female  teachers,  a  physician,  a  matron, 
a  steward,  and  a  superintendent  of  manual  la- 
bor; and  there  are  about  500  beneficiaries. 

GIBARDIN.  I.  fiaUe  de,  a  French  journalist, 
born  in  Paris,  June  22, 1806.  The  natural  son 
of  Count  Alexandre  de  Girardin  and  Mme. 
Dupuy,  wife  of  a  counsellor,  and  registered  at 
his  birth  under  the  name  of  £mile  de  Lamothe, 
he  struggled  for  years  before  he  gained  his 
right  name,  and  it  was  not  till  1837  that  his 
filiation  was  definitely  established  by  his  pa- 
rents' public  avowal.  Aft«r  being  inspector 
of  the  fine  arts  under  the  Martignac  ministry, 
he  established  two  periodicals:  Ls  VoUut^ 
which  pilfered  from  all  the  other  journals,  and 
La  Mode,  a  journal  of  fashion,  which  enjoyed 
the  patronage  of  tlie  duchess  of  Berry.  After 
the  revolution  of  1830  he  established  the  month- 
ly Journal  des  Connaismnces  utiles,  the  price 
of  which  was  only  four  francs  (less  than  80 
cents)  a  year,  which  soon  obt^tined  120,000 
subscribers.  Through  the  agency  of  this  paper 
he  organized  a  subscription  for  the  establish- 
ment of  a  model  farm,  known  as  the  inetittit 
agricole  de  CoUho,  and  greatly  contributed  to 
increase  the  number  of  savings  banks  through 
the  country.  He  issued  other  cheap  publica- 
tions in  connection  with  his  monthly,  as  the 
Journal  des  Instituteun,  at  86  cents  a  year ;  a 
geographical  atlas  at  one  cent  a  map;  and 
the  Almanack  de  France,  at  10  cents  a  copy. 
All  these  publications  were  issued  as  emana- 
ting from  a  socieU  nationals  pour  Vemanei- 
pation  intellectuelle.  He  also  published  the 
Journal  des  Gardes  Rationales,  and  the  Oastro- 
nome,  a  culinary  paper  which  was  found  in 
every  eating  house.  He  was  one  of  the  found- 
ers of  the  illustrated  weekly  Musee  des  Fa- 
milies. In  1886  he  projected  the  Pantheon 
Litteraire,  a  series  of  100  large  vols.  8vo,  which 
were  to  embrace  a  mass  of  letterpress  equal 
to  1,000  ordinary  volumes,  and  to  present  in 
a  cheap  form  the  standard  works  of  every 
country.  In  1886  he  established  the  Presse, 
a  political  daily  paper,  at  a  yearly  subscription 
of  40  francs,  half  the  price  before  paid  for 
such  journals.  This  attempt  brought  upon 
him  the  wrath  of  nearly  all  the  contemporary 
journalists  of  Paris.  Both  his  public  and  pri- 
vate life  were  assailed ;  he  was  charged  with 
claiming  a  name  which  was  denied  him,  with 
dishonesty  in  some  of  his  numerous  business 
transactions,  and  with  unscrupulous  ambition 
in  his  political  course.  He  challenged  Armand 
Carrel,  and  killed  him  in  the  duel,  when  the 
clamor  against  him  increased  on  all  sides.  But 
he  was  undaunted,  and  secured  the  full  posses- 
sion of  his  name  and  a  seat  in  the  chamber  of 
deputies;  which  was  long  contested  on  the 
ground  that  he  was  not  a  Frenchman,  but^  as 
was  falsely  reported,  a  native  of  Switzerland, 
while  he  extended  the  circulation  of  the  Presse 
so  as  to  place  it  beyond  rivalry.  He  supported 
the  Moll  ministry  against  the  coalition  in  1889, 


GIRARDIN 


823 


and  the  ministry  of  Guizot  daring  most  of  its 
duration.  On  Feb.  24,  1848,  he  presented 
himself  at  the  Tuileries  and  persuaded  Louis 
Philippe  to  an  abdication  in  favor  of  his  grand- 
son, the  count  de  Paris ;  but  it  was  too  late  to 
save  the  dynasty.  He  vigorously  supported  the 
new  order  of  things,  tried  to  inspire  the  French 
people  with  confidence  in  it,  and  became  for 
a  wnile  the  most  popular  journalist  in  Paris. 
Daring  a  few  weeks  nearly  150,000  copies  of 
the  Presse  were  disposed  of  daily.  His  indepen- 
dent politics  were  deemed  dangerous  by  Gen. 
Oavaignac,  who  ordere<l  his  arrest  after  the  in- 
surrection of  June,  and  kept  him  11  days  in 
strict  confinement.  On  resuming  the  charge  of 
his  journal,  Girardin  vehemently  attacked  the 
rule  of  the  general,  and  greatly  contributed 
to  the  election  of  Louis  Napoleon  to  the  presi- 
dency, but  soon  became  his  opponent,  gave  his 
journal  a  more  and  more  radical  and  socialistic 
turn,  and  after  the  coup  d^etat  of  Dec.  2, 1851, 
was  ordered  out  of  France.  He  afterward 
returned,  but,  unable  to  submit  to  the  restric- 
tions on  journalism,  sold  his  share  in  the  Presse 
in  1856  for  800,000  francs.  In  December, 
1862,  he  again  became  its  chief  editor,  but  he 
finally  abandoned  it  in  1866,  and  established 
La  LibertS.  He  attacked  the  administration 
vigorously,  and  in  March,  1867,  was  fined 
5,000  francs,  and  a  month  later  the  sale  of  his 
journal  on  the  street  was  prohibited.  He  still 
continued  to  attack  the  administration,  sub- 
jecting himself  to  further  prosecution,  and  he 
also  severely  criticised  the  course  of  many  of 
the  opposition  journals.  After  the  formation 
of  the  Ollivier  ministry  (Jan.  2,  1870)  he  ac- 
cepted several  government  commissions.  After 
the  proclamation  of  the  republic  (Sept.  4)  an 
unpublished  decree,  bearing  date  July  27  and 
countersigned  by  fimile  Ollivier,  was  found 
among  the  papers  of  the  Tuileries,  conferring 
upon  Girardin  the  rank  of  senator.  About  the 
same  time  he  sold  La  LibertS  for  1,000,000 
francs,  and  for  a  time  withdrew  from  journal- 
ism. But  he  soon  resumed  his  pen,  and  be- 
came a  vehement  supporter  of  the  war  against 
Prussia.  During  the  siege  of  Paris  La  Liberti 
was  transferred  to  the  country,  and  he  followed 
it,  and  on  Dec.  24  purchased  Les  Cents  Jours^ 
in  which  he  severely  criticised  the  dictatorship 
of  M.  Gambetta.  During  the  insurrection  of 
the  communists  he  published  a  journal  called 
L*  Union  Fran^iss,  in  which  he  advocated 
the  adoption  of  a  federal  system  of  govern- 
ment. In  May,  1872,  he  purchased  the  Jour- 
nal Offleielj  whose  management,  however,  was 
retained  by  its  former  conductor.  The  cata- 
logue of  his  political  pamphlets  would  fill  col- 
umns. His  contributions  to  the  Presse  from 
1836  to  1866  were  published  in  1858  (12  vols. 
8vo),  under  the  title  of  Questions  de  mon  temps. 
In  1859  he  furnished  a  preface  to  a  work  en- 
titled Les  bdtards  eeUbres^  by  A.  Ohargu^raud. 
His  Du  droit  de  punir  (Paris,  1871),  on  which 
he  was  engaged  for  ten  years,  is  mainly  a  sup- 
plement to  Beccaria^s  De'  delitti  e  delle  pene. 


In  opposition  to  U Eomme-femme^  by  Alex- 
andre Dumas  fils,  he  published  in  1872  V Hom- 
me et  la  femm£^  Vhomme  suzerain^  la  femme 
fjoMale,  After  the  death  of  his  first  wife  he 
married  (November,  1856)  Countess  Mina  de 
Tieflfenbach,  daughter  of  a  former  Viennese 
postmaster,  and  widow,  by  morganatic  mar- 
riage, of  Prince  Frederick  of  Nassau.  He  ob- 
tained a  divorce  from  her  in  1872.  II.  Delphiie 
Gay,  a  French  authoress,  wife  of  the  preceding, 
born  in  Aix-la-Chapelle,  Jan.  26, 1804,  died  in 
Paris,  June  29, 1855.  She  was  the  daughter  of 
Mme.  Sophie  Gay,  and  a  poem  written  by  her 
when  scarcely  18  years  old  gained  an  extraor- 
dinary prize  of  the  French  academy.  In  1824 
she  published  a  collection  of  Essais  poetiques. 
She  was  accustomed  to  recite  her  verses  in  so- 
ciety, and  having  extemporized  some  beautiful 
lines  on  the  premature  death  of  Gen.  Foy  in 
1825,  she  was  hailed  as  la  muse  de  la  patrie^ 
and  received  from  Charles  X.  a  pension  of  1,500 
francs.  On  a  visit  to  Italy  in  1827  she  was 
elected  by  acclamation  a  member  of  the  Tiber 
academy  at  Rome,  and  carried  in  triumph  to 
the  capitol.  She  married  £mile  de  Girardin 
in  1881,  and  produced  in  1888  Napoline,  one  of 
her  most  charming  poems.  She  had  already 
begun  to  write  novels.  Le  lorgnon  appeared 
in  1881,  and  was  succeeded  by  M,  le  marquis 
de  Pontanges  in  1835,  and  La  eanne  de  M.  de 
Balzac  m  1886.  From  1886  to  1848  she  fur- 
nished to  the  Presse^  under  the  nom  de  plume 
of  Vicomte  Delaunay,  57  Lettres  parisiennes  on 
literature,  art,  and  fashion.  The  only  com- 
plete edition  of  these  letters  was  brought  out 
in  1858,  with  an  introduction  by  Th6ophile 
Gautier.  In  1889  she  wrote  a  comedy,  VEcole 
des  joumalistes,  but  its  representation  was 
prohibited  by  the  government.  In  1843  her 
tragedy  Judith,  designed  for  Rachel,  was  per- 
formed at  the  ThMtre  Fran^ais.  Another 
tragedy,  Cleopatre  (1847),  and  the  comedy  of 
Lady  Tartufe  (1858),  were  also  written  for 
that  actress.  Her  comedies,  (Test  lafaute  du 
mari',  ou  Les  bone  maris  font  les  bonnes  femmes 
(1851),  and  La  joie  faitpeur  (1864),  and  her 
vaudeville  Le  chapeau  d'un  Korloger  (1854), 
were  highly  successful.  Her  last  novels,  Mar- 
guerite, ou  Deux  amours,  and  II  ne  faut  pajs 
jouer  avec  la  douleur,  appeared  in  1853,  and  a 
new  edition  of  the  former  in  1858.  An  Eng- 
lish translation  of  "  The  Cross  of  Bemy,"  the 
joint  production  of  Mme.  de  Girardin,  Gautier, 
Sandeau,  and  M6ry,  was  published  in  New 
York  in  1878.  A  complete  edition  of  her  works 
has  been  published  (6  vols.  8vo,  Paris,  1860- 
'61).  She  was  celebrated  for  beauty  and  wit. 
GIRARDIN,  Jem  Pierre  Loils,  a  French  chem- 
ist, bom  in  Paris,  Nov.  16, 1803.  He  has  pop- 
ularized chemistry  by  teaching  its  application 
to  art,  industry,  and  agriculture,  as  professor 
at  Rouen  from  1838  to  1858,  and' since  at  Lille 
and  Clermont.  In  1835  he  published  Lemons 
de  ehimie  elementaire  (2  vols. ;  4th  revised  and 
illustrated  ed.,  1860-'62),  which  has  been  trans- 
lated into  Russian.    His  other  writings  include 


824 


GIRARDIN 


GIRGENn 


manaals  of  pharmacy,  botany,  and  chemistry, 
Milangea  d* agriculture^  d'ecanomie  rurals  et 
puhlique^  et  ds  sciences  physiqttes  appliquiee  (2 
Yols.,  1852),  and  Dee  fumiere  et  autres  engrais 
animaux  (6th  revised,  enlarged,  and  illustrated 
ed.,  1864). 

(iIRjIKDIlfy  Hak,  or,  as  he  signed  himself, 
Salit-Hait)  a  French  journalist,  born  in  Paris 
in  February,  1801,  died  there,  AprU  11,  1878. 
After  completing  his  classical  studies  at  the 
college  of  Henry  lY.,  in  1828  he  competed  for 
a  professorship  in  the  university,  and  won  the 
title  of  agrigiy  but,  on  account  of  his  liberal 
opinions,  was  not  appointed  to  a  chair  till 
1827.  In  the  latter  year  the  French  academy 
awarded  a  prize  to  his  £loge  de  Baesuet,  and 
he  became  one  of  the  political  contributors  to 
the  Journal  dea  Debate,  His  connection  with 
this  journal  continued  till  1859,  when  he  joined 
the  staff  of  the  Orleanist  Journal  de  PariSy  and 
published  Souvenirs  et  r^fleo^nspolitiques  d*un 
joumaliste.  In  1828  his  Tableau  de  Id  littera- 
lure  fran^ise  au  16«  si^le^  which  confirmed 
his  reputation  as  an  elegant,  witty,  and  forcible 
writer,  was  rewarded  with  another  academic<d 
prize.  In  1830  he  travelled  through  northern 
Germany,  and  on  his  return  was  appointed  to 
succeed  M.  Guizot  as  professor  of  history  in  the 
faculty  of  letters,  and  named  master  of  requests 
to  the  council  of  state.  In  1833  he  visited 
southern  Germany  as  far  as  Vienna;  and  in 
1834  he  published,  under  the  title  of  Notices^ 
the  results  of  his  two  journeys  beyond  the 
Rhine.  He  was  then  appointed  professor  of 
French  poetry  at  the  Sorbonne,  and  elected  to 
the  chamber  of  deputies.  His  report  on  the 
organization  of  secondary  instruction,  presented 
in  1837,  was  highly  valued.  He  entered  at  the 
same  time  the  council  of  state  and  the  council 
of  public  instruction ;  as  a  member  of  the  latter 
board  he  greatly  contributed  to  the  extension 
and  improvement  of  the  system  of  historical 
teaching  in  the  French  colleges.  In  1844  he 
was  elected  to  the  French  academy.  In  1848 
he  was  designated  minister  of  public  instruc- 
tion, in  the  last  cabinet  attempted  under  the 
monarchy,  and  under  the  republic  and  the  em- 
pire held  his  position  at  the  council  of  public 
instruction  and  at  the  Sorbonne.  In  1868  he 
resigned  his  professorship  at  the  latter  institu- 
tion. He  was  a  frequent  contributor  to  the 
Revue  des  Deux  Mondes,  and  in  1869  he  suc- 
ceeded Sainte-Beuve  as  condactor  of  the  Jour- 
nal des  Savants,  In  February,  1871,  he  was 
returned  to  the  national  assembly  for  the  de- 
partment of  Ilaute-Vienne.  Among  his  prin- 
cipal works  are :  Cours  de  litterature  drama- 
tique,  ou  de  Vusage  des  passions  dans  le  drame, 
an  improved  reproduction  of  his  lectures ;  Hs- 
sais  de  litterature  et  de  morals;  and  Souvenirs 
et  voyages^  comprising  the  notices  upon  Ger- 
many before  mentioned. 

GIRARBON,  Franfols,  a  French  sculptor,  bom 
in  Troyes,  March  16,  1628,  died  in  1716.  He 
was  furnished  by  Ohancellor  Segaier  with  the 
means  of  studying  his  art  in  Paris  and  Italy. 


He  was  patronized  by  Colbert,  and  received 
orders  from  the  king  for  groups  and  statues  in 
several  of  the  royal  palaces  and  gardens.  In 
1690  he  was  appointed  general  inspector  of 
sculpture,  to  succeed  Lebrun.  Some  of  his 
most  celebrated  works  were  destroyed  dnring 
the  revolution.  The  most  important  of  those 
that  remain  are  Richelieu^s  mausoleum  in  the 
chapel  at  the  Sorbonne,  and  his  groups  of  the 
"  Bath  of  Apollo  "  and  the  "  Rape  of  Proser- 
pine  "  in  the  Versailles  garden. 

GIEAUD,  Chutes  JMeph  Barth^loiy,  a  French 
jurist,  bom  at  Peraes,  Yauduse,  Feb.  20, 
1802.  He  studied  at  Aix,  where  he  became 
professor  of  administrative  science  and  pres- 
ident of  the  academy.  In  1842  he  became  in- 
spector general  of  the  law  schools  in  Paris 
and  member  of  the  French  academy,  and 
subsequently  of  the  board  of  education  ;  and 
he  was  vice  rector  of  the  academy  of  Paris  till 
1848.  He  was  twice  minister  of  public  in- 
straction  in  1851  and  member  of  the  consulta- 
tive council,  from  which  he  retired  in  August, 
1852,  in  consequence  of  the  confiscation  of  the 
property  of  the  Orleans  family.  He  baa  since 
filled  the  chair  of  Roman  law  in  the  faculty  of 
Paris,  and  succeeded  Laferri^re  in  1861  as  in- 
spector general  of  the  judiciary.  His  principal 
works  are :  Histoire  du  droit  Jra^pais  au 
moyen  dge  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1846);  Le  traiU 
d*  Utrecht  (1847 ;  translated  into  German  and 
Spanish) ;  Les  tables  de  Salpensa  et  de  Malaga, 
relating  to  the  bronze  tables  found  in  the  latter 
locality  (2d  ed.,  revised  and  enlarged,  1856) ; 
and  £tudes  nouvelles  sur  Qrkgoire  VIL  et  son 
temps,  in  the  JSevue  des  Deux  Mondes  of  March 
15,  1878,  et  seq. 

GIRGENTL  I.  A  province  of  Sicily,  on  the 
S.  W.  coast;  area,  1,491  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1872, 
289,018.  Its  surface  is  mountainous,  with  nu- 
merous valleys,  which  are  exuberantly  fertile, 
and  yield  com,  wine,  and  oil  in  great  abun- 
dance. There  is  good  pasturage,  and  the  cheese 
made  here  is  excellent.  The  chief  natural  pro- 
ductions are  gypsum,  bitumen,  naphtha,  salt, 
and  especially  sulphur.  IL  A  city  (anc.  Agri- 
gentum),  capital  of  the  province,  8  m.  off  the 
coast,  and  58  m.  S.  £.  of  Palermo ;  pop.  about 
18,000.  It  is  situated  on  the  Girgenti  river, 
formed  here  by  the  junction  of  the  Drago  (anc. 
Hypsas)  and  San  Biago  (anc.  Aoragas\  and  on 
Mount  Camicus,  over  1,000  ft.  high,  which  was 
the  acropolis  of  ancient  Agrigentum.  It  has 
four  walls  and  gates,  is  called  magn\fica  on  ac- 
count of  its  picturesque  situation,  and  contains 
a  fine  English  garden.  But,  exceoting  one  long 
street,  there  are  only  steep  ana  dirty  lanes; 
yet  the  houses,  wretched  as  they  are,  have 
fine  balconies,  and  the  inhabitants,  including 
many  beggars  (though  fewer  than  formerly), 
are  dressed  in  a  blue  velveteen  costume,  and 
the  women  wear  black  shawls  over  their  heads. 
The  cathedral  is  an  incongruous  specimen  of 
architecture,  owing  to  various  changes  since 
its  foundation  in  the  13th  century.  It  con- 
tains many  chapels,  monuments,  works  of  art, 


GIRODET-TRIOSON 


GISLASON 


825 


relics,  an  anoient  sarcopbagns  with  sonlptnres 
supposed  to  represent  the  story  of  Phiedra 
and  Hippolytas,  and  a  celebrated  porta  iDOce^ 
from  whence  a  conversation,  thoagh  carried 
on  in  the  lowest  voice,  may  be  overheard  at 
a  distance  of  about  800  feet.  There  are  many 
other  churches,  and  formerly,  when  the  pop- 
ulation included  a  large  number  of  priests^ 
there  were  many  convents  and  nunneries. 
The  college  of  Girgenti  is  among  the  most  im- 
portant in  Sicily,  and  the  Lucchesiana  library 
contains  about  100^000  volumes.  The  palazzo 
Buonadonua  is  the  principal  of  the  palaces, 
and  the  most  remarKable  classical  vestige  is 
the  temple  of  Zens  Polieus,  now  the  church  of 
Santa  Maria  de*  Greci.  Subterranean  cham- 
bers filled  with  stalactites  are  supposed  to  have 
been  quarries  whence  the  stone  was  supplied 
for  tiie  buildings  of  the  ancient  city.  There 
are  immense  granaries  hewn  in  the  rock  near 
the  port,  which  is  protected  by  a  mole,  built  of 
fragments  from  the  temple  of  Zens  Olympius. 
Sulphur  is  the  principal  article  of  trade,  and 
the  other  chief  exports  are  grain  and  olive  oil. 
While  the  pucina  or  water  reservoir  was  one 
of  the  most  remarkable  public  works  of  the 
ancient  city  (see  Agbiobntum),  Girgenti  suffers 
from  the  utter  want  of  a  supply  of  water. 
The  excavations  of  the  ancient  sepulchres  have 
discovered  painted  vases  more  varied  and  larger 
than  any  others  found  in  Sicily,  and  almost 
equalling  those  of  Apulia  and  Campania.  The 
spring  or  fountain  near  the  city,  to  which  Pliny 
refers  as  yielding  petroleum  or  mineral  oil,  stiU 
exists ;  and  the  mud  volcano  described  by  Soli- 
nus,  and  to  which  the  Saracens  gave  its  present 
name  of  Macoalubba,  continues  to  be  one  of  the 
many  curious  sights  in  the  vicinity  of  Girgenti. 

GIRODEX^TBIOflOir,  Aim  Lrato  (Gisodkt  de 
Coitbst),  a  French  painter,  bom  in  Montargis 
in  1767,  died  in  Paris,  Dec.  9,  1824.  He  was 
a  pupil  of  David,  and  obtained  the  great  prize, 
wnich  enabled  him  to  go  to  Rome  in  1789. 
During  a  residence  of  uve  years  in  Italy  he 
sent  to  Paris  the  *^  Sleeping  Endymion "  and 
'*  Hippocrates  declining  the  Gifts  of  Arta- 
xerxes."  On  his  return  to  Paris  in  1795,  he 
painted  portraits  of  Chateaubriand  and  Hor- 
tense,  and  several  large  pictures,  as  "  Dana6," 
*'  The  Seasons ''  for  the  king  of  Spain, ''  Fingal, 
Ossian,  and  their  Descendants  welcoming  to 
theur  A§rial  Palace  the  Manes  of  French  He- 
roes,'^ and  in  1806  his  most  esteemed  work, 
*^A  Scene  of  the  Deluge,"  which  created  a 
great  popular  sensation  and  bore  away  the 
prize  from  David's  ^^Sabines.'*  In  1808  he 
completed  his  "  Funeral  of  Atala,"  in  1810  his 
"  Revolt  at  Cairo,"  and  in  1819  his  "  Pygma- 
lion and  Galatea."  His  literary  remains  were 
published  in  1829,  in  2  vols. 

GIllONDE,  a  S.  W.  department  of  France, 
formerly  a  part  of  the  province  of  Guienne, 
bordering  on  the  bay  of  Biscay  and  the  depart- 
ments of  Charente-Inf6rieure,  Dordogne,  Lot- 
et-Garonne,  and  Landes ;  area,  8,759  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1872,  705,149.    The  surface  is  almost 


entirely  level,  the  W.  portion  being  a  vast 
sandy,  arid  flat,  collectively  called  the  Landes. 
The  chief  rivers  are  the  Garonne  and  Dordogne, 
which  unite  to  form  the  Gironde,  the  Isle, 
Dronne,  Dropt,  and  Leyre.  The  climate  is 
temperate,  and,  except  in  the  Landes,  gene- 
rally healthy.  The  principal  productions  are 
wheat,  rye,  millet,  maize,  hemp,  fruits,  wine, 
cork,  charcoal,  turpentine,  pitch,  and  timber. 
Wine  is  the  staple  product,  55,000,000  gallons 
being  made  annually.  The  most  renowned 
Bordeaux  wines  are  produced  in  the  Gironde. 
Building  stone,  salt,  and  chalk  are  the  principal 
mineral  products.  The  manufactures  include 
calicoes,  muslin,  earthenware,  paper,  leather, 
glass,  tobacco,  brandy,  beer,  vinegar,  salt, 
chemicals,  and  cordage.  Ship  building  is  ex- 
tensively carried  on  in  Bordeaux.  Railways 
connect  Bordeaux  with  Paris,  Bayonne,  &c. 
The  department  is  divided  into  the  arrondisse- 
ments  of  Bordeaux,  Blaye,  Lesparre,  Liboume, 
Bazas,  and  La  R^le.    Capital,  Bordeaux. 

GIEOliBISTB  (Fr.  Girondiiu%  a  French  po- 
litical party,  which  played  a  conspicuous  part 
in  the  legislative  assembly  and  the  convention. 
They  derived  their  name  from  the  deputies 
of  the  department  of  Gironde,  whom  they 
acknowledged  as  their  leaders.  Vergniaud, 
Gensonnd,  Guadet,  Brissot  (from  whom  they 
were  sometimes  styled  Brissotins),  Condoroet, 
Ducos,  Boyer-Fonfrdde,  Louvet,  Potion,  Va- 
laz4,  Buzot,  Barbaroux,  Isnard,  Lai^jninais, 
Carra,  and  Rabaut  Saint-£tienne  were  the  most 
prominent  of  their  members.  They  enthusias- 
tically promoted  the  proclamation  of  the  re- 
public (September,  1792),  but  strongly  opposed 
the  ultra-revolutionary  party,  called  the  Mon- 
tagnards;  and  although  eloquence,  talent,  and 
virtue  were  mostly  on  their  side,  they  suc- 
cumbed to  the  violent  assaults  of  their  oppo* 
nents  after  having  been  driven  by  the  current 
to  vote  in  part  and  reluctantly  for  the  death  of 
Louis  XVI.  The  Montagnards  charged  them 
with  plotting  against  the  unity  of  the  republic 
and  aiming  at  a  federal  organization  of  the 
country.  Altera  most  stormy  debate  on  May 
81,  1798,  22  of  them  were  arrested  on  June  2, 
incarcerated  at  the  Conciergerie,  and  on  Oct. 
81  executed.  Mme.  Roland,  their  inspirer,  and 
her  husband  followed  them  soon  after  (Novem- 
ber), the  former  dying  by  the  guillotine,  the 
latter  by  his  own  hand.  The  other  Girondist 
leaders  escaped  fh>m  Paris,  and,  after  vainly  at- 
tempting to  revolutionize  several  departments, 
were  almost  all  either  taken  prisoners  and  be- 
headed, or  committed  suicide. — See  Lamartine, 
Bittoire  de$  Oirandins  (8  vols.,  Paris,  1847). 

CtlSLASOVy  €Mnid,  an  Icelandic  philologist 
and  leidoo^apher,  bom  Joly  8,  1808.  He  is 
the  son  of  a  popular  poet,  and  studied  at  the 
university  of  Copenhagen,  where  he  became 
professor  of  the  Norse  languages.  Besides  nu- 
merous editions  of  old  Icelandic  writings  and 
commentaries  on  early  Scandinavian  poetry 
and  philology,  he  has  published  a  critical  man- 
ual of  the  rudiments  of  the  anoient  Icelandic 


826 


GISORS 


GIUSTINIANI 


according  to  the  earliest  records  (1846) ;  a  Da- 
nish-Icelandic dictionary,  the  first  ever  pub- 
lished (1851) ;  and  an  unfinished  work  on  early 
Norse  inflections  (1858). 

CiISOSS,  a  town  of  Normandy,  France,  in  the 
department  of  Sure,  in  a  fertile  plain  on  the 
banks  of  the  £pte,  83  m.  £.  S.  £.  of  Rouen; 
pop.  in  18C6,  3,758.  It  is  surrounded  by  gar- 
dens and  beautiful  promenades  formed  upon 
the  remains  of  its  ancient  ramparts.  Its  castle, 
most  of  which  is  still  standing,  was  very  strong, 
and  one  of  the  chief  fortresses  of  Norman- 
dy. It  was  built  about  the  11th  century,  but 
the  doivjon,  an  enclosed  octagonal  structure 
.crowning  a  high  artificial  mound,  was  con- 
structed in  the  12th  century  by  Henry  II.  of 
England.  Under  one  of  the  towers  is  a  dun- 
geon, the  walls  of  which  are  covered  with 
carvings  executed  with  a  nail  by  some  unknown 
prisoner.  The  parish  church  is  filled  with  gro- 
tesque sculptures.  The  choir  is  said  to  have 
been  built  by  Blanche  of  Castile. 

GrrSCHIN,  a  town  of  Bohemia,  on  the  Cyd- 
lina,  50  m.  N.  £.  of  Prague;  pop.  in  1869, 
6,570.  It  is  walled,  and  has  three  gates  and 
four  suburbs.  The  parish  church  is  built  after 
the  model  of  that  of  Santiago  de  Compost ela 
in  Spain.  The  former  Jesuit  college  is  used  as 
barracks.  It  was  a  collection  of  wretched  hov- 
els before  Wallenstein  made  it  the  capital  of 
the  duchy  of  Fried  land  in  1627,  and  the  seat 
of  a  magnificent  palace  in  1680.  The  storming 
of  Gitschin  by  the  Prussians,  June  29,  1866, 
ended  the  campaign  in  the  territory  of  the 
Iser;  and  the  overwhelming  defeat  of  the 
Austrians  here  paved  the  way  for  the  junction 
of  the  first  and  second  Prussian  armies  and  for 
the  victory  of  Sadowa  (July  3). 

6IULI0  ftOniWO,  an  Italian  painter  and  ar- 
chitect, whose  family  name  was  Pippi,  bom  in 
Rome  in  1492,  died  in  Mantua  in  1546.  He 
was  the  most  distinguished 'pupil  of  Raphael, 
whom  he  assisted  in  many  of  his  paintings,  and 
who  made  him  his  chief  heir  and  appointed  him 
to  complete  his  unfinished  works.  After  the 
death  of  his  master,  Leo  X.  and  Clement  VII. 
employed  him,  together  with  Gian  Penni,  to 
finish  the  history  of  Constantino  in  the  Vatican ; 
and  he  executed  several  works  for  the  public 
edifices  at  Rome,  was  also  employed  there  as 
architect,  and  painted  his  celebrated  picture  of 
the  "  Stoning  of  St.  Stephen  "  for  the  church 
of  San  Stefano  at  Genoa.  He  was  afterward 
invited  to  Mantua,  and  engaged  both  as  archi- 
tect and  painter  on  the  palazzo  del  Td.  The 
'•''  Defeat  of  the  Titans,"  in  one  of  the  halls  of 
the  palace,  is  one  of  the  best  examples  of  his 
style.  He  worked  with  his  pupils  on  many 
other  edifices  at  Mantua,  and  just  before  his 
death  was  appointed  to  succeed  Sansovino  as 
architect  of  St.  Peter's. 

GIIJRGEYO,  a  town  and  river  port  of  Rou- 
mania,  in  Wallachia,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Danube,  opposite  Rustchuk,  and  84  m.  S.  by 
W.  of  Bucharest ;  pop.  about  15,000.  Its  cit- 
adel, the  only  one  of  its  fortifications  remain- 


ing, stands  on  an  island  in  the  Danube  called 
Slobodze,  and  is  connected  with  the  town  by 
a  bridge.  Next  to  Braila  it  is  the  most  impor- 
tant  port  on  the  Wallachian  bank  of  the  Dan- 
ube, and  carries  on  a  considerable  trade  with 
Germany  and  Hungary.  Giurgevo  has  figured 
in  almost  all  the  Turkish  wars  on  the  lower 
Danube,  from  the  15th  century  down  to  the 
war  of  1853. 

GIUDICI,  Piolo  GBlllaiii,  an  Italian  author,  born 
at  Mussomelli,  Sicily,  June  13,  1812.  He  re- 
moved to  Florence  in  1840,  and  in  1844  pub- 
lished St&ria  delta  letteratura  italiana  (2  vols., 
2d  ed.,  1 853).  He  was  professor  at  the  university 
of  Pisa  from  1849  to  1852,  and  of  sesthetics  at 
the  royal  academy  of  fine  arts  in  Florence  from 
1859  to  1862,  of  which  he  became  secretary. 
In  1867  he  was  returned  to  the  Italian  parlia- 
ment as  a  deputy  for  Sicily.  His  Storia  dei 
comuni  (8  vols.,  1853-^4),  a  remarkable  work, 
with  new  documentary  evidence  relating  to  the 
Italian  communes,  was  followed  in  1856  by  his 
translation  into  Italian  of  Macaulay^s  *' History 
of  England,"  and  in  1860  by  his  Storia  del  tea- 
tro  italiano;  and  he  has  long  been  engaged 
upon  a  history  of  the  Florentine  democracy. 

GIU8TI,  Glueppe,  an  Italian  poet,  bom  at 
Monsummano,  in  Tuscany,  in  May,  1809,  died 
in  Florence,  March  81,  1850.  He  graduated 
as  an  advocate  at  the  university  of  Pisa,  and 
entered  the  law  office  of  the  future  minister  of 
justice,  Capoquadri.  But  on  account  of  a  deli- 
cate constitution  and  disappointment  in  love, 
he  abandoned  the  practice  of  his  profession. 
He  was  in  full  sympathy  with  Manzoni,  D^Aze- 
glio,  and  other  opponents  of  Austrian  domina- 
tion in  Italy,  and  his  poem  II  Die$  Irce^  on  the 
death  of  the  emperor  Francis  I.  in  1835,  at- 
tracted considerable  attention.  As  a  champion 
of  moderate  liberalism  he  was  twice  elected  in 
1848  to  the  Tuscan  chamber  of  deputies;  but 
after  spending  the  summer  of  1849  at  the 
springs  of  Viareggio,  he  ended  his  life  in  the 
Florentine  palace  of  his  devoted  friend  Cap- 
poni.  Though  published  anonymously,  his 
writings  had  acquired  a  wide  populari^  all 
over  Italy,  when  the  appearance  of  a  spurious 
edition  in  1845  impelled  him  to  have  one  pre- 
pared in  his  own  name.  But  the  most  authen- 
tic and  complete  edition  was  published  after 
his  death,  under  the  title  of  Veni  editi  ed 
inediti  (Florence,  1852). 

GIUSmriANI,  igastlBd  PintalMic,  an  Italian 
prelate  and  philologist,  born  in  Genoa  in  1470, 
died  at  sea  in  1586.  Educated  by  the  Domini- 
cans of  Florence,  he  became  a  professed  mem- 
ber of  that  order  in  1488,  studied  oriental  lan- 
guages, taught  in  several  colleges,  and  in  1518 
published  his  Precatio  Pietatu  Plena  (8vo, 
(Venice),  in  Hebrew  and  Latin.  About  this  time 
he  was  appointed  against  his  will  bishop  of  Neb- 
bio  in  Corsica,  was  present  in  1516  at  the  fifth 
Lateran  council,  and  solicited  in  vain  bis  remo- 
val from  the  episcopal  office.  He  then  withdrew 
to  the  retirement  offered  him  by  the  bishop 
of  Ivrea,  continuing  his  linguistic  labors,  and 


GIVET 


GLACIER 


827 


went  to  Paris  at  the  invitation  of  Francis  I., 
who  appointed  him  his  cliaplain,  and  nnder 
whose  aaspices  he  published  shortly  afterward 
his  Hebrew-Latin  edition  of  the  book  of  Job. 
After  filling  for  five  years  the  chair  of  Hebrew 
in  the  university  of  Paris,  he  returned  to  Genoa, 
then  torn  by  factions,  was  seriously  wounded 
while  trying  to  quell  a  riot,  and  thence  pro- 
ceeded to  Nebbio,  where  he  spent  the  remain- 
der of  his  life  in  his  episcopal  duties.  The  prin- 
cipal work  of  Giustiniani  is  his  Psalt&rium  He- 
hr€Bum,  Oraeum,  Arcibicum^  Chaldaieum,  cum 
tribus  Latinis  Interpretatianilnis  et  Olossis 
(fol.,  Genoa,  1516).  In  a  note  to  one  of  the 
psalms  is  the  first  printed  biographical  sketch 
of  Christopher  Columbus.  He  also  left  in  man- 
nscript  a  polyglot  New  Testament. 

GltET,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  department 
.of  Ardennes,  on  the  Meuse,  22  m.  N.  by  £.  of 
M6zi^res,  on  the  Belgian  frontier ;  pop.  in  1866, 
6,801.  It  is  a  fortified  place  of  considerable 
Importance,  its  principal  defence  being  the 
citadel  of  Charlemont  on  an  a(^jacent  height. 
The  tow^n  consists  of  Le  Grand  Givet,  or  Givet- 
Notre-Dame,  on  the  right  bank,  and  Le  Petit 
Givet,  or  Givet-St-Hilaire,  with  the  fortress 
Charlemont,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Meuse, 
which  are  connected  by  a  bridge  built  by  Na- 
poleon I.,  and  all  of  which  are  within  the 
lines  of  fortification.  Givet  has  manufactures 
of  wire,  pencils,  and  leather,  for  the  last  of 
which  it  is  celebrated. 

GI¥OSS,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Rh6ne,  on  the  Gier  and  the  Rhdne,  18 
m.  S.  of  Lyons;  pop.  in  1866,  9,957.  It  has 
extensive  glassworks  and  tanneries,  brick  yards, 
founderies,  and  silk  factories.  The  place  is  im- 
portant as  a  shipping  point  for  coal.  Near 
it  the  Givors-Gier  canal,  begun  in  1765  and 
completed  in  1781,  joins  the  Rh6ne,  which  is 
thus  connected  with  the  Loire.  In  the  vicin- 
ity are  the  ruins  of  the  castle  of  St.  Gerald 
and  the  convent  of  St.  Ferr6ol. 

CflZEH,  GUzeli,  or  Jlzeli^  a  town  of  Egypt, 
capital  of  a  province  of  the  same  name,  on  the 
W.  bank  of  the  Nile,  3  m.  S.  W.  of  Cairo.  It 
was  once  a  large  city,  but  is  now  a  petty  vil- 
lage surrounded  by  heaps  of  ruins.  The  khe- 
dive  has  a  palace  there.  About  5  m.  from  the 
village  stand  the  three  great  pyramids  called 
those  of  Oieops,  Cephren,  and  Mycerinus.  At 
Gizeh  are  ovens  in  which  eggs  have  been 
hatched  artificially  ever  since  the  days  of  the 
Pharaohs.    (See  Ptbamids.) 

GlZZiRD.  See  Compabativb  Anatomt,  vol. 
T.,  p.  181. 

GLACIAL  THEORY.    See  Diluvitth,  and  Gla- 

OIEB. 

GLACIER  (Fr.  glctcier,  from  glace,  ice),  a  vast 
body  of  ice,  filling  some  alpine  valley,  down 
which  it  slowly  moves,  the  outlet  of  the  snows 
which  accumulate  in  the  elevated  portions  of 
the  mountain  group.  Glaciers  may  be  found 
in  all  countries  where  extensive  tracts  lie  above 
the  snow  line.  In  such  localities  the  snows 
are  ever  accumulating,  and  the  temperature 


not  rising  sufficiently  for  any  considerable  pro- 
portion to  be  melted  and  flow  down,  they  fill 
the  spaces  between  the  summits.  By  the  pres- 
sure exerted  by  these  vast  collections  the  yield- 
ing material  is  forced  through  whatever  open- 
ing is  presented  for  its  passage,  and  the  great 
valleys  leading  to  the  base  of  the  mountains 
are  packed  full  of  ice,  which  results  from  the 
snow  being  solidified  by  pressure,  or  by  its  own 
melting  and  freezing  again.  This,  solid  as  it 
appears,  is  steadily  though  imperceptibly  urged 
onward,  conforming  to  all  the  irregularities 
of  its  channel,  split  sometimes  by  immovable 
ledges  of  rock,  which  stand  like  islands  in  its 
course,  yet  closing  again  below  them  with  no 
trace  of  the  fissure.  These  bodies  of  ice  ex- 
tend down  the  valleys  till  they  reach  a  region 
where  the  temperature  is  sufficiently  eleva- 
ted to  melt  away  the  supplies  as  they  arrive. 
Though  these  have  gradually  diminished  to- 
ward the  lower  extremity  of  the  glacier,  so  that 
this  has  flattened  away  somewhat  like  a  wedge, 
and  has  also  become  narrower,  the  termination 
is  frequently  abrupt  and  even  inaccessible.  It 
presents  an  apparently  stationary  wall  of  ice, 
which,  though  seen  to  be  constantly  wasting, 
may  yet  by  observations  continued  several 
days  be  found  steadily  advancing  from  the 
mountain.  During  the  summer  currents  of 
water  formed  from  superficial  thaws  fiow  over 
its  surface,  at  least  in  the  daytime,  and  fall  in 
cascades  into  the  numerous  chasms,  which  ex- 
tend across  the  glacier.  They  continue  their 
course,  hollowing  out  through  the  lower  layers 
of  the  ice  arched  channels,  which  at  the  lower 
end  appear  like  dark  caverns  extending  far  up 
into  the  icy  mass.  In  high  polar  latitudes, 
where  the  line  of  perpetual  snow  comes  down 
to  the  sea  level,  the  phenomena  of  glaciers  are 
displayed  upon  the  grandest  scale.  Thus  they 
were  seen  in  lat.  79**-80**  by  Dr.  Kane  in  1856, 
spreading  over  the  western  coast  of  Green- 
land, and  sloping  so  gently  toward  the  water 
that  the  effisct  of  an  inclined  plane  was  per- 
ceived only  by  looking  far  into  the  interior 
toward  the  east.  In  this  long  range  the  an- 
gle of  the  slope  was  from  7°  to  15®.  Yet  the 
whole  icy  crust  of  this  portion  of  the  conti- 
nent was  always  advancing  and  stretching  it- 
self out  into  the  western  bay,  where  masses 
of  it  were  constantly  detached  and  floated  off 
as  icebergs.  From  this  gladier  to  the  south- 
ern extremity  of  Greenland,  more  than  1,200 
m.,  Dr.  Kane  imagined  a  deep  unbroken  sea 
of  ice  might  extend  along  the  central  portions 
nearly  the  whole  length  of  the  continent. — The 
study  of  the  geology  of  California  had  enabled 
Prof.  Whitney  to  point  out  the  traces  of  im- 
mense glaciers  which  at  a  time  geologically  re- 
cent had  existed  in  the  mountains  of  the  Sierra 
Nevada.  The  alteration  of  the  climate  and  the 
duninution  of  the  rainfall  consequent  upon 
comparatively  recent  geological  changes,  have 
however  caused  the  disappearance  of  the  great- 
er part  of  these,  and  it  was  not  till  1870  that 
Mr.  Clarence  King  discovered  actual  glaciers  on 


828 


GLACIER 


the  N.  side  of  the  extinct  volcano  of  Mt.  Shasta 
in  northern  California.  From  the  sammit, 
14,440  ft.  above  the  sea,  according  to  him,  we 
look  down  on  three  considerable  glaciers.  One 
of  these  has  a  breadth  of  three  or  four  miles, 
and  sends  branches  four  or  five  miles  down  the 
cafions.  Its  thickness  is  estimated  in  places  to 
be  1,800  ft.  or  more,  and  its  surface  presents 
great  crevasses,  some  of  them  2,000  ft.  long,  and 
80  or  40  ft.  wide.  Mr.  8.  F.  Emmons  has  also 
found  glaciers  on  Mt.  Rainier  or  Tachoma  in 
Washington  territory,  and  Mr.  Arnold  Hague  on 
Mt.  Hood  in  Oregon ;  while  more  recently  Mr. 
John  Muir  has  succeeded  in  finding  small  gla- 
ciers much  further  southward  in  the  sierras  near 
the  Yosemite  valley  on  Mts.  Lyell,  McClure, 
and  Hofiinann.  They  have  the  structure  and 
movement  of  true  glaciers,  but  the  largest  is 
not  more  than  a  mUe  in  length,  and  they  vary 
in  breadth  from  half  a  mile  to  a  few  feet. — 
The  phenomenon  of  glaciers  reaching  the  sea 
and  becoming  icebergs  was  noticed  by  Darwin 
in  the  gulf  of  Pefias,  Patagonia.  In  northern 
Europe,  it  has  been  observed  in  Norway,  in  lat. 
67^  N.,  and  in  America  on  the  W.  coast  of 
Greenland.  Upon  the  Himalaya  mountains  the 
glaciers  appear  from  the  accounts  of  modem 
travellers  to  be  exhibited  in  masses  of  stupen- 
dous height,  as  well  as  of  vast  extent.  In  the 
*^  Himalayan  Journals  "  of  Dr.  Joseph  Hooker, 
those  of  the  eastern  portion  of  the  range,  in 
the  territories  of  Sikkun  and  Nepanl,  are  de- 
scribed in  detail^  and  mention  is  made  of  one 
which  presents  a  vertical  height  of  14,000  ft., 
the  source  of  which  is  the  great  Kinchhgunga, 
whose  summit  reaches  the  elevation  of  28,000 
ft.  above  the  sea.  Other  gigantic  glaciers  in 
the  central  Himalaya  are  described  by  Dr. 
Thomas  Thomson  (*^  Western  Himalaya  and 
Tibet"),  and  by  Col.  Madden  and  Capt.  Richard 
Strachey,inthe  ^'Asiatic Researches,''  vol.xiv. 
Iceland,  8pitzbergen,  the  Caucasus,  and  the 
Altai  have  their  glaciers,  which  have  been  de- 
scribed by  travellers;  but  no  regions  have  af- 
forded such  convenient  opportunities  for  study- 
ing them  in  detail  as  the  Alps  of  Switzerland, 
Savoy,  Piedmont  and  Tyrol.  Here,  in  the 
heart  of  Europe,  tney  are  found  covering  in  de- 
tached portions  an  aggregate  area  computed  at 
1 ,484  sq.  m.  Between  Mont  Blanc  and  the  bor- 
ders of  Tyrol  400  are  reckoned,  of  which  the 
greater  number  ^e  between  10  and  20  m.  long, 
and  from  1  to  2j^  m.  broad.  Their  vertical 
thickness  in  many  places  is  rated  at  600  ft. ; 
their  range  is  from  above  the  snow  line,  which 
is  fVom  7,600  to  8,000  ft.  above  the  sea,  down 
to  the  level  of  8,600  to  8,000  ft.  Lateral  ravines 
have  their  glaciers,  which  Join  as  branches  the 
ice  currents  of  the  great  valleya  This  inter- 
esting region  was  studied  by  De  Saussure  in 
the  latter  portion  of  the  last  century,  and  his 
views  were  published  in  his  Voyages  dans  lett 
Alpee  (1796).  Charpentier  is  distinguished 
among  later  explorers  as  the  able  advocate  of 
the  theory  explaining  the  motion  of  the  gla- 
ciers, afterward  sustained  by  Agassiz  in  his 


jStudsi  9ur  les  glaeiert  (1840);  and  Prof.  James 
D.  Forbes  of  Edinburgh  published  in  1848  his 
^^  Travels  in  the  Alps,"  &c.,  with  observations 
on  the  phenomena  of  glaciers  made  in  visits 
to  them  repeated  in  ten  different  summers,  in 
which  he  crossed  the  principal  chain  27  times 
by  28  different  pajBses.  Many  other  distinguish- 
ed naturalists  have  aided  not  only  to  develop 
the  true  nature  of  glaciers,  but  to  apply  their 
phenomena  to  the  explanation  of  past  changes 
upon  the  earth's  surface. — Spread  over  the 
broad  valleys,  glaciers  appear  immovable.  The 
snow  disappears  from  their  face  in  summer, 
and  thousands  of  streams  are  then  produced, 
which  waste  their  material ;  but  with  the  re- 
turn of  winter  the  covering  of  snow  is  renewed, 
and  no  change  may  be  perceived  in  the  great 
mass  except  such  as  can  be  referred  to  these 
superficial  causes.  But  by  comparative  obser- 
vations made  at  different  times,  it  is  perceived 
that  the  great  mass  itself  moves.  The  con- 
stant renewal  of  the  waste  at  the  lower  ex- 
tremity, already  referred  to,  is  one  evidence  of 
this.  Objects  on  the  surface,  too,  are  found  to 
be  continually  moving  down,  even  when  their 
position  on  the  ice  itself  is  not  changed.  From 
the  high  precipices  at  the  sides  masses  of  rock 
and  stone  fall  along  the  edges  of  the  glacier, 
but  it  is  obvious  that  they  do  not  remain  there 
in  an  immovable  talus ;  for  where  one  glacier 
opens  into  another  the  piles  of  stones  next  the 
fork  do  not  terminate  as  they  join  at  this  point, 
but  are  continued  in  a  long  mound  of  the  same 
varieties  of  stone  flu*  down  the  glacier ;  and  as 
other  branches  come  in,  eadi  adds  its  new 
mound,  till  sometimes  as  many  as  six  parallel 
ridges  are  thus  produced.  These  may  come 
in  contact  below,  and  thus  be  reduced  in  num- 
ber, and  even  be  blended  with  the  piles  at  the 
edges.  In  some  form,  however,  the  mounds 
continue  to  tiie  foot  of  the  glacier ;  and  there 
ridges  of  bowlder-shaped  stones  and  gravel 
are  seen,  which  lie  in  front  of  the  glacier,  and 
are  sometimes  repeated  in  nearly  parallel  lines 
like  the  little  ridges  of  sand  and  drift  material 
along  a  sea  beach,  each  one  of  which  marks 
the  limit  of  some  previous  high  tide.  So  these 
great  ridges  of  sand  and  stones^  called  moraines 
or  borders,  mark  the  limits  reached  by  the  foot 
of  the  glacier  at  former  times ;  and  as  the  tide 
marks  are  all  removed  when  a  high-course  tide 
again  sweeps  far  up  the  breach,  so  the  ridges 
at  certain  periods  are  observed  to  move  on  be- 
fore the  advancing  glacier,  and  mix  together 
in  a  new  and  larger  moraine  at  a  greater  dis- 
tance from  the  mountains.  It  is  in  these  pe- 
riods thsi  the  habitable  valleys  of  Switzerland 
are  sometimes  invaded  by  the  terrible  ice  wall. 
Imperceptibly  but  irresistibly  it  is  found  ad- 
vancing upon  the  farms  and  cottages.  The 
warm  summer  weather  is  obviously  hastening 
its  dissolution,  yet  its  dimensions  do  not  sensibly 
diminish.  The  green  forests  slowly  disappear 
before  it ;  and  the  g^wing  wheat  almost  feels 
its  icy  touch,  before  the  soil  is  lifted  by  its 
ruthless  ploughshare.    When,  after  such  an 


GLAOIEB 


829 


advance,  the  glacier  recedes  to  its  former 
boonda,  the  surface  it  covered  is  found  to  be 
changed  into  a  dismal  waste  of  loose  stones. — 
The  gathering  ^d  distribution  of  these  mate- 
rials bj  action  of  glaciers  have  been  subjects 
of  special  interest,  from  the  resemblance  in 
most  of  the  phenomena  exhibited  to  those  con- 
nected with  the  distribution  of  the  geologi- 
cal formation  known  as  the  drift.  The  loose 
rocks  are  worn  into  the  rounded  forms  of  bowl- 
ders, and  are  similarly  striated  and  grooved 
upon  their  surface,  and  sometimes  polished. 
The  rocks  upon  and  against  which  the  glaciers 
have  pressed  are  found,  wherever  exposed  to 
view,  to  be  ground  smooth  and  deeply  marked 
with  lines  corresponding  in  direction  with  the 
course  of  the  glacier  at  the  spot.  It  is  upon 
these  resemblances,  and  others  connected  with 
minor  details  of  the  two  classes  of  pheno- 
mena, that  the  glacial  theory  of  Yenetz  and 
Gharpentier,  so  fully  elaborated  by  Agassiz,  is 
based,  accounting  for  the  distribution  of  geo- 
logical formations  like  the  drift  The  trans- 
porting power  of  glaciers  was  recognized  by 
Prof.  Playfair  of  Edinburgh  as  far  back  as  the 
year  1816,  and  the  occurrence  of  the  enormous 
bowlders  on  the  Jura  was  attributed  by  him 
to  glaciers,  whose  track  he  supposed  lay  at  one 
time  across  the  valley  of  Switzerland  and  the 
lake  of  Greneva,  which  now  separate  the  Jura 
from  the  opposite  summits  of  Mont  Blanc.  It 
is  on  these  summits,  at  the  distance  of  from 
70  to  80  m.,  that  are  found  the  ledges  of  granite 
and  other  rocks,  which  are  recognized  as  iden- 
tical with  the  great  bowlders  scattered  over 
the  surface  of  the  Jura  limestone.  (See  Di- 
Lirvnnc.) — ^The  quantity  of  stony  material,  and 
the  enormous  size  of  the  masses  of  rock  carried 
along  by  glaciers,  are  little  appreciated,  even 
by  many  who  have  seen  the  loads  apparently 
resting  quietly  on  their  surface.  Sometimes 
the  ice  is  almost  concealed  by  the  accumulated 
piles  of  stone.  These  do  not  sink  into  the  ice, 
except  as  they  occasionally  fall  into  the  chasms, 
and  even  then  they  are  sometimes  brought 
again  to  the  surface  by  the  action  of  the  forces 
which  keep  most  of  them  there.  As  the  rock 
protects  the  ice  beneath  it  from  the  action  of 
the  sun,  which  has  its  melting  effect  around, 
the  rock  is  thus  gradually  lifted  upon  a  pedes- 
tal of  ice,  at  the  same  time  that  the  whole  is 
slowly  moving  down  to  a  lower  level.  When 
the  pedestal  at  last  gives  way,  the  rock  slips 
down  and  the  process  is  repeated.  When  once 
in  the  ice,  the  superficial  melting  may  bring  it 
again  to  the  surface.  The  size  of  the  frag- 
ments is  often  immense.  Prof.  Forbes  saw  one 
in  the  valley  which  must  have  been  brought 
down  by  the  glacier,  which  was  nearly  100  ft. 
long,  and  from  40  to  60  high ;  and  at  the  foot 
of  the  glacier  of  Swartzburg  in  the  valley  of 
Saas  was  another  estimated  to  contain  244,000 
cubic  feet,  requiring  an  average  diameter  of 
nearly  62  ft. — ^The  rate  of  progress  of  glaciers, 
dependent  upon  various  conditions,  is  no  more 
imiform  than  that  of  rivers.    It  can  in  no  cose 


be  correctly  estimated  except  by  observations 
extending  over  many  years.  On  the  glacier 
of  Aar  M .  Hugi  erected  a  hut  in  1827  at  the 
foot  of  a  fixed  and  well  known  rock.  In  1886 
the  hut  was  2,200  ft.  from  the  rock,  and  in 
1840  this  distance  had  doubled.  In  the  first 
period  its  progress  had  been  250  ft.  per  annum, 
and  in  the  second  550.  Forbes  in  1842  found 
the  remiuns  of  a  ladder,  which,  it  is  believed, 
was  the  one  left  by  De  Saussure  in  1788  at  a 
point  16,500  ft.  further  up  the  glacier ;  if  so,  its 
yearly  progress  had  been  875  ft.  This  move- 
ment extends  through  valleys  in  which  the 
surface  of  the  glacier  appears  to  lie  almost  on 
a  dead  level,  it  is  made  manifest  day  by  day 
by  a  row  of  stakes  set  up  in  a  straight  line 
across  the  glacier,  and  ranging  with  fixed  points 
on  the  land  at  the  sides.  These  are  alter  a 
time  observed  to  stand  upon  a  semicircular  line, 
the  stakes  near  the  middle  moving  faster  than 
those  near  the  margin.  The  importance  of  cor- 
rectly estimating  the  rate  of  movement  at  short 
intervals  and  in  different  parts  of  a  glacier,  in 
order  to  determine  the  nature  of  the  motion, 
appears  to  have  been  first  appreciated  by 
Agassiz  in  1841,  and  by  Forbes,  who  was  en- 
gi^ged  about  the  same  time  in  his  explorations. 
Agassiz  discovered  that  the  central  portion 
moved  faster  than  the  marginal,  and  he  was 
the  first  to  correct  the  erroneous  views  into 
which  he  had  been  led  by  others  on  this  point, 
from  the  fact  of  the  great  cracks  generally 
lying  in  curved  lines  with  the  convexity  directed 
up  the  course  of  the  glacier.  {SysUme  glaciaire, 
by  Agassiz,  Guyot,  and  Desor,  p.  462.)  The 
upward  convexity  of  the  fissures  is  accounted 
for  by  the  fact  ^at,  if  the  central  portion  moves 
fastest,  the  lines  of  greatest  tension  are  down- 
ward and  toward  the  middle,  and  the  ice  gives 
way  at  right  angles  to  these  lines.  Forbes,  by 
careful  instrumental  observations  in  1842,  de- 
tected the  rate  of  movement  in  periods  of  24 
hours,  and  was  able  even  to  notice  that  which 
took  place  in  an  hour  and  a  half.  He  proved 
the  faster  rate  of  the  central  portions,  and  also 
that  the  portions  of  the  glacier  near  the  sur- 
face moved  faster  than  those  near  the  bottom. 
The  motion  he  found  was  greatest  on  the  slopes 
of  greatest  descent;  in  warm  weather  more 
rapid  than  in  cold ;  yet  always  continuous,  and 
not  exhibited  in  the  manner  of  jerks.  Such 
facts  are  opposed  to  the  theory  of  De  Saussure, 
that  the  glaciers  move  by  slipping  along  upon 
their  bed,  the  motion  being  made  more  easy 
by  the  buoyant  property  of  the  water  fiowing 
beneath  them,  and  the  propelling  force  being 
that  of  gravitation.  Moreover,  the  ice,  without 
being  broken  up,  was  observed  not  to  be  inter- 
rupted in  its  movement  by  the  contracted  pas- 
sages through  which  it  was  sometimes  forced 
to  pass,  nor  by  solid  hills  of  rock,  which  lay 
like  islands  in  its  path.  The  theory  maintained 
by  Gharpentier,  and  supported  by  Agassiz  in 
his  itudes  iur  lea  gkieien,  was  that  the  glacier 
slid  upon  its  bed,  not  necessarily  in  large  bodies 
pushed  on  by  gravitation,  but  that  different 


830 


GLACIER 


portions  were  impelled  by  different  degrees  of 
force,  arising  from  the  expansion  of  the  water 
congealing  in  all  the  fissures  and  capillary  tabes 
of  the  ice  into  which  it  found  its  way.  The 
facts  developed  by  Forbes — that  the  motion 
was  greatest  in  the  warm  summer  weather, 
when  the  temperature  did  not  descend  below 
the  fi*eezing  point,  and  that  it  did  not  cease 
when  the  ice  was  no  longer  liquefied  in  the  cold 
of  winter — demanded  some  new  explanation. 
With  the  other  phenomena  they  were  regarded 
by  him  as  sufiScient  to  establish  the  fact  that 
ice  in  large  bodies  is  not  a  brittle  solid,  but  that 
it  possesses,  particularly  when  saturated  with 
water,  so  much  plasticity,  that  with  time  it 
can  yield  to  a  stupendous  and  steadily  exerted 
force,  and  move  somewhat  like  a  body  of  vis- 
cous pitch  or  lava,  which,  while  it  appears  brit- 
tle wl^n  suddenly  struck,  can  yet  mould  itself 
in  the  mass  to  the  surface  upon  which  it  rests. 
By  this  theory,  which  was  generally  received 
even  by  those  who  first  opposed  it,  all  the  diffi- 
culties attending  the  explanation  of  the  move- 
ment disappear.  It  was  confirmed  by  a  sim- 
ple experiment  made  by  Mr.  Christie,  secretary 
to  the  royal  society.  He  filled  with  water  a 
10-inch  hollow  shell  of  iron,  the  shell  itself 
being  besides  1^^  in.  thick,  and  exposed  this  to 
severe  cold.  As  the  water  expanded  in  freez- 
ing, a  cylinder  of  ice  was  pushed  np  through 
the  fuse  hole,  and  it  continued  to  increase  in 
length  as  the  water  continued  to  freeze.  As 
the  outer  portions  of  the  water  must  have  been 
first  converted  into  ice,  it  is  plain  that  it  was 
this  so-called  solid  material  which  was  forced 
through  the  narrow  aperture  and  made  to  as- 
sume the  form  of  a  cylinder  of  its  diameter. 
But  the  peculiar  nature  of  this  quality  of  mo- 
bility belonging  to  ice  has  been  more  perfectly 
explained,  together  with  some  of  the  other 
phenomena  of  glaciers,  by  the  researches  of 
Tyndall  and  Huxley,  an  account  of  which  is 
published  in  the  *^  Philosophical  Magazine,'' 
vol.  XV.  (4th  series),  1858.  The  property  of 
particles  of  ice  when  exposed  to  higher  tem- 
peratures than  the  freezing  point  to  adhere, 
and  under  pressure  to  unite  in  one  mass,  was 
observed  by  Faraday,  and  was  afterward  made 
the  subject  of  various  experiments  by  Tyndall 
and  Huxley.  They  found  that  compact  trans- 
parent ice  might  be  crushed  to  fragments,  and 
these  be  made  by  a  hydraulic  press  to  assume 
in  a  few  seconds  the  shape  of  any  mould,  re- 
covering in  their  new  form  perfect  solidity  and 
transparency.  A  straight  bar  of  ice  was  bent 
into  a  semicircular  form  by  using  a  succession 
of  four  moulds  of  gradually  increasing  curva- 
ture. As  the  prism  conformed  itself  to  these, 
cracks  were  produced,  and  crackling  sounds 
were  emitted,  reminding  one  of  those  which 
are  so  often  noticed  among  the  phenomena  of 
glaciers.  By  reference  to  this  before  unob- 
served property  of  ice  the  movement  and  un- 
broken continuity  of  glaciers  and  their  branches 
are  now  explained. — The  glaciers  from  their 
very  source  present  a  series  of  changes  of 


structure,  which  have  been  critically  observed 
and  traced,  and  in  some  instances  illustra- 
ted and  explained  by  experiments  on  a  small 
scale  with  other  materials.  The  snowy  region 
known  by  the  French  term  neve  is  formed 
of  dry  and  granular  snow,  which  extends  for 
miles,  sometimes  broken  by  immense  chasms, 
and  at  others  presenting  no  irregularities  of 
surface  such  as  are  common  to  the  glacier  be- 
low, no  streams,  crevices,  moraines,  or  cones. 
The  snow  lies  in  strata,  which  reach  to  great 
depth,  each  representing  the  accumulation  of  a 
single  year,  the  lowest  &e  most  dense  and  ap- 
proaching the  blue  color  of  ice.  These  bodies 
move  onward  to  form  the  glacier  proper ;  and 
as  they  pass  into  this,  their  material  assumes 
more  and  more  the  character  of  compact  ice. 
But  a  remarkable  and  peculiar  feature  is  the 
veined  or  laminated  structure,  real  or  only  ap- 
parent, which  it  assumes.  This  is  noticed  in 
the  walls  of  the  fissures,  and  is  also  displayed 
upon  the  surface  of  the  glacier  itself^  when 
this  has  been  wasted  by  rain.  Thin  laminsB 
of  transparent  blue  ice  alternate  with  others 
of  white  porous  ice,  and  standing  together  in  a 
vertical  position  the  edges  of  the  former  pro- 
ject a  little  above  those  of  the  latter,  which 
more  readily  melt,  and  thus  a  ribbed  appear- 
ance is  produced.  The  direction  of  the  lami- 
nas  is  across  the  fissures,  and  as  observed  by 
Tyndall  and  Huxley  these  are  produced  at 
right  angles  to  the  direction  of  greatest  ten- 
sion. They  find  an  analogy  between  the  lami- 
nation of  the  ice  and  the  slaty  cleavage  of  the 
clays  and  slates,  both  which  they  refer  to 
pressure  causing  the  development  of  divisional 
planes  in  lines  approximately  at  right  angles 
to  the  direction  of  pressure.  Hence  the  ob- 
liquity of  the  lamination  to  the  sides  of  the 
glacier  as  the  lines  extend  from  the  margin  to- 
ward the  middle  and  down  its  coarse;  and 
the  deviation  directly  across  the  glacier,  or  at 
right  angles  with  this  and  pardlel  with  its 
axis,  as  the  form  of  its  bed  or  other  causes 
produce  a  pressure  in  the  one  case  exerted  lon- 
gitudinally and  in  the  other  laterally  with  the 
line  of  the  glacier.  By  submitting  plastic  ma- 
terials, as  wax,  to  pressure,  and  observing  the 
laminated  structure  these  assumed,  these  m- 
vestigators  were  led  to  this  explanation  of  the 
phenomenon  as  developed  in  glacier  ice ;  but 
others,  as  Prof.  Forbes,  describe  the  white  ice 
as  produced  merely  by  lines  of  cavities  or  of 
air  bubbles  in  the  blue  ice  itself,  the  result, 
according  to  the  observation  of  Prof.  James 
Thomson,  of  partial  liquefaction  induced  by 
pressure;  and  Prof.  William  Thomson  at- 
tempts to  prove  "  that  the  first  efibct  of  pres- 
sure not  equal  in  all  directions  on  a  mass  of 
snow  ought  to  be,  according  to  the  theory,  to 
convert  it  into  a  stratified  mass  of  layers  of 
alternately  clear  and  vesicular  ice,  perpendicu- 
lar to  the  direction  of  maximum  pressure.'' 
But  the  complete  explanation  of  this  structure 
will  require  experimental  researches  upon  ice 
which  have  not  yet  been  made. — Another  in- 


GLADBAGH 


GLADIOLUS 


831 


terestlng  feature  in  the  appearance  of  glaciers, 
to  which  attention  was  first  directed  by  Forbes, 
is  the  distribntion  of  what  he  called  the  dirt 
bands,  discolored  streaks  peen  upon  the  sur- 
face, which  he  supposed  were  connected  with 
the  yeined  structure,  appearing  where  this  is 
more  energetically  developed  than  elsewhere, 
and  caused  by  the  collection  of  sand  and  dirt 
in  the  decomposed  portions  of  the  softer  lam- 
ins.  These  are  arranged  in  curves,  the  con- 
vexity of  which  is  turned  down  the  glacier, 
and  are  frequently  so  obscure  that  they  are 
diatinguished  only  by  looking  down  upon  them 
from  some  elevation.  Tyndall  and  Huxley  de- 
scribe them  as  spread  out  upon  the  smooth  ice 
below  ice  cascades,  and  caused  a  similar  sym- 
metrical arrangement  of  dark-colored  sand 
distributed  upon  the  surface  of  a  current  of 
fine  mud,  which  they  made  to  flow  from  a  res- 
ervoir down  an  inclined  trough,  through  a 
narrow  channel,  which  spread  out  below  over 
a  widened  area. — Various  other  phenomena 
connected  with  the  structure  and  motion  of 
glaciers  are  discussed  in  the  treatises  on  this 
subject  already  referred  to.  Besides  the  w orks 
mentioned,  see  ^^ Norway  and  its  Glaciers" 
(1868),  and  "On  the  Theory  of  Glaciers" 
(1859),  by  James  D.  Forbes ;  Die  OUUeher  der 
JeUUeity  by  A.  Mousson  (1854) ;  Neue  Unter- 
nuhungen  uber  die  phyHJcxUieehe  Geographie 
und  die  Oeologie  der  Alpeti,  by  the  brotners 
Bchlagintweit  (1854) ;  "  The  Glaciers  of  the 
Alpsj"  by  John  Tyndall  (1860);  "The  Old 
Glaciers  of  North  Wales  and  Switzerland," 
by  A.  0.  Eamsay  (1860);  and  "  The  Land  of 
Desolation,"  by  Dr.  Isaac  I.  Hayes  (1871). 

(1LADBACH9  the  name  of  two  towns  of  Prus- 
sia, in  the  province  of  the  Rhine,  h  MiMhii- 
fiiadtech,  in  the  district  and  16  m.  W.  by  S.  of 
the  dty  of  DOsseldorf ;  pop.  in  1871,  26,826 
(against  4,090  in  1852).  It  is  one  of  the  chief 
seats  of  the  industry  of  Rhenish  Prussia,  hav- 
ing numerous  manufactories  of  cotton,  linen, 
and  silk  goods,  tobacco,  machines,  and  wire, 
and  a  number  of  bleaching  grounds.  Former- 
ly there  was  here  a  celebrated  Benedictine  ab- 
bey, which  was  founded  in  972  by  Archbishop 
Gero  of  Cologne.  U.  Bergteck-iSladksdi,  in  the 
district  and  8  m.  N.  E.  of  the  city  of  Cologne ; 
pop.  in  1 87 1 ,  6, 1 96.  It  contains  m anufaotories 
of  paper  and  percussion  caps.  In  its  vicinity  is 
the  village  of  Bensberg,  with  a  castle  built  in 
1710,  and  now  converted  by  the  Prussian  gov- 
ernment into  a  military  academy. 

0UDUT0R8  (Lat.  gladius,  a  sword),  in  Ro- 
man antiquity,  men  who  fought  with  each 
other  or  with  wild  animals  at  the  public  games, 
for  the  entertainment  of  spectators.  They 
were  originally  captives,  slaves,  or  condemned 
criminals;  but  under  the  republic  free-born 
citizens,  and  under  the  empire  knights,  sena- 
tors, and  even  women,  fought  in  the  arena. 
Those  who  were  malefactors  were  divided 
into  two  classes:  those  condemned  ad  gladi- 
um^  to  be  killed  within  a  year,  and  ad  ludum, 
who  were  discharged  if  they  survived  three 
860  VOL.  VII. — 58 


years.  Professional  gladiators  were  trained 
in  schools  at  Rome,  Capua,  and  Ravenna,  by 
overseers  (lanieta^  who  either  purchased  and 
maintained  them  to  let  them  out  for  public 
exhibitions,  or  only  trained  them  for  their 
owners.  Clodius  and  Milo  employed  gladia- 
tors as  a  political  force  in  their  struggle; 
CsBsar  had  5,000  of  them  at  Capua,  who  were 
not  overlooked  by  Pompey.  They  were  taught 
the  postures  to  be  assumed  in  falling  and  in  dy- 
ing, and  such  food  was  chosen  as  would  thick- 
en their  blood  in  order  to  give  the  spectators  a 
more  leisurely  view  of  their  death.  The  public 
combat  between  gladiators  began  with  weap- 
ons of  wood,  which  were  soon  exchanged  for 
deadly  arms.  Usually  they  were  matched  by 
pairs.  According  to  their  arms  or  modes  of 
fighting,  gladiators  were  divided  into  numeroua 
classes.  The  andabata  fought  blindfolded,  the 
eatervarii  in  troops,  the  eeeedarii  in  chariots, 
the  equitee  on  horseback,  the  hoplomachi  in  fall 
armor,  the  laqueatoree  with  the  lasso,  the  imT' 
millenes  with  the  weapons  of  the  ancient  Gauls, 
the  Samnitei  with  those  of  the  people  of  Sam- 
nium.  the  Thraeea  with  a  dagger  and  round 
buckler.  The  retiarii  were  lightly  equipped, 
and  fought  by  throwing  a  net  lasso-fashion  over 
the  head  of  their  antagonist,  and  then  despatch- 
ing him  with  a  three-pointed  lance  or  trident. 
If  a  combatant  was  vanquished,  but  not  killed, 
his  fate  depended  on  the  people,  who  turned 
their  thumbs  down  if  they  wished  him  to  be 
spared.  A  man  who  had  once  been  a  gladiator 
was  always  reganled  as  disgraced,  and,  if  a 
knight,  could  not  resume  his  rank.  Gladiatorial 
contests  were  first  exhibited  at  Rome  in  264  6. 
C,  as  an  entertainment  at  funerals,  and  they 
continued  till  the  reign  of  Honorius  (A.  D.  404), 
when  Telemachus,  a  Christian  monk,  rushed 
between  two  contending  gladiators  at  Rome, 
and  by  his  self-sacrifice  occasioned  the  decree 
for  their  abolition.  The  passion  for  them  had 
risen  to  its  height  under  the  emperors.  Titut 
ordained  a  combat  of  100  days,  and  Trtgan  one 
of  128  days,  in  which  10,000  gladiators  fought, 
and  11,000  fierce  animals  were  killed.  Rome 
was  imperilled  about  72  B.  C.  by  a  rebellion 
of  gladiators.    (See  Spartaous.) 

CLIDIOLUS  (Lat.  gladiuey  a  sword),  a  genus 
of  ornamental  plants  of  liie  iridaeea  or  iris 
family.  A  flattened  solid  bulb  or  conn  sends 
up  a  stem  bearing  several  long,  sword-shaped^ 
strongly  nerved  leaves,  and  terminating  in  a 
spike  of  large  and  usually  showy  flowers,  which 
are  somewhat  irregular  from  the  difference  in 
the  size  of  the  petals,  and  more  or  less  two- 
lipped.  Sword  lily  and  com  flag  are  names 
sometimes  applied  to  these  plants,  but  they  are 
generally  called  by  their  botanical  name  gladi- 
olus. There  are  both  hardy  and  tender  species. 
The  hardy  ones  are  planted  in  antumn  at  the 
same  time  with  hyacinths,  tulips,  &c. ;  the 
principal  ones  cultivated  are  0,  communis,  from 
Europe,  which  has  been  longer  in  the  gardens 
than  any  other,  and  bears  a  few  rose-colored, 
sometimes  white  flowers,  and.  G.  Byeantinus, 


832  GLADIOLUS 

from  Hie  Levant,  which  has  larger  and  more 
showy  pnrple  flowers.  AmoQg  the  tender 
BpecisB  which  are  grown  in  pots  in  winter,  or 
planted  in  the  open  ground  in  spring,  are  G. 
eardinalit,  0.  blandv*,  and  G.  ptittaeintu,  from 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  The  most  popular 
and  brilliant  of  these  plants  art  hybrids  from 
these  and  probably  others;  they  originated  in 
the  garden  of  the  duke  of  Aremberg,  a  noted 
amateur  of  Ghent;  and  as  their  obaractera  are 
permanent  and  they  are  fertile  among  them- 
selves, these  hybrids  have  received  the  garden 
JiaiD«  oi  gladhluf  Oandanentii.  In  size,  bean- 
ty  of  form,  and  variety  of  colorinR  of  the  flower, 
these  hybrids  far  excel  any  of  the  species,  and 
they  are  constantly  improving  in  these  re- 
spects; new  seedlings  of  merit  are  each  year 
raised  both  in  Earope  and  America,  and  ttie 
catalognes  now  offer  named  varieties  in  hun- 
dreds. The  colors  range  from  pnre  white 
through  rose  to  crimson,  scarlet,  and  violet; 


some  have  yellow  as  the  predominating  color, 
and  there  are  varioas  intermediate  shades  of 
sahnoD,  chamois,  and  others;  besides  self-col- 
ored flowers,  there  are  those  variooely  striped, 
stained,  and  shaded  in  the  moat  brilliant  and 
pleasing  combinationB.  The  cultivation  is  very 
easy,  as  they  will  grow  in  any  light,  rich  gar- 
den soil ;  the  bulbs  are  planted  in  spring,  and, 
if  a  saccession  of  flowers  is  desired,  at  intervals 
from  March  until  Hay;  they  are  set  2  or  3  in. 
deep,  and  10  to  12  in.  apart  each  way,  and  need 
no  otlier  care  than  to  be  kept  clear  of  weeds, 
and  to  have  aurh  stalks  aa  need  it  tied  to  sticks. 
A  very  effective  plan  is  to  plant  the  bulbs 
where  the  flowers  will  be  seen  against  a  back- 
ground of  evergreens;  they  may  also  be  in- 
troduced among  rhododendrons,  azaleas,  and 
other  spring-tiowering  shrubs.  Id  entnmn 
wh  en  the  stB.lks  are  dead  the  bnlbs  are  taken  up, 
labelled,  wrapped  in  papers,  and  kept  in  &  dry 
plACB,  where  they  will  not  freeze,  until  spring. 


GLADSTONE 

The  namber  of  bnlbs  annually  produc«d  varies 
from  one  to  several,  according  to  the  variety. 
At  the  base  of  the  bulbs  there  will  usnally  be 
found  numerous  bulblets,  the  size  of  a  pea  or 
smaller;  planted  the  next  spring,  these  make 
flowering  bulbs  in  two  years.  New  varieties 
are  obtained  from  the  seed ;  these  produce 
flowers  the  third  or  fourth  year  after  sowing. 
CLIDSTOKE,  WIltllH  Ewirt,  a  British  states- 
man, born  in  Liverpool,  Dec.  2»,  180B.  He  is 
the  fourth  son  of  Sir  John  Gladstone,  a  wealthy 
merchant,  who  relinquished  a  small  bnnneas  in 
Glasgow  about  178B,  and  removed  to  Liver- 
pool, where  he  acquired  a  large  fortune  in  the 
West  India  trade,  and  was  created  a  baronet 
in  1640.  The  son  was  sent  to  Eton,  and  while 
there  gave  full  promise  of  the  special  brilliancy 
which  marked  his  coarse  at  Oxford,  where  he 
graduated  at  Christchnrch  in  1831,  as  double 
first  class,  the  highest  honor,  and  one  rarely 
attained,  and  became  a  fellow  of  All  Souls', 
After  travelling  for  a  abort  period,  be  entered 
parliament  in  December,  1632,  as  member  for 
Newark,  a  nomination  borough  belonging  to 
the  duke  of  Newcastle,  which  he  continued  to 
represent  till  1846.  In  December,  18S4,  he  was 
appointed  by  Sir  Robert  Peel  a  junior  lord  of 
the  treasury,  and  in  1636  nnder  secretary  for 
colonial  affairs,  which  office  he  filled  for  only 
two  months,  when  the  ministry  was  over- 
thrown. He  continued  a  useful  and  active  is 
well  as  brilliant  member  of  the  opposition  party 
led  by  Sir  Robert  Peel  until  that  Btatasman's 
retnm  to  power  in  1841,  when  he  was  sworn 
a  member  of  the  privy  council  and  appdnt- 
ed  vice  president  of  the  board  of  trade  and 
master  of  the  mint  In  this  poaition  he  ex- 
plained and  defended  in  parliament  the  com- 
mercial policy  of  the  government,  and  the  re- 
vision of  the  British  tariff  in  1849  was  almost 
entirely  hia  work.  He  was  a  constant  oon- 
tribator  to  the  "  Quarterly  Review,"  chiefly  oD 
literary  and  ecclesiastical  Enl^ecta.    He  also 

Enblisbed  in  1836  a  work  on  cbnrch  and  state, 
I  which  he  maintained  extreme  high-chnrch 
views,  and  which  was  severely  criticised  by 
Macaolay  in  the  "Edinburgh  Review."  In 
Hay,  184S,  he  succeedeil  Lord  Ripon  as  presi- 
dent of  the  board  of  trade,  but  in  February, 
164&,  he  resigned  his  offices  on  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  measure  for  the  increase  of  the  Haj- 
nooth  grant,   which  was   directly  opposed  in 

Iirinciple  to  the  opinions  he  bad  expressed  in 
lis  work  on  charch  and  state.  In  November, 
1845,  Sir  Robert  Peel  resigned,  but,  on  the 
failure  of  Lord  John  Russell  to  form  B  govern- 
ment, he  was  recalled  and  reconstructed  his 
cabinet,  Mr.  Gladstone  becoming  secretary  tot 
the  colonies.  In  the  free-trade  measure  an- 
nounced by  Sir  Robert  Feel  in  January,  184fi, 
Mr.  Gladstone  Mly  concurred;  but  being  un- 
willing to  remain  under  obligations  to  the  duke 
of  Newcastle,  he  resigned  his  seat  for  Newark, 
and  was  oat  of  parliament  during  the  debatca 
on  this  measure.  At  the  general  election  of 
1847  he  was  chosen  to  represent  the  nniveraity 


GLADSTONE 


833 


of  Oxford,  and  one  of  his  first  speeches  in  par- 
liament was  in  favor  of  the  bill  for  the  removal 
of  the  disabilities  of  the  Jews,  which  he  had 
opposed  in  1841.  His  speech  against  the  for- 
eign policy  of  Lord  Palmerston  in  the  Don 
Pacifico  debates  was  generally  regarded  as  one 
of  the  most  admirable  pieces  of  English  elo- 
qnence  of  recent  times.  In  the  ministerial 
crisis  of  1862  he  was  invited  by  Lord  Derby 
to  enter  his  cabinet^  but  declined,  and  on  the 
overthrow  of  that  minister  in  December  of  the 
same  year  accepted  the  office  of  chancellor  of 
the  exchequer  under  the  earl  of  Aberdeen. 
While  holding  this  office  he  introduced  in  1858 
his  celebrated  budget  in  a  remarkable  series 
of  addresses  which  were  pronounced  bj  Lord 
John  Russell  *^  to  contain  the  ablest  expositions 
of  the  true  principles  of  finance  ever  delivered 
bj  an  English  statesman. ''  On  the  resignation 
of  Lord  Aberdeen  in  February,  1855,  and  the 
elevation  of  Lord  Palmerston  to  the  premier- 
ship, Mr.  Gladstone  retained  his  office  of  chan- 
cellor of  the  exchequer ;  but  he  soon  resigned, 
together  with  the  other  Peelite  members  of  the 
government,  in  consequence  of  Lord  Palmer- 
ston's  refusing  to  oppose  a  motion  of  inquiry 
into  the  conduct  of  the  Crimean  war,  which 
was  considered  indirectly  to  convey  a  censure 
on  the  duke  of  Newcastle  and  Mr.  Sidney  Her- 
bert. On  the  overthrow  of  Lord  Palmerston^s 
government  and  the  second  accession  of  Lord 
Derbj  to  power  in  1868,  Mr.  Gladstone  again 
declined  the  presdng  overtures  of  that  noble- 
man, but  in  November  accepted  an  appointment 
as  lord  high  commissioner  extraordinary  to  the 
Ionian  islands.  In  1859,  on  Lord  Palmerston 's 
return  to  office,  Mr.  Gladstone  again  became 
chancellor  of  the  exchequer.  He  was  chiefly 
instrumental  in  procuring  the  repeal  of  the 
duty  on  paper,  and  the  ratification  of  the  com- 
mercial treaty  between  England  and  France, 
negotiated  by  Mr.  Gobden  and  M.  Chevalier. 
From  this  time  Mr.  Gladstone  has  been  classed 
as  an  advanced  liberal.  He  also  during  the 
few  succeeding  years  exhibited  a  theoretical 
knowledge  and  a  practical  skill  in  the  manage- 
ment of  the  national  finances  that  excited  the 
admiration  of  all  Europe.  At  the  general  elec- 
tion of  1865  he  was  rejected  by  the  university 
of  Oxford,  but  was  returned  for  South  Lan- 
cashire. After  the  death  of  Lord  Palmerston 
in  the  same  year,  Mr.  Gladstone  became  the 
leader  of  the  house  of  commons.  He  procured 
the  adoption  of  the  measures  recommended  by 
the  ministry  for  the  suppression  of  the  Fenian 
disturbances  in  Ireland,  but  a  reform  bill  intro- 
vliioed  by  him  on  behalf  of  the  ministry  was 
defeated,  and  he  and  his  colleagues  resigned, 
and  were  succeeded  by  one  formed  by  Lord 
Derby  and  Mr.  Disraeli,  July  6,  1866.  In  the 
early  part  of  the  session  of  1868  Mr.  Gladstone 
introduced  a  series  of  resolutions  in  favor  of 
the  disestablishment  and  disendowment  of  the 
Irish  church.  Soon  after  a  bill  for  efiecting 
this  object  was  passed  by  the  commons,  but 
rejected  by  the  peers.    In  the  general  election 


of  that  year  Mr.  Gladstone  was  defeated  as  a 
candidate  for  Southwest  Lancashire  after  an 
exciting  contest,  but  was  returned  by  a  large 
m^ority  by  the  borough  of  Greenwich.  Mr. 
Disraeli's  ministry  resigned  in  December,  and 
Mr.  Gladstone  succeeded  him  as  premier.  The 
Irish  church  bill  was  passed  at  the  session  of 
1869,  the  Irish  land  act  in  1870,  and  the  pur- 
chase of  commissions  in  the  army  was  abolished 
in  1871  by  the  exercise  of  the  royal  preroga- 
tive. He  also  procured  the  abolition  of  con- 
fiscation in  English  penal  law.  During  the 
war  between  France  and  Germany  the  English 
government,  under  the  lead  of  Mr.  Gladstone, 
maintained  a  complete  neutrality,  and  in  order 
to  avoid  all  complications  with  the  great  pow- 
ers of  the  continent  reluctantly  consented  to 
the  abrogation  of  those  provisions  of  the  treaty 
of  1856  with  Russia  which  established  the  neu- 
trality of  the  Black  sea.  Under  his  admin- 
istration the  treaty  of  Washington,  by  which 
the  matters  in  dispute  between  the  United 
States  and  Great  Britain  were  settled,  was  ne- 
gotiated and  carried  into  efiect.  At  the  ses- 
sion of  1873  Mr.  Gladstone  introduced  an  elab- 
orate bill  for  the  reform  of  university  educa- 
tion in  Ireland,  the  main  object  of  which  was 
the  establishment  of  a  system  which  should  be 
acceptable  to  both  Protestants  and  Catholics. 
The  discussion  in  the  house  of  commons  made 
it  clear  that  the  bill  satisfied  neither,  and  it  was 
defeated.  Mr.  Gladstone  and  his  colleagues 
immediately  resigned.  The  queen  called  upon 
Mr.  Disraeli  to  form  a  new  ministry,  but  after 
some  days  he  announced  to  the  house  that  he 
was  unable,  and  if  not  unable  unwilling,  to  do 
so,  and  declared  that  he  did  not  regard  the 
defeat  of  the  university  bill  as  exhibiting  such 
a  want  of  confidence  in  the  general  conduct  of 
the  government  as  required  the  resignation  of 
the  ministry.  Mr.  Gladstone  and  his  colleagues 
accordingly  returned  to  thek  posts;  but  re- 
peated defeats  of  the  ministry  followed,  and  on 
Jan.  24,  1874,  Gladstone  unexpectedly  issued 
an  address  announcing  the  dissolution  of  par- 
liament, assigning  as  a  reason  for  the  step  that 
the  government  felt  its  power  was  ebbing.  He 
promised  a  diminution  of  local  taxation  and  the 
abolition  of  the  income  tax.  The  succeeding 
elections  for  a  new  parliament  resulted  in  the 
return  of  851  conservatives  and  802  liberals,  a 
conservative  majority  of  49,  against  a  liberal 
m^ority  of  112  in  that  of  1868.  Mr.  Gladstone 
himself  was  returned  from  Greenwich  by  a 
vote  of  5,968,  against  6,386  in  1868.  On  Feb. 
17  he  resigned,  and  on  the  following  day 
Mr.  Disraeli  accepted  the  premiership. — Mr. 
Gladstone's  published  works  are :  "  The  State 
in  its  Relations  with  the  Church"  (2  vols., 
1838) ;  "  Church  Principles  Considered  "  (1840) ; 
**  Studies  on  Homer  and  the  Homeric  Age^' 
(8  vols.,  Oxford,  1858);  "Essays  on  Ecoe 
Homo,"  and  a  pamphlet  on  the  Irish  church 
question,  entitled  *' A  Chapter  of  Autobiogra- 
phy "  (1868) ;  and  "  Juventus  Mundi :  the  Gods 
and  Men  of  the  Heroic  Age  "  (1869).    He  has 


834 


GLADWIN 


6LAIZE 


anperrised  a  translation  of  Fannies  Stato  Ro- 
mano (4  vols.,  London,  1859).  In  1851  he 
published  a  ^^ Letter  to  Lord  Aberdeen''  on 
the  cmelties  inflicted  on  the  political  prisoners 
confined  in  the  dungeons  of  Naples,  which  pro- 
duced a  universal  and  very  deep  impression. 
His  statue,  by  Adams  Acton,  was  unveiled  in 
Liverpool  on  Sept.  11,  1870. 

QLADWllf,  an  £.  county  of  Michigan,  inter- 
sected by  Titibiwassee  river ;  area,  570  sq.  m. ; 
returned  without  population  in  1 870.  Its  surface 
!b  uneven,  and  its  soil  consists  of  a  sandy  loam. 

CiLACMMJnC)  one  of  the  two  ancient  81ovenic, 
or  less  correctly  Slavonic,  forms  of  writing. 
The  name  is  derived  from  the  fourth  letter, 
alagol^  equivalent  to  our  hard  g ;  it  is  also 
known  as  the  Bukvitza,  from  hukna^  letter,  or 
from  the  names  of  the  second  and  third  letters, 
huh  and  ^ide^  or  h  and  «.  Its  formation  is  at- 
tributed by  some  to  St.  Jerome,  and  by  oth- 
ers to  Methodius,  the  apostle  of  Pannonia  and 
Great  Moravia  (about  860).  The  shape  of  the 
82  letters  (of  wnich  27  are  also  numeral  signs) 
is  very  grotesque  and  protean,  little  resembling 
the  Greek.  The  Glagolitza  was  used  in  lUy- 
ria,  Dalmatia,  and  Bulgaria.  The  other  form 
of  Slovenic  writing  is  the  Eyrilitza.  contrived 
by  Oyril,  the  reputed  brother  of  Methodius, 
many  letters  of  which  are  like  the  Ooptic,  be- 
cause they  imitate  the  Greek  forms.  This 
consisted  originally  of  40  letters,  and  is  still  in 
use  among  the  eastern  Slavs  and  the  Rou- 
manians. The  Russian  a^mha  or  huknar  (al- 
phabet) is  a  slight  modification  of  the  latter. 
These  systems  have  been  much  extolled  by 
some  authors;  but,  though  representing  all 
sounds  of  the  languages,  they  are  imperfect, 
inasmuch  as  they  contain  «ngle  ^gns  for  com- 
plex sounds,  such  as  fo,  feA,  Mhteh,  ye,  ya, 
yu.  The  nations  that  employ  these  graphic 
systems  belong  mostly  to  the  Greek  church ; 
while  the  Catholic  Slavs  (Poles,  Bohemians, 
Bloraks,  Lusatians,  &o.)  make  use  of  the  Latin 
or  the  so-called  German  letters,  with  some 
modifications.  The  most  remarkable  works  in 
Glagolitic  writing  are :  Glagolita  Cloziamts, 
by  Count  Paris  Cloz  of  Trent  in  the  11th  cen- 
tury, edited  by  Eopitar  (Vienna,  1886) ;  Codex 
AuemanietUj  eontiMTi*  Leetiones  EvaTigelieae, 
Bibliotheem  VatiearuBj  in  A.  Mai's  Scriptarum 
Veterum  Nova  Colleetio  ;  and  Codex  eontin&m 
Pealmoiy  cum  Expositione  Saneti  Athonaeiiy 
^.,  at  Bologna.  All  these  are  in  the  Bulga- 
rian idiom;  Bretiarium  (edited  by  Brozich, 
Venice,  1561)  is  in  Servian. 

(iLAIRE,  Jean  Baptlste,  a  French  theologian 
and  orientalist,  bom  in  Bordeaux,  AprU  1, 
1708.  He  completed  his  theological  studies 
at  St.  Snlpice  seminary,  Paris,  and  afterward 
studied  the  oriental  languages.  Taking  holy 
orders  in  1822,  he  taught  Hebrew  in  his  semi- 
nary, and  in  1825  he  succeeded  Chaunac  de 
Lanzao  as  professor  of  Hebrew  at  the  Sor- 
bonne.  In  1841  he  was  made  dean  of  the 
faculty  of  theology,  and  in  1848  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  chair  of  exegesis.    In  1840  he 


became  a  canon  of  the  metropolitan  chapter 
of  Paris,  and  in  1851  vicar  general  of  Bor- 
deaux. His  most  important  works  are :  Lexi- 
con Manuale  Hebraicum  et  Chaldaieum  (1880 ; 
new  ed.,  considerably  enlarged  and  improved, 
1848);  Prineipee  de  grammaire  hebraique  et 
chaldaique  (1882;  new  eds.,  1836  and  1848, 
with  a  Chreetomathie  ehaldaique  et  hebralque) ; 
La  sainte  Bible  en  Latin  et  en  Ftanfaie^  with 
notes,  explanations,  &c.  (8  vols.  4to,  1884); 
Torath  Moeehiy  Le  Pentateugue,  with  a  French 
translation  and  notes,  of  which  the  first  two 
parts  only  have  been  published.  Genesis  and 
Exodus  (2  vols.  8vo,  1886-7);  Introduction 
hietorique  et  critique  aux  litree  de  PAnden 
et  du  Ifouteau  Teetament  (6  vols.  12mo,  1886), 
an  abridgment  of  which  appeared  in  1846  (1 
vol.  8vo.) ;  Manuel  de  VhihraUant,  containing 
a  grammar,  a  chrestomathy  or  choice  pieces, 
and  a  lexicon  ^1866) ;  Concordaneee  arabee  du 
Coram;  Princwes  de  grammaire  arabe  (1857- 
'61) ;  La  Bible  eelon  la  Vulgate,  translatian 
and  notes  (1868) ;  and  ZHetionnaire  nnicereel 
dee  eeiences  eceUnaetiquee  (2  vols.,  1867). 

CftiSS-nzoni,  iSanin^  a  French  politician, 
bom  at  Quintin,  C6tes-du-Nord,  March  9, 1800, 
died  Nov.  7,  1877.  He  acquired  prominence 
as  an  opposition  member  of  the  chamber  under 
Louis  Philippe.  After  the  revolution  of  1848 
he  was  elected  to  the  constituent  assembly, 
but  owing  to  his  hostOity  to  Louis  Napoleon 
soon  withdrew  from  political  life.  In  1863, 
however,  he  agun  became  canspicuous  as  a 
representative  by  his  incessant  and  eccentric 
interruption  of  the  debates,  and  by  almost  in- 
variably opposing  the  measures  of  the  govern- 
ment. In  the  elections  of  1869  he  was  defeated 
in  his  native  department,  but  was  returned  in 
one  of  the  metropolitan  districts.  On  Sept 
4,  1870,  he  became  a  member  of  the  govern- 
ment of  national  defence  without  portfolio,  and 
subsequently  represented  it  with  Cr6mieux  at 
Tours.  The  charges  of  embezzlement  brought 
against  him  bv  the  press  be  strenuously  denied, 
declaring  he  had  sacrificed  his  fortnne  in  the 
public  service.  He  was  imprisoned  by  the 
commune  in  May.  He  wrote  several  plays, 
and  in  1868  became  director  of  a  democratic 
weekly  journal.  La  Tribune  frofngaiee, 

GLAISHn,  Jaaes,  a  British  meteorologist, 
bom  about  1800.  He  early  became  conspicu- 
ous as  an  aeronaut,  and  subsequently  as  a  me- 
teorologist. In  one  of  his  balloon  asoensions. 
Sept  5,  1862,  he  reached  the  height  of  87,000 
ft.  (See  AJftBONAuncs.)  He  was  elected  fel- 
low of  the  royal  society  in  1849 ;  succeeded  in 
1865  Admiral  Fitzroy  as  president  of  the  me- 
teorological department  of  the  board  of  trade ; 
and  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  meteorolo- 
gical society,  and,  excepting  the  period  during 
which  he  was  its  president,  acted  as  secretary 
till  1878,  when  he  resigned.  He  has  published 
"Travels  in  the  Air"  (London,  1870),  a  popu- 
lar account  of  balloon  voyages  and  adventurer. 

GLAIZE,   Avguto  BartMlMiy  aqd  Plem  Fftd 
Lte*    See  supplement. 


GLAMOKOANSmSE 

CLAlOBGlllSHIRE,  s  S.   connt;  of  Wales, 

bordering  on  GaermarthenBhire,  Brecknock- 
shire, Monmouthshire,  tho  Severn,  and  Brie- 
tol  chaanel;  area,  8fi5  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  18T1, 
306,010.  The  northern  portion  is  moontaiu- 
oaa,  but  tfae  southern  is  level  and  fertile.  The 
principal  crops  are  wheat,  barlej,  oata,  beans, 
peas,  vetches,  and  tomips.  The  horned  cattle 
are  of  superior  quality,  and  in  the  mountain 
districts  great  nnmbers  of  sheep  and  ponies 
are  reared.  Glamorganshire  is  umons  for  its 
coal  and  iron  mines.  In  the  neighborhood  of 
Merthyr-Tjdvil  the  iron  works  are  on  a  gigaO" 
tic  eoale;  within  a  small  oircnit  are  more  than 
60  blast  furnaces,  some  of  which  have  6,000 
workmen.  Yast  qaantities  of  coal  and  iron 
are  annoallj  exported  fn>m  Cardiff.  This 
coonty  has  also  some  woollen  mannfactories, 
and  nameroDB  canals  and  railways.  The  prin- 
cipal rivers  are  the  Rhymnej,  the  Taff,  and  the 
Tawe.  The  chief  towns  are  Cardiff,  the  coi- 
tal, Jferthjr-Trdril,  Swansea,  and  Neath. 

ttliiUD  (Lat.  glam,  an  acorn),  in  anatomy, 
tfae  general  name  of  a  variety  of  organs  whose 
functions  are  toelalwrate  the  various  prodoots 
of  secretion  from  t]ie  blood,  to  perform  certain 
offices  connected  with  absorption  and  assimila- 
tion, and  to  assist  in  preparing  and  maintain- 
ing the  circulating  fluid  in  a  normal  condition. 
Of  the  first  class  of  glands  the  liver  and  the 
salivary  glands  are  examples,  of  the  second  the 
mesenterio  and  lyinphatic  glands,  and  of  the 
third  tiie  spleen.  The  trne  secreting  glands 
are  of  various  form,  size,  and  structure,  bnt 
are  all  constructed  with  special  reference  to 
the  arrangement  of  the  nucleated  and  epithelial 
cells  and  tnbes  or  cavities  which  enter  into 
tlieir  texture;  their  products  are  poured  forth 
either  on  the  outer  surface  of  the  body,  or  into 
some  cavity  or  canal  communicatingextemally, 
and  the  cells  which  effect  tiie  separation  of 
their  special  secretions  from  the  blood  are 
generally  in  the  relation  of  epithelium  cells  to 
the  inversions  of  the  skin  or  macons  mem- 
branes that  form  the  greater  part  of  their 
follicles  or  tnbuli.  These  cells  generally  min- 
ister to  the  act  of  secretion  by  absorbing  from 
the  blood  its  watery  and  saline  ingredients, 
which  they  afterward  exhale  in  the  requiate 
proportions,  and  by  generating  at  tho  same 
Ume  a  peculiar  ingredient  by  their  own  pow- 
ers of  assimilation ;  thus  producing  a  secreted 
fluid  different  in  composition  A-om  the  blood 
from  which  it  was  derived.  Tlie  great  ma- 
jority of  glands  provided  with  dnets  may  be 
divided  into  three  gronps,  according  to  the 
modes  in  which  the  cell- containing  tnbes  are 
arranged :  1,  the  simple  tubular '  glands,  like 
the  follicles  of  the  stomach  and  intestines, 
which  seem  to  be  mere  depressions  in  the 
mucous  membrane,  or  elongated  vesicles  lined 
with  secreting  cells;  2,  the  aggregated  or 
conglomerate  glands,  in  which  a  number  of 
follicles  are  grouped  into  lobules,  and  these 
agun  into  lobes  joined  by  loose  areoler  tissne, 
like  the  salivary,  mammary,  pancreatic,  pros- 


GLAND 


835 


tate,  and  laohrymal  gltmds,  and  also  the  liv- 
er; 8,  the  convolu- 
ted tubular  glands, 
as    the    perspirato- 

3'  and  sebaceous 
ends  ending  in 
natations,  cul-de- 
eacs,  or  loops.  In 
all  a  large  extent 
of  secreting  soriace 
is  packed  in  a  small 

_. compass;  while  one 

diIlUMiu:    end    of   the    gland 
1^  '"J"'^-    and  duct  opens  on 

a  free  sariace,  the 
opposite  end  is  closed,  and  has  no  direct  oom- 
munication  with  blood  vessels  or  other  canals. 
The  glandular  organs  have  been  divided  into 
two  claases,  according  as  their  prodnot  is  ex- 
crementitious  and  to  be  cast  o^  or  to  be  need 


UIUduU  GiudoUr  FdIUcIh. 

a.  U'lDbnme  of  On  (blHde.    b. 

Layer  or  epltheBam  UoIoif  Uu 

lb]ade,MHDlnpniiU<.  oTSur- 

the  Hholo  taterld 


S«rallng  talHelH.  I 
within  the  system ;  the  former  are  called  more 
properly  excretory  glands,  and  include  the  kid- 
neys, and  those  which  supply  the  cutaneous 
and  pulmonary  transpiration  and  the  pecnliar 
ffflcal  matters  of  the  lower  part  of  the  intes- 
tinal canal;  the  true  secretory  glands  are  the 
gastric,  salivary,  mammary,  sebaceons,  mncong, 
lachrymal,  Brunner's,  and  the  pancreas.  The 
kidneys,  liver,  mammary  glands  (secreting  re- 
spectively urine,  bile,  and  milk),  and  the  pan- 
creas are  described  under  their  proper  titles; 
the  salivary  and  gastrio  glands  are  noticed 
under  DioaerioN ;  the  sebaceons,  ceruminous, 
odoriferous,  and  sudoriparous  glands  (secreting 
the  oi^,  waxy,  odorous,  and  perspiratory  mat- 
ters of^^the  surface),  are  treated  in  the  article 
Seih;  tbe  follicles  of  LieberkQhn  (in  the  small 
intestine),  Brunner's  glands  in  the  duodenum, 
and  the  solitary  glands  most  n 


836 


GLAND 


GLANDERS 


cfiBcal  region,  under  Intestine  ;  the  lachrymal 
glands  under  Eye;  and  the  so-called  glands 
of  Pacchioni  and  the  pineal  hody  or  gland 
are  alluded  to  in  the  article  Bbain.  The  air 
passages  of  the  chest  and  head,  the  alimentary 
canal  ahove  the  stomach,  aod  the  genito-uri- 
nary  apparatus,  are  provided  with  solitary  and 
aggregated  glands  and  follicles  for  the  secretion 
of  their  luhricating  mucus ;  the  tonsils  are  glan- 
dular masses  principally,  and  there  are  numer- 
ous follicles  in  the  posterior  fauces,  and  in  the 
neighhorhood  of  the  epiglottis  and  entrance  to 
the  larynx,  whose  diseased  secretions  and  ulcer- 
ation constitute  the  kind  of  folliculitU  popu- 
larly called  "clergyman's  sore  throat." — An- 
other system  Is  that  of  the  vascular  or  ductless 
glands,  which  possess  all  the  elements  of  glan- 
dular structure,  except  the  eflferent  ducts ;  re- 
storing therefore  to  the  blood  whatever  they 
take  from  it,  it  is  generally  admitted  that  they 
perform  some  part  in  the  process  of  sanguifica- 
tion, probably  acting  upon  such  nutrient  mate- 
rials as  are  taken  up  directly  by  the  blood 
vessels  without  in  the  first  instance  passing 
through  the  absorbents.  These  glands  are  the 
spleen  on  the  left  side  of  the  abdominal  cavity; 
the  thymus  gland,  a  foetal  organ  in  the  anterior 
mediastinum ;  the  thyroid  body,  on  the  anterior 
portion  of  the  neck ;  and  the  supra-renal  cap- 
sules, surmounting  the  kidneys ;  these  will  be 
described  in  their  alphabetical  order.  They 
are  composed  of  vesicles  or  sacculi,  simple  and 
closed,  or  branched,  of  a  delicate  membrane 
surrounded  with  a  vascular  plexus,  and  filled 
with  an  albuminous  fluid  containing  fat  gran- 
ules and  nucleated  cells.  The  opinion  that 
these  glands  serve  for  the  higher  organization 
of  the  blood  materials  is  supported  by  the  fact 
that  they  are  especially  large  and  active  du- 
ring foetal  life  and  childhood,  when  the  most 
abundant  supply  of  nutrient  fluids  is  necessary. 
They  ai*e  not  essential  to  life  in  the  adult ;  the 
thymus  entirely  disappears,  the  thyroid  may 
be  completely  disorganized,  and  the  spleen  be 
removed  (as  has  been  often  done  in  animals), 
without  fatal  consequences;  the  supra-renal 
capsules  seem  to  be  connected  with  the  produc- 
tion of  pigment,  and  their  morbid  condition  or 
atrophy  is  connected  with  the  peculiar  disease 
known  as  "bronzed  skin." — ^The  last  group  in- 
cludes the  absorbent  glands,  the  patches  of 
Peyer,  the  mesenteric,  and  the  lymphatic 
glands.  The  lacteals  and  the  fluid  they  convey 
have  been  described  nnder  Absobption  and 
Ohyle.  Peyer's  glands,  most  numerous  to- 
ward the  ileo-caecal  valve,  are  intimately  con- 
nected with  the  lacteals ;  whether  single  or  in 
clusters,  they  are  always  in  that  portion  of  the 
intestine  which  is  opposite  the  mesentery ;  they 
are  capsules,  containing  fatty  and  albuminous 
matters,  with  nuclear  particles  and  cells,  all  ap- 
parently undergoing  rapid  changes ;  th^  exte- 
rior and  interior  of  the  capsules  are  freely  sup- 
plied with  blood.  In  the  mesentery  are  the 
mesenteric  glands,  which  bear  the  same  rela- 
tion to  the  lacteals  as  the  absorbent  glands  to 


the  lymphatics;  each  gland  is  enclosed  by  a 
fibrous  sheath,  which  forms  by  its  partitions  an 
internal  supporting  framework;  the  interve- 
ning alveoli  are  filled  with  a  grayish  pnlp,  as  in 
Peyer's  patches,  penetrated  by  a  fine  capillary 
plexus,  and  in  free  communication  with  the 
afferent  and  efferent  ducts  between  which  they 
are  situated ;  the  number  of  corpuscles  of  the 
chyle  is  greatly  increased  by  passing  through 
these  glands,  which  perform  a  most  important 
part  in  the  blood-making  or  assimilating  pro- 
cess. No  lacteal  or  lymphatic  reaches  the  termi- 
nal thoracic  duct  without  passing  through  one  or 
more  of  these  glands.  In  the  lower  vertebrata 
plexuses  of  lymphatics  occupy  the  places  of 
the  glands  of  birds  and  mammals.  Glands  are 
situated  all  along  the  course  of  the  lymphatic 
vessels,  both  superficial  and  deep-seated.  Fa- 
miliar examples  are  the  glands  in  the  groin, 
the  seat  of  syphilitic  and  scrofulous  abseeeses, 
and  often  swollen  from  irritation  of  any  por- 
tion of  the  lower  extremity ;  the  axillary  glands 
in  the  armpit,  often  requiring  surgical  interfe- 
rence for  enlargements  and  abscesses ;  and  the 
glands  on  the  sides  of  the  neck,  frequently  the 
seat  of  scrofulous  suppuration. 

GLANDES8,  a  malignant  disease  of  the  horse 
and  other  equine  species,  of  a  highly  contagious 
character,  and  which  may  be  communicated  to 
man,  but  not,  it  is  said,  to  other  animals.  It 
occurs  in  two  forms,  depending  on  the  parts 
affected.  When  in  the  lymphatic  system  it  ia 
called  fnrcy ;  when  in  the  nasal  cavities,  glan- 
ders. The  pus  of  one  will  produce  the  other, 
and  farcy  always  terminates  in  glanders,  unless 
arrested.  Farcy  commences  with  hard  cord- 
like swellings  of  the  lymphatic  vessela  and 
glands,  called  farcy  buds,  which  suppurate  and 
form  fistulous  ulcers,  discharging  sanions  pus. 
But  it  must  not  be  underst(>od  that  glanders 
usually  commences  in  farcy;  it  is  most  com- 
monly primary.  In  glanders  as  well  as  in 
farcy  the  blood  is  deficient  in  red  globules, 
and  otherwise  unfit  to  nourish  the  body.  The 
respiration  is  weak,  and  there  is  cough,  and 
usually  the  bowels  are  relaxed.  It  is  said 
to  be  produced  by  continuous  bad  treatment, 
overcrowding  in  filthy  and  particularly  in  un- 
ventOated  stabled,  and  other  causes  which  pro- 
duce a  depraved  state  of  the  system.  Eng- 
lish cavalry  horses  are  said  to  hare  been 
affected  with  glanders  from  such  causes  in 
the  Crimea  in  1854.  Glanders  may  be  divi- 
ded into  three  stages.  In  the  first  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  distinguish  the  disease  with  certainty. 
There  is  a  continuous  serous  discharge  from 
one  or  both  nostrils,  which  becomes  thick  and 
glairy,  like  the  white  of  an  egg.  ^  Ulceration 
of  the  pituitary  membrane  is  considered  con- 
clusive of  its  presence,  but  this  may  be  so  far 
up  the  passages  as  not  to  be  seen.  The  dis- 
charge and  cough  may  be  the  effect  of  nasal 
catarrh.  A  test  is  sometimes  applied  by  ad- 
ministering three  successive  eight-ounce  doses 
of  aloes,  allowing  two  or  three  days  to  elapse 
between  the  doses.     A  glandered  horse  will 


GLANDERS 


GLARUS 


837 


have  his  symptoms  much  aggravated ;  while  if 
cold  is  the  caose^  the  symptoms  will  be  im- 

? roved,  although  the  horse  may  be  weakened, 
he  enlargement  of  a  submaxillary  gland  and  its 
adhesion  to  the  bone  is  usual.  If  the  disease  is 
glanders,  the  discharge  increases,  and  becomes 
fool  and  offensive,  and  it  is  said  peculiar.  This 
is  the  second  stage.  In  the  third  stage  the 
nasal  membrane  attains  a  dull  leaden  color,  the 
lips  and  eyelids  swell,  parts  of  the  face  may 
become  gangrenous,  and  the  animal  may  die  in 
a  few  days  with  a  putrid  fever,  or  he  may  die 
more  slowly,  the  disease  spreading  to  the  lungs 
and  other  parts  of  the  body,  producing  un- 
healthy abscesses,  emaciation,  and  hectic.  Ao- 
oording  to  Youatt,  the  distinctive  symptoms 
are  the  continuous  discharge  and  the  adherence 
of  the  enlarged  submaxillary  gland.  Some- 
times the  disease  may  last  for  years,  if  the  ani- 
mal is  well  fed  and  cared  for.  The  form  known 
as  farcy  is  also  not  generally  so  rapidly  fatal, 
and  may  sometimes  be  arrested  and  prevented 
from  passing  into  glanders.  The  treatment  in 
both  forms  consists  in  good  feedmg,  tonics,  dis- 
infectants, and  detergent  washes  and  applica- 
tions, particularly  carbolic  acid  and  creosote. 
The  administration  of  iodine  is  generally  bene- 
ficial in  chronic  cases. — When  the  disease  is 
communicated  to  man,  it  is  usually  considered 
fataL  A  small  portion  of  the  diseased  matter 
from  the  nostril  of  the  horse  is  sufficient  to 
oommunlcate  it  if  it  falls  upon  the  mucous 
membrane,  or  upon  an  abraded  surface  of  the 
akin.  The  disease  may  appear  as  either  glanders 
or  farcy,  and  either  may  be  acute  or  chronic. 
Acute  glanders  begins  with  the  symptoms  of 
putrid  poisoning,  such  as  lowness  of  spirits, 
wandering  pains,  fever,  furred  tongue,  great 
thirst,  profuse  nocturnal  perspiration,  great 
pain  in  the  head,  back,  and  limbs,  and  tightness 
of  the  chest.  In  a  few  days  the  symptoms  in- 
crease in  severity,  with  rigors  and  delirium; 
the  perspiration  becomes  sour  and  offensive, 
and  diarrhoea  sets  in.  Diffused  abscesses  ap- 
pear, commencing  in  red  swellings,  about  the 
joints,  especially  the  knees  and  elbows.  The 
tongue  becomes  dry  and  brown,  the  throat  ul- 
cerated, attended  by  a  low  malignant  fever. 
In  10  or  12  days  from  the  commencement  a 
dusky  shining  swelling  appears  on  the  face, 
extending  over  the  scalp  and  closing  the  eyes. 
An  offensive  yellowish  discharge,  streaked 
with  blood,  flows  from  the  nostrils,  and  a  crop 
of  hard  pustules  about  the  size  of  a  pea  ap- 
pears on  the  face,  and  spreads  over  the  neck 
and  body ;  fresh  abscesses  form  and  suppurate, 
accompanied  with  delirium  and  tremors,  and 
death  ensues.  The  chronic  form  proceeds  more 
slowly,  attended  with  discharge  from  the  nos- 
trils, swelling  of  the  nose  and  eyes,  and  emaci- 
ation, with  profuse  perspiration  and  abscesses 
near  the  joints.  The  distinctions  between  acute 
and  chronic  farcy  are  not  very  clear,  although 
in  the  former  the  lymphatics  leading  from  the 
point  receiving  the  contagion  become  violent- 
ly inflamed  the  sooner.    The  treatment  of  the 


human  Subject  should  be  conducted  upon  the 
same  general  principles  as  that  of  the  horse. 

GLANVIL,  or  GlanTlfle,  Rarndf  de,  chief  Justi- 
ciary of  England  in  the  reign  of  Henry  IL,  died 
in  1190.  He  was  of  Norman  descent,  signal- 
ized his  valor  under  Henry  II.  in  repelling  the 
invasion  of  England  by  William  of  ScoUand, 
accompanied  Richard  I.  on  the  crusade,  and 
perished  at  the  siege  of  Acre.  To  him  is  as- 
cribed the  Traetatus  de  Legibus  Cansuettidinu 
Regni  Anglia^  Tempore  Regie  Henrici  Secundi^ 
first  published  in  London  in  1554.  Some  of 
the  manuscripts  say  only  that  it  was  written 
in  his  time,  without  ascribing  it  to  him.  The 
best  edition  is  that  by  John  Wilmot  (1780); 
English  translation  by  John  Beames  (1812). 

6LAlf¥lLIi,  Jweph,  an  English  divine  and  phi- 
losopher, bom  in  Plymouth  in  1636,  died  in 
Bath,  Nov.  4,  1680.  He  was  educated  at  Ox- 
ford, became  a  priest,  and  was  made  rector  of 
the  abbey  church,  Bath,  in  1666.  He  became 
chaplain  in  ordinary  to  the  king,  and  in  1678 
was  appointed  a  prebendary  of  Worcester  ca- 
thedral. He  is  distinguished  as  an  opponent  of 
Aristotelianism,  as  a  believer  in  witchcraft,  and 
as  the  first  writer  in  England  who  presented 
philosophical  skepticism  in  a  systematic  form. 
His  first  work,  entitled  "  The  Vanity  of  Dogma- 
tizing,*' was  published  in  London  in  1661,  and 
an  enlarged  edition  of  it  appeared  in  1665, 
under  the  title  of  **  Scepsis  Soientifica,  or  Con- 
fessed Ignorance  the  Way  to  Science,  *'  with  a 
dedication  to  the  newly  founded  royal  society, 
which  body  at  once  elected  him  a  fellow.  He 
made  another  attack  on  the  ancient  philosophy 
in  his  **  Plus  Ultra,  or  the  Progress  and  Ad- 
vancement of  Knowledge  since  the  Days  of 
Aristotle  "  (1668),  in  which  he  exalted  Bacon 
and  Boyle  and  the  inductive  method.  Not- 
withstanding his  skepticism,  he  believed  in  sor- 
cery and  witchcraft,  and  wrote  "Philosophical 
Oonsiderations  concerning  the  Existence  of 
Sorcerers  and  Sorcery"  (1666),  the  convictions 
expressed  *in  which  are  repeated  in  his  Sad- 
dueUmus  JViumphans^  published  posthumously 
(1681),  with  an  account  of  his  life  and  writings 
by  Dr.  Henry  More.  Among  his  other  works 
are  Lux  Orientalie  (1662),  in  which  he  treats 
of  the  pre&xistence  of  souls,  following  the 
views  of  Henry  More;  "Essays  on  several 
Important  Subjects  in  Philosophy  and  Reli- 
gion" (1676);  "Essay  on  Preaching"  (1678); 
and  sermons  edited  by  Dr.  Horneck  (1681). 

GLARUS,  or  GItris.  I.  One  of  the  smallest  of 
the  Swiss  cantons,  bounded  N.  and  E.  by  St. 
Gall,  S.  by  Orisons,  and  W.  by  Uri  and  Sch  wytz ; 
area,  267  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  86,150,  of  whom 
28,238  were  Protestants  and  6,888  Roman 
Catholics.  Mountain  chains  occupy  almost  its 
entire  surface ;  the  principal  one  extends  from 
the  Hausstock  to  the  Scheibe,  and  has  an  aver- 
age height  of  8,000  ft.,  but  there  are  many  sep- 
arate peaks  of  much  greater  elevation.  The 
D6di  or  TOdi,  nearly  12,000  ft.  high,  m  the  S. 
W.  comer,  is  the  loftiest  mountain  in  eastern 
Switzerland.     The  principal  valley,  the  Lin- 


838 


GLARUS 


GLASCOCK 


thai,  extends  N.  and  S.  and  forms  the1>asin  of 
the  Linth,  which,  after  receiving  nearly  all  the 
other  rivers  of  Glarus,  discharges  into  Wallen- 
stadt  lake.  There  are  many  other  lakes,  most- 
ly small,  bnt  remarkable  for  their  romantic 
scenery.  The  Stackelbergerbod,  a  sulphurous 
alkaline  spring  at  the  foot  of  the  Braunwidd- 
berg,  is  much  frequented.  Not  more  than  one 
fifth  of  the  canton  is  susceptible  of  tillage.  The 
most  fertile  land  lies  in  the  valley  of  the  Linth, 
where  grain  and  fruit,  particularly  cherries,  are 
cultivated  with  success.  Large  herds  of  cattle, 
sheep,  and  goats  are  pastured  on  the  mountains. 
With  the  exception  of  marble,  slate,  and  gyp- 
sum, there  are  no  minerals  of  much  importance. 
Small  quantities  of  coal  are  found,  and  there 
are  ancient  mines,  now  almost  exhausted,  of 
silver,  copper,  and  iron.  The  nrincipal  kinds 
of  timber  are  pine,  beech,  asn,  maple,  and 
chestnut.  The  most  important  manufacture 
is  Schdbzieg&rkdse,  (See  Cheese.)  The  other 
manufactures  comprise  cotton,  woollen,  linen, 
and  silk  goods,  prints,  muslins,  writing  slates, 
and  many  articles  in  wood.  An  active  trade 
is  carried  on  with  Germany  and  Italy,  trans- 
portation being  efifeoted  through  a  number  of 
mountain  passes,  and  by  means  of  two  canals 
which  connect  the  Linth  with  the  lakes  of 
Wallenstadt  and  Zfirioh.  Glarus  enjoys  a  sin- 
gularly democratic  form  of  government,  the 
supreme  power  residing  in  a  general  assembly 
of  all  the  males  18  years  of  age  and  upward,  who 
meet  annually  to  elect  magistrates  and  accept 
or  reject  the  laws  proposed  by  the  executive 
council  of  80  members.  Taxation  is  very  light, 
there  are  few  crimes,  and  education  is  almost 
universal.  The  military  contingent  is  about 
1,800  men.  The  chief  towns  are  Glarus,  Mol- 
lis, and  Schwanden. — The  name  Glams  is  sup- 


posed to  be  a  corruption  of  St.  Hilarius,  in 
whose  honor  a  church  was  built  in  this  canton 
about  490  by  an  Irish  monk  called  Fridolin, 
the  founder  of  the  convent  of  Seckingen  on  the 
Rhine.  The  upper  part  of  the  valley  became 
the  property  of  this  convent,  while  the  lower 
was  dependent  upon  the  nunnery  of  Schftnnis. 
It  was  afterward  subject  to  bailifis  nominated 
by  the  house  of  Hapsburg,  to  escape  from 
whose  tyranny  the  inhabitants  joined  the  Hel- 
vetic confederation  in  1862,  and  in  1888  se' 
cured  their  independence  by  the  famous  victory 
of  N&fels.  Zwingli  was  curate  of  Glams  from 
1606  to  1616.  The  introduction  of  Protestant- 
ism gave  rise  to  many  disturbances.  IL  A 
town,  capital  of  the  canton,  situated  in  a  se-' 
eluded  Alpine  valley  at  the  foot  of  Mts.  Gl&r- 
nisch  and  Schilt,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  linth, 
here  crossed  by  two  bridges,  88  m.  S.  E.  of 
Zarich;  pop.  m  1870,  6,616.  It  contains  a 
Gothic  church,  used  by  both  Catholics  and 
Protestants,  a  free  school  for  700  children,  a 
new  government  house,  an  old  town  house,  a 
bank,  and  a  printing  office.  The  streets  are 
crooked  and  narrow,  and  the  houses  are  fan- 
tastically painted.  Cottons,  woollens,  muslins, 
and  hardware  are  the  principal  manufactures. 
In  1861  the  town  was  aJmost  wholly  destroyed 
by  fire,  which  caused  a  loss  of  8,000,000  francs. 
The  environs  are  very  picturesque. 

GLASCOCK,  an  £.  county  of  Georgia,  bound- 
ed S.  W.  by  Ogeechee  river  and  drained  by 
Rocky  Comfort  creek ;  area,  226  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  2,786,  of  whom  819  were  colored.  The 
surface  is  level  and  the  soil  moderately  fertile. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  8,881  bush- 
els of  wheat,  62,886  of  Indian  corn,  8,282  of 
sweet  potatoes,  6,406  of  peas  and  beans,  and 
1,894  bales  of  cotton.    Capital,  Gibson. 


END  OF  VOLUME  SEVENTH* 


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SUPPLEMENT  TO   VOLUME  VIL 


FAED 

FAia>«  L  M1I9  a  Scottish  painter,  born  in 
Kirkcudbright  in  1820.  He  painted  minia- 
tures with  success  when  scarcely  more  than  a 
boy,  and  at  the  age  of  21  went  to  Edinburgh 
to  study,  where  some  years  later  he  exhibited 
pictures  of  humble  life  which  gave  him  a  repu- 
tation. In  1864  he  settled  in  London.  His 
best  known  works  are:  *^ Shakespeare  and 
his  Contemporaries,"  **The  Cotter's  Satur- 
day Night,"**  The  Soldier's  Return,"  "Tam 
o'  Shanter,"  "  Catherine  Sefton,"  **  The  Shoot- 
ing Match,"  **The  Stirrup  Cup,"  "  The  Game- 
keeper's  Daughter,"  "The  Old  Crockery  Man," 
**John  Anderson,  my  Jo,"  and  **The  Parting 
of  Evangeline  and  Gabriel,"  illustrating  Long- 
fellow's poem.  II.  Thtnas,  a  Scottish  painter, 
brother  of  the  preceding,  bom  in  iLirkcud- 
bright  in  1826.  He  studied  at  the  school  of 
design  in  Edinburgh,  where  he  won  many 
prizes.  He  at  first  devoted  himself  to  water- 
color  drawing,  and  exhibited  **The  Old  Eng- 
lish Baron,"  but  afterward  adopted  oil  paint- 
ing as  his  profession,  and  has  exercised  his  tal- 
ents chiefly  in  genre.  His  works  include  **  The 
Mitherless  Bairn  "  (illustrating  Thom's  poem), 
**  Home  and  the  Homeless,"  **  The  First  Break 
in  the  Family,"  "  Scott  and  his  Friends  at  Ab- 
botsford,"  **  Sunday  in  the  Backwoods,"  "  His 
Only  Pair,"  "  From  Dawn  to  Sunset,"  **Baith 
Faither  and  Mither,"  and  "The  Last  o'  the 
Clan."  Mr.  Faed  was  elected  a  royal  acade- 
mician in  1864. 

FAITHFULL,  Emily,  an  English  philanthro- 
pist, born  at  Ueadley  rectory,  Surrey,  in  1835. 
She  is  the  daughter  of  a  clergyman,  was  edu- 
cated at  Kensington,  and  entered  the  gay  soci- 
ety of  London.  But  she  soon  became  inter- 
ested in  the  condition  of  working  women,  and 
has  since  devoted  herself  to  their  interests. 
In  1860  she  set  up  a  printing  office  in  London, 
employing  women  as  compositors.  This  estab- 
lishment turned  out  some  very  fine  work,  and 
Miss  Faithfull  was  appointed  printer  and  pub- 


FALK  LAWS 

lisher  in  ordinary  to  the  qu^en.  In  1863  she 
began  the  publication  of  *'  The  Victoria  Maga- 
zine," monthly,  in  which  she  advocated  the 
claims  of  women  to  remunerative  employment. 
In  1877  she  started  **  The  West  London  Ex- 
press," which  has  proved  so  great  a  sucoesa  as 
to  demand  the  enlargement  of  the  printing  es- 
tablishment. Miss  Faithfull  has  appeared  suc- 
cessfully as  a  public  lecturer,  and  has  published 
**  Change  upon  Change,"  a  novel,  which  has 
passed  through  several  editions.  In  1872-'3 
she  visited  the  United  States. 

FALK.  LAWS,  a  series  of  legislative  measures 
carried  through  the  Prussian  parliament  by  the 
government  in  the  years  1872-'5,  which  were 
prepared  by  the  minister  of  worship,  Dr.  Falk. 
They  were  designed  principally  to  transfer  the 
direction  of  primary  education  in  the  Catholic 
provinces  of  Prussia  from  the  clergy  to  the  gov- 
ernment, and  also  to  secure  the  parish  priests 
from  arbitrary*  removal  by  the  hierarchy  for 
matters  of  belief.  The  dogma  of  papal  infalli- 
bility, incorporated  in  the  doctrines  of  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  church  by  the  decree  of  the  coun- 
cil of  the  Vatican  in  1870,  created  more  excite- 
ment in  Germany  than  in  other  countries.  In- 
side and  outside  of  the  Catholic  church  were 
awakened  echoes  of  the  old  feelings  of  the 
reformation.  After  the  conclusion  of  the 
Franco-German  war  and  the  consolidation  of 
the  empire,  the  German  government  found 
itself  face  to  face  with  certain  problems  of 
policy  arising  from  this  question.  These  es- 
peciiUly  afifected  the  Catholic  provinces  of 
Prussia,  where  the  church  and  the  state  pos- 
sessed joint  powers  in  the  direction  of  pop- 
ular education  and  charities,  by  which  arrange- 
ment the  priests  had  become  state  officials,  and 
the  government  had  obtained  a  partial  control 
over  the  ecclesiastical  revenues.  Impelled  by 
the  sunposed  dangers  to  national  independence 
impliea  in  the  doctrine  of  infallibility,  and  feel- 
ing that  the  powers  vested  by  the  laws  in  the 


OoPnxQBT  BT  D.  APPLETON  AND  OOMPANT,  1880,  1888. 


840 


FALK  LAWS 


clergy  were  repngnant  to  the  Prussian  theory 
of  the  state,  and  must  prove  a  hindrance  to 
the  establishment  of  the  Prussian  system  in 
the  new  empire,  the  goverument  immediately 
entered  upon  a  policy  calculated  to  discredit 
the  dogma  of  infallibility  and  render  it  practi- 
cally void,  by  refusing  to  the  hierarchy  the 
right  to  discipline  priests  for  its  non-accept- 
ance^  and  to  divest  the  clergy  of  all  rights  and 
functions  in  the  popular  eaucation.  The  im- 
perial government,  under  the  leading  influence 
of  Prince  Bismarck,  was  not  averse  to  inaugu- 
rating its  career  with  an  exhibition  of  vigorous 
policy  which  would  be  sure  of  general  appro- 
val, and  welcomed  an  opportunity  for  gratifying 
the  feeling  of  nationalism  by  showing  its  power 
over  the  generally  disliked  Roman  hierarchy, 
and  thus  diverting  public  attention  from  other 
questions  which  might  arise  to  endanger  the 
establishment  of  a  powerful  and  concentrated 
national  government.  The  courageous  and 
sincere,  but  exceedingly  impolitic,  demeanor 
of  the  late  pope,  Pius  IX.,  in  this  question, 
strengthened  the  hands  of  the  Prussian  admin> 
istration,  and  emboldened  it  to  put  through 
sweeping  reforms  with  confidence  and  rigor. 
— The  first  outbreak  of  hostilities  was  on  the 
occasion  of  the  suspension  of  a  parochial 
teacher  of  religion  by  the  bishop  of  Ermdand 
on  account  of  his  disapproval  of  the  new 
dogma.  Upon  the  action  of  the  authorities  in 
protecting  him  in  the  exercise  of  his  office,  a 
conference  of  bishops  assembled  at  Fulda  on 
Sept.  7, 1871,  memorialized  the  king,  and  were 
answered  that  no  disciplinary  action  based  on 
the  dogma  of  infallibility  would  be  sanctioned 
until  the  matter  was  adjusted  by  a  legislative 
provision.  The  Catholic  division  in  the  min- 
istry of  worship  had  been  abolished  in  July, 
1871.  ^*  Old  Catholics  "  were  sustained  in  the 
possession  of  churches  and  the  tithes.  The 
bishops  paid  no  attention  to  the  orders  of 
the  government,  and  were  justified  in  their 
course  by  the  provisions  of  the  constitution  of 
1850.  The  Catholics  of  Prussia  sympathized 
strongly  with  the  church.  An  organized  Cath- 
olic opposition,  which  developed  later  into  the 
party  of  the  centre,  was  formed  by  the  election 
of  57  members  to  the  first  German  parliament. 
The  project  of  a  law  transferring  the  public 
education  to  the  state  was  presented  in  De- 
cember, 1871,  by  the  minister  of  worship, 
Mtlhler,  bat  its  discussion  was  postponed.  A 
difierent  kind  of  man  was  felt  to  be  neces- 
sary in  this  arduous  situation.  He  was  in- 
duced to  resign,  and  on  Jan.  22,  1872,  the 
portfolio  of  religion,  instruction,  and  sanitary 
affairs  was  given  to  Dr.  Falk.  The  new  min- 
ister, who  was  the  son  of  a  clergyman,  and 
was  born  in  Silesia  in  1827,  had  made  his  way 
through  the  slow  grades  of  the  Prussian  civil 
service,  and  distinguished  himself  as  a  jurist, 
having  been  intrusted  more  than  once  with 
the  elaboration  of  important  reforms  in  the 
administration  of  justice.  On  Feb.  13  the 
Mtlhler  law  on  the  supervision  of  schools  was 


passed  in  the  house  of  deputies,  and  on  March 
8  in  the  upper  house  after  a  spirited  contest 
with  the  eloquent  representatives  of  the  cleri- 
cal party.  The  government,  now  that  it  had 
joined  battle  with  the  Roman  church  in  the 
war  of  progress  (the  Culturhampf^  as  it  was 
called),  showed  no  hesitation  in  its  reforms, 
but  immediately  assumed  an  aggressive  and  im- 
placable attitude.  A  law  was  passed  banish- 
ing members  of  the  society  of  Jesus  and  kin- 
dred orders  from  the  German  empire.  By  an 
order  of  the  ministry  of  June  15  members  of 
ecclesiastical  orders  were  incapacitated  for 
teaching  in  the  public  schools.  By  an  order 
of  July  4  pupils  of  the  secondary  schools  were 
forbidden  to  enter  religious  societies.  The  law 
requiring  the  inspectors  of  schools  to  be  lay- 
men was  rigorously  enforced.  Cardinal  Ho- 
henlohe,  who  had  been  one  of  the  leaders 
of  the  opposition  to  the  dogma  of  infallibil- 
ity in  the  oecumenical  council,  was  nominated 
ambassador  to  the  papal  court,  but  was  in- 
dignantly rejected  by  the  pope.  On  June  25 
the  pope  expressed  his  resentment  in  his  re- 
ply to  an  address  presented  by  German  sub- 
jects, in  which  he  uttered  the  warning  that 
^^a  stone  would  yet  roll  from  the  mountain 
top  to  bruise  the  heel  of  the  colossus.'^  Upon 
the  pope^s  characterizing  the  behavior  of  the 
Prussian  government  as  *'  impudent,"  the  sec- 
retary of  legation  representing  that  govern- 
ment at  the  papal  court  was  at  once  recalled. 
— Dr.  Falk  devoted  the  whole  energies  of  his 
mind  to  the  formidable  task  he  had  under- 
taken, which  involved  a  radical  change  in  the 
ecclesiastical  laws  of  the  country,  and  a  com- 
plete and  fundamental  reformation  of  the  rela- 
tions between  the  state  and  its  subjects  and  the 
clerical  authorities.  In  November,  1872,  he 
laid  before  the  diet  a  project  of  a  law  defining 
the  limits  of  ecclesiastical  authority  in  the  dis- 
cipline and  punishment  of  members  of  the 
church.  In  January,  1878,  he  brought  forward 
three  other  bills,  designed  to  limit  the  authori- 
ty of  the  bishops  over  the  inferior  clergy,  to 
reduce  the  powers  of  the  clergy  over  the  laity, 
and  to  secure  for  the  civil  authorities  the  means 
of  correcting  refractory  bishops  and  priests. 
All  the  four  laws  were  passed,  after  a  long  and 
bitter  contest  with  the  ultramontane  members, 
and  went  into  effect  in  May,  1878,  whence 
they  are  called. 'the  "May  laws."  They  em- 
brace provisions  regarding  the  qualifications 
and  installation  of  priests,  regarding  secesdon 
from  the  church  and  the  disciplinary  powers  of 
the  bishops  over  the  clergy,  providing  for  the 
institution  of  a  royal  ecclesiastical  court  for 
the  a^udication  of  causes  affecting  the  -church, 
and  defining  the  nature  and  limits  of  the  pun- 
ishments which  the  clerical  authorities  are  per- 
mitted to  administer.  These  laws  conflicted 
with  the  articles  of  the  constitution  guaran- 
teeing to  the  church  the  right  to  administer  its 
own  affairs.  Amendments  to  the  constitution 
were  therefore  proposed  and  adopted,  which 
brought  it  into  harmony  with  the  new  laws. 


FALK  LAWS 


FARRAR 


841 


The  bishops  declared  a  passive  resistance  to  the 
May  laws,  and  paid  no  attention  to  their  pro- 
visions. They  ordained  and  removed  priests 
withoat  making  the  prescribed  declarations  to 
the  oivil  tribunal,  and  refused  to  recognize  the 
government  inspection  of  their  seminaries  and 
convents.  Many  of  these  were  closed  by  the 
anthorities.  The  contumaoioas  bishops  were 
punished  with  fines;  and  the  resolute  Ledo- 
chowski,  archbishop  of  Posen,  was  first  de- 
prived of  his  temporalities,  and  then  ordered 
to  abdicate.  The  government  procured  a  law 
to  be  passed,  enforcing  a  new  form  of  oath  to 
be  taken  at  the  investiture  of  bishops,  by  which 
they  swore  to  observe  religiously  the  civil  laws. 
The  Old  Odtholio  Bishop  Reinkens  took  the 
required  oath,  and  was  acknowledged  as  a 
Catholic  bishop  by  the  government  and  en- 
dowed with  a  revenue.  In  November,  1873, 
a  new  diet  assembled,  in  which  the  centre 
counted  86  votes.  If  civil  marriage  was  not 
a  part  of  Falk's  original  programme,  the  great 
number  of  vacant  cures  which  resulted  from 
the  enforcement  of  the  May  laws  made  it  a 
necessity.  An  obligatory  civil  marriage  law 
was  passed,  and  published  in  March,  1874. 
Two  laws  were  passed  which  stimulated  the 
clericals  to  renewed  opposition,  one  supple- 
mentary to  the  law  on  the  qualification  and 
ordination  of  priests,  and  one  relating  to  the 
administration  of  vacant  bishoprics  and  secur- 
ing the  state  against  the  investiture  of  refrac- 
tory bishops.  In  February,  1874,  the  inflexible 
Lerlochowski  was  imprisoned  for  contumacy, 
and  the  episcopal  property  taken  possession 
of  by  royal  administrators,  after  the  ecclesias- 
tical tribunal  had  deposed  him  from  his  see. 
Bishop  Martin  of  Paderborn  was  divested  of 
his  office  and  incarcerated  by  the  satne  court. 
The  archbishop  of  Cologne  and  the  bishop  of 
Treves  also  were  imprisoned,  and  fines  were 
imposed  upon  other  bishops.  The  bishops  re- 
jected overtures  from  the  government  look- 
ing to  a  compromise.  An  intense  feeling  of 
alienation  from  the  government  spread  among 
the  Oatholic  population,  one  manifestation  of 
which  was  the  attempt  upon  the  life  of  Ohan- 
oellor  Bismarck  at  Kissingen  by  the  journey- 
man cooper  KuUmann  on  July  18,  1874.  The 
papal  bull  of  Feb.  5,  1875,  declared  the  May 
laws  to  be  null  and  void,  and  forbade  obedience 
to  them.  The  pope  also  excommunicated  the 
Old  Catholics  in  a  body,  and  bestowed  a  cardi- 
nal's hat  upon  Ledochowski.  The  "  gag  law  " 
of  April,  1875,  was  then  passed,  by  which 
the  bishops  and  clergy  were  required  to  sign  a 
declaration  of  obedience  to  the  laws  before  they 
could  touch  the  tithes.  A  law  was  passed  which 
proscribed  all  conventual  orders  and  ecclesias- 
tical societies  in  the  Prussian  dominions.  By 
another  law,  trustees  from  the  lay  members  of 
the  parishes  were  given  the  control  of  the 
church  property.  When,  in  1875,  the  pro- 
gramme of  ecclesiastical  and  educational  re- 
form, which  embraced  also  some  changes  mod- 
ifying the  position  of  the  Protestant  clergy 


that  were  not  wholly  acceptable,  was  com- 
pleted and  strengthened  by  the  necessary  sup- 
plementary laws,  the  government  assumed  a 
defensive  and  expectant  attitude,  waiting  calm- 
ly until  the  clergy  should  succumb  to  the  new 
order.  In  1877  only  four  of  the  twelve  Prus- 
sian sees  were  filled — those  of  Kulm,  Ermeland, 
Hildesheim,  and  OsnabrQck.  The  bishoprics  of 
Posen,  Paderborn,  Breslau,  Mftnster,  Cologne, 
and  Limburg  had  been  declared  vacant  by  the 
ecclesiastical  court;  and  those  of  Fulda  and 
Treves  were  rendered  vacant  by  the  decease  of 
their  incumbents,  and  no  successors  had  been 
appointed  in  accordance  with  the  laws.  On 
the  accession  of  Leo  XIII.  to  the  papacy,  Feb. 
18,  1878,  hopes  were  entertained  that  the  un- 
fortunate differences  between  the  church  and 
the  Prussian  government  might  be  recon- 
ciled, and  the  deposed  bishops  and  recalcitrant 
clergy  restored  to  their  cures.  Repeated  ne- 
gotiations took  place  between  the  government 
and  the  holy  see,  but  no  basis  for  a  compro- 
mise could  be  found,  the  exiled  and  disqualified 
prelates  being  as  irreconcilable  as  ever,  till 
June,  1883,  when,  after  long  debate,  amend- 
ments' were  adopted  which  greatly  modified 
the  stringency  of  the  laws. 

FAKJEON,  BeiiaBlB  Leopold,  an  English  nov- 
elist, bom  in  London,  May  12,  1833.  His  fa- 
ther was  a  Jew  of  French  descent,  and  his 
mother  was  English.  He  received  a  liberal 
education,  and  at  the  time  of  the  gold  excite- 
ment went  to  New  Zealand,  and  established  a 
newspaper  at  Dunedin,  which  he  continued  to 
manage  for  five  years.  While  in  New  Zealand 
he  produced  several  dramas,  and  published  a 
story  entitled  "Shadows  on  the  Snow."  In 
1869  he  returned  to  London,  stopping  to  spend 
the  summer  in  New  York.  His  first  novel  that 
attracted  attention  was  "  Grif,  a  Story  of  Aus- 
tralian Life,"  which  was  published  as  a  serial 
in  "  Tinsley's  Magazine,"  and  appeared  in  book 
form  in  1871.  His  subsequent  novels  are: 
"  Joshua  Marvel "  (1872) ;  ♦*  London's  Heart" 
(1873);  "Jessie.  Trim"  (1875);  "Love's  Vic- 
tory "  (1876) ;  "  Solomon  Isaacs"  (1877) ;  "  The 
Duchess  of  Rosemary  Lane  "  (1877) ;  and  "  The 
Bells  of  Penraven "  (1879).  His  works  have 
been  published  both  in  London  and  New  York, 
and  several  of  them  have  been  translated  into 
French  and  German.  His  Christmas  stories 
are:  "  Blade  o'  Grass  "  (1872) ;  "  Golden  Grain  " 
(1 873) ;  "  Bread  and  Cheese  and  Kisses  "  (1 874) ; 
"  An  Island  Peari  "  (1875) ;  "  At  the  Sign  of  the 
Silver  Flagon"  (1876);  and  "The  King  of  No- 
Land  "  (1877).  Mr.  Farjeon  has  dramatized 
"Grif,"  and  has  written  several  other  plays 
which  have  been  acted  with  success.  He  has 
also  lectured  in  London.  As  a  public  reader 
from  his  own  works,  he  is  a  special  favorite 
with  the  laboring  classes.  In  1877  he  mar- 
ried Margaret,  eldest  daughter  of  Joseph  Jef- 
ferson, the  actor. 

FAEEAR,  Frederick  WUIlaH,  an  English  clergy- 
man, born  in  the  Fort,  Bombay,  Aug.  7,  1831. 
He  was  educated  at  King  William's  college, 


842 


FASTING 


Isle  of  Man,  at  King's  college,  London,  and  at 
Trinity  college,  Cambridge.  He  was  classical 
exhibitioner  of  the  university  of  London  in 
1850,  graduated  6.  A.  there,  and  was  appointed 
university  scholar  in  1852.  The  same  year  he 
became  a  foundation  scholar  of  Trinity  col- 
lege, Cambridge,  graduated  there  in  1854,  and 
was  elected  fellow  in  1856.  He  carried  off  the 
chancellor's  medal  in  1852,  the  Le  Bas  prize 
essay  in  1855,  and  the  Norrisian  prize  essay  in 
1856.  He  became  assistant  master  of  Harrow 
school  in  1855 ;  honorary  fellow  of  King's  col- 
lege, London,  in  1858 ;  fellow  of  the  royal  so- 
ciety in  1866;  university  preacher  in  1868, 
1874,  and  1875;  honorary  chaplain  to  the 
queeu  in  1869 ;  Hulsean  lecturer  at  Cambridge 
in  1870;  master  of  Marlborough  college  in 
1871;  chaplain  in  ordinary  to  the  queen  in 
1878 ;  canon  of  Westminster  abbey  m  April, 
1876 ;  and  rector  of  St.  Margaret's  the  same 
year.  Canon  Farrar  is  a  voluminous  and 
popular  writer.  In  fiction  he  has  published 
"Eric,  or  Littie  by  Little,"  "Julian  Home," 
and  "St.  Winifred's."  In  phUological  and 
linguistic  studies  he  has  published  "  Origin  of 
Language"  (1860),  "Chapters  on  Language" 
(1865),  "  Greek  Syntax  "  (1867),  and  "  Families 
of  Speech  "  (1870).  He  is  also  well  known  for 
his  productions  in  theology :  "  The  Fall  of  Man 
and  other  Sermons"  (1865),  "Seekers  after 
God"  (1869),  "Witness  of  History  to  Christ" 
(1871),  "The  SUence  and  Voice  of  God" 
(1878),  "The  Life  of  Christ"  (2  vols.,  1874), 
"Eternal  Hope"  (1878),  and  "The  Life  and 
Work  of  St.  Paur'  (2  vols.,  1879).  Several 
of  these  works  have  passed  through  many  edi- 
tions, and  still  hold  their  place  in  popular  es- 
teem. Canon  Farrar  has  fuso  been  a  contribu- 
tor to  Eitto's  and  Smith's  dictionaries,  and  to 
periodicals. 

FiSTING.  Cases  of  prolonged  abstinence 
from  food  were  recorded  before  the  beginning 
of  the  Christian  era,  and  fasts  for  long  periods 
were  apparently  not  uncommon  among  monks 
and  hermits  belonging  to  the  various  sects  of 
the  early  Christian  church.  All  these  cases, 
together  with  the  numerous  examples  of  saints 
who  practised  partial  or  total  abstinence  from 
food  at  various  times  during  the  middle  ages, 
are  of  course  unauthenticated  and  often  ridicu- 
lous. Liduine  of  Schiedam  told  some  friars  in 
1422  that  for  eight  years  nothing  in  the  way  of 
nourishment  had  passed  her  lips.  St.  Joseph 
of  Copertino  was  said  to  have  remained  for  five 
years  without  eating  bread,  and  for  ten  years 
without  drinking  wine,  supporting  life  entirely 
upon  dried  fruits  and  bitter  herbs.  He  fasted 
for  40  days  seven  times  every  year,  eating 
nothing  at  all  except  upon  Sundays  and  Thurs- 
days. Nicholas  of  Flue,  and  a  nun  of  Leices- 
ter, who  was  watched  for  15  days  by  the  clerks 
of  Hugh,  bishop  of  Lincoln,  both  claimed  to 
live  entirely  upon  the  holy  eucharist.  Other 
saints  who  were  supposed  to  have  acquired  the 
power  of  living  upon  sacramental  bread  were 
St.  Catharine  of  Siena,  St.  Rose  of  Lima,  St. 


CoUete,  and  St.  Peter  of  Aldmtara.  Instances 
are  also  given  by  Gdrres  of  people  possessed 
by  devils  who  fasted  from  20  to  70  days.  In 
the  15th,  16th,  and  17th  centuries  the  religions 
fasters  were  succeeded  by  the  "  fasting  girls," 
considered  by  scientists  at  present  to  have 
been  remarkable  cases  of  hysteria.  Among 
them  the  most  prominent  examples  were  Mar- 
garet Weii>s  of  Rode,  near  Spire,  Apollonia 
Schreira  of  Bern,  Katharine  Binder  of  the 
Palatinate,  Eve  Fliegen  of  Meurs,  Joan  Ba- 
laam of  Constance,  and  a  maiden  exhibited  at 
Cologne  in  1595,  who  were  all  popularly  be- 
lieved to  have  fasted  for  periods  ranging  from 
three  to  fourteen  years.  But  accidents  have 
several  times  furnished  trustworthy  daU  in  re- 
gard to  £asting.  In  Belgium,  in  1683,  four 
colliers  were  confined  in  a  coal  pit  for  24  days, 
and  lived  on  nothing  but  water.  Three  women 
buried  underneath  an  avalanche  in  Bergemol- 
letta,  Piedmont,  lived  from  March  19,  1755, 
until  April  18,  upon  a  pint  of  goat's  milk  a 
day.  Fod^r^  mentions  the  case  of  three  work- 
men who  lived  14  days  in  a  cold,  damp  vault, 
without  any  food  or  any  water  except  what 
was  absorbed.  Van  Swieten  reports  the  case  of 
Guillaume  Granet,  a  prisoner  at  Toulouse,  who 
resolved  to  starve  himself  to  death.  After  the 
first  7  days  his  sufferings  compelled  him  to  take 
water,  but  he  endured  for  58  days,  when  he 
died  in  horrible  convulsions.  Yiterbi,  a  Corsi- 
can,  starved  himself  to  death  in  21  days.  Capt. 
Casey,  of  the  James  Lowden,  passed  28  days  in 
an  open  boat,  without  food  or  water,  except  as 
much  rain  water  as  he  could  collect.  Dr.  B.  F. 
Stoddard  published  an  account  of  a  fast  under- 
taken from  reli^^ous  motives  by  Calvin  Morgan 
of  Mystic,  Conn.,  who  abstained  from  food  for 
40  days— from  Dec.  20,  1839,  to  Jan.  29,  1840. 
Mr.  Morgan  drank  water  freely  throughout  the 
fast,  and  up  to  the  15th  day  attended  to  many 
of  his  usual  duties ; .  after  which  time  he  be- 
came more  quiet,  and  toward  the  end  was 
much  reduced.  He  recovered,  however,  with- 
out any  permanent  bad  effects.  Mr.  Morgan 
was  under  no  accurate  supervision,  but  his  un- 
impeachable character  caused  his  fast  to  be 
popularly  accepted.  (For  other  cases  of  pro- 
longed fasting,  see  Abstinbngb.)  —  Two  re- 
markable cases  of  alleged  fasting  have  occurred 
in  this  century,  which  were  exposed  by  means 
of  scientific  inquiry.  About  1810  Ann  Moore  of 
Tetbury,  England,  claimed,  and  was  currently 
believed,  to  be  able  to  live  without  food.  Per- 
sons who  watched  her  for  three  weeks  reported 
her  as  really  abstaining ;  but,  a  stricter  watch 
being  set,  the  woman  was  reduced  to  the  point 
of  death  in  nine  days,  and  confessed  that  her 
daughter  had  supplied  her  with  food  by  wash- 
ing her  face  with  towels  wet  with  beef  tea  and 
other  nutritive  preparations,  and  by  conveying 
food  from  month  to  mouth  when  kissing  her. 
The  Welsh  fasting  girl,  Sarah  Jacobs,  whom 
many  believed  to  have  lived  without  food,  and 
in  regard  to  whom  there  was  much  excite- 
ment in  1869,  lived  exactly  eight  days  from  the 


FASTING 


843 


time  she  was  placed  under  systematic  inspec- 
tion. Perhaps  the  most  curioas  modern  in- 
stances of  alleged  fasting  are  those  of  Palma 
d^Orio,  and  Louise  Lateau  of  Belgium,  both  of 
whom  claim  not  only  to  liv^e  without  food^  but 
to  have  received  the  stigmata — ».  e.,  to  have 
been  miraculously  marked  with  the  wounds 
received  by  Christ  at  the  crucifixion.  Both 
oases  have  been  implicitly  credited  by  the 
faithitil  of  the  Roman  Catholic  church,  and 
utterly  discredited  by  scientists,  a  committee 
of  whom  carefully  examined  Louise  Lateau. 
Probably  the  best  authenticated  example  of 
prolonged  abstinence  from  food  on  record  is 
that  of  Dr.  Henry  8.  Tanner,  an  eclectic  physi- 
cian of  Minneapohs,  Minn.,  who  fasted  40  days 
in  New  York  —  from  June  28  to  August  7, 
1880.  Dr.  Tanner  had  frequently  abstained 
from  food  for  from  7  to  12  days,  and  in  the 
summer  of  1877  claimed  to  have  fasted  for  42 
days,  and  thereby  cured  inflammation  of  the 
stomach  and  cardiac  rheumatism.  This  fast 
was  generally  discredited.  In  the  course  of 
the  next  year  Mollie  Fanoher  of  Brooklyn,  N. 
T.,  attained  considerable  notoriety  on  account 
of  her  alleged  ability  to  live  without  food,  and 
was  offered  $1,000  by  Dr.  W.  A.  Hammond  of 
New  York  on  condition  of  abstaining  from 
food  for  one  month.  This  offer  was  not  ac- 
cepted by  Miss  Fancher,  and  Dr.  Tanner  came 
to  New  York  to  present  himself  as  her  substi- 
tute. Failing  in  this,  however,  he  placed  him- 
self under  the  charge  of  eclectic  physicians, 
who  were  subsequently  joined  by  others  of  the 
regular  profession;  and  his  fast,  though  not 
rigidly  conducted  as  a  scientific  experiment 
should  have  been,  was  generally  believed  and 
acknowledged  by  prominent  physicians  to  be 
a  genuine  case  of  prolonged  abstinence  from 
food. — From  the  numerous  credible  instances 
of  persons  shipwrecked,  buried  in  mines,  suf- 
fering from  disease,  or  otherwise  prevented 
from  taking  food,  the  average  duration  of  life 
without  food  has  been  placed  at  from  8  to  15 
days,  and  without  food  or  water  at  from  7  to 
12  days.  But  no  definite  rule  has  been  formu- 
lated by  physiologists,  who  have  generally 
admitted  that  the  ultimate  limit  of  existence 
without  food  is  unknown.  Water,  however, 
has  been  found  absolutely  essential  for  the 
preservation  of  life  beyond  a  comparatively 
short  period.  When  no  food  is  ti^en,  and  the 
vital  functions  still  continue,  a  certain  amount 
of  force  is  required,  which  is  obtained  from 
the  metamorphosis  or  consumption  of  the  tis- 
sues of  the  body.  These  tissues  are  the  prod- 
ucts of  food  previously  taken  into  the  system 
and  assimilated.  Their  oxidation  is  slow  or 
rapid  according  to  the  intensity  of  thought, 
activity  of  the  vital  functions,  and  amount  of 
muscular  energy  exerted.  In  the  animal  king- 
dom, fish,  snails,  chameleons,  toads,  frogs,  liz- 
ards, and  other  cold-blooded  animals  have 
been  observed  under  circumstances  that  left  no 
doubt  of  the  total  deprivation  of  food  for  a  very 
long  time ;  while  the  familiar  examples  of  hi- 


bernating animals,  with  the  attendant  emacia- 
tion, indicate  an  ability  to  subsist  for  months 
upon  the  tissues  of  the  body  when  in  a  semi- 
torpid  condition.  In  human  beings,  as  in  ani- 
mals, the  consequent  emaciation  is  constant  in 
its  occurrence,  and  its  absence  may  be  looked 
upon  as  a  proof  of  fraud.  A  striking  example 
of  this  reduction  in  weight  was  afforded  by  a 
hog  that  was  buried  under  a  chalk  cliff  in 
Dover  in  1810.  At'  this  time  the  animal 
weighed  160  lbs.,  and  when  extricated,  160 
days  afterward,  its  weight  had  diminished  to 
40  lbs.  It  had  nibbled  the  wood  of  the  sty, 
and  the  sides  of  the  cave  looked  smooth,  as 
though  the  hog  had  continually  licked  them  in 
order  to  obtain  the  moisture  exuding  from  the 
rocks.  Indian  fakirs  and  persons  in  trances 
are  able  to  live  without  other  food  than  that 
supplied  by  their  own  bodies  for  very  long 
periods,  since  the  activity  of  the  vital  functions 
is  reduced  to  the  lowest  ^possible  point,  this 
result  being  often  attained  among  the  fakirs 
by  the  use  of  opium  and  other  narcotics.  It 
has  been  found  that  the  supply  of  fat  in  the 
body  acts  as  a  reserve  of  force-producing  ma- 
terial, and  it  is  therefore  generally  considered, 
other  things  being  equal,  that  the  greater  the 
supply  of  fat  the  longer  can  life  be  sustained 
under  abstinence  from  food.  The  great  capa- 
city of  force-production  residing  in  the  tissues 
of  the  body  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  one 
gramme  (15*432  grains)  of  fat,  as  oxidized  in 
the  human  body,  will  develop  an  amount  of 
energy  suflSclent  to  raise  27,778  lbs.  one  foot, 
and  in  like  manner  one  gramme  of  lean  mus- 
cular fibre  will  raise  14,808  lbs.  one  foot.  So 
far  as  any  exact  limit  to  the  force-producing 
powers  of  the  body  has  been  fixed,  it  has  been 
done  by  the  experiments  of  Chossat  and  Brown- 
S6quard  upon  animals.  It  was  found  that  when 
they  were  deprived  of  food,  death  ensued  as  a 
mean  result  when  90  per  cent,  of  the  fat  of  the 
body  was  consumed,  or  when  the  body  lost 
two  fifths  of  its  original  weight.  A  gradual 
but  not  extensive  fall  in  temperature  occurred 
during  the  first  part  of  the  enforced  fast,  and 
then  the  temperature  fell  more  rapidly  to  a 
point  29*  or  80°  F.  below  the  normal  point, 
when  a  condition  of  torpor  supervened,  and 
death  followed.  In  man,  as  in  animals,  the 
immediate  cause  of  death  from  starvation  is  a 
decline  in  the  animal  temperature.  Death  is 
accelerated  by  cold,  and  delayed  by  the  presence 
of  moisture  in  the  atmosphere.  As  would  nat- 
ur^ly  be  expected,  mature  adults  endure  dep- 
rivation of  food  for  a  much  longer  time  than 
children  and  aged  persons.  From  observations 
this  positive  rule  has  been  laid  down,  that  no 
person  can  exist  without  a  supply  of  force 
which  is  obtained  from  the  consumption  of 
the  tissues  of  the  body ;  and  though  the  body 
may  to  an  extent  be  used  up  in  providing  this 
force,  there  is  a  limit  beyond  which  it  is  im- 
possible to  go  without  the  restoration  of  the 
tissues  by  food,  or  the  occurrence  of  death. — 
The  known  cases  of  fasting  may  be  divided  into 


844 


FASTING 


voluntary  and  involuntary.  The  former  class 
includes  religious  fasts,  abstinence  from  food 
on  the  part  of  insane  and  hysterical  persons, 
fraudulent  fasts,  and  deliberate  attempts  at  self- 
starvation;  the  latter  embraces  cases  where 
persons  have  been  prevented  from  obtaining 
food  by  circumstances,  or  from  taking  it  by 
such  diseases  as  inflammation  of  the  stomach, 
stricture  of  the  oesophagus,  lockjaw,  typhus 
fever,  acute  febrile  diseases,  and  other  disorders. 
Insane  persons,  especially  those  subject  to  mel- 
ancholia, and  hysterical  patients,  onen  take  an 
aversion  to  food,  and  exist  either  on  very  small 
quantities  or  without  any  food  at  all  for  long 
periods;  cases  being  cited  of  abstinence  for 
from  18  to  61  days  with  nothing  but  water. 
Low  cunning  and  a  morbid  tendency  to  deceit, 
often  characteristic  of  hysteria,  explain  many 
fasts,  otherwise  miraculous,  including  some  so- 
called  religious  fasts.  Deceptive  fasts  also  origi- 
nate from  a  love  of  notoriety  and  a  desire  to 
gain  some  advantage,  as  in  cases  that  have  oc- 
curred in  hospitals.  Persons  absolutely  de- 
barred from  food  have  frequently  lived  15  days 
or  longer,  though  their  suffering  and  emaciation 
were  strongly  marked.  In  June,  1880,  a  case 
was  reported  in  New  York  of  a  woman  suffer- 
ing from  inflammation  of  the  stomach,  who 
lived  ^ve  weeks  without  food.  In  cases  of  in- 
voluntary fasting,  of  course  mental  disturbance 
and  the  ravages  of  disease  tend  to  shorten  life. 
Cases  of  prolonged  inanition  in  the  human  sub- 
ject have  never  been  scientifically  studied,  ow- 
.  ing  to  their  comparative  rarity  and  the  obvious 
obstacles  that  exist.  Dr.  Tanner^s  fast,  before 
ailuded  to,  though  not  regarded  as  an  exact 
scientific  experiment,  developed  several  inter- 
esting points.  His  total  loss  in  weight  during 
the  40  days  was  86  lbs.  As  experience  had 
usually  shown,  he  suffered  from  actual  hunger 
only  during  the  first  few  days.  His  tempera- 
ture remained  nearly  normal  throughout,  there 
being  no  marked  decline,  as  is  usual  in  cases  of 
•  starvation.  Besides  the  loss  in  weight,  none 
of  the  characteristic  symptoms  of  starvation 
appeared,  with  the  exception  of  slight  and  tem- 
porary evidences  of  cerebral  disturbance  on  the 
15th  day,  and  a  hardly  perceptible  fetid  odor 
in  the  breath  toward  the  close  of  the  fast.  That 
water  is  absolutely  essential  to  life  was  never 
better  illustrated  than  by  this  fast.  From  the 
3d  to  the  10th  day  Dr.  Tanner  took  no  water, 
except  what  was  absorbed  from  towels  and 
sponges  and  retained  in  gargling  his  mouth. 
On  the  10th  day,  after  undergoing  severe  men- 
tal excitement,  he  drank  4  oz.,  and  then  again 
abstained  until  the  16th  day.  At  this  time  his 
appearance  indicated  intense  suffering,  and  his 
condition  was  regarded  as  so  precarious  that  his 
physicians  seriously  considered  the  advisability 
of  supplying  him  with  food.  Forced  by  neces- 
sity, he  drank  water  freely,  and  at  once  re- 
vived, seemed  invigorated,  and  for  a  few  days 
gained  in  weight.  On  the  25th  day,  however, 
water  began  to  exercise  an  irritating  influence 
upon  his  stomach.     He  was  troubled  with  nau- 


sea and  vomiting,  which  continued  at  intervals 
until  the  close  of  the  fast.  He  vainly  tried  hot 
water,  and  mineral  and  carbonated  waters,  and 
attempted  to  palliate  his  sufferings  with  alco- 
holic vapor  baths  and  baths  of  mustard  water. 
In  the  strictly  technical  sense,  therefore,  he 
might  be  said  to  have  taken  food.  During  the 
fast  be  drank  667i  oz.  of  water,  and  the  aver- 
age daily  amount  given  off  from  the  skin  and 
exhaled  from  the  lungs  was  calculated  by  Dr. 
N.  S.  Westcott  to  be  only  llf  oz.,  an  amount 
that  forms  a  striking  contrast  to  the  quantity 
(from  80  to  40  oz.)  given  by  Seguin,  Valen- 
tine, and  Lavoisier  as  the  average  daily  loss 
from  the  lungs  and  skin  of  a  male  adult  not 
fasting.  Dr.  Tanner  had  no  passage  from  the 
bowels  during  the  fast.  The  urates  in  the  urine, 
representing  the  nitrogenous  waste  of  the  body, 
were  found  to  decrease  steadily.  His  fast  pos* 
sesses  a  certain  value,  as  confirming  the  belief 
of  physiologists  in  the  necessity  of  water,  and 
as  showing  that  alleged  instances  of  fasting 
without  suffering  or  any  symptoms  of  inani- 
tion are  fraudulent  The  case  is  also  interest- 
ing as  illustrating  the  power  of  tiie  will  over 
the  body,  and  showing  what  human  endurance 
can  accomplish.  But,  in  the  opinion  of  dis- 
tinguished physicians,  no  practical  benefit  can 
be  derived  from  the  fast,  as  the  subject  of 
fasting  in  relation  to  the  treatment  of  disease 
had  previously  been  exhaustively  studied,  and 
as  no  rule  bearing  upon  the  physiology  or  pa- 
thology of  inanition  can  be  formulated  from 
one  case.  Though  suffering  greatly  and  much 
reduced  at  the  close  of  the  fast,  Dr.  Tauner  ral- 
lied at  once  without  any  bad  effects.  Begin- 
ning with  a  peach,  he  drank  milk  and  ate  pieces 
of  watermelon,  which  was  shortly  followed  up 
with  beefsteak,  ale,  and  wine.  Everything 
taken  was  retained  upon  his  stomaoh.  He 
gained  5  lbs.  in  the  first  24  hours,  and  8^  lbs. 
in  tlie  first  80  hours,  after  the  completion  of 
the  fast.  His  rapid  and  perfect  recovery  was 
perhaps  the  most  astonishing  feature  of  the 
fast ;  and  the  fast  itself  was  considered  by  phy- 
sicians the  most  remarkable  among  authenti- 
cated instances.  The  fact  that  be  had  been 
previously  accustomed  to  fast  was  taken  to  con- 
firm the  theory  that  the  stomach  may  habitu- 
ate itself  to  fasting  or  craving  too  little.  Some 
novel  medico-legal  points  were  raised  by  this 
fast.  It  was  held  that  in  case  of  Dr.  TanneWe 
death  his  watchers  would  be  guilty  of  man- 
slaughter.—See  Wanley,  "Wonders  of  the  Lit- 
tle World "  (London,  1806) ;  Esquirol,  De$ 
maladies  mentalea  (Paris,  1888);  GOrres,  La 
myntiqve  divine^  naturelle  et  diabolique  (trans- 
lated from  the  German,  Paris,  1861);  Lea 
8tigmati»Se$  (Paris,  1878) ;  Chossat,  Beeherchet 
experimentales  sur  rinanition  (Paris,  1878); 
Fod6r6,  IVaite  de  mSdeeine  legale  et  d'^hygihie 
(new  ed.,  Paris,  1878);  "History  of  the  Welsh 
Fasting  Girl;"  Hammond,  "Fasting  Girls" 
(New  York,  1879);  Louise  LateaUy  Rapport 
medical;  Pavy,  "Food  and  Dietetic?;"  and 
Carpenter's  "  Physiology." 


FITCH 


JFLORIDA 


845 


FITCH9  Am,  an  Araerican  entomologist,  born 
at  Fitch's  Point,  Washington  co.,  N.  Y.,  Feb. 
24,  1809,  died  April  8,  1879.  While  studying 
in  the  Rensselaer  polytechnic  institute  in  Troy, 
which  he  entered  in  1826,  he  conceived  a  pas- 
sion for  zoology,  which  gradually  concentra- 
ted itself  npon  the  investigation  of  insect  life. 
He  studied  mediciue  in  the  Vermont  academy 
of  medicine  at  Oastleton,  in  Rutgers  medical 
college  in  New  York,  and  in  Albany.  At  the 
same  time  he  learned  all  that  had  been  writ- 
ten upon  American  insects.  He  accompanied 
Prof.  Eaton  in  the  capacity  of  assistant  profes- 
sor of  natural  history  npon  the  Rensselaer  in- 
stitute expedition  in  1880  to  Lake  Erie,  where 
he  left  the  party  to  make  an  extensive  ento- 
mological expedition  in  the  west.  Upon  his 
return  in  the  following  year  he  began  the  prac- 
tice of  medicine  in  the  same  office  with  Dr. 
Tayler  Lewis,  afterward  professor  of  Greek  in 
Union  college,  at  Fort  Miller,  N.  Y.  He  re- 
moved in  1882  to  Stillwater,  and  in  1838  re- 
turned to  Fitch's  Point  (Salem)  to  take  charge 
of  his  father's  business,  giving  up  his  profes- 
sion. Engaged  in  agricultural  pursuits,  ne  was 
enabled  to  follow  to  better  advantage  his  favor- 
ite investigations.  He  began  in  1845  to  pub- 
lish in  Dr.  Emmons's  ^^  American  Quarterly 
Journal  of  Agriculture  and  Science,"  and  after- 
ward in  the  *^  Transactions  of  the  New  York 
State  Agricultural  Society,"  essays  upon  sub- 
jects connected  with  economic  entomology. 
In  1845  he  published  an  article  on  the  genus 
eeeidamyiaj  and  afterward  papers  on  the  wheat 
midge,  the  Heasian  fly,  and  wmter  insects.  His 
paper  on  the  currant  worm  in  the  ^^  Transac- 
tions "  first  brought  the  author  to  the  notice 
of  the  scientific  men  of  Europe.  He  was  em- 
ployed some  time  in  collecting  insects  for  the 
state  cabinet  of  natural  history,  and  in  1854 
was  appointed  state  entomologist.  Of  his  thir- 
teen reports  printed  in  the  **  Transactions  of 
the  State  Agricultural  Society,"  the  first  nine 
were  collected  and  published  separately.  This 
work  won  a  speedy  recognition  m  the  scientific 
world.  Dr.  Fitch  had  in  view  the  preparation 
of  a  systematic  work  on  entomology,  which 
was  never  accomplished  in  the  form  intended ; 
but  at  the  time  of  his  death  as  many  as  a  hun- 
dred note  books  were  found  upon  his  shelves, 
to  be  published  posthumously. 

FITZGEBALD,  Percy  Hethringtra,  a  British  au- 
thor, born  at  Fane  Valley,  county  Louth,  Ire- 
land, in  1834.  He  was  educated  at  Stonyhurst 
college,  Lancashire,  and  Trinity  college,  Dub- 
lin, was  called  to  the  Irish  bar,  and  became 
crown  prosecutor  on  the  northeastern  circuit. 
He  has  published  biographies  of  Sterne,  Gar- 
rick,  Charles  Lamb,  and  the  Kembles;  "A 
Famous  Forgery,"  the  life  of  Dr.  Dodd ;  **  Prin- 
eiples  of  Comedy,"  and  "Proverbs  and  Come- 
diettas;" "School  Days  at  Saxonhurst;" 
"Autobiography  of  a  Small  Boy; "  '* Loves  of 
Famous  Men :  "  "  Pictures  of  School  Life  and 
Boyhood ;  "  "  Romance  of  the  English  Stage ;" 
and  many  novels,  among  which  are  "Never 


Forgotten,"  "  The  Dear  Girl,"  "  Fatal  Zero," 
"The  Bridge  of  Sighs,"  **The  Middle-aged 
Ix)ver,"  "  Mildrington  the  Barrister,"  "  Beauty 
Talbot,"  "  The  Sword  of  Damocles,"  "  Rev. 
Alfred  Hoblush,'*  "  The  Night  Mail,"  "  Diana 
Gay,"  and  "  Fairy  Alice." 
FLORIDA*    Of  the  population  of  the  state  in 

1880  (269,493),  186,444  were  males,  133,049 
females,  259,584  of  native  and  9,909  of  foreign 
birth;  142,605  white,  126,690  colored,  18  Chi- 
nese, and  180  Indians.  There  were  61,699 
males  twenty-one  years  old  and  over,  of  whom 
84,210  were  white  (80,851  native  and  8,859 
foreign)  and  27,489  colored.  Of  persons  ten 
years  of  age  and  upward,  70,219,  or  88  per 
cent.,  were  unable  to  read,  and  80,183,  or  43*4 
per  cent.,  were  unable  to  write,  including  19,- 
024  native  whites,  or  20'7  per  cent,  of  that 
class,  and  60,420  colored  persons,  or  70 '7  per 
cent,  of  that  class.  There  were  produced  54,- 
997  bales  of  cotton,  3,174,234  bushels  of  corn, 
and  468,112  of  oats ;  1,273  hogsheads  of  sugar, 
1,029,868  gallons  of  molasses,  1,294,677  lbs. 
of  rice,  1,687,613  bushels  of  sweet  potatoes; 
live-stock  on  farms,  22,636  horses,  9,606  mules 
and  asses,  16,141  working  oxen,  42,174  milch 
cows,  409,055  other  cattle,  56,681  sheep,  and 
287,051  swine.  There  were  426  manufactur- 
ing establishments ;  capital,  $3,210,680;  hands 
employed,  5,504;  value  of  materials  used,  $3,- 
040,119;  of  products,  $5,646,448.  •  The  princi- 
pal stock-raising  counties,  with  the  number  of 
cattle  in  each,  according  to  the  tax  books  of 
1881,  are  as  follows :  Manatee,  53,273 ;  Brevard, 
89,632:  Monroe,  24,710;  Polk,  22,082:  Hills- 
borough, 21,223;  Sumter  (1880),  16,276;  Her- 
nando, 14,882';  Volusia,  13,635;  total  for  eight 
counties,  205,714.  The  number  of  bearing 
orange  trees  returned  in  1880  was  292,324; 
oranges  produced,  46,097,856.    The  yield  of 

1881  was  about  80,000,000.  The  total  receipts 
into  the  treasury  on  account  of  general  revenue 

gQcluding  interest  taxes)  for  the  year  ending 
eo.  31,  1882,  amounted  to  $350,569.80.  The 
amount  of  warrants  and  coupons  paid  at  the 
treasury  for  the  year  ending  Dec.  31,  1882,  was 
$289,693.68.  The  following  is  a  statement  of 
the  bonded  debt : 

Tp«roeiit.bondfof  16Tt $850,000  00 

8  per  rent,  bonds  of  1S78 925.000  00 

8  per  cent,  oonyention  bonds 1.600  00 

Total $l,«Te,600  00 

Of  this  indebtedness  there  is : 

In  sinkine  foods $169,000  00 

In  school  (Und 285,000  00 

In  seminary  ftind 87,400  00 

In  agricultural  college  ftxnd 184,200  00 

Total $666,700  00 

Loavlng  in  the  bands  of  iodividnals $009,800  00 

The  table  of  assessment  for  1882  shows  that 
the  taxable  valuations  amounted  to  $45,285,977, 
a  large  increase  since  1880.  But  more  than 
$8,000,000  of  this  was  upon  railroad  property 
for  which  exemption  is  claimed.    The  state 


846 


FLORIDA 


taxes  in  1882  were  as  foUows:  state  tax,  $200,- 
827.28;  sinking  funds,  $91,681.05;  school  fnnd, 
$4d,882.71~total,  $887,691.94.  The  coantj 
taxes  were:  Coontj  tax  proper,  $175,869.82 ; 
county  school  tax,  $185,285.42 ;  county  special 
tax,  $115,968.84— total,$426,669.08.  The  num- 
ber of  schools  in  1877  was  656,  with  29,678  pu- 
pils; in  1880,  1,181,  with  89,815  pupils;  for 
the  scholastic  year  beginning  Oct  1,  1882, 
1,826,  with  51,945  pupils.  The  principal  of 
the  common-school  fund  has  increased,  rising 
from  $246,900  in  January,  1881,  to  $828,585.42 
at  the  close  of  1882.  It  has  been  ascertained 
that  nearly  80,000  acres  of  school  lands  were 
due  from  the  United  States.  Selections  amount- 
ing to  48,746  acres  have  been  approved.  Un- 
der the  agricultural  college  grant  Florida  re- 
ceived 90,000  acres,  which  were  sold  for  $81,- 
000.  The  proceeds  of  the  sale  were  invested 
in  $100,000  of  Florida  bonds.  The  interest  has 
been  invested,  and  the  fund  now  has  an  income 
of  about  $9,000  per  annum.  As  no  portion  of 
the  fund  nor  the  interest  can  be  applied  to 
building  purposes,  no  institution  has  been  es- 
tablished. On  Jan.  1, 1881,  there  were  95  in- 
mates in  the  insane  asylum.  During  the  two 
following  years  there  were  admitted  112;  dis- 
charged, 50 ;  died,  26 ;  escaped,  6 ;  readmitted, 
5 ;  in  the  institution  Jan.  1, 1888, 128,  of  whom 
86  were  white  males,  44  white  females,  27  col- 
ored males,  and  21  colored  females.  The  East 
Florida  railway  company  had  the  state  convicts 
in  charge  during  1881  and  1882.  It  received 
the  convicts  at  the  several  jails,  paid  all  ex- 
penses after  conviction,  and,  in  addition,  paid 
into  the  state  treasury  over  $6,000  for  their 
services  during  the  two  years. '  The  convicts 
have  been  let  for  the  years  1888  and  1884  for 
the  sum  of  $9,200,  the  other  conditions  being 
the  same  as  those  in  the  railway  lease.  The 
number  of  convicts  Dec.  81,  1880,  was  129, 
which  were  handed  over  to  the  railway  com- 
pany ;  delivered  to  it  during  1881,  101 ;  dis- 
charged, 49;  pardoned,  4;  escaped,  18;  died, 
14;  sentence  commuted,  1 ;  remaining,  Jan.  1, 
1882,  149 ;  delivered  to  the  raUfvay  company 
during  the  year,  69  ;  discharged,  55 ;  pardoned, 
8 ;  escaped,  5 ;  died,  10;  remaining  at  the  close 
of  the  year,  185.— In  January,  1881,  Philadel- 

Ehia  capitalists  negotiated  a  contract  with  the 
oard  of  trustees  of  internal  improvements  for 
the  drainage  and  reclamation  of  the  lands  lying 
south  of  township  twenty-four,  by  affording 
an  outlet  for  Lake  Okeechobee,  in  considera- 
tion of  receiving  one  half  of  the  lands  so  re- 
claimed. The  legislature  in  1881  chartered 
the  Atlantic  and  Gulf  Ooast  Oanal  and  Okee- 
chobee Land  company,  who  succeeded  to  all 
the  rights  under  the  contract.  This  company 
immediately  had  a  series  of  surveys  made  to 
test  the  practicability  of  the  proposed  under- 
taking, and  from  these,  and  those  made  by 
the  United  State-s  under  the  direction  of  Gen. 
Gillmore,  it  was  shown  that  Lake  Okeechobee 
has  an  elevation  of  22  feet  above  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  and  that  Lake  Tahopekaliga,  the  head- 


waters of  the  Eissimmee  river,  has  an  eleyation 
of  65  feet  above  the  waters  of  the  gulf.  The 
work  was  begun  by  building  powerful  steam- 
dredffes  on  the  Caloosahatchee  river  and  Ta- 
hopekaliga lake,  the  plan  of  operations  being 
to  open  a  canal  from  the  Caloosahatchee  river 
to  hake  Okeechobee,  and  the  cutting  of  a  canal 
from  Lake  Tahopekaliga  through  to  Kissimmee 
lake,  then  striughtening  Eissimmee  river  and 
cutting  one  or  more  canals  from  Okeechobee 
to  the  Atlantic  coast,  as  well  as  the  construc- 
tion of  subsidiary  canals.  The  d redge  upon  the 
Oaloosahatchee  entered  Lake  Okeechobee  on 
the  2lBt  of  December,  1882.  Up  to  Dec.  1, 
1882,  the  company  report  that  uiey  had  ex- 
pended $98,777.40,  and  had  constructed  over 
12  m.  of  canal,  22  to  85  ft  wide  and  5  to  6 
ft  deep.  The  canals  will  afford  a  great  inland 
system  of  steamboat  navigation  from  Sassim- 
mee  City  through  the  Caloosahatchee  to  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  180  m.— The  feasibility  of 
forming  an  inland  water  communication  from 
the  mouth  of  the  St  Jobn^s  river  to  Biscayne 
bay,  in  the  extreme  southern  portion  of  the 
state,  270  m.,  by  utilizing  the  waters  of  Pablo 
creek  and  North,  Matanass,  Halifax,  and  Indian 
rivers,  has  long  been  conceded.  It  took  prac- 
tical shape  when  under  the  general  incorpo- 
ration act,  the  ^'  Florida  Coast-Line  Canal  and 
Transportation  Company,"  with  a  capital  of 
$500,000,  was  organized.  Operations  were  be- 
gun in  November,  1882. — ^In  regard  to  rail- 
roads, the  governor,  in  his  message  to  the  leg- 
islature of  1888,  says :  "  Florida  has  every  cause 
of  congratulation  in  having  more  miles  of  rail- 
road construction  in  her  limits,  in  the  last  two 
years,  than  in  her  entire  former  history.  West 
Florida,  that  has  for  so  many  years  been  out 
off  from  direct  communication  with  the  remain- 
ing portion  of  the  state,  has  now  practicdly  rail 
connection  with  our  system  of  roads ;  and  Pen- 
saoola,  the  queen  of  all  gulf  ports,  as  well  as 
the  interior  western  counties,  will  in  a  few 
weeks  have  direct  communication  with  our 
Atlantic  seaports.  The  Florida  Southern  has 
also  completed  and  has  in  operation  100  m.  of 
road.  The  road  chartered  from  Live  Oak  to 
Bowland^s  Bluff  has  been  finished  to  the  latter 

Soint,  and  is  vigorously  pushing  forward  in  the 
ireotion  of  south  Florida.  The  roads  from 
Waycross  to  Jacksonville,  and  from  Femandina 
to  Jacksonville,  have  been  completed.  Jack- 
sonville and  St.  Augustine  will,  in  a  short  time, 
have  a  new  road  completed.  The  road  from 
Waldo  has  been  pushed  on  to  Silver  Spring  and 
Ocala,  connecting  there  with  the  Tropical, 
which  is  in  operation  as  far  south  as  Wild  wood, 
Sumter  co.,  with  a  branch  graded  and  cross- 
tied  from  Wild  wood  to  Leesburg.  The  South 
Florida  road  has  been  built  from  Orlando  t« 
Eissimmee  City.  The  St  Jobn's  and  Halifax, 
Palatka  and  Indian  river.  Green  Cove  and 
Melrose,  and  the  Jacksonville,  Tampa,  and  Eey 
West  roads,  all  have  portions  graded,  and  the 
former  some  8  ra.  of  iron  laid." — The  popula- 
tion of  the  principal  places,  by  the  census  of 


FORBES 


FORESTS 


847 


1880,  was:  Key  West.  9,800;  Jaoksonyille, 
7,650:  Pensaoola,  6,845;  Tallahassee,  2,494. 
See  map  at  beginning  of  this  supplement. 

POEBES,  AnUbaM,  a  British  journalist,  bom 
in  Morayshire,  Scotland,  in  1888.  He  served 
several  years  in  the  royal  dragoons.  Afterward 
lie  became  a  professional  newspaper  correspon- 
dent, and  in  the  Franco-German  war  of  1870 
accompanied  the  German  army  as  representa- 
tive of  the  London  ^'  Daily  News,'^  his  letters 
to  which  gave  him  a  high  reputation.  Since 
then  he  has  been  almost  constantly  in  the  field 
as  correspondent  of  tb e  same  journal.  He  visit- 
ed India  dnriog  the  famine  of  1874,  witnessed 
much  of  the  fighting  in  the  civil  war  in  Spain, 
accompanied  the  prince  of  Wales  on  his  tour 
through  India  in  1875-6,  and  in  1876  went 
through  the  Servian  campaign.  He  followed 
the  Russian  army  through  the  campaign  of  1877, 
and  was  present  at  the  most  important  engage- 
ments, including  the  battle  in  the  Shipka  pass 
and  the  attacks  on  Plevna.  In  1878  he  trav- 
elled in  Oyprus,  and  in  1879  visited  the  seat  of 
war  in  South  Africa.  He  has  published  in  book 
form  "Drawn  from  Life,"  a  military  novel, 
"  My  Experiences  of  the  War  between  France 
and  Germany,"  ''Soldiering  and  Scribbling," 
a  series  of  Sketches,  and  *'  Glimpses  through 
Cannon- Smoke."  In  October,  1880,  he  entered 
upon  a  lecturing  tour  in  the  United  States. 

FORESTS,  Nertli  AHertauk  Forests  play  an 
important  part  in  protecting  the  earth's  sur- 
face and  in  modifying  the  extremes  of  climate. 
Regions  are  forest-clad  in  proportion  to  their 
annual  average  rain-fall  and  temperature;  the 
most  continuous  and  luxuriant  forests  occur  in 
equatorial  rei^ions,  where  winter  is  unknown 
and  rain  falls  daily,  as  in  eastern  tropical 
America,  Ceylon,  and  the  East  Indies.  In 
drier  and  colder  regions  the  forest  is  less  lux- 
uriant ;  it  disappears  entirely  in  the  Arctic  and 
Antarctic  regions ;  in  the  tropics  even  the  sum- 
mits of  high  mountains  are  treeless  from  ab- 
sence of  sufficient  warmth,  as  are  also  rainless 
regions  like  the  great  interior  plains  of  the 
Asiatic  and  North  American  continents,  and 
the  western  rim  of  South  America,  from 
drought.  The  forest,  then,  is  dependent  on 
rain-fall ;  and  rain- fall  is  not,  as  is  often  er- 
roneously supposed,  dependent  on  the  forest. 
There  is  no  evidence  that  the  removal  of  for- 
est has  decreased  the  annual  average  rain-fidl 
in  any  extensive  region,  or  that  the  inci^ase 
of  forest  area  has  anywhere  increased  the  av- 
erage rain-fall.  Apart  from  the  material  which 
forests  supply,  they  are  of  inestimable  value 
in  securing  a  constant  and  equal  flow  of  springs 
and  rivers,  through  their  power  to  prevent  the 
rapid  waste  of  rain-fall  by  too  rapid  evapora- 
tion and  superficial  flow.  Water  faUing  on  a 
tract  of  land  stripped  of  its  covering  of  trees 
is  rapidly  evaporated  by  the  summer  sun,  or 
in  winter  flows  off  over  the  surface  of  the 
frozen  ground  without  penetrating  it.  In  a 
sufficiently  wooded  region  summer  rain  is  pro- 
tected from  evaporation  by  the  trees  which 

860*  vou  VII.— 54 


cover  the  ground,  and,  held  as  in  a  sponge, 
slowly  percolates  to  the  water- courses,  while 
melting  snow  and  winter  rain  gradually  sink 
into  the  soil,  which  in  the  forest  is  never  so 
deeply  frozen  as  in  the  open  ground.  For- 
ests, by  the  resistance  they  offer  to  the  sweep 
of  the  wind,  and  because  less  extreme  varia- 
tions of  temperature  occur  within  their  limits 
than  in  open  plains,  are  important  factors  in 
regulating  ana  equalizing  climate.  An  area 
equal  to  20  or  25  per  cent,  of  any  country 
should  be  preserved  in  permanent  forest,  in 
order  to  secure  a  constant  supply  of  forest 
products  for  the  use  of  its  inhabitants,  to 
modify  and  regulate  the  extremes  of  climate, 
and  to  insure  the  normal  flow  of  springs  and 
rivers.  In  mountainous  regions  it  is  essen- 
tial to  preserve  in  their  natural  condition  the 
mountain  forests.  The  total  or  partial  re- 
moval of  such  forests  causes  the  snow  to  melt 
rapidly  and  overflow  the  streams  that  rise  in 
them.  The  beds  of  such  streams,  deprived  of 
the  protection  which  trees  afford  tnem,  are 
gradually  enlarged,  forming  torrents  which 
carry  into  the  valleys  great  masses  of  rock 
and  earth,  becoming  every  year  more  dan- 
gerous and  destructive.  The  evil  effects  fol- 
lowing the  removal  of  mountain  forests  have 
been  seen  in  Switzerland  and  in  different  parts 
of  France  and  Germany,  where  immense 
losses  of  life  and  property  have  followed  the 
destruction  of  the  forests  on  the  mountains  of 
central  Europe,  and  the  consequent  irregular 
and  excessive  flow  of  the  rivers  heading  in 
them.  In  America  less  damage  has  as  yet 
been  done  by  such  forest  destruction ;  but  the 
degradation  of  the  California  mountain  forests, 
which  protect  an  immense  snow-fall  and  nu- 
merous large  streams,  is  already  a  source  of 
great  danger.  The  forests  of  North  America 
(that  portion  of  the  North  American  conti- 
nent south  of  the  territory  of  the  United  States 
will  be  omitted  in  this  article,  for  the  obvious 
reason  that  little  scientific  information  exists 
in  regard  to  its  forests)  are  peculiarly  rich  in 
the  number  of  species  which  they  contain,  as 
compared  with  the  other  great  forest-clad 
regions  of  the  north  temperate  zone.  The  conti- 
nent of  Europe  contains  128  species  of  trees, 
representing  49  genera  and  25  families,  while 
in  North  America  there  are  412  species,  repre- 
senting 158  genera  and  54  families.  But  as  the 
semi-tropical  arborescent  species  of  the  Florida 
coast  have  no  equivalent  in  the  European 
flora,  they  may  be  omitted  from  a  comparison 
of  the  sylvas  of  the  two  continents.  Thus  re- 
duced, the  American  forests  contain  347  spe- 
cies, representing  110  genera  and  87  fatnilics, 
or  172  per  cent,  more  than  the  European  for- 
ests. On  the  eastern  coast  of  Asia,  including 
Mantchooria,  northern  China,  and  extra  semi- 
tropical  Japan,  there  are,  according  to  Asa 
Gray  ("  Forest  Archaology  "),  168  arborescent 
species,  representing  66  genera,  while  the  At- 
lantic forests  of  North  America  contain  218- 
species,  representing  87  genera.     In  making 


84S 


FORESTS 


snoh  a  comparison,  however,  it  must  be  re- 
membered that  the  Asiatic  flora  is  still  imper- 
fectly known,  and  that  the  region  in  question 
is  much  less  extensive  than  tbat  occupied  by 
the  Atlantic  forests  of  North  America.  The 
causes  which  led  to  the  present  distribution 
of  the  flora  of  the  north  temperate  zone  must 
be  sought,  as  has  been  shown  by  Asa  Gray,  in 
the  botany  of  the  ante-glacial  epoch.  In  the 
later  tertiary  period  the  climate  of  the  Arctic 
region,  judged  by  the  fossil  remains  of  the 
plants  which  then  flourished  there,  could  not 
nave  differed  greatly  from  the  actual  climate 
of  the  middle  Atlantic  states.  This  circum- 
polar  miocene  flora,  as  the  frigeration  of  the 
latest  glacial  period  extended  southward,  was 
gradually  pushed  down  by  advancing  cold  to 
the  southern  portion  of  North  America,  south- 
ern Europe,  and  middle  Asia,  only  to  recede 
northward  again  with  the  gradual  return  of 
heat.  But  not  all  the  species  survived  these 
changes  of  habitat.  The  condition  of  climate 
not  belDg  essentially  diflerent,  regions  which 
from  their  topography  offered  the  easiest  means 
of  escape  and  return  to  the  species  of  the  north- 
em  miocene  sylva  will  be  found  to  possess 
the  greatest  number  of  the  descendants  of 
these  species.  Eastern  North  America,  with 
its  mountain  range  running  north  and  south, 
and  bordered  on  the  south  by  numerous  semi- 
tropical  and  tropical  islands,  to  which  the  plants 
which  then  inhabited  the  southern  states  might 
retire  when  driven  out  by  more  northern  spe- 
cies seeking  to  escape  excessive  cold,  offered 
peculiar  advantages  for  the  preservation  of 
the  miocene  flora,  and  it  will  be  seen  that 
the  existing  Atlantic  forests  contain  a  mucii 
greater  number  of  the  arborescent  descendants 
of  that  flora  than  exist  on  the  whole  conti- 
nent of  Europe  or  in  Pacific  North  America. 
The  origin  of  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  for- 
ests, now  so  distinct  in  composition  and  espe- 
cially in  number  of  species,  was  undoubtedly 
identical — as  the  remains  of  species  so  local 
even  at  the  present  time,  as  Mquoia,  are  found 
in  the  tertiary  deposits  of  Greenland.  It  is, 
therefore,  permissible  to  believe  that  the  pov- 
erty of  existing  arborescent  species  in  the  Pa- 
cific forest,  as  compared  with  that  of  the  Atlan- 
tic region,  is  due  to  topographical  difficulties 
and  to  unfavorable  conditions  of  climate  and 
rain-fall  encountered  by  the  miocene  species  in 
their  southern  migration  into  western  America. 
Many  species  ^hose  descendants  now  flourish 
in  the  Atlantic  forest  were  doubtless  unsuited 
to  ascend  the  high  elevations  composing  a 
large  part  of  the  region  west  of  the  Rocky 
mountains.  Others  might  well  have  been  ir- 
revocably lost  in  the  Pacific  ocean,  the  trend 
of  the  coast  line  south  of  89^  N.,  from  north- 
west to  southeast,  at  an  angle  of  80**  to  60° 
with  the  meridian,  affording  no  escape  to  plants 
pushed  down  to  the  coast  from  the  north. 
The  topographical  and  climatic  conditions  of 
eastern  Asia  are  not  unlike  those  of  eastern 
North  America.    South  of  both  these  regions 


numerous  islands' affbrded  a  secure  retreat^  be- 
yond the  immediate  influence  of  ice,  for  plants 
driven  down  from  the  north.  It  is  not,  then, 
remarkable  that  these  two  regions  should  bear 
a  striking  resemblance  in  the  number  and  re- 
lationship of  the  arborescent  species  consti- 
tuting their  forests.  The  European  miocene 
forest  was,  perhaps,  not  unlike  in  composition 
and  variety  the  present  Atlantic  forest,  judged 
by  the  palesontological  remains  found  in  the 
deposits  of  the  late  tertiary  period,  which  in- 
clude two  sequoias  nearly  identical  with  the 
existing  species  of  California,  ginko^  magwh 
liaSy  and  many  other  species  not  represented 
in  the  existing  European  flora.  This  poverty 
of  the  European  forests  in  species  can  only  be 
explained  by  the  topography  of  the  European 
continent.  It  is  traversed  by  mountain  ranges 
running,  not  north  and  south,  as  in  North 
America,  but  east  and  west ;  with  the  Medi- 
terranean sea  on  the  south,  which  during  the 
glacial  period  was  not  restrictied  within  its 
present  narrow  limits,  but  extended  far  east- 
ward to  beyond  the  Caspian,  and  perhaps 
northward  to  the  Siberian  sea.  Species  then 
moving  southward  had  to  pass  the  Pyrenees, 
the  Alps,  the  Carpathian,  and  the  Caacasa& 
standing  directly  in  their  path.  Many  coula 
not  have  withstood  the  cold  encountered  in 
their  attempt  to  ascend  these  mountains,  while 
others,  having  passed  over  or  around  them,  may 
well  have  been  lost  in  the  Mediterranean ;  and 
this  is  also  true,  no  doubt,  of  species  which  in 
the  ante-glacial  period  inhabited  southern  Eu- 
rope south  of  the  great  mountain  ranges.  The 
frigeration  of  the  whole  northern  portion  of 
the  globe  would  reduce  the  temperature  of 
southern  Europe,  and  force  its  indigenous 
plants  to  move  southward  along  a  path  hope- 
lessly barred  by  a  sea  almost  destitute  of  isl- 
ands. It  appears,  then,  that  regions  of  the 
north  temperate  zone  should  now  be  rich  in 
arborescent  species;  first,  when  their  topog- 
raphy was  such  as  to  afford  the  species  of 
the  drcumpolar  nuocene  forest  a  sud^e  line  of 
retreat  southward  before  the  gradual  reduc- 
tion of  temperature  which  accompanied  the 
glacial  period ;  second,  where  subsequent  condi- 
tions of  climate,  and  especially  of  abundant  and 
evenly-distributed  rain-fall,  were  favorable  to 
the  development  and  spread  of  forest  growth. 
Eastern  North  America  and  eastern  Asia  in 
tbeic  topography  and  climate  have  been  favor- 
able to  the  escape  and  development  of  the 
northern  fiora,  and  are  rich  in  arborescent 
species.  Western  North  America,  where  the 
ancestors  of  the 'present  flora  had  exceed- 
ingly unfavorable  climatic  as  well  as  difll- 
cuit  topographical  conditions  to  overcome,  is 
poor  in  arborescent  species;  while  Europe, 
with  its  mountain  barriers  extending  from 
east  to  west,  has  preserved  still  fewer  de- 
scendants of  its  miocene  forests.  The  con- 
tinent of  North  America,  considered  in  re- 
lation to  the  species  composing  its  forest^ 
may  be  divided  into  the  Atlantic  and  the  Pa- 


FORESTS 


849 


ciflc  regions.  The  former  embraces  the  whole 
territory  from  the  Atlantic  coast  to  the  east- 
ern base  of  the  Booky  moantains,  and  from 
Hadson's  bay  to  the  Florida  keys  and  the  Rio 
Grande;  the  latter,  the  region  west  of  and  in- 
clading  the  central  continental  range  of  the 
Rooky  moantains.  These  two  forest  regions, 
distinct  in  the  character  of  the  species  compofr- 
ing  them,  and  south  of  latitude  62**  80'  N.  sepa- 
rated by  a  broad,  elevated  plateau  nearly  treeless 
from  lack  of  sufficient  moisture  to  Induce  for- 
est growth,  are  joined  on  the  north  by  a  forest 
belt  extending  from  Labrador  to  Alaska,  and 
containing  a  few  species  common  to  both  the 
Atlantic  and  Pacific  regions.  At  the  south,  a 
few  ppecies  belonging  to  the  peculiar  Texano- 
Arizona  flora  of  Mexican  origin  cross  the  con- 
tinent from  Texas  to  southern  California,  loin- 
ing  again  the  forests  of  the  Atlantic  and  Pa- 
cific. Thus  considered,  the  American  forest  is 
composed  of  two  very  distinct  groups  of  spe- 
cies, widely  separated  by  the  treeless  plains  of 
the  central  and  southern  portions  of  the  con- 
tinent, but  united  on  their  northern  and  south- 
ern extremities  by  a  few  species  common  to 
the  two  regions.  Of  the  412  arborescent  spe- 
cies, representing  64  families  and  168  genera, 
of  which  the  American  forest  consists,  291  spe- 
cies, belonging  to  62  families  and  141  genera, 
are  found  in  the  Atlantic  region;  while  tUe  Pa- 
cific forest  contains  but  163  species,  represent- 
ing 24  families  and  66  genera.  Thirty-two 
species  are  common  to  both  the  Atlantic  and 
Pacific  forests ;  of  these,  6  species  (pyrus  Mm- 
bue^folia^  hetula  papyrifera,  mlix  long^folia^ 

aAa)  cross  the  continent  at  the  north ;  11  spe- 
cies, of  Mexican  origin  (condalia  obovatOj  Eytefi" 
hardtia  orthocarpc^  pro9&pu  jutifiora^  pro9opu 
pubeacensy  acaeia  Oreggii^  sambuctu  Mexicana, 
/raxinus  pistaeiafolia,  ehilopsis  ialigna^  monu 
microphylla^  querent  Emoryii^  yucca  haecata\ 
enter  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  forests  at  the 
south.  Three  species  of  the  Atlantic  region 
{ptelia  trifoliate^  »apindu»  marginatum  aalix 
nigra)  extend  into  the  extreme  southern  portion 
of  the  Pacific  region.  Four  species  (negundo 
aeeroideSy  eeltis  occidentalism  juniperus  Virgin- 
iana^  and  eratasgus  tomentosa)  of  the  Atlantic 
forest  are  also  widely  distributed  in  the  Pacific 
region.  One  species  (juglans  rupestris)  of  the 
true  Pacific  syWa  reaches  Texas  and  the  At- 
lantic forest.  One  species  of  the  Pacific  forest 
(juniperus  occidentaiis)  is  represented  in  west- 
em  Texas  by  a  well-markea  and  rather  dis- 
tinct form.  A  single  northern  species  (populu3 
tremuhidcs),  the  most  widely  distributed  North 
American  tree,  extends  over  the  mountain- 
ranges  of  the  whole  continent  An  examina- 
tion of  the  composition  of  the  Atlantic  forest 
shows  that  of  tne  292  species  of  which  it  is 
composed  197  belong  to  the  true  American 
sylva,  of  probable  northern  origin;  that  the 
narrow  forest  belt  of  Florida  south  of  Cape 
Canaveral  and  Cedar  Keys  contains  66  semi- 
tropical  West  Indian  species,  and  that  29  spe- 


cies of  the  Tezano- Arizona  flora  are  found  in 
Texas.  Of  the  168  species  comprising  the  Pa- 
cific sylva,  111  are  of  probable  northern  origin. 
Of  these,  81  species  are  common  to  the  coast 
and  great  interior  mountain  region,  which  con- 
tains but  16  endemic  species.  The  following 
comparison  of  the  genera  of  the  Atlantic  and 
Pacific  forests  shows  the  wide  difference  in 
their  composition.  The  semi-tropical  genera  of 
Florida  and  the  peculiar  genera  of  the  Texano- 
Arizona  flora  are  omitted,  in  order  to  restrict 
the  comparison  to  the  forms  typical  of  the  true 
northern  American  flora,  as  generally  under- 
stood: 


GENUS. 

tie. 
No. 

PmUc 
Na 

GENUS. 

AtUa- 
tk. 
No. 

Ptette. 
No. 

■padMa 

Magnolia 

Lirlodendron . . 

Asimlna 

Gordonia 

Fremontia 

Tlila 

7 

1 
1 
2 

•  • 

S 
9 

1 
4 
1 
1 
1 
1 
.  • 
9 
1 
6 
1 
4 
S 
1 
1 
1 
9 
1 
6 

•  • 

4 
19 

•  ■ 

1 
1 
1 
9 
8 

•  • 

9 

1 
1 

1 

•  « 

1 

t 
1 
8 
1 

'i 
i 

*9 

1 

1 
1 

4 
9 

•  t 

1 

'h 

9 
9 
8 

1 

'i 
i 

Srmploooew .... 

Fnxinaa 

For«atlera 

Chtonanthua... 
Oamanthua.... 

Oatalpa. 

Peraea 

Saaaafraa 

Umbellalaria.. 

Ulmaa 

Planara. 

Geltia 

1 

2 

•  ■ 

98 
.. 

a  m 
»  • 
a  a 

18 

•  a 

*8 

Xanthozylom.. 
I»tolla 

Ilex 

Cyrilla. 

CUftonla. 

Eaonymos, 

Rhumnna 

1 

'i 

CeaDothua 

.£aoulaa 

Sapindoa 

Acer 

Morna. 

Madura 

Platanua.....?. 

Jnglana 

Carya 

*i 
1 

Negnndo 

Bhna 

Myrica 

Qaercoa 

Gaatanopala.... 

Caatiinfla 

Faffna.... 

1 

Boblnia 

Cladraatia 

Bophaira 

Oymnocladiia. . 
Oiedltschia.... 
Cerda 

9 

1 

a  • 

Oatiya 

Carplnua 

Betula. 

AInna 

•  • 

•  a 

Pranoa 

Cerooeaipxia. .. 
Pyms 

9 
8 

Baliz 

11 

Crat«gaa 

HoiarODOdlaa,. . . 
Amelanchiar... 
Hamamelia... 
Llqaldambar. . . 

Cornaa 

Nyaaa    . 

Popnlua 

Llbocodraa.... 

Thnya. 

Chamaeoyparia. 

Cuproaaoa 

Jnnlpenia 

Taxodiam 

Heqnola 

Tazna 

5 
1 
1 
9 
8 
8 

BiunbuCQa 

Vthnmnm 

9 

Plnekneya 

Vaflt^lnin 

Tonjeya 

Ploua ......... 

18 

Andromada. . . . 

Ploea. 

Arbntiis 

TMiga 

Ozydendnun . . 

Kalinia 

fihododendron . 

Paeadotaoga... 

Ablea 

Larix 

RntnAHA . 

SabaL 

DioBpyroa 

Forty-eight  genera,  then,  of  the  Atlantic  for- 
est have  no  arhorescent  representatives  in  the 
Pacific  region.  Oereie^  omelanehieTy  vaccinia 
«m,  and  rhododendron  are,  however,  repre- 
sented hy  shrubhy  Pacific  species.  Thirty-one 
genera  are  represented  in  both  the  Atlantic 
and  Pacific  forests,  while  only  12  Pacific  genera 
{fremonti€t,eeanothu$m  eereocarpuSy  Tieteromelesj 
eamhuGUMy  arhutu8y  umbelluwriOy  caetanopeis, 
Itboced/ruSy  eupresstu,  eequoia,  peeiidotauga\  are 
unrepresented  by  trees  in  the  Atlantic  forest, 
although  ceanothue  and  eamhueue  have  shrub- 
by representatives  in  the  Atlantic  flora.  Of 
these  12  genera,  fremontiotsequoia  and  peevr- 


850 


FORESTS 


doUuga  are  alone  peoaliar  to  the  region.    The 
oomparative  wealth  in  species  of  the  varions 


forest  regions  considered  may  be  readilj 
in  the  following  table : 


seen 


REGION.                                       8pMl«. 

Coapn«UT«  wMlth. 

TfAFth  AmAricAii  nontlnAnt                                          414 

Common  to  AUaniio  aad  Padflc 89 

Noi^  AmeHcwi  oonifen. ........              . .     . .     77 

TifxUko-AriionA ...     54 

Atlantic 291 

**       (Mmi-troplcal) <» 

*•       (conlfen) 87 

j^^ 

Plu^o. ICB 

*»     (interior  endemic) 16 

"     (conifers) OS 

•  **     (exdosive  of  Tezano^Arixona).. Ill 

— 

Europe 128 

**       (conifers) 28 

Atlantic  (ezcloslve  of  Texano-Arteona  aad  semi- 
tropical) 197 

Japan-Mantcbooria. , . ,  ^ . .  ^  *   168 

'»*            "        (conifers) ..i......ii.!.'.    "45 

The  American  forest,  in  its  economic  aspect, 
may  be  conveniently  considered  under  several 
divisions  characterized  by  the  predominating 
species  of  each.  The  sprace  forest  of  eastern 
sab- Arctic  America  extends  from  the  Straits  of 
BeUe-Isle,  or  aboat  latitude  52^  N.,  roond  the 
southern  shore  of  Hudson's  bay,  and  thence 
northwesterly  to  within  the  Arctic  circle  near 
the  mouth  of  the  Mackenzie  river,  in  latitude 
68°  K,  west  to  the  Rocky  mountains  and  south 
nearly  to  latitude  60**,  where  a  different  for- 
est growth  begins  to  characterize  the  country. 
The  whole  region  occupied  by  this  forest  is  in- 
terspersed with  innumerable  streams,  lakes,  and 
swamps;  the  trees  are  stunted  by  cold,  and 
often  widely  scattered.  The  most  northern, 
widely  distributed,  and  valuable  tiniber  trees  of 
this  forest  are  the  white  spruce  (pieea  alba\ 
growing  in  rich  interval  lands  and  along  the 
banks  of  streams  and  rivers,  and  the  black 
spruce  (picea  nigra),  occupying  stony  hills  and 
deep,  cold  swamps.  Associated  with  them,  and 
extending  north  to  nearly  the  same  latitudes, 
are  the  American  larch  (larix  Americana),  the 
balsam  (populus  baUcmiifera),  the  aspen  (papu- 
lti$  tremutoides),  which  often  cover  enormous 
tracts  along  the  streams  and  lakes,  the  canoe 
birch  (betula  papyr\fera\  and  the  balsam  fir 
{ahies  haUamea),  To  this  forest  belongs  also 
the  gray  pine  {pinut  BanJuiana),  with  a  north- 
em  range  from  50**  N.  on  the  Atlantic  to  with- 
in the  Arctic  circle  at  its  western  limit,  as  now 
understood  near  the  Mackenzie  river,  reaching 
its  greatest  development  in  the  region  between 
Hudson's  bay  and  Lake  Nipigon,  here  often 
a  fine  tree  70  ft.  in  height.  The  black  ash 
{framnus  sambueifolia)  and  the  yellow  birch 
{Ibetula  lutea)  just  enter  this  region  also,  near 
their  northwestern  limits  in  about  latitude  55° 
N.,  longitude  50'  W.  South  of  latitude  50"  the 
Atlantic  forest  changes  in  character,  growing 
gradually  denser,  more  varied,  and  valuable. 
On  the  west  it  is  bounded  by  the  northern  ex- 
tension in  Manitoba  of  the  great  treeless  belt 
whioh  reaches  from  latitude  62°  80'  southward 
along  the  eastern  base  of  the  Rocky  mountains 
into  Mexico.    The  northern  limit  of  this  divis- 


ion of  the  Atlantic  forest  is  marked  by  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  white  and  red  pines  {pinrn 
strohui,  pinu9  rennota),  which  extend  from 
Newfoundland  along  the  northclhi  shores  of 
the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  to  Lake  Winnipeg, 
and  thence  southerly  into  Minnesota,  where,  at 
longitude  96"  W.,  this  northeastern  pine  forest 
finds  its  western  Umit.  Between  latitudes  50'' 
and  45°  the  American  elm  {ulmus  Americana), 
the  sugar  maple  {aeer  saochaHnum)^  the  hem- 
lock (Uuga  Canaaensie),  the  red  oak  (^uercu's 
rubra),  the  most  northern  of  the  Atlantic  oaks, 
the  linden  {tilia  AmeHcema),  the  green  ash 
(/raxinus  viridis),  the  burr  oak  (queretu  ma^ 
erocarpa),  the  ash-leaved  maple  {negundo  aeer- 
aides),  and  the  beech  (/agus/errvginea)  reach 
their  northern  limit  and  give  value  and  variety 
to  the  forest.  In  the  valley  of  the  St.  Law- 
rence, through  the  northern  New  England 
states,  and  westward  ^ong  the  southern  shores 
of  the  great  lakes,  immense  tracts  are  covered 
with  the  white  pine  and  red  pine,  often  inter- 
mixed with  scattering  bodies  of  hemlock,  black 
oak,  red  oak,  sugar  maple,  and  birch ;  the  nu- 
merous swamps  abounding  especially  in  the 
western  portions  of  this  region  are  occupied 
with  a  dense  growth  of  larch,  yellow  cedar, 
and  black  spruce.  I..arge  bodies  of  black  spruce, 
either  interspersed  with  pine  or  occupying  the 
ground  nearly  to  the  exclusion  of  other  species, 
are  characteristic  of  this  northern  forest ;  great 
bodies  of  spruce  occur  in  northern  Maine,  on 
the  Green  mountains  of  Vermont,  and  in  the 
Adirondack  region  of  New  York.  The  north- 
eastern pine  forest  extends  over  a  large  part  of 
New  England,  and  south  along  the  Alleghany 
mountains  to  Georgia.  The  white  pine,  gen- 
erally mixed  with  hemlock,  occupies  large  areas 
in  southern  New  York,  middle  Pennsylvania, 
and  West  Virginia.  In  the  mountains  of  the 
Oarolinas,  Tennessee,  and  Georgia,  it  is  less 
multiplied,  and  it  finally  disappears  in  north- 
eastern Georgia.  The  immense  bodies  of  white 
pine  which  formerly  existed  north  and  south 
of  the  northern  boundary  of  the  United  States, 
and  in  Pennsylvania,  have  given  great  import- 
ance to  the  forests  of  this  region.    Michigan, 


FORESTS 


851 


Wisconsin,  and  Minnesota  are  now  the  great 
lamber-produoing  regions  of  North  America, 
yielding  over  7,000,000,000  ft.  annually  of 
merchantable  pine.  The  white  pine  forests 
are  rapidly  disappearing,  however,  before  each 
enormous  drains.  Of  the  natural  divisions  of 
the  Atlantic  region,  the  great  southern  mari- 
time pine  belt  is  next  in  economic  importance 
to  the  northeastern  white  pine  forests.  This 
belt  extends  uninterruptedly,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  tlie  Florida  peninsula,  south  of  latitnae 
29'*,  and  of  the  broad  bottoms  of  the  lower  Mis- 
sissippi and  other  rivers,  from  Virginia,  in  about 
latitude  88°,  to  the  Brazos  river  in  Texas.  The 
characteristic  tree  of  this  region  is  the  soothern 
or  long-leaved  pine  {pinus  palustrU).  The  low 
and  often  wide  river  bottoms  of  this  region  are 
covered  with  a  dense  growth  of  deciduous  trees, 
the  largest  and  most  important  of  which  is  the 
bald  Cyprus  (taxodium  distiehum).  Numer- 
ous low,  swampy  tracts,  known  as  bay  galls, 
densely  covered  with  evergreen  bays  (peraea 
Carolinensi8)j  magnolias  (magnolia  gtav4sa)y 
titi  (eyrilla  raeem\/lora  and  Cl\fton%a  HgtU' 
trina),  and  other  secondary  trees,  are  scattered 
through  this  open  pine  forest.  The  low,  sandy 
plains,  often  extending  100  m.  from  the  coast, 
with  the  exceptions  above  mentioned,  are  al- 
most exclusively  covered  with  the  long-leaved 
pine.  The  loblolly  or  old  field  pine  (pinu$ 
tada)^  a  species  having  little  economic  value,  is 
sometimes  associated  with  the  log-leaved  pine. 
This  species  occupies  lower  ground,  often  in- 
habiting swamps,  or  springs  up  on  land  ex- 
hausted by  cultivation  or  fire.  Farther  from 
the  coast,  where  the  land  is  higher  and  often 
slightly  rolling,  oaks  and  a  short-leaved  pine 
(pinus  mitis)  are  associated  with  the  long- 
leaved  species.  The  great  value  of  the  long- 
leaved  pine  as  a  timber  tree  has  given  rise  to 
an  immense  lumbering  industry  along  the  whole 
southern  coast.  The  turpentine  and  naval  stores 
manufactured  in  the  United  States  are  produced 
firom  the  long-leaved  pine.  The  turpentine  in- 
dustry, formerly  confined  to  North  Carolina, 
has  now  extended  south  to  Florida,  Alabama, 
and  Mississippi.  The  live  oak  (querens  virens)^ 
whose  hard,  solid,  and  very  strong  wood  was 
once  highly  prized  in  ship-building,  is  a  charac- 
teristic tree  of  the  forest  of  the  southern  Atlan- 
tic and  Gulf  coast.  It  extends  from  Virginia  to 
the  Rio  Grande,  occupying  the  low,  rich  hum- 
mocks of  the  coast  and  islands.  In  Texas,  the 
live  oak  extends  northward  and  westward  over 
large  portions  of  the  western  part  of  the  State, 
probably  reaching  its  southwestern  limit  in  the 
mountains  of  northern  Mexico  in  about  longi- 
tude 104°  W.  Except  on  the  coast,  however, 
it  is  of  small  size  and  inferior  quality.  With 
the  exception  of  the  pine  belt  of  the  north, 
with  its  long  southern  extension  along  the 
Alleghany  mountains,  and  the  maritime  pine 
belt  of  the  south,  with  a  northern  extension 
into  Arkansas  and  southern  Missouri  of  the 
short-leaved  pine  forest  of  I/>ui8iana  and  east- 
em  Texas,  the  forests  of  the  Atlantic  region 


are  principally  composed  of  broad-leaved  trees. 
This  forest,  rich  in  valuable  timber  trees,  ex- 
tends from  the  Atlantic  to  beyond  the  Missouri 
river.  West  of  the  Missouri  river  it  becomes 
less  dense  with  the  gradual  rise  of  the  wide, 
high  plateau  which  forms  the  eastern  base  of 
the  Rocky  mountains.  West  of  longitude  97^ 
it  is  reduced  to  a  narrow  fringe  of  trees  along 
the  rivers,  reaching  its  extreme  western  limit 
on  the  eastern  slopes  of  the  Black  hills  of  Da- 
kota, and  in  the  western  part  of  the  Indian 
Territory  in  abont  longitude  100°  W.  East, 
however,  of  this  wide,  treeless  plateau,  between 
latitude  40°  and  44°,  great  prairies  exist,  form- 
ing bays  in  the  western  edge  of  the  forest 
The  cause  of  these  treeless  prairies  has  given 
rise  to  much  discus-iion.  The  amount  of  rain 
falling  on  them  is  suflicient  to  insnre  forest 
growth,  and  the  soil  is  admirably  adapted  to  the 
growth  of  trees.  Whatever  cause  may  have 
originally  produced  them,  the  fact  that  they 
have  decreased  in  extent  through  the  gradual 
pushing  out  of  the  forest  over  land  once  treeless, 
since  agricultural  occupation  and  the  decrease 
of  the  annual  fires  which  formerly  swept  over 
this  re^on,  seems  to  indicate  that  their  con- 
tinuation, at  least,  is  due  to  accidental  rather 
than  natural  causes.  There  is  every  reason  to 
believe  that  at  the  time  of  the  discovery  of  the 
Mississippi  river  the  open  prairie  extended 
much  farther  south  in  Missouri  than  at  pres- 
ent^ and  that  many  treeless  valleys,  since 
densely  forest  •  covered,  existed  in  Pennsyl- 
vania and  Virginia.  These  valleys  were,  with- 
out doubt,  burned  over  annually  by  the  In- 
dians, to  encourage  the  growth  of  grasses 
and  improve  their  hunting;  bnt  with  the 
disappearance  of  the  Indians,  fires  became 
less  freauent  and  destructive,  and  the  for- 
est gradually  occupied  the  whole  country. 
The  Atlantic  forest  reaches  its  greatest  devel- 
opment in  number  of  species  in  western  Flori- 
da. Here,  in  the  undulating  hilly  region,  be- 
tween the  Ohipola  and  Oklokonee  rivers,  which 
may  be  considered  the  extreme  southern  point 
of  the  Appalachian  mountain  system,  in  an 
area  of  a  rew  square  miles,  are  crowded  togeth- 
er 96  species  of  trees.  The  greatest  average 
development  of  the  largest  number  of  species 
is  found  in  the  rich  alluvial  bottoms  of  south- 
em  Arkansas.  Forests  of  great  beauty,  rich 
in  magnificently  developed  specimens  of  a  great 
number  of  species,  clothe  the  southern  Alle- 
ghanies  of  the  Oarolinas,  Tennessee,  and  Geor- 
gia. Less  rich  in  species,  but  not  less  beauti- 
ful, are  the  forests  of  the  **  bluff  formation " 
of  Mississippi  and  western  Louisiana,  where 
the  evergreen  magnolia  (magnolia  grandijlora), 
the  water  oak  (querctu  €iquatica\  and  the 
American  beech  (fagn^  ferruginea)  attain  their 
greatest  development.  The  deciduous  forests 
of  the  Atlantic  region  possess  many  trees  of 
great  economic  value.  They  contain  28  species 
of  oak,  of  which  the  white  oak  (qvereus  aUxi)^ 
the  burr  oak  (quercits  macroeaTpa\  tlie  chestnut 
oaks  (^uereus  prino»  and  quercus  prinoide9\ 


852 


FORESTS 


and  the  cow  oak  (quereui  Michauxii)  are 
among  the  most  valuable ;  8  species  of  hickory, 
a  genus  exclusively  confined  to  this  region,  and 
of  great  economic  importance  on  account  of  its 
timber  and  the  edible  nuts  furnished  by  several 
of  the  species.  The  valuable  black  walnut 
(juglant  niffra);  the  catalpas;  birches;  the 
nyssas,  a  genus  peculiar  to  this  region ;  the 
liquid* ambar,  the  sassafras,  seven  magnolias, 
the  locust  (rohinia\  and  the  sycamore  (platanttt 
ocddentalis).  its  largest  tree,  give  value  and 
variety  to'  the  forests  of  the  Atlantic  region. 
The  narrow  belt  of  semi-tropical  forest  con- 
fined to  the  keys  and  hummocks  of  southern 
Florida  is  of  little  economic  or  commercial 
value.  The  species  of  which  it  is  composed 
here  reach  their  extreme  northern  limit,  and 
are  generally  smaller  than  in  the  West  Indies, 
and  of  inferior  quality.  Among  the  most 
valuable  trees  of  this  region  are  the  mahogany 
(Stoietenia  mahogoni\  the  lignum  vits  (gtiaict- 
cum  sanctum),  the  red  mangrove  (rhizopkora 
mangle),  bordering  with  almost  impenetrable 
thickets  the  saline  shores  of  rivers  and  bays, 
and  furnishing  a  wood  valuable  in  its  ability  to 
resist  the  attacks  of  the  taredo  ;  and  the  mas- 
tic (iideroxylan  mastiehodeTidron),  a  large  tree, 
valued  in  ship-building.  The  beautiful  royal 
palm  (preodoxa  regia)  is  the  most  stately  plant 
of  this  region.  The  cocoannt,  the  wild  orange, 
the  guava,  and  other  tropical  plants,  have  be- 
come naturalized  through  the  agency  of  man, 
and  now  fonn  part  of  its  forest  growth.  The 
forests  of  the  Pacific  region,  composed  almost 
entirely  of  coniferous  species,  are  largely  con- 
fined to  the  mountain  ranges,  the  valleys  be- 
ing often  entirely,  although  not  invariably, 
destitute  of  trees.  They  reach  their  greatest 
development  in  Washington  and  Oregon  west 
of  the  Cascade  mountains,  and  on  the  western 
slopes  of  the  Coast  Range  and  Sierra  Nevada 
of  Oalifomia.  They  disappear  entirely  from 
the  California  coast  south  of  latitude  SS**,  from 
southeastern  California  and  western  Arizona, 
and  are  stunted,  scattered,  and  confined  to  the 
high  mountain  cafions  and  slopes  of  all  the  dry 
interior  region  inclosed  between  the  Cascades 
and  the  Sierra  Nevada  on  the  west  and  the 
Rocky  mountains  on  the  east.  The  forests  of 
the  Rocky  mountains,  although  much  less  dense 
and  varied  than  those  which  cover  the  Califor- 
nia Sierras,  are  of  considerable  importance  and 
great  local  value.  The  Pacific  forests  extend 
northward  to  within  the  Arctic  Circle.  In  the 
valley  of  the  Yukon,  in  latitude  65®,  the  white 
spruce,  the  canoe  birch,  and  the  balsam  poplar 
become  trees  of  considerable  size.  The  forest 
of  the  interior  of  Alaska  is  scanty  and  still  im- 
perfectly known ;  in  latitude  63®,  at  Fort  Sel- 
kirk on  the  Yukon,  the  twisted  pine  (pinus 
eontorta%  probably  the  most  northern  of  the  ex- 
clusively Pacific  species,  occurs.  On  the  coast, 
considerably  to  the  north  of  latitude  65®,  sev- 
eral species  peculiar  to  the  Pacific  forest  ap- 
Eear.  Sitka  and  other  Alaskan  islands  are 
eavily  timbered  with  the  tide-land  spruce 


(pieea  SitcKenHs),  the  western  hemlock  {Uiuga 
Mertefuiana\  the  twisted  pine,  the  western  ar- 
bor vitffi  {thuya  gigantea),  and  the  Sitka  cedar 
{Chamaeyparis  Nuthaen$is),  The  last  attains 
its  greatest  development  on  these  islands, 
ranges  southward  along  the  Const  Ranges,  and 
reaches  its  southern  limit  in  the  high  Cascade 
mountains  south  of  the  Columbia  river,  in 
Oregon.  It  is  the  characteristic  tree  of  the 
Alaskan  coast  forest,  and  one  of  the  most  val- 
uable of  Nortli  America,  prodacing  hard,  very 
compact,  and  beautiful  wood,  of  great  utility  in 
the  arts.  About  latitude  55®  N.  the  yellow 
fir  (pseudotmga  DougUuO)  first  appears.  The 
great  value  of  its  timber  and  its  wide  geo- 
graphical range  make  the  yellow  fir  one  of 
the  roost  important  trees  of  the  North  Ameri- 
can forest.  It  extends  over  a  large  portion  of 
British  Columbia,  from  the  coast  to  lon^tude 
115®  west,  and  south  through  western  Wash- 
ington territory  and  Oregon,  and  along  the 
Coast  and  Sierra  ranges  of  Calilomia  to 
the  extreme  southern  limit  of  forest  growth 
in  California.  It  is  the  most  valuable  tim- 
ber tree  of  the  mountains  of  eastern  Wash- 
ington territory,  Oregon,  Idaho,  and  Mon- 
tana west  of  the  continental  divide.  It  is 
common  at  low  elevations  throughout  the 
Rocky  mountains  of  Utah,  Colorado,  and  New 
Mexico,  and  in  northern  and  eastern  Arizona, 
and  extends  south  into  northern  Mexico.  The 
yellow  fir  reaches  its  greatest  development  on 
Puget  sound  and  the  Oregon  Coast  Ranges, 
there  forming  forests  unsurpassed  in  density 
by  those  of  any  other  region  of  the  north  tem- 
perate zone,  with  the  single  exception  of  the 
sequoia  forests  of  California,  individual  trees 
often  attaining  a  height  of  200  to  800  ft.,  with 
a  diameter  of  5  to  12  ft.  The  wood  of  the 
yellow  fir  is  hard,  strong,  and  rather  coarse- 
grained, furnishing  excellent  material  for  ship- 
building, all  kinds  of  construction,  masts, 
spars,  and  railway-ties.  Next  to  the  yellow 
fir  the  most  important  tree  of  the  Pacific  for- 
est, in  extent  of  range  and  economic  value, 
is  the  yellow  pine  (pinus  panderosa).  This 
tree  first  appears  in  about  latitude  51®  N.,  here 
occupying  the  dry  interior  region  between 
longitude  119®  and  122®,  and  a  second  long, 
narrow  belt  on  the  116th  meridian.  The  yel- 
low pine  does  not  occur  in  Washington  and 
Oregon  west  of  the  Cascade  mountains,  ex- 
cept on  a  few  small  local  deposits  of  drift. 
From  the  eastom  slope  of  the  Cascades,  how- 
ever, it  extends  east  to  the  Black  hills  of  Dako- 
ta, and  south  through  the  California  and  Rocky 
mountains  to  Colorado,  New  Mexico,  western 
Texas,  and  Arizona,  where,  in  the  San  Francisco 
mountains  and  the  forest  belts  of  the  eastern  part 
of  the  territory,  the  yellow  pine  is  the  preva- 
lent and  most  valuable  timber  tree.  The  yel- 
low pine  produces  strong,  coarse-grained  wood, 
valuable  for  all  kinds  of  construction,  railway 
ties,  fuel,  &c.  The  western  arbor  vitae  (thuya 
gigantea)  reaches  its  greatest  development  in 
the  forests  of  Puget  sound  and  the  Oregon 


FORESTS 


853 


oofist,  here  often  reaching  200  to  800  ft  in 
height,  with  a  trunk  10  to  15  ft.  in  diameter. 
This  valuahle  species  is  also  widely  distrib- 
uted along  the  western  slopes  of  the  Cariboo, 
Cabinet,  Cceur  d^Al^ne,  and  other  western 
ranges  of  the  northern  Bocky  mountains. 
With  it  are  associated  the  western  hemlock 
(Uuga  MertenMiana\  the  largest  of  the  genus, 
and  in  the  interior  nortliem  forests  the  west- 
em  larch  {larix  occidentalu).  This  tree,  jast 
reaching  the  western  slope  of  tiie  Cascade 
mountains,  is  otherwise  confined  to  the  north- 
ern interior  region.  It  far  exceeds  in  size  and 
in  the  value  of  its  timber  its  Atlantic,  Euro- 
pean, or  Asiatic  congeners.  The  twisted  pine, 
the  Pacific  representative  of  the  Atlantic  P. 
Banhsiana^  is  the  characteristic  tree  over  the 
southern  part  of  the  interior  plateau  of  British 
Columbia,  wliere  it  covers  immense  areas. 
An  allied  species  {P,  Murrayana)  extends 
from  the  Blue  mountains  of  Oregon,  where 
above  6,000  ft.  it  forms  extensive  forests, 
over  all  the  northern  mountains  to  eastern 
Montana.  The  dense  pine  forest  of  the  Yel- 
lowstone region  is  almost  exclusively  com- 
posed of  this  species,  which  extends  also  south- 
ward through  Colorado  and  alonir  the  Sierra 
Nevada  to  southern  California.  The  western 
white  pine  (pinus  montioola\  the  representa- 
tive of  the  Atlantic  P.  $trobus^  is  of  considera- 
ble local  importance  in  the  interior  northern 
forests.  This  species  reaches  the  coast  of 
southern  British  Columbia,  extends  southward 
along  the  high  mountains  to  the  California 
Sierras,  and  eastward  to  the  western  ranges  of 
the  Rocky  mountains,  forming  extensive  and 
important  forests  on  the  eastern  and  western 
slopes  of  the  Cosur  d^Aldne  and  other  north- 
ern ranges.  South  of  latitude  43**  the  forest)  of 
the  coast  change  in  character.  The  coast  may, 
in  this  connection,  be  extended  to  include  the 
region  between  the  Pacific  and  the  summit  of 
the  Sierra  Nevada,  in  distinction  from  the 
drier  and  less  heavily  forest-covered  region  of 
the  interior,  including  the  Rocky  mountains 
proper.  Many  of  the  peculiar  California  trees 
first  make  their  appearance  south  of  latitude 
48°.  The  valleys  are  often  covered  with  heavy 
growth  of  the  California  laurel  (umbellularia 
CcUifornica)  and  the  great-leavea  maple  (aeer 
macrophyllam)^  in  addition  to  the  cottonwoods 
and  willows  which  line  the  streams  through- 
out the  Pacific  region.  The  oak  (quereui 
Garry  ana)  of  the  British  Columbian  and 
Washington  coasts  is  here  joined  by  other 
species.  The  must  valuable  of  the  Pacific 
oaks,  the  California  live  oak  (quereua  ehrys(h 
UpU)  and  the  chestnut  oak  (qusrcui  densi- 
/iora),  reach  here  their  northern  limit.  The 
oaks  of  the  Pacific  region  are  of  small  eco- 
nomic importance,  with  the  exception  of  these 
two  species,  the  former  nearly  equalling  the 
Atlantic  live  oak  in  the  value  of  its  timber, 
the  latter  prized  for  its  bark,  rich  in  tan- 
nin. Several  of  the  California  oaks,  how- 
ever, attain  a  great  size  and  are  the  char- 


acteristic and  often  the  only  trees  of  the 
interior  park-like  valleys  of  central  Califor- 
nia. In  latitude  43°,  also,  the  sugar  pine 
(pintu  Lamhertiana)  first  becomes  conunon. 
This  magnificent  tree,  the  largest  of  the  genus, 
extends  over  southwestern  Oregon  and  north- 
em  California,  and  thence  southward  along  the 
Sierra  Nevadas  to  the  extreme  southern  part 
of  the  state,  characterizing  the  important  for- 
est belt  which  covers  their  western  slopes  be- 
tween 4,000  to  8,000  ft.  elevation.  Among 
American  pines  the  wood  of  the  sugar  pine  is 
second  only  to  that  of  the  Atlantic  white  pine 
for  the  special  uses  to  which  white  pine  is 
applied.  On  the  coast  of  southern  Oregon, 
just  south  of  Umqua  bay,  a  heavy  growth  of 
the  Port  Orford  cedar  (ehamcBcyparis  Law~ 
Boniana)^  mixed  with  yellow  fir,  gives  great 
economic  value  to  the  forests  of  this  region. 
This  species,  which  attains  a  great  size,  is 
confined  to  a  region  some  50  m.  long  and 
20  wide,  with  a  few  isolated  outposts  in  the 
valley  of  the  upper  Sacramento,  in  northern 
California.  The  Port  Orford  cedar  is  only 
surpassed  by  its  congener  the  Sitka  cedar  in 
the  beauty  and  value  of  its  durable,  aromatic 
wood.  Just  south  of  the  Oregon  line  the  for- 
ests of  red-wood  (sequoia  sempervirens)  extend 
southward  along  the  California  coast  almost 
continuously  to  ktitude  37°.  This  tree  occu- 
pies the  sides  and  bottoms  of  the  caflons  and 
gulches  facing  tlie  ocean,  and  within  its  direclT 
influence.  It  hardly,  if  at  all,  crosses  the  Coast 
Range,  and  never  extends  more  than  85  'm. 
from  the  coust.  The  red -wood  forest  is  prob- 
ably surpassed  by  no  other  in  productiveness. 
In  favorable  localities  more  than  200,000  it. 
to  the  acre  of  merchantable  lumber  stand  over 
considerable  areas.  Situated  as  these  forests 
are  within  easy  access  to  tide-water,  and  produc- 
ing in  immense  quantities  a  soft,  easily  worked, 
and  durable  timber,  they  are  economically  the 
most  valuable  of  the  North  American  continent. 
The  second  species  of  sequoia  (seqttoia  gigan- 
tea\  the  "  Great  Tree  "  of  Califomia,  is  con- 
fined to  the  western  slopes  of  the  southern  Si- 
erra Nevada.  The  northern  limit  of  this  tree, 
is  found  in  Calaveras  co.  Here  in  the  sugar- 
pine  belt,  at  an  elevation  of  4,759  ft.,  an  isolated 
grove  exists.  Similar  groves,  often  widely  sepa- 
rated, extend  southward  for  200  m.  In  Tulare 
and  Kern  cos.  a  forest  80  m.  long,  and  often  6 
or  8  m.  wide,  contains  the  only  continuous 
body  of  this  species,  which,  widely  distributed 
through  the  roiocene  Arctic  and  European  for- 
ests, has  survived  the  later  geological  changes 
to  which  the  eartb^s  surface  has  been  subjected. 
South  of  latitude  44''  the  forests  of  the  interior 
region  are  of  little  value.  Junipers,  and  two 
peculiar  species  of  nut  pine  (pinus  monophylla 
and  pinu9  ediUis),  supply  scanty  fuel.  The  up- 
per cations  of  the  mountains  are  sometimes 
heavily  timbered  with  pine  and  spruce.  A 
characteristic  tree  of  the  region  between  the 
Sierra  Nevada  and  the  Rocky  mountains  is  the 
I  mountain  mahogany  (cercocarpui  ledifoliui)^ 


854 


FORESTS 


FRANCIS 


a  small  tree  yielding  an  exceedingly  liard,  brit- 
tle wood,  highly  prized  for  fuel.  The  most 
valuable  timber  tree  of  the  central  Rocky 
moontains,  £ngehnann^s  spraoe  (piesa  JSH- 
gelmanni)y  forms,  at  an  elevation  of  between 
8,600  and  12,000  ft.  above  the  sea,  extensive 
forests  of  great  beauty  and  local  importance. 
The  Texano- Arizona  forests,  or  rather  the  Mexi- 
can species  which  form  the  stunted  and  scat- 
tered growth  of  the  dry  and  barren  valleys 
and  low,  detached  mountain  ranges  of  the  ex- 
treme southern  portions  of  the  United  States, 
are  confined  in  Texas  to  the  southern  and 
western  portion  of  the  state,  and  to  the  south- 
ern portion  of  New  Mexico,  Arizona,  and  Oali- 
fornia.  The  most  important  species  of  this 
group,  the  mesquit  {prowpU  juliflora\  extends 
from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  nearly  to  the  shores 
of  the  Pacific.  Tlie  wood  of  the  mesquit  fur- 
nishes admirable  fuel  and  a  practically  inde- 
structible building  material ;  while  its  long  and 
abundant  pods,  rich  in  sugar,  yield  nutritious 
forage  to  all  grazing  animals.  The  mesquit, 
within  the  limits  of  the  United  States,  reaches 
its  greatest  development  in  the  valleys  of  south- 
eastern Arizona,  here  forming  a  tree  nearly  60 
ft.  in  height  with  a  trunk  18  to  24  in.  in  diam- 
eter. In  western  Texas,  where  the  yearly  burn- 
ing of  the  prairie  grass  prevents  the  growth  of 
more  than  annual  shoot-s,  the  roots  of  the  mes- 
«qiiit  attain  immense  development,  and  yield 
the  only  fuel  of  the  region.  Here  tJie  anomaly 
is  seen  of  a  single  slender  stem,  a  few  feet  only 
in  height,  springing  from  roots  often  several 
tons  in  weight.  Such  growths  of  the  mesquit 
are  locally  known  as  *^  underground  forests.'' 
Several  peculiar  oaks  and  pines  of  Mexican 
origin  cover  the  mountains  of  southern  New 
Mexico  and  Arizona.  Various  arborescent  yuc- 
cas characterize  the  Texano- Arizona  flora.  Of 
these  the  largest  {yucca  brevifolia)  forms  a  for- 
est of  considerable  extent  on  the  Mohave  desert 
of  southeastern  California,  where  also  a  noble 
palm  {Woihingtonia  fil\fiTa)  is  sparsely  difr- 
tributed.  The  most  magnificent  plant,  how- 
ever, of  this  southern  flora,  is  the  »uwarrav>^  or 
giant  cactus  of  southern  Arizona  (eereui  gigan^ 
tetui),  the  largest  representative  of  the  family, 
its  great,  bare,  fluted  columns  often  attaining 
60  ft.  in  height.  Taken  as  a  whole,  the  Texano- 
Arizona  flora,  with  the  exception  of  the  mes- 
quit, contains  no  arborescent  species  of  first- 
rate  economic  importance. 

FORTUlff,  HariiBo,  a  Spanish  painter,  born  at 
Reus,  in  Catalonia,  June  11, 1838,  died  in  Rome, 
Nov.  21,  1874.  The  lithographs  of  Gavami, 
which  Fortuny  (who  had  painted  altarpieces 
but  developed  no  decided  style)  first  saw  in 
1856,  set  him  to  studying  the  life  of  the  peo- 
ple. He  began  with  ardor  the  practice  of 
sketching  popular  types,  which  he  sought  in  the 
streets,  in  the  theatre,  and  wherever  he  could 
find  interesting  subjects.  In  1857  he  won  the 
Rome  travelling  pension.  In  1860  he  was  com- 
missioned by  the  municipal  authorities  of  Bar- 
celona to   accompany  the   Spanish   military 


expedition  to  Morocco,  and  make  studies  for 
compositions  to  commemorate  the  campaign. 
His  friends  remarked  a  surprising  development 
in  the  innumerable  sketches  which  he  took  in 
Africa,  and  which  were  of  great  value  to  him 
in  his  later  works.  In  1861  he  painted  the 
"  Negro's  Head."  His  painting  of  the  **  Bat- 
tle of  Tetuan  "  was  left  unfinished  at  his  death. 
In  1863  he  retured  to  Rome.  Fortuny  at 
this  time  began  to  make  etchings,  and  pro- 
duced oil  paintings  and  aquarelles  in  greater 
numbers,  most  of  them  being  single  figures  and 
slight  subjects  of  the  nature  of  studies,  though 
their  execution  was  careful  and  complete.  In 
1863  he  had  an  attack  of  miasmatic  fever, 
which  sapped  his  robust  constitution  and  finally 
carried  him  off  at  an  early  age.  In  1866  he 
went  to  Paris,  where  his  work  was  brought 
before  the  public  in  such  a  way  by  Goupil  that 
his  pictures  afterward  realised  large  sums,  in- 
stead of  the  low  prices  he  had  been  obliged  to 
take  from  a  few  discerning  admirers.  In  1868 
he  married  a  sister  of  the  painter  Madrazo. 
Fortnny's  finished  works  are  few,  on  account 
of  the  extreme  thought  and  pains  which  they 
cost  him ;  but  his  studies  and  water-color  draw- 
ings, and  even  his  etchings,  are  so  full  of  force 
and  original  beanty  that  they  are  highly  prized. 
Of  all  the  painters  of  the  new  Spanish  school, 
from  which  has  issued  one  of  the  most  genuine 
and  vigorous  art  movements  of  the  19th  cen- 
tury, none  approaches  Fortuny  in  power  and 
thought ;  and  few  artists  of  any  age  have  pos- 
sessed so  keen  an  instinct  for  the  picturesque 
in  form  or  in  color.  Fortuny's  best  pictures 
include :  "  A  Spanish  Marriage,"  "  The  Sword 
Sharpener,"  "  The  Tamer  of  Serpents  "  (in  the 
A.  T.  Stewart  collection.  New  York),  "  A  Mo- 
rocco Fantasia,"  **  The  Print  Collector,"  and 
''The  Academicians  of  Arcadia." 

FRANCIS)  J«Beph,an  American  inventor,  bom 
in  Boston,  Mass.,  Marcb  12,  1801.  He  has 
been  devoted  to  boat  building  from  his  boy- 
hood. At  the  age  of  10  he  exhibited  a  fancy 
boat  at  a  fair,  and  at  18  received  from  the 
Massachusetts  mechanics'  Institnte  the  first 
prize  for  a  fast  row  boat.  He  afterward  es- 
tablished a  boat  yard  in  New  York.  In  1830 
he  built  the  first  boat  for  the  New  York  boat 
club.  This  was  subsequently  presented  to  the 
emperor  of  Russia,  and  replaced  by  a  hand- 
somer one,  the  Seadrift,  which  Mr.  Francis 
constructed  entirely  by  his  own  hands.  This 
craft  is  80  feet  long,  of  chestnut  oak,  panelled 
with  ebony,  rosewood,  and  mahogany,  and  put 
together  with  copper  rivets.  Soon  after  tills 
he  built  a  four-oared  race  boat,  to  take  part  in 
a  regatta  at  Quebec,  the  first  American  boat 
that  had  competed  in  a  regatta  with  foreign- 
built  boats,  and  she  came  ofif  victorious.  She 
was  of  Spanish  cedar,  80  ft  long.  Mr.  Fran- 
cis built  a  Venetian  gondola,  for  use  on  the 
Hudson  river,  which  was  afterward  trans- 
ferred to  Greenwood  cemetery.  He  next  in- 
vented a  portable  boat  that  could  be  taken 
apart  and  put  together  in  a  few  minutes  with 


FREYCINET 


FURNIVALL 


855 


scret^s ;  and  also  a  method  of  building  boats 
over  a  frame  or  mould,  with  inch-sqaare  strips 
of  oedar  nailed  edge  to  edge.  But  his  great- 
est achievements  have  been  in  the  construc- 
tion of  life  boats.  These  began  with  experi- 
ments on  wooden  life  boats,  and  culminated 
in  the  invention  of  the  corrugated  metallic 
life  car.  After  overcoming  many  difficulties 
in  the  production  of  efficient  dies,  he  completed 
his  first  life  car  in  1844.  In  1845  he  obtained 
patents  in  the  United  States,  England,  France, 
Germany,  and  Russia,  for  his  method  of  con- 
structing vessels  of  corrugated  sheet  metal, 
and  for  the  machinery  whereby  they  were  pro- 
duced. Life  boats  built  on  this  principle  were 
furnished  for  the  Dead  sea  and  Arctic  expedi- 
tions, to  the  war,  navy,  and  treasnrj  depart- 
ments, and  to  several  European  governments. 
One  of  his  life  cars  was  placed  on  the  coast  of 
New  Jersey,  near  Long  Branch,  in  1849.  In 
January,  1850,  the  ship  Ayrshire  was  wrecked 
on  Squan  beach  in  a  storm,  and  of  the  201  per- 
sons on  board  200  were  saved  by  means  of  this 
life  car.  One  man,  who  insisted  on  attempt- 
ing to  ride  through  the  surf  on  the  outside  of 
the  car,  when  his  children  were  inside,  was 
lost.  This  car  is  still  preserved  in  the  museum 
at  Central  park.  New  York.  Mr.  Francis  has 
extended  the  application  of  corrugated  metal 
to  the  building  of  steamers,  floating  docks, 
harbor  buoys,  and  pontoon  wagons.  Among 
his  inventions  are  a  military  hood  for  the  pro- 
tection of  sentinels  in  a  storm,  a  circular  yacht, 
and  a  donble- joint  rowlock.  He  has  received 
numerous  medals  and  decorations  from  Euro- 
pean sovereigns.  He  now  (1888)  resides  at 
Tom»8  River,  N.  J. 

FEETCmfT,  Charles  Lwils  de  Sailees  de,  a 
French  statesman,  born  at  Foix,  Nov.  14, 1828. 
He  was  educated  at  the  polytechnic  school  of 
Paris,  graduated  in  1848,  and  was  engaged  as 
a  government  engineer.  From  1856  to  1861 
he  was  chief  manager  of  the  railroads  of  south- 
em  France,  and  his  powers  as  an  organizer 
proved  so  great  that  his  system  was  adopted 
by  all  the  French  railroads.  He  published  at 
this  time  treatises  on  mechanics  and  railroad 
'  engineering,  which  are  now  used  as  text  books. 
He  took  up  the  study  of  sociology  and  political 
economy,  and  was  commissioned  by  the  French 
government  on  various  scientific  and  industrial 
missions  at  home  and  abroad.  His  work  on 
the  labor  of  women  and  children  in  English 
factories  was  crowned  by  the  academy  in  1869 ; 
and  through  his  efforts  the  laws  of  France  were 
amended  in  the  interest  of  working  women 
and  children.  He  also  devoted  much  attention 
to  the  sanitary  management  of  cities.  In  1864 
he  received  the  rank  of  an  ordinary  engineer 
of  the  first  class,  and  when  the  Franco-Prus- 
sian war  broke  out  he  was  a  member  of  the 
general  council  of  the  department  of  Tarn-et- 
Garonne.  Later  he  became  prefect  of  that  de- 
partment ;  and  when  Gambetta  came  into  the 
provinces  in  October,  1870,  as  leading  minister 
of  the  oater  delegation  of  the  government  of 


national  defence,  he  intrusted  Freycinet,  at 
Tours,  with  the  supreme  control  of  the  war 
department.  In  this  capacity  Freycinet  ren- 
dered immense  services  to  the  country  in  the 
improvisation  of  armies.  At  the  conclusion  of 
peace  he  retired  to  privatcf  life,  and  wrote  La 
guerre  en  province  pendant  le  eUge  de  ParU^ 
1871.  In  January,  1876,  he  was  elected  to  the 
senate  from  the  department  of  the  Seine,  being 
one  of  Gambetta^s  candidates.  He  was  minister 
of  public  works  in  the  cabinets  of  Dufaure  and 
Waddington;  and  when  Waddington's  minis- 
try was  broken  up  in  December,  1879,  Freyci- 
net succeeded  him  as  premier,  becoming  presi- 
dent of  the  council  and  foreign  minister.  The 
breaking  up  of  the  Jesuit  establishments  in 
France  was  the  first  important  work  of  his 
administration.  His  subsequent  moderation  in 
dealing  with  the  other  unauthorized  ecclesias- 
tical orders  caused  a  split  in  his  cabinet,  and 
led  to  his  resignation,  Sept.  19,  1880,  Jules 
Ferry  becoming  his  successor  as  premier. 

FIRBTIVALL,  Fitdertt  JaMS,  an  English  phi- 
lologist, born  at  Egham,  Surrey,  Feb.  4, 1825. 
He  was  educated  at  University  college,  Lon- 
don, and  Trinity  hall,  Cambridge,  has  devoted 
himself  to  the  study  of  early  and  middle  Eng- 
lish literatui*e,  and  is  one  of  the  founders  of 
the  new  school  of  English  philology.  Under 
his  care,  as  secretary  of  the  philological  soci- 
ety, the  collection  of  materials  for  an  exhaus- 
tive dictionary  of  the  English  language  was  be- 
§m  about  1857,  and  continued  for  several  years, 
e  established  the  ''  Early  English  Text  Soci- 
ety "  in  1864,  the  '*  Chaucer  Society"  and  the 
"  Ballad  Society  "  in  1868,  and  the ''  New  Shake- 
speare Society  "  in  1874.  He  has  raised  and  ex- 
piended  nearly  £20,000  in  the  printing  of  early 
manuscripts  and  rare  books,  many  of  which 
he  has  edited  himself,  either  for  the  above- 
named  societies  or  for  the  Roxburghe  club. 
These  include  *^  Saint  Graal :  the  History  of  the 
Holy  Grail,  in  English  verse,  by  Henry  Lone- 
lich  (A.  D.  1440),  with  its  Original,  the  Old- 
Frencli  Prose,  HUtoire  del  Saint  Graal "  (2 
vols.,  1861-'8)  ;  "  Roberde  of  Brunne's  *  Hand- 
lyng  Synne'  (on  the  Sins  of  England,  with 
Legends,  A.  D.  1808),  and  the  Old-French 
Poem  on  which  it  is  founded"  (1862);  "Po- 
litical, Religious,  and  Love  Poems"  (1866); 
"The  Book  of  Quinte  Essence"  (1866); 
"  Bishop  Percy's  Folio  Manuscript  of  Ballads 
and  Romances"  (2  vols.,  1867-'8);  "Ballads 
f^om  Manuscripts  on  the  Condition  of  Tudor 
England,  1520-'50  "  (2  vols.,  1868-72) ;  "  Cax- 
ton's  Book  of  Curteseye"  (1868);  "A  Six- 
Text  Print  of  Chaucer's  Canterbury  Tale^ 
from  the  Manuscripts  of  Lord  Ellesmere,  Lord 
Leconfield,  Mr.  W.  E.  W.  Wynne  of  Peniarth, 
the  Cambridge  University  Library,  Corpus 
Christi  College,  Oxford,  and  the  British  Mu- 
seum "  (7  parts,  1868-76) ;  "  Parallel  Edition 
of  Chaucer's  Minor  Poems  "  (1876) ;  and  "  Wil- 
liam Goddard's  Three  Satires"  (1877).  Mr. 
Furnivall  brought  about  a  reform  in  the  case 
of  the  ballast  heavers,  and  was  a  member  of 


856 


FUSION  DISK 


GARFIELD 


the  execative  committee  of  the  workingmcn's 
college,  London,  in  which  he  taught  regularly 
for  more  thao  ten  years. 

FUSION  DISK,  an  instrument  by  which  steel 
bars  may  be  cut  in  two  as  a  piece  of  wood  is 
cut  by  a  saw.  It  is  the  invention  of  Jacob 
Reese  of  Pittsburgh,  Pa.  It  is  a  circular  saw, 
of  soft  iron,  and  it  fuses  steel  bars  which  are 
brought  into  close  proximity  to  it  without 
touching.  The  bar  to  be  cut  is  made  to  re- 
volve in  the  contrary  direction  with  a  speed 
of  200  revolutions  a  minute.  The  revolving 
disk  is  42  inches  in  diameter,  |  inch  thick ;  it 
is  mounted  on  an  arbor  and  set  in  motion  with 
pulleys  and  belts,  like  an  ordinary  circular  saw, 
and  turns  with  a  velocity  of  2,300  revolutions, 
equal  to  a  tangential  velocity  of  25,250  feet  a 
minute.  When  the  bar  is  brought  almost  into 
contact  with  the  revolving  disk,  a  small  drop 
of  molten  metal  appears  on  its  surface.  In  a 
few  seconds  a  notch  is  made,  the  molten  metal 
flowing  downward  in  a  stream  of  sparks,  and 
being  thrown  in  sparks  in  all  directions.  The 
incandescent  sparks,  when  they  first  leave  the 
bar,  are  not  hot.  These  sparks  or  drops  of 
fused  metal  are  of  dazzling  whiteness,  yet  their 
temperature  differs  but  little  from  that  of  the 
surrounding  atmosphere.  In  their  path  through 
the  air  those  sparks  which  are  projected  side- 
wise  acquire  heat  from  the  friction.  At  the 
distance  of  five  feet  or  more  they  burn  like  a 
red-hot  poker,  while  their  vivid  incandescence 
has  given  place  to  a  dull  red  color. 


GALE,  Wifllui,  an  English  painter,  bom  in 
London  in  1882.  He  entered  the  schools 
of  the  royal  academy  in  1841,  carried  ofi:*  three 
medals,  and  in  1845  exhibited  ^^  Young  Cela- 
don and  his  Amelia.^^  He  went  to  Italy  in 
1851,  spent  several  years  in  Rome,  and  in  1862, 
and  again  in  1867,  visited  the  Holy  Land,  since 
which  time  he  has  dealt  mainly  with  Scrip- 
tural subjects.  His  pictures  are  noted  for  their 
minute  accuracy  and  finish.  They  include 
"Chaucer's  Dream,"  "A  Peep  at  the  Carni- 
val," "Goin^  to  the Sistine Chapel,"  "The Re- 
turn of  the  Prodigal,"  "  Cupid's  Ambassador," 
"  Abraham  and  Isaac  on  the  Way  to  Sacrifice," 
"  Eastern  Springtime,"  "  Spoils  of  War,"  "  Sick 
and  in  Prison,"  "  Little  Grandma,"  and  "  An 
Algerian  Interior." 

GARFIELD,  James  Abran,  20th  president  of 
the  United  States,  born  in  Orange,  O.,  Nov. 
19, 1881,  died  in  Elberon,  N.  J.,  Sept.  19, 1881. 
He  lost  his  father  in  his  infancy,  worked  on  a 
farm  in  his  youth,  and  for  three  months  was  a 
canal  boatman.  He  was  a  pupil  and  afterward 
a  teacher  in  the  public  schools,  then  attended 
the  Eclectic  institute  (now  Hiram  college)  at 
Hiram,  Portage  co.,  where  he  was  fitted  for 
Williams  college,  graduating  at  the  latter  insti- 
tution in  1856,  and  carrying  off  the  metaphys- 
ical honor.  Returning  to  Hiram,  he  became  a 
teacher  of  languages  in  the  school,  and  in  1857 


its  president.  During  this  time  he  also  studied 
law  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar.  In  1859  and 
I860  he  was  a  member  of  the  state  senate. 
In  1861  he  entered  the  army  as  colonel  of  the 
42d  Ohio  volunteers,  and  served  in  Kentucky, 
where,  in  command  of  a  brigade  of  1,400  men, 
in  January,  1862,  he  defeated  5,000  under 
Humphrey  Marshall  near  Paintville,  and  drove 
them  out  of  the  state ;  for  which  he  was  made 
a  brigadier  general,  being  the  youngest  in  the 
service.  He  subsequently  served  at  Shiloh,  at 
Corinth,  and  in  Alabama,  and  in  1863  was  ap- 
pointed chief  of  staff  of  the  army  ot  the  Cum- 
berland, under  Gen.  Rosecrans.  For  gallantry 
at  the  battle  of  Chickamauga,  he  was  made  a 
major  general  of  volunteers.  He  had  been 
elected  to  congress  in  1862,  entered  it  in  1863, 
and  was  reelected  eight  times.  In  the  house 
he  had  served  on  the  committees  on  ways  and 
means,  Pacific  railroads,  rules,  and  banking  and 
currency,  and  had  been  chairman  of  those  on 
military  affairs,  appropriations,  and  others,  be- 
coming best  known  to  the  country  in  his  con- 
nection with  the  committee  on  appropriations. 
From  the  time  of  the  removal  ot  Mr.  Blaine  to 
the  senate  in  1876,  Gen.  Garfield  was  recog- 
nized as  the  leader  of  the  republican  side  ot 
the  house,  and  he  was  its  candidate  for  speaker 
in  1877  and  1879.  In  January,  1880.  he  was 
elected  United  States  senator  from  Ohio,  to 
succeed  Allen  G.  Thurman,  for  the  term  be- 
ginning March  4, 1881.  In  the  Republican  na- 
tional convention  held  in  Chicago,  June  2-8, 
1880,  after  a  long  contest  in  which  Gen.  U.  S. 
Grant,  James  G.  Blaine,  and  John  Sherman 
were  the  principal  contestants  for  the  presi- 
dential nomination,  most  of  the  opponents  of 
Gen.  Grant  united  upon  Mr.  Garfield;  and  he 
was  nominated  on  the  86th  ballot,  receiving 
899  votes,  against  806  for  Gen.  Grant  and  60 
scattering.  He  was  elected  in  November  by 
the  votes  ef  nearly  all  the  northern  states,  and 
was  inaugurated  March  4, 1881.  His  nomina- 
tions for  cabinet  appointments,  which  were 
promptly  confirmed,  were  as  follows:  Secre- 
tary of  state,  James  G.  Blaine,  of  Maine ;  secre- 
tary of  the  treasury,  William  Windom,  of  Min- 
nesota ;  attorney  general,  Wayne  MacVeagh,  of 
Pennsylvania ;  postmaster  general,  Thomas  L. 
James,  of  New  York ;  secretary  of  the  interior, 
Samuel  J.  Eirkwood,  of  Iowa;  secretary  of 
war,  Robert  T.  Lincoln,  of  Illinois;  secretary 
of  the  navy,  William  H.  Hunt,  of  Louisiana. 
In  the  time  that  intervened  between  the  elec- 
tion and  the  inauguration,  many  of  the  party 
leaders  had  been  called  for  consultation  to 
Mentor,  O.,  the  home  of  the  president-elect, 
among  them  his  chief  opponent,  Senatcir  Conk- 
ling,  and  it  was  believed  that  every  necessary 
measure  had  been  taken  for  a  harmonious  ad- 
ministration. But  a  difiiiculty  soon  appeared 
when  the  president  nominated  William  H. 
Robertson  for  collector  of  the  port  of  New 
York,  and  Mr.  Conkling  opposed  the  confirma- 
tion, on  the  ground  that  he  should  have  been 
consulted  as  to  all  nominations  for  federal 


GARFIELD 


GEIKIE 


857 


offices  in  his  own  state.  The  contest  hecame 
qaite  bitter,  and  resulted  in  the  resignation  of 
both  senators  from  Nevr  York  and  a  temporary 
division  of  the  party.  On  the  2d  of  July,  as 
the  president  entered  the  railway  station  at 
Washington,  accompanied  by  Secretary  Blaine, 
to  take  a  train  northward  for  a  tour  through 
New  England  (Mrs.  Garfield  intending  to  join 
him  on  the  way),  he  was  shot  in  the  back  by 
an  assassin  who  bad  been  dogging  his  footsteps 
for  weeks.  The  marderer  was  an  unsuccessful 
office-seeker,  whose  motive  was  partly  revenge 
for  being  refused  an  appointment,  and  partly, 
if  not  mainly,  a  morbid  desire  for  notoriety. 
He  ivas  tried  in  Washington,  found  guilty,  and 
hanged  June  80,  1832.  The  wounded  presi- 
dent was  at  first  carried  to  the  office  of  the  com- 
pany, on  the  second  floor  of  the  building,  and 
after  an  examination  of  the  wound  was  taken 
back  to  the  executive  mansion.  The  physi- 
cians believed  that  the  wound  was  not  neces- 
sarily fatal,  but  that  it  was  unadvisable  to  at- 
tempt to  extract  the  bullet.  It  had  fractured 
the  right  eleventh  rib,  and  its  course  thence 
was  believed  to  have  been  forward  and  down- 
ward, perhaps  grazing  the  liver.  The  presi- 
dent remained  at  the  White  House,  with  vary- 
ing symptoms,  till  the  heat  of  the  season  be- 
gan to  have  a  decided  effect,  in  spite  of  the 
fact  that  his  apartment  was  kept  cool  by  artifi- 
cial means.  On  the  6th  of  September  he  was 
removed  to  the  Francklyn  cottage  at  Elberon, 
Long  Branch,  by  a  special  train  fitted  up  for 
the  purpose.  The  speed  was  at  times  as  high 
as  sixty  miles  an  hour,  and  the  car  was  run  to 
the  door  of  tiie  cottage  on  a  track  three  quar- 
ters of  a  mile  long  that  had  been  laid  across 
the  lawns  for  the  occasion.  Here  the  patient  re- 
mained, with  fiuctnating  symptoms,  till  the  19th, 
when  at  half-past  10  o'clock  in  the  evening  he 
expired.  The  autopsy  showed  that  the  diagnosis 
of  the  wound  had  been  totally  wrong.  What 
was  taken  for  the  track  of  the  ball  proved  to  be  a 
cavity  produced  by  the  burrowing  of  pus.  The 
ball  had  crossed  to  the  left  side  of  the  spinal 
column,  passing  through  the  front  of  it,  and 
splintering  it,  and  lodged  below  the  pancreas, 
where  it  became  encysted.  The  physicians' 
report  said :  ^'  The  immediate  cause  of  death 
was  secondary  hssmorrhage  from  one  of  the 
mesenteric  arteries  adjoining  the  track  of  the 
ball,  the  blood  rupturing  the  peritonieum,  and 
nearly  a  pint  escaping  into  the  abdominal  cav- 
ity.'' The  general  conclusion  was,  that  the 
wound  was  necessarily  mortal,  and  that  noth- 
ing more  could  have  been  done  if  the  diagno- 
sis had  been  correct.  The  body  was  taken  to 
Washington,  where  it  lay  in  state  in  the  ro- 
tunda of  the  capitol  on  the  22d,  and  was  then 
carried  to  Cleveland^  O.,  where  the  funeral 
services  were  held  on  the  26th,  and  the  re- 
mains deposited  in  a  tomb  in  Ldceview  ceme- 
tery. President  Garfield  was  a  member  of  the 
sect  called  Disciples.  He  married  in  1858  Lu> 
oretia  Rudolph,  who  had  been  his  pupil  at 
Hiram,    She  and  three  children  survive  him. 


After  his  death  a  popular  subscription  realized 
over  $360,000,  of  which  the  income  is  to  be 
paid  to  Mrs.  Garfield  during  her  life,  and  the 

Erincipal  to  be  divided  among  the  children  after 
er  death.  More  than  forty  of  Garfield's  con- 
gressional speeches  have  been  published  in 
pamphlet  form,  and  also  his  oration  on  the  life 
and  character  of  Gen.  George  H.  Thomas.  A 
volume  of  brief  selections,  entitled  '*  Garfield's 
Words,"  was  compiled  by  W.  R.  Balch  (Boston, 
1881).  His  "Works,"  edited  by  Burke  A. 
Hinsdale,  were  published  in  Boston  in  1882  (2 
vols.,  8vo). 

GAllRET,  Edward.  See  Mayo,  Isabeixa,  in 
supplement. 

GAT.  L  Sydney  Howard,  an  American  histo- 
rian, born  in  Hingham,  Mass.,  about  1820. 
He  graduated  at  Harvard  college,  and  began 
the  study  of  law  in  his  father's  office  in  Hing- 
ham, but  gave  it  up  because  his  conscien- 
tious scruples  on  the  subject  of  slavery  would 
not  permit  him  to  take  the  oath  to  support 
the  constitution  of  the  United  States.  After 
some  experience  aa  an  anti-slavery  lecturer, 
he  was  for  several  years  editor  ol  the  ^*  Anti- 
Slavery  Standard."  Resigning  this  post  in 
1858,  he  loined  the  staff  of  the  New  York 
*^  Tribune,  of  which  journal  he  was  the  man- 
aging editor  from  1862  till  July,  1865.  From 
1867  till  November,  1871,  he  was  the  managing 
editor  of  the  Chicago  *^  Tribune."  Later  he 
was  associated  with  William  OuUen  Bryant  in 
the  New  York  **  Evening  Post,"  and  through 
that  relation  became  the  author  of  an  illus- 
trated "  History  <>f  the  United  States"  (4  vols. 
8vo,  New  York,  1876-'80),  to  which  Mr.  Bry- 
ant's name  was,  with  his  assent,  prefixed  by 
the  publishers.  This  history  begins  with  the 
prehistoric  races  of  America,  and  is  brought 
down  to  the  close  of  the  civil  war.  Mr.  Gay 
resides  on  Staten  Island.  IL  WlBckwertb  AHan, 
an  American  painter,  brother  of  the  preceding. 
He  was  a  pupil  of  Robert  Weir,  and  studied 
in  Italy  and  France,  a  part  of  the  time  with 
Troy  on.  He  resides  in  Boston,  where  he  has 
attained  reputation  as  a  delineator  of  mountain 
and  sea^coast  scenery.  He  has  travelled  in 
Egypt,  China,  and  Japan.  ^^A  Scene  in  the 
White  Mountains,"  painted  for  the  Boston 
Athensdum,  and  ^'  A  Scene  in  Japan,"  painted 
for  the  Somerset  club  of  Boston,  are  specimens 
of  his  earlier  and  later  styles. 

GEIKIE,  Archibald,  a  Scottish  geologist,  born 
in  Edinburgh  in  1885.  He  was  educated  at 
the  university  of  his  native  city,  and  in  1855 
was  appointed  to  the  geological  survey.  He 
was  associated  with  Sir  Roderick  Miirchison  in 
working  out  the  true  geological  stracture  of  the 
highlands,  and  in  preparing  a  new  geological 
map  of  Scotland.  In  1867  he  was  appointed 
director  of  the  survey,  and  in  1870  accepted  the 
new  chair  of  mineralogy  and  geology  at  Edin- 
burgh. Ho  has  published  the  following  works : 
"The  Story  of  a  Boulder"  (1858);  **Life  of 
Edward  Forbes,"  ooiyointly  with  Dr.  George 
Wilson  (1861);  "The  Phenomena  of  the  Gla- 


858 


GEIKIE 


GEORGIA 


cial'Drift  of  Scotland"  (1863);  "Scenery  in 
Scotland  viewed  in  connection  with  its  Phys- 
ical Geology"  (1865);  **A  Student's  Manual 
of  Geology,"  conjointly  with  J.  B.  Jukes 
(1871) ;  "  Physical  Geography  "  and  "  Geolo- 
gy," in  the  series  of  science  primers  (1874) ; 
^*  Memoir  of  Sir  Roderick  I.  Murohison,  with 
Notices  of  his  Scientific  Contemporaries  and 
of  the  Rise  and  Progress  of  Palseozoio  Geology 
in  Britain  "  (2  vols.,  1874) ;  "  Geological  Map 
of  Scotland  "  (1876) ;  '*  Class  Book  of  Physical 
Geography  "  (1877) ;  and  "  Text-Book  of  Geol- 
ogy "  (1882). 

GEIKIE,  dmnliigliani,  an  English  clergyman, 
bom  in  Edinburgh,  Oct.  26,  1826.  He  is  the 
son  of  a  Presbyterian  minister,  and  was  edu- 
cated at  the  high  school  and  the  university  of 
Edinburgh.  He  followed  his  father  to  Cana- 
da, became  pastor  of  a  church  near  Toronto, 
and  afterward  was  called  to  one  in  Halifax. 
In  1862  he  accepted  a  pastorate  in  Sunderland, 
England,  and  five  years  later  was  called  to 
old  Islington  chapel,  London.  In  1872  he  re- 
linquished his  pastorate,  devoting  himself  to 
literature.  But  in  1876  he  took  orders  in  the 
established  church,  and  became  assistant  cler- 
gyman at  St.  Peter's,  Dulvvich.  From  1879  to 
1881  he  was  rector  of  Christ  church,  at 
Neuilly,  Paris;  and  in  May,  1883,  Mr.  Glad- 
stone presented  him  to  the  living  of  St.  Mary, 
Barnstaple,  Devonshire.  Dr.  Geikie  is  an  ad- 
vocate of  temperance  and  a  champion  of  the 
evangelical  party  in  the  church,  a  frequent 
contributor  to  periodical  literature,  and  apopu* 
lar  lecturer.  He  has  published  **  The  Back- 
woods of  Canada"  (London,  1864);  "Enter- 
ing on  Life,"  a  book  for  young  men  (1869) ; 
**The  Great  and  Precious  Promises "  (1872) ; 
»*The  Life  and  Woi-ds  of  Christ"  (1877); 
"Old  Testament  Portraits"  (1878);  "The 
English  Reformation,  and  why  we  should  up- 
hold it"  (1879);  and  "  Hours  with  the  Bible; 
or  the  Scriptures  in  the  Light  of  Modern  Dis- 
covery and  Knowledge  "  (5  vols.,  1881  et  seq.). 
Most  of  his  works  have  been  republished  in  the 
United  States.  The  "  Life  of  Christ "  has  passed 
through  26  editions  in  England  and  several  in 
this  country. 

GEORGIA.  The  population  in  1830  was 
1,542,180,  of  whom  762,981  were  males,  779,- 
199  females,  1,581,616  natives,  10,564  foreign, 
816,906  whites,  725,183  colored.  The  chief 
agricultural  productions  were  23,202,018  bush- 
els of  com,  6,548,748  of  oats,  101,716  of  rye, 
8,169,771  of  wheat,  14,409  tons  of  hay,  601 
hogsheads  of  sugar,  1,565,784  gallons  of  mo- 
lasses, 25,369,687  lbs.  of  rice,  814,441  bales  of 
cotton,  228,590  lbs.  of  tobacco,  249,590  bush- 
els of  Irish  and  4,397,778  of  sweet  potatoes ; 
number  of  horses,  98,520;  mules  and  asses, 
182,078;  working  oxen,  50,026;  milch  cows, 
815,073;  other  cattle,  544,812;  sheep,  527,- 
589;  swine,  1,471,008;  value  of  manufactures, 
$36,440,948.— The  report  of  the  treasurer  for 
the  fiscal  year  from  Oct.  1,  1881,  to  Sept.  30, 
1882,  shows  that  the  total  amount  received  in 


the  treasury  was  $2,403,976  61,  and  the  dis^ 
bursements  were  $1,713,507  48,  leaving  a  bal- 
ance in  the  treasury,  Oct.  1,  1882,  of  $690,- 
472  15,  in  which  are  included  $275,000  in 
bonds  of  the  state  of  Georgia  ($1 15,000)  and 
in  United  States  registered  bonds  ($160,000) 
paid  by  the  purchasers  of  the  Macon  and  Bruns- 
wick railroad,  and  the  suspended  balances  due 
from  the  Citizens'  bank  of  Atlanta  ($88,218 
61)  and  from  the  Bank  of  Rome  ($22,206  42). 
Deducting  this  unavailable  amount,  $880,424 
74,  from  the  stated  balance  of  $690,472  15, 
the  actual  cash  balance  on  Oct.  1,  1882,  is 
$310,047  41.— The  public  debt  of  tlie  state  is 
$9,624,136,  the  annual  interest  on  which 
amounts  to  $646,440.  Of  this  debt,  $100,000 
mature  in  1883;  $100,000  in  1884;  $175,685 
in  1885;  $4,000,000  in  1886;  $2,098,000  in 
1890;  $807,500  in  1892;  $542,000  in  1896; 
$2,298,000  in  1898 ;  and  $3,000  in  1932.  The 
greater  portion  of  this  sum  bears  7  per 
cent,  interest.  In  addition  to  this  bonded 
debt,  the  state  is  liable  absolutely  and  contin- 
gently as  endorser  on  bonds  of  the  South 
Georgia  and  Florida  railroad  amounting  to 
$464,000,  and  on  the  bonds  of  the  North- 
eastern railroad  amounting  to  $260,000. — ^The 
property  owned  and  possessed  by  the  state 
consists  of  the  Western  and  Atlantic  railroad, 
188  m.,  leased  at  an  annual  rental  of  $800,- 
000,  the  lease  having  9  years  to  run ;  Macon 
and  Brunswick  railroad,  195  m.,  sold  for 
$1,126,000,  of  which  $626,000  are  yet  due; 
bonds  of  the  Marietta  and  North  Georgia 
railroad,  $66,233  62 ;  186  shares  of  the  Georgia 
railroad  and  banking  company,  $26,000,  and 
440  shares  of  the  Southern  and  Atlantic  tele- 
graph, guaranteed  by  the  Western  Union  Tele- 
graph company,  $10,000.  The  estimated  re- 
ceipts at  the  treasury  for  the  year  ending  Dec 
81,  1883,  are  $1,850,000,  and  the  estimated  difr- 
bursements  for  the  same  period  $1,361,817  14. 
In  1877  the  public  debt  was  $11,044,000,  with 
an  annual  interest  of  $800,000.  In  1876  the 
state  had  a  floating  debt  of  $266,000,  all  of 
which  has  been  extinguished.  The  report  of 
the  comptroller  general  presents  a  very  en- 
couraging exhibit  of  the  material  condition  of 
the  state.  The  property  of  Georgia,  as  re- 
turned for  taxation  for  the  year  1882,  shows 
an  increase  of  $16,266,160;  tbe  whole  amount 
of  taxable  property  being  returned  at  $287,- 
249,403.  The  increase  for  1881  was  $18,977,- 
611,  making  the  total  growth  of  wealth  for 
the  two  years  $35,282,761,  yielding,  at  the 
existing  rate  of  taxation  (3  mills  on  the  dol- 
lar), additional  revenue  to  the  amount  of 
$106,698.  The  table  on  the  next  page  shows 
in  a  consolidated  form  the  aggregate  value  of 
the  whole  property  in  Georgia  returned  for 
taxation  for  the  years  1881  and  1882.  The 
number  of  polls  returned  by  colored  tax-pay- 
ers for  1882  is  93,686,  owning  property,  real 
and  personal,  of  the  aggregate  value  of  $6,- 
589,876-  The  report  of  the  comptroller  gen- 
eral as  to  the  increase  of  revenue  and  ita 


QEORGIA 


859 


DESCRIPTION  OF  PROPERTY. 


Improved  laodB 

Wildliuids 

OlXr  and  town  property 

BaikUn^and  loan  aaaoclatlons  (capital). 

Bank  ahares  (value)  

Money  and  solvent  debta 

Merohandise 

Capital  in  ahfpping 

Stocks  and  bonds  (value) 

Cotton  Motorics 

Iron  works 

Capital  in  mining 

Honsehold  fiimiture 

Watches,  Jewelry,  plate 

Horses,  males,  ho^,  etc 

Plantotion  tools,  etc 

Cotton,  corn,  et&,  April  1st , 

Other  property. 

Deflralters^  property  (single) , 

Batlroad  property. 


Totals 


Total  valoe  of  property,  1882. 
Total  value  of  property,  188i . 


Valw,  ini. 


190,807,019 

l,88d,915 

6A,62*2,801 

SM,110 

4,518,687 

82,048,086 

16,662.547 

201,199 

5,287,021 

8,482,086 

849,949 

101,675 

9,988,209 

1,168,469 

28,68ti,294 

8,474,208 

980.180 

5,107,8a9 

99^811 

16,741,258 


VaiiM,  188S. 


1270,998,888 


$94,462,914 

2,873,827 

60,458.987 

808,496 

8,989,0s6 

88,60^,058 

16,091,125 

172,201 

6,252,4U5 

8,548,881 

569,281 

127,622 

10,157.645 

1,188,»27 

88,514,9:37 

8,577,682 

846,818 

6,940,783 

1,396,500 

18,729,427 


IBC 


$887,249,408 


$8,86^n95 

536,912 

4,881,186 

52,8^ 

i,'5M',972 
42a,57S 

'96^884 

1,061,795 

219.2^2 

2^947 

174,486 

19,858 

"I'OM^ 

"£»2^986 

400,629 

1,988,169 


$17,071,288 


$579,551 

•      •  •  •  • 

88,998 


128,8.'^7 
88,867 


$815,778 


$287,249,408 
270,998,888 


Increase  in  value  fbr  1882 $16,256,516 


assured  permanence  induced  the  general 
assembly,  at  its  session  in  November  and  De- 
cember, 1B82,  to  reduce  the  rate  of  taxation 
from  8  to  2^  mills. — The  aggregate  value  of  the 
taxable  {iropertj  of  railroads  in  Georgia,  as  re- 
turned by  their  authorized  agents  for  the  year 
1882,  is  $18,729,429.  Their  business  during 
the  year,  notwithstanding  the  reduction  of 
their  rates  and  fares  by  the  railroad  commis- 
sion, and  the  increased  competition,  has  been 
satisfactory.  The  roads  generally  are  in  good 
order;  steel  rails  are  being  substituted  for 
iron;  their  equipment  has  been  much  im- 
proved, and  faster  schedules  are  being  adopted ; 
825  miles  of  new  railroad  were  constructed 
during  the  year. — The  university  of  Georgia, 
at  Athens,  Clarke  oo.,  including  the  state  col- 
lege of  agriculture  and  the  mechanic  arts,  the 
medical  college  at  Augusta,  and  the  branch 
preparatory  43olleg6s  at  Dahlonega,  Milledge- 
ville,  Cuthbert,  and  Thomasville,  shows  a 
marked  improvement.  The  total  number  of 
students  for  the  coUegiate  year  ending  July  19, 
1882,  was  1,103.  — The  year  1882  shows  a 
steady  growth  in  the  attendance  of  pupils  at 
the  public  schools.  The  aggregate  of  school 
population  was  607,861.  In  18S2  the  state 
lund,  estimating  the  poll  tax  at  the  same  as  in 
the  previous  year,  amounts  to  $441,114  88. 
And  if  the  sum  raised  under  local  laws  in 
counties  and  cities  prove  to  be  the  same,  that 
is,  $134,855  96,  the  whole  sum  raised  in  the 
state  for  the  support  of  the  public  schools 
would  amount  to  $575,970  84,  or  $77,000  in- 
crease as  compared  with  the  previous  year. 
The  school  law  requires  that  in  every  county 
arrangement  shall  be  made  for  keeping  the 
schools  in  operation  at  least  three  months  of 
the  year.  This  is  an  essential  condition  to  a 
right  to  draw  the  pro  rata  of  the  school  fund 
of  the  state.  This  was  done  in  1882  in  every 
county  by  the  parents  of  the  school  children 
agreeing  to  supplement  the  sum  paid  by  the 


state,  and  thus  the  entire  people  ei^oyed  the 
benefits  of  the  common  schools.  In  an  enu- 
merated school  population — between  the  ages 
of  6  and  18—of  286,819  white  and  197,125 
colored,  making  in  all  433,444,  the  number  of 
illiterates  between  10  and  18  years  is,  whites 
22,828,  colored  68,807;  and  over  18,  the  num- 
ber unable  to  read  is,  whites  20,889,  colored 
148,494.  There  are  1,080  private  elementary 
schools  scattered  over  the  state,  with  1,183  in- 
structors, teaching  whites  26,822,  colored  6,- 
671  — total,  88,493  children.  Of  male  and 
female  colleges,  including  Mercer  university 
(Baptist),  and  Pio  Nono  college  (Roman 
Catholic)  at  Macon,  and  Emory  college  (Meth- 
odist) at  Oxford,  and  not  counting  the  univer- 
sity of  Georgia  and  its  branches,  there  are 
11  institutions  of  high  grades,  with  upward  of 
2,000  students.  The  Atlanta  university,  where 
colored  students  exclusively  are  educated,  and 
for  the  support  of  which  the  state  appropri- 
ates annually  $8,000 — a  sum  equal  to  that  paid 
to  the  university aof  Georgia  in  payment  of  her 
debt  to  that  institution — ^is  well  conducted,  and 
is  doing  successful  work. — The  "  New  South  " 
has  made  wonderful  progress  in  manufactures 
during  the  past  few  years,  and  Georgia  is  in 
the  lead.  Cotton  goods  are  necessarily  the 
chief  manufacture;  but  iron  foundries,  oil 
mills,  shoe  factories,  &c.,  have  sprung  up  in 
various  parts  of  the  state,  and  they  are  all 
prosperous.  The  Atlanta  cotton  exposition 
of  1881  has  given  a  great  impetus  to  manufac- 
turing industry.  The  principal  cotton  factories 
are  at  Augusta  and  Columbus,  the  former 
using  the  water-power  supplied  by  the  canal, 
and  the  latter  the  water  of  the  Chattahoo- 
chee river.  The  factories  now  in  operation 
at  Augusta  are :  the  Augusta  factory,  capital 
$1,000,000;  consumes  annually  13,084  bales 
of  cotton ;  number  of  looms,  779 ;  number  of 
spindles,  26,000;  producing  16,500,000  yards 
of  goods.     The   Enterprise   factory,  capita] 


860 


GEORGIA 


GERM  THEORY  OF  DISEASE 


$650,000,  consumes  12,000  bales;  number  of 
looms,  900;  number  of  spindles,  30,000;  pro- 
ducing 13,000,000  yards.  The  Sibley  mills, 
capital  $1,000,000,  consuming  13,000  bales; 
number  of  looms,  800;  number  of  spindles, 
80,000;  producing  12,000,000  yards.  TbeSum- 
merville  mills,  capital  $100,000,  consuming 
1,500  bales ;  number  of  looms,  150 ;  number  of 
spindles^  4,000;  producing  2,250,000  yards. 
The  Glt>be  (private  enterprise),  consuming 
2,000  bales ;  number  of  spmdles,  5,800,  pro- 
ducing warps  and  yarns.  Riverside  waste 
works  (private),  consuming  2,000  bales;  num- 
ber of  spindles,  2,400,  producing  warps  and 
yarns.  Sterling  mills  (private),  consuming 
1,000  bales;  number  of  spindles,  2,800;  pro- 
ducing warps  and  yams;  and  Goodrich  (pri- 
vate) consuming  600  bales;  number  of  spin- 
dles, 2,000 ;  producing  wai-ps  and  yarns.  The 
John  P.  King  mills,  in  process  of  construction, 
and  nearly  complete,  have  a  capital  of  $1,000,- 
000,  and  will  run  750  looms  and  25,000  spin- 
dles. Total  number  of  looms,  8,379 ;  spindles, 
128,000 ;  bales  of  cotton  consumed  during  the 
year,  57,100.  The  Augusta  factory  has  paid 
in  caish  dividends  from  1865  to  1882,  $1,467,- 
000,  or  about  two  and  a  half  times  its  capital. 
Besides  this,  it  has  a  surplus  of  between  $340,- 
000  and  $350,000,  or  over  50  per  cent  of  its 
capital.  Its  stock  is  worth  $170  a  share.  The 
Augusta  Orescent  and  Excelsior  flour  mills 
manufactured  during  the  year  140,000  barrels 
of  flour,  valued  at  $1,050,000,  and  750,000 
bushels  of  meal,  valued  at  $637,500.  Another 
large  and  growing  industry  at  Augusta  is  the 
Georgia  chemical  works,  with  a  capital  of 
$200,000,  for  the  manufacture  of  fertilizers. 
They  made  and  sold  during  the  year  15,000 
tons,  half  of  which  amount  was  ammoniated 
and  half  acid  phosphate.  A  factory  has  been 
bailt  and  is  in  operation  at  Kirkwood,  near 
Atlanta,  where  sulphuric  acid  is  made  out  of 
the  iron  pyrites,  thousands  of  tons  of  which  are 
scattered  over  the  rocky  hills,  and  at  a  much 
less  cost  than  it  could  be  produced  from  the 
imported  salphur.  In  immediate  proximity 
to  these  works  are  two  fertilizer  factories,  a 
cotton-seed-oil  mill,  and  works  for  the  redac- 
tion of  copper.  The  principal  factories  at 
Oolumbns  are:  the  Eagle  and  Phoenix  mills, 
capital  $1,250,000,  running  45,710  spindles 
and  1,600  looms,  making  100  varieties  of  goods ; 
the  Golumbus  manufacturing  company,  capital 
$268,000,  running  4,156  spindles  and  136  looms, 
making  sheetings  and  domestics;  Muscogee 
manufacturing  company,  capital  $157,000,  run- 
ning 5,000  spindles  and  240  looms,  making 
cottonndes  and  domestics :  the  Steam  Ootton 
mills,  capital  $30,000,  running  8,000  spindles, 
making  yarn  and  thread ;  the  Excelsior  mills, 
capital  $25,000,  running  96  looms,  making 
checks  and  plaids ;  and  A.  Olegg  &  Go.,  capital 
$10,000,  running  48  looms,  making  checks  and 
stripes.  Besides  tlie  above,  there  are  at  Go- 
lumbus a  jute  factory,  turning  out  2,000  yards 
of  bagging  daily ;  iron  works,  plough  factory. 


two  large  flour  mills,  a  trunk  factory,  a  cloth- 
ing factory,  a  paper-box  factory,  and  a  gas- 
light company,  with  an  aggregate  capital  of 
$2,048,500.  There  is  a  cotton  factory  at 
Atlanta,  three  at  Athens,  and  small  miUs  in 
other  parts  of  the  state.  A  number  of  cotton- 
seed-oil mills  have  been  started,  or  are  be- 
ing built.  Broom  factories,  works  for  the 
manufacture  of  wooden  ware,  ice  factories, 
carriage  and  wagon  factories,  and  other  in- 
dustries have  sprung  into  existence.  The  re- 
port of  the  comptroller  general  estimates  the 
value  of  the  iron  works  in  the  state  in 
1882  at  $569,231,  an  increase  of  $219,282, 
as  compared  with  their  value  in  1881.  His 
estimate  of  the  amount  of  capital  invested  in 
mining  in  1882  is  $127,622,  as  compared  with 
$101,675  in  1881.— The  lumber  interest  has 
grown  largely.  The  exports  coastwise  from 
the  port  of  Savannah  alone  up  to  Aug.  81, 
1882,  were  57,868,627  feet,  and  the  foreign  ex- 
ports 14,675,279,  making  a  total  of  72,048,906 
feet.  The  production  of  turpentine  and  naval 
stores  from  the  immense  pine  forests  has  in- 
creased largely.  The  exports  from  Savannah 
for  the  year  ending  Aug.  81  were :  turpentine, 
1,635,250  gallons,  worth  $786,593;  rosin,  168,- 
408  barrels,  worth  $408,418.— The  popolation 
of  the  principal  places,  by  the  census  of  1880, 
was:  Atlanta,  87,409 ;  Savannah,  80,709;  Au- 
gusta, 21,891 ;  Macon,  12,749  ;  Oolumbns,  10,- 
128 ;  Athens,  6,099.  See  map  at  beginning  of 
this  supplement. 

GiSM  THEWT  OF  MSEASE,  the  doctrine  that 
infectious  diseases  are  caused  by  living  micro- 
scopic organisms,. whose  germs  have  entered 
the  animal  structure  in  air,  food,  or  drink, 
through  wounds,  or  in  other  ways,  which  mul- 
tiply within  the  body  to  a  sufficient  extent  to 
interfere  with  the  vital  processes,  consuming 
or  preventing  the  healthy  formation  of  the 
substance  of  the  fluids  or  tissues.  The  discov- 
ery of  the  infusoria  by  Leeuwenhoek,  followed 
by  that  of  the  spermatozoa  in  1677,  which  were 
at  first  supposed  to  be  real  animals,  was  the 
occasion  of  the  revival  and  wide  acceptance  of 
the  germ  theory,  which  had  been  advanced 
more  than  once  during  the  middle  ages.  Among 
the  advocates  of  the  theory  in  the  succeeding 
period  were  Kircher,  Lancisi,  Yallisnieri,  R^u- 
mur,  and  Linnssus.  In  the  earlier  half  of  the 
19th  century  the  repeated  mistakes  of  over-san- 
guine investigators,  who  announced  that  they 
had  discovered  the  animalcules  of  smallpox,  of 
cholera,  and  of  other  epidemic  diseases,  again 
and  again,  only  to  find  tnat  they  had  been  mis- 
led by  the  bacteria  of  putrefaction,  brought 
the  germ  theory  into  disrepute.  Henle,  a  distin- 
guished German  physiologist,  who  maintained 
the  doctrine  of  canta^tim  vimim  as  early  as  1840, 
and  elaborated  the  theory  with  great  ability 
in  1858,  was  almost  alone  in  his  setiological 
opinions.  The  indefinite  extent  of  the  action  of 
infectious  poison,  which  spreads  throughout  the 
whole  organism  whose  tissues  or  fluids  are  con- 
taminated in  only  a  single  particle,  and  w  hich  can 


GERM  THEORY  OF  DISEASE 


861 


be  communicated  bj  loocnlation  from  one  or- 
ganism to  another  without  end,  and  will  mani- 
lest  in  the  thoasandth  and  the  ten  thousand th 
subject  the  same  destructive  vigor  as  at  the 
outset,  finds  only  two  analogies  in  the  other 
processes  of  nature :  certain  chemical  phenom- 
ena, such  as  combustion,  and  the  growth  and 
reproduction  of  living  organisms.  At  the  time 
when  the  doctrine  of  living  contagiam  was 
most  discredited,  the  chemical  theory  was  re- 
sorted to  as  a  necessary  alternative.  The  path- 
ological phenomena  of  this  class  of  diseases 
were  held  to  be  strictly  analogous  to  the  pro- 
cess of  fermentation.  Hence  they  were  called 
zymotic  or  ferment  diseases.  The  convinc- 
ing evidence  obtained  in  the  experiments  of 
Schwann  and  Pasteur  of  the  organic  nature  of 
the  different  kinds  of  fermentation  left  the  op- 
ponents of  the  germ  theory  without  any  astio- 
jogioal  hypothesis.  The  absence  of  all  direct 
evidence  of  the  presence  of  animalcules  in  the 
body  affected  by  the  morbid  symptoms  pre- 
vented the  ancient  and  natural  explanation  by 
contagium  vivum  from  overcoming  the  dis- 
favor into  which  it  had  been  brought  by  over- 
bold speculation  in  preceding  generations.  In 
the  course  of  a  few  years,  however,  the  dis- 
coveries by  Davaine,  Koch,  Cohn,  Klein,  and 
Pasteur  of  specific  bacterial  forms  as  the  atten- 
dants of  certain  affections  which  have  been 
classed  with  the  zymotic  diseases  have  brought 
the  germ  theory  of  disease  into  higher  cr^it 
than  it  had  ever  enjoyed  before.  The  tendency 
to  revert  to  this  doctrine  received  a  strong  im- 
pulse from  the  discoveries  made  in  the  life  his- 
tory of  certain  entozoio  parasites — the  identifi- 
cation of  the  tapeworm  with  the  eysticeretis, 
the  discovery  of  the  sexual  process  of  the  tri- 
ehina^  and  of  the  manner  in  which  both  these 
organisms  find  their  way  into  the  human  sys- 
tem. The  brilliant  dialectic  of  Pastenr  and 
Tyndall,  and  their  heated  controversy,  as  up- 
holders of  the  germ  theory  of  fermentation  and 
disease,  with  the  advocates  of  spontaneous  gen- 
eration, have  obtained  for  this  and  the  allied 
questions  a  wide  popular  interest.  The  germ 
theory,  which  had  been  advanced  in  its  modem 
form  by  individual  pathologists  as  a  conjectu- 
ral explanation  of  epidemics  at  the  time  of  the 
cholera  pestilences  of  1832  and  1849,  first  won 
an  influential  support  after  Pasteur's  discoveries 
of  the  parasitic  origin  of  the  silkworm  epidem- 
ics and  of  the  grape  disease.  Subsequent  to 
Davaine^s  spirited  controversy  with  Sanson, 
Leplat,  and  other  opponents  regarding  the  or- 
ganic nature  of  the  poison  of  anthrax,  the  no- 
tion of  contagium  vivum  obtained  a  strong  hold 
upon  the  minds  of  the  leading  biologists  and 
pathologists  of  Europe.  In  1868  Davaine  an- 
nounced the  rod-like  bodies,  observed  by  Pol- 
lender  in  1855  and  by  Branell  in  1857  in  the 
blood  of  animals  and  men,  the  victims  of  an- 
thrax, to  be  genuine  bacteria,  or  hacteridia^  as 
he  afterward  called  them,  to  distinguish  them 
from  the  bacteria  of  putrefaction.  Since  that 
date  the  adherents  of  the  germ  theory  have 


been  constantly  growing  in  numbers,  until  it 
has  become  the  prevailing  doctrine.  Other 
diseases  counted  as  infectious  have  been  proved 
since  to  be  due  to  the  propagation  of  living 
germs  within  the  tissues ;  yet,  with  all  the  con- 
stantly accumulating  evidence,  the  doctrine  of 
parasitism,  when  applied  to  the  most  important 
and  typical  of  the  contagious  and  malarial  dis- 
eases, still  rests  solely  upon  a  theoretical  basis. 
— ^The  term  "  infectious  ^'  is  applied  to  the  class 
of  diseases  which  it  is  sought  to  trace  to  the 
invasion  of  the  body  by  living  organisms,  be- 
cause they  are  due  to  some  specific  poisonous 
principle  introduced  into  the  system  from  with- 
out. These  diseases  collectively  immeasurably 
exceed,  in  the  extent  of  their  ravages  and  in 
the  deadliness  of  their  effects,  all  the  other  mal- 
adies which  afiSict  mankind,  and  far  overbal- 
ance all  other  causes  of  death.  The  constant 
uniformity  of  their  symptoms,  their  specific 
character,  and  the  fact  that  they  are  invariably 
due  to  specific  causes,  each  contagium  produ- 
cing its  special  disease,  which  conforms  always 
to  the  one  type  and  follows  the  same  train  of 
symptoms  in  every  case,  furnish  not  only  the 
distinctive  characteristics  according  to  which 
infectious  diseases  are  classified,  but  also,  in  con- 
nection with  the  contagiousness  and  nnlimitedly 
propagable  and  inoculable  qualities  of  most  of 
them,  the  chief  theoretical  grounds  for  attrib- 
uting them  to  living  creatures  multiplying  with- 
in the  fluids  or  fibres  of  the  body.  The  idea 
of  living  contagia  finds  the  most  unquestioning 
acceptance  and  the  most  extensive  application 
in  Germany.  A  bacterial  origin  is  claimed  by 
prominent  medical  authorities  in  that  coun- 
try even  for  tuberculosis;  and  the  efficacy  of 
a  novel  cure  for  phthisis,  which  consists  in  in- 
haling fumes  of  the  benzoate  of  sodium  in  large 
quantities,  is  attributed  to  the  deadly  effect  of 
this  substance  upon  the  specific  bacteria  of  the 
disease,  to  whose  development  in  the  lung  tis- 
sue the  tuberculizing  process  is  due,  which  is 
believed  to  be  effectually  arrested  when  the 
characteristic  bacteria  are  destroyed  by  the 
benzoic  vapors.  This  view  is  sustained  to  some 
extent  by  the  results  of  experiments  with  rab- 
bits confined  in  an  atmosphere  impregnated 
with  vapor  of  sodium  benzoate,  in  which  the 
disease  refused  to  develop,  although  ordinarily 
these  animals  are  peculiarly  subject  to  tuber- 
cular consumption,  and  can  be  infected  inva- 
riably by  inoculation.  The  bacteria,  or  mi- 
orodemes,  as  they  have  more  recently  been 
called,  which  are  regarded  as  the  causes  of  so 
much  mortality  among  both  men  and  animals, 
are  classed  by  De  Bary,  Nageli,  Cohn,  and  oth- 
er German  biologists  as  fungi,  but  by  Dr.  Bur- 
don  Sanderson  and  others  are  placed  in  the 
animal  kingdom.  Haeckel  ^ves  them,  with 
the  zoophytes,  a  position  intermediate  between 
the  two  kingdoms  into  which  organic  nature 
is  divided.  Anthrax,  splenic  fever,  or  gan- 
grene of  the  spleen  (in  German  Milzbrand,  in 
French  ehdrhon) — which  occurs  primarily  in 
herbivorous  animals,  but  is  communicable  to 


862 


GERM  THEORY  OF  DISEASE 


man,  and  has  occasionally  raged  as  an  epidemic 
in  Asia  and  eastern  Europe,  notably  in  Russia, 
where  it  is  known  as  the  Siberian  plagne,  in 
1866 — is  proved  to  be  caused  by  filainentons 
bacteria  which  multiply  with  enormous  rapid- 
ity in  the  blood.  The  disease  is  attended  with 
carbuncle,  and  is  allied  to  malignant  pustule. 
The  bacteridia  or  schizomycetes,  which  consti- 
tute the  sped 6c  poison  of  anthrax,  are  known  at 
present  under  the  name  of  bacillus  anthrctcis. 
rhey  are  supposed  to  enter  the  body  with 
drink.  They  till  even  the  smallest  blood  glob- 
ules, but  disappear  entirely  witii  the  complete 
putrefaction  of  the  blood.  The  facts  that  the 
blood  of  diseased  animals  soon  lost  its  con- 
tagious qualities  after  death,  while  the  disease 
would  linger  in  a  particular  locality,  reappear- 
ing in  the  same  stable  after  several  years  of 
intermission,  long  puzzled  investigators,  until 
the  researches  of  Koch  cleared  away  the  chief 
difficulties.  Koch  applied  to  the  B.  anthracU^ 
which  name  he  first  bestowed  upon  this  mi- 
crophyte, the  method  of  cultivation  which  has 
been  employed  by  Pasteur  and  other  observers 
of  these  minute  organisms  with  most  success- 
ful results.  He  found  that  while  the  bacteroi- 
dal  forms  observed  in  blood  lost  their  vitality 
in  about  five  weeks,  the  spores  remained  fer- 
tile for  at  least  five  years — a  sufficient  explana- 
tion of  the  mysterious  tenacity  with  which  the 
disease  clings  to  particular  spots,  and  returns 
after  a  disappearance  of  years.  This  bacillus 
is  only  distinguishable  from  the  B.  suhtilis  by 
the  fact  that  while  the  latter  is  quite  active, 
this  one  is  motionless.  It  has  been  observed 
by  Dr.  Ewart,  however,  to  pass  through  mobile 
stages  at  rare  and  irregular  intervals.  The 
similarity  in  the  forms  of  the  two  bacteria  has 
suggested  the  opinion  that  the  B,  anthrcieis  is 
only  a  form  of  the  ordinary  B>  stihtilis^  de- 
veloped under  certain  circumstances.  This  hy- 
pothesis is  based  also  on  the  fact  that  sudden 
inexplicable  outbreaks  of  splenic  fever  occur 
at  times  among  over-fed  cattle.  In  a  warm 
solution  of  the  aqueous  humor  of  an  ox^s  eye, 
Koch  observed  a  remarkably  rapid  growth  of 
the  anthrax  bacillus.  The  short  rods  attained 
in  three  or  four  hours  10  and  20  times,  and 
ultimately  100  times,  their  original  length ;  in 
some  cases  running  out  straight,  in  others  fol- 
lowing beautiful  curves,  and  in  others  becom- 
ing intricately  interlaced  and  forming  a  matted 
mass.  After  some  time  the  spore  formation 
followed.  The  spores  developed  within  the  in- 
teguments of  the  filaments  along  their  entire 
length,  and  in  due  course  the  envelope  disinte- 
grated and  the  rods  fell  to  pieces,  releasing  the 
infinitesimal  ovoid  germs.  Another  of  the  in- 
fectious diseases  to  which  animals  are  subject, 
the  hog  cholera  or  typhoid  fever  of  the  pig,  has 
been  traced  to  bacterial  germs  by  Dr.  Klein, 
who  gives  to  the  complaint  the  name  of  infec- 
tious pneurao-enteritis.  He  obtained  the  char- 
acteristic microphyte,  and  cultivated  it  in  infu- 
sions. This  is  also  a  bacillus,  more  delicate 
than  the  bacillus  of  anthrax,  which  has  a  mo- 


bile stage  like  the  B.  suhtilis^  and  gives  out 
spores  and  filaments  like  other  bacillL  Both 
anthrax  and  pneumo-enteritis  have  been  (com- 
municated by  inoculation  to  mice  and  rabbits; 
the  latter,  however,  with  difficulty.  It  differs 
essentially  from  the  other  disease  in  the  entire 
absence  of  the  disturbing  bacteria  from  the 
blood  of  the  diseased  animal. — Dr.  Obermeier 
in  1867  made  the  important  discovery  of  spi- 
rilla in  the  blood  of  persons  Bufi*ering  from 
relapsing  fever.  They  appeared  in  immense 
numbers  when  the  paroxysm  was  approach- 
ing, but  no  trace  of  them  was  found  after  it 
was  over.  Tliia  organism,  the  tpiroehate  Ober- 
meiri  of  Oohn,  has  been  watched  in  its  de- 
velopment in  the  blood  of  the  diseased  sul>- 
Ject  by  Dr.  Heydenreich,  but  not  yet  observed 
in  the  spore  stage.  The  blood,  in  which  alone 
this  spirillum  has  been  found,  is  infective,  but 
only  auring  the  paroxysm ;  at  that  period  the 
microphyte  swarms  in  the  blood,  but  disap- 
pears entirely  during  the  remission  of  the  at- 
tacks. This  bacterium  cannot  be  distinguished 
in  its  form  from  other  organisms  which  are  in- 
nocuous. This  fact,  which  holds  true  also  of 
the  baeillfu  anthracis^  and  the  further  analogy 
that  this  disease  breaks  out  during  famine, 
while  anthrax  frequently  accompanies  reple- 
tion, afford  grounds  for  supposing  that  these 
deadly  agents  are  only  special  forms  of  com- 
mon species  developed  under  peculiar  condi- 
tions. Davaine  in  1860  was  the  first  to  detect 
bacteria  in  cases  of  malignant  pustule.  He 
found  them  in  large  groups  in  the  centre  of  the 
pustules,  between  the  epithelial  cells,  and  in 
scattered  groups  separated  by  epithelial  cells 
in  the  periphery  of  the  pustules,  whence  they 
penetrate  into  the  blooa  and  lymph  vessels  of 
the  skin.  An  affection  related  to  anthrax  is 
the  recently  discovered  disease  called  mycoM 
int^tinalisj  which  is  characterized  by  the  oc- 
currence of  immense  numbers  of  bacteria  and 
vibrios  in  the  blood,  and  by  purulent  inflam- 
mation of  the  mucous  coats  of  the  stomach  and 
intestines,  with  abundant  schizomycetes,  as  the 
bacterial  agents  of  infection  have  been  called. 
— ^Extensive  investigations  have  been  under- 
taken for  the  specific  bacteria  of  throat  diph- 
theria. Micrococci  and  bacteria  have  been 
found  of  various  kinds,  and  in  any  number,  not 
only  in  the  epithelium  of  the  throat,  but  in  the 
mucous  and  submucous  coats,  in  the  young  ex- 
udation cells,  in  the  lymphatic  vessels,  in  the 
lungs,  in  the  blood,  urine,  &c.  The  infectious 
character  of  this  disease  is  well  established. 
By  inoculating  rabbits  with  diphtheritic  mat- 
ter, peculiar  and  specific  symptoms  are  pro- 
duced. The  micrococci  have  been  observed  to 
consume  the  entire  nitrogenous  contents  of  a 
cell  in  the  space  of  24  hours.  On  account  of 
the  constant  presence  of  the  ordinary  bacteria 
of  putrefaction,  the  characteristic  batsterimn  of 
diphtheria,  if  there  be  one,  has  probably  not 
yet  been  distinguished,  unless,  as  has  frequently 
been  suggested  the  ordinary  vibrio  of  pntres- 
cent  fermentation  i$  the  actual  toxic  agent  in 


GERM  THEORY  OF  DISEASE 


863 


the  disease.  Ewart  and  Simpson  of  London 
identify  the  specific  microphyte  of  diphtheria 
with  an  exceedingly  minute  spore  ohserved  hy 
them,  which  in  a  favorable  medium  germinates 
into  long  and  very  slender  rods.  When  these 
spores'  are  brought  into  contact  with  raw  flesh, 
it  is  asserted  that  they  give  rise  speedily  to  the 
formation  of  a  diphtheritic  membrane.  Oertel, 
Klebs,  and  other  German  physicians  hold  that 
diphtheria  is  due  to  bacteria.  Drs.  Ourtis  and 
Satterthwaite  assert,  on  the  other  hand,  that  the 
inoculation  of  rabbits  with  diphtheritic  mem- 
brane produces  only  the  same  effects  that  putres- 
cent infusions  cause. — Septicaemia  is  traced  be- 
yond question  to  living  organisms.  The  dis- 
coveries which  have  been  made  by  Burdon  San- 
derson, Tyndall,  and  others,  relating  to  the  ori- 
gin of  pyaamic  and  other  traumatic  affections, 
have  led  to  important  reforms  in  hospital  prac- 
tice, which  promise  to  obviate  entirely  the  dif- 
ferent forms  of  blood  poisoning  which  have 
constituted  the  serious  danger  in  hospital  sur- 
gery. Two  methods  for  the  prevention  of  sep- 
tic poisoning  have  been  devised,  both  of  which 
proceed  upon  the  theory  that  the  noxious  prin- 
ciples are  introduced  into  the  wounds  by  mi- 
crodemes.  The  method  of  Lister,  which,  modi- 
fied and  improved  in  many  ways,  has  been  ex- 
tensively introduced,  aims,  by  diffusing  in  the 
air  carbolic  acid,  which  is  fatal  to  the  micro- 
phytes, to  prevent  the  living  germs  from  com- 
ing in  contact  with  the  injured  surface.  The 
other  method,  the  open-air  treatment,  has  for 
its  object  the  greatest  possible  dispersion  of  in- 
fectious organisms.  The  invasion  of  the  dam- 
aged tissue  by  bacteria,  generally  supposed  to 
be  the  common  bacteria  of  putrescence,  or  the 
hay  bacterium  (bacillus  8uhtili8%  is  admitted  to 
be  the  cause  of  wound  fever,  suppurative  pro- 
cesses, mortification,  &o. ;  yet  they  do  not  pro- 
duce these  degenerative  processes  by  preying 
upon  the  fibres  or  fluids,  or  by  increasing  in 
such  manner  as  to  interfere  with  functional  ac- 
tivities ;  the  degeneration  in  these  cases  is  the 
effect  of  a  specific  poison  developed  by  the  mi- 
crophytes, as  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  the  sep- 
tic poison  can  be  obtained  free  from  all  germs 
and  organisms  in  a  clear  fluid,  which,  after  be- 
ing filtered,  boiled,  and  subjected  to  every  test 
for  the  presence  of  living  germs,  retains  its  vir- 
ulent qualities,  with  the  difference  that  it  then 
acts  as  an  ordinary  chemical  poison,  the  nox- 
ious effects  being  proportional  to  the  quantity 
introduced.  Dr.  Sanderson  has  shown  that, 
while  normally  the  common  bacteroid  forms 
do  not  possess  in  a  marked  degree  the  property 
of  producing  the  septic  poison  when  coming  in 
contact  with  living  tissue,  or  even  with  decayed 
tissue  in  the  living  body,  yet  it  can  be  developed 
with  increasing  potency  by  injecting  infusions 
containing  these  forms  into  the  peritoneal  cavi- 
ty of  a  guinea  pig,  taking  the  effused  fluid  and 
i^ecting  it  again  into  a  second  animal,  and 
so  on.  The  result  of  this  experiment  offers  a 
striking  analogy  to  the  development  of  intensi- 
fied malignancy  during  the  continuance  of  con- 
860**  VOL.  vii. — 56 


tagious  epidemics.  In  1876  Tyndall  opened 
hermetically  sealed  infusions  in  a  room  in  the 
Bernese  Oberland,  in  which  a  few  years  before 
he  had  dressed  a  slight  wound  that  was  followed 
by  an  abscess,  and  found  the  air  strongly  im- 
pregnated with  putrefactive  bacteria.  In  1878 
and  1879  Koch  subjected  septicaemia  to  a  long 
and  full  series  of  experiments.  He  found  that 
putrid  blood  injected  under  the  skin  of  mice 
produced  death  in  a  few  hours,  yet  the  blood 
of  the  diseased  animals  exhibited  no  traces  of 
bacterial  life,  and  was  incapable  of  producing 
symptoms  of  disease  in  other  animals ;  the  bac- 
teria injected  remained  enclosed  in  the  subcu- 
taneous cellular  tissue.  The  fact  that  a  certain 
quantity  of  the  fluid  required  to  be  introduced 
in  order  to  produce  the  disease,  led  him  to  in- 
fer that  the  effect  was  due  to  the  chemical  ac- 
tion of  the  poison  generated  by  the  putrefactive 
bacteria,  to  which  the  name  of  septin  or  sepsin 
has  been  ^ven.  In  about  one  third  of  the  sub- 
jects, however,  a  true  infectious  disorder  was 
produced,  a  peculiar  form  of  septicaemia.  The 
disease  passed  through  a  regular  order  of  char- 
acteristic symptoms,  and  was  followed  after  a 
certain  period  by  death.  He  carried  this  in- 
fection through  seventeen  successive  subjects. 
The  diseased  blood  was  found  to  swarm  with  a 
bacillus  of  a  definite  shape  and  size.  No  other 
bacteria  injected  with  these  bacilli  spread  in 
the  living  tissue.  A  micrococcus,  however, 
occasionally  occurred,  which  multiplied  with 
great  rapidity  in  the  subcutaneous  tissue.  This 
microphyte,  when  injected  into  the  ear  of  the 
mouse,  produced  progressive  necrosis  in  the  tis- 
sues of  that  organ,  completely  destroying  them 
in  a  brief  time.  The  septicaemic  bacilli  would 
not  infect  the  field  mouse  at  all,  and  the  micro- 
coccus, which  throve  in  this  animal,  would  at- 
tack the  tissues  of  the  house  mouse  only  when 
its  blood  was  infected  with  the  septicaemic  bac- 
teria. Iigection  of  putrid  blood  into  rabbits  pro- 
duced a  very  different  effect,  causing  abscesses 
to  form  in  the  subcutaneous  tissue,  which  grad- 
ually increased  in  size,  and  produced  death  in  a 
few  days.  Examination  of  the  abscesses  showed 
them  to  be  surrounded  by  a  thin  layer  of  mi- 
crococci in  the  zo6gloea  state.  The  granular 
contents  of  the  abscesses  appear  to  be  derived 
from  the  zoOglcea  and  the  decomposed  tissue 
which  they  infest.  An  infusion  of  the  matter 
of  the  abscess  invariably  caused  the  same  symp- 
toms in  healthy  animiJs,  but  the  injection  of 
the  blood  of  the  dead  rabbits  had  no  effect. 
In  pyaemia  artificially  produced  in  rabbits,  a 
micrococcus  was  observed  in  the  blood,  occur- 
ring singly  or  in  pairs,  but  neither  in  chains 
nor  in  zo6gloea  films,  and  of  a  different  form 
and  size  from  those  attending  other  diseases. 
He  infected  rabbits  also  with  both  septicaemia 
and  erysipelas  by  putrescent  infusions.  The 
former  was  accompanied  by  a  distinct  form  of 
micrococcus,  and  was  capable  of  transmission ; 
the  latter  was  characterized  by  a  small  bacil- 
lus, and  was  not  communicable. — ^Pasteur  an- 
nounced in  1879  that  he  had  discovered  the  mi- 


864     GERM  THEORY  OF  DISEASE 


GILBERT 


crophytes  which  are  the  toxic  agents  in  malig- 
nant pustule  and  in  puerperal  fever.  He  is 
convinced  by  his  researches  that  the  bacterium 
discovered  by  Davaine  is  the  true  cause  of  ma- 
lignant pustule.  He  obtained  the  organisms 
by  cultivation,  the  method  introduced  by  him 
in  1857.  Sowing  a  drop  of  blood  from  a  case 
of  malignant  pustule  in  the  froth  of  beer  yeast, 
and  repeatedly  infecting  new  yeast  froth  with 
the  organisms,  he  kept  on  hand  for  years  a  con- 
stant supply.  Malignant  pustules  were  pro- 
duced in  guinea  pigs,  sheep,  and  other  animals, 
by  inoculating  them  with  this  liquid.  In  the 
same  manner  he  has  cultivated  and  infected 
fowls  with  the  germs  of  poultry  cholera.  The 
microscopical  organisms  which  produce  puer- 
peral fever  are  described  by  Pasteur  as  an  en- 
tozo6n  containing  two,  four,  or  six  cells  united ; 
the  cells  have  an  average  diameter  of  two  thou- 
sandths of  a  millimetre. — A  heated  controversy 
between  the  Mends  and  the  opponents  of  the 
bacterial  hypothesis  took  place  concerning  the 
germinal  particles  conveying  the  virus  of  vari- 
ola and  cowpox  observed  by  Cohn,  by  Beale, 
and  by  other  microscoplsts  in  smallpox  lymph 
and  in  vaccine  lymph.  While  Cohn,  Prof.  Klebs, 
and  Dr.  Sanderson  declare  these  granules  to  be 
micrococci,  Dr.  Beale  asserts  that  they  have  no 
structural  form.  All  agree  that  they  have  not 
been  observed  propagating,  and  that  the  infec- 
tion takes  place  without  their  multiplying. — 
The  least  success  in  tracing  disease  to  organic 
germs  has  been  obtained  in  those  classes  which 
first  suggested  the  theory,  and  for  which  it  is  a 
matter  of  transcendent  importance  to  human 
civilization  to  discover  this  or  some  other  pre- 
ventable cause — the  miasmatic  diseases,  and  the 
so-called  miasmatico-contagious  class  which  is 
represented  by  cholera  and  yellow  fever.  The 
bacterial  theory  as  applied  to  miasmatic  con- 
tagium  and  elaborated  by  Nfigeli  is,  that  the 
germs,  which  are  ordinarily  harmless,  acquire 
their  poisonous  potency  in  a  special  develop- 
ment under  abnormal  conditions.  Dr.  Eklund 
of  the  Swedish  navy  announced  in  1878  that 
he  had  discovered  the  specific  microdeme  of 
malarial  fever.  The  organism  to  which  he 
claims  to  have  traced  the  miasma  he  named 
the  lymnophysalis  hyalina.  Profs.  Elebs  of 
Prague  and  Tommasi  of  Rome  passed  several 
weeks  in  the  spring  of  1879  in  the  Agro  Ro- 
mano, a  part  of  the  Roman  Campagna,  in  which 
marsh  or  intermittent  fever  is  particularly  prev- 
alent, in  investigating  the  cause  of  this  disease. 
The  organism  to  which  they  succeeded  in  tracing 
the  disease,  and  which  they  call  a  fungus,  is  a 
bacillus  in  structure,  with  peculiar  character- 
istics. It  exhibits  numerous  movable,  shining 
spores  of  elongated  ovoid  form.  They  give  to 
this  organism  the  name  of  hacillus  maloHof.  It 
is  very  abundant  in  the  soil  and  in  the  air  near 
the  ground  in  that  region.  They  cultivated 
it  artificially  in  different  kinds  of  soil.  The 
residual  solids  of  the  bacteria,  after  the  solu- 
ble matter  had  been  washed  out  and  filtered 
off  repeatedly,  when  injected  under  the  skin 


of  a  dog,  engendered  the  disease,  which  passed 
through  all  the  characteristic  symptoms  in 
their  regular  order. — Of  the  other  hypotheses 
advanced  to  explain  the  phenomena  of  epi- 
demic and  contagious  diseases,  in  oppodtion 
to  the  germ  theory,  the  chief  is  the  bioplas- 
tic  theory,  the  leading  exponent  of  which  is 
Dr.  Lionel  S.  Beale  of  London.  According 
to  this,  the  infective  material  is  bioplasm,  as 
living  protoplastic  matter  is  called,  which  has 
developed  abnormally.  Diseases  consist  in  the 
growth  of  this  degraded  bioplasm  in  the  place 
of  healthy  cells ;  and  when  a  particle  of  it  is 
grafted  into  a  sound  organism,  the  bastard 
process  continues.  (See  Dr.  Beale^s  ^*  Disease 
Germs,"  London,  1874,  and  "  The  Microscope 
in  Medicine,"  London,  1880.)  The  explaiu- 
tion  of  periodical  epidemics  by  a  dearth  or  su- 
perabundance of  ozone  or  atmospheric  electri- 
city in  the  air,  or  by  astronomical  conditions, 
and  other  cosmo-tellarian  hypotheses,  are  not 
as  frequently  advanced  as  formerly,  but  still 
have  their  supporters.  Different  theories,  pro- 
pounded by  Dougall,  Bastian,  and  others,  make 
the  degeneration  of  tissue  in  contagious  disease 
the  result  of  chemical  changes. — The  fullest  ex- 
position of  the  germ  theory  of  contagious  and 
miasmatic  diseases  is  contained  in  the  German 
work  of  Nageli,  Die  niederen  Pihe  in  ihren 
Bessiehungen  zu  den  Ir^eetionshrankheiten  ttnd 
d^r  QeeundheiUpflege  (Munich,  1877).  See  also 
Wagner's  "  Manual  of  Pathology  "  (New  York^ 
1877),  and  John  S.  Billings,  M.  D.,  in  the  sup- 
plement to  Ziemsen's  ^'  Cyclopssdia  of  the  Prac- 
tice of  Medicine''  (New  York,  1879). 

GER8TER,  EMka,  a  Hungarian  singer,  bom  at 
Kaschau,  Hungary,  June  16,  1857.  She  gave 
evidence  of  musical  ability  at  a  very  early  age, 
which  was  first  recognized  by  the  director  of 
the  conservatory  at  Vienna,  who  happened  to 
hear  her  sing  at  the  head  of  a  religious  pro- 
cession in  her  native  town.  By  his  advice  she 
studied  for  three  years  (1873~'6)  with  Mme. 
Marchesi ;  and  in  January,  1876,  she  made  her 
d^but  with  great  success  at  Venice  as  GQda  in 
Verdi^s  **  Rigoletto.''  She  afterward  sang  in 
the  r61es  of  Ophelia,  Lucia,  Amina,  and  JCar- 
guerite.  From  Venice  she  went  to  Berlin, 
where  she  created  an  unexampled  furor ;  the 
managers  were  compelled  to  ask  that  applica- 
tions for  seats  be  made  in  writing,  and  21,000 
such  applications  had  to  be  refused.  After 
singing  in  Buda-Pesth,  she  went  to  St.  Peters- 
burg, where  her  success  was  almost  as  great  as 
in  Berlin,  and  the  court  bestowed  upon  her 
costly  presents  and  other  marks  of  distinction. 
She  first  appeared  in  London  in  June,  1877,  in 
"  La  Sonnambula,"  and  sang  there  through  the 
season  of  1878 ;  and  in  1878-'9,  and  again  in 
1880,  she  appeared  in  the  United  States.  She 
is  married  to  Signor  Gardini. 

GlLBiaiT,  WIIUmb  Sckwes^  an  English  dram- 
atist, bom  in  London,  Nov.  18,  1886.  He  was 
educated  at  Great  Ealing  school,  and  took  the 
degree  df  B.  A.  at  the  university  of  London. 
He  was  a  clerk  in  the  privy  coundl  ofiBoe  from 


GILBERT 


6LAIZE 


865 


1857  to  1862.  Studying  law  at  the  same  time, 
he  was  called  to  the  bar  in  November,  1864. 
He  became  connected  with  the  Scotch  militia, 
and  in  1868  was  made  a  captain  in  the  royal 
Aberdeenshire  highlanders.  For  two  years 
he  went  the  northern  circuit,  and  daring  this 
period  contributed  articles  to  '*  Punch,"  "  Lon- 
don Society,"  and  "  Fun,"  in  the  last  of  which 
appeared  his  humorous  verses,  afterward  pub- 
lished in  a  volume  entitled  ^*Bab  Ballads." 
Making  the  acquaintance  of  T.  W.  Robertson, 
the  dramatic  author,  he  was  led  to  try  his 
hand  at  writing  for  the  stage ;  and  in  Decem- 
ber, 1866,  his  first  piece,  ^*  Dulcamara,  or  the 
Little  Duck  and  the  Great  Quack,"  written  in 
six  days,  a  burlesque  on  **The  Elixir  of  Love," 
was  produced  at  St.  Jameses  theatre,  and  met 
with  considerable  success.  It  was  followed 
three  months  later  by  an  extravaganza  on  *'  La 
Figlia  del  Reggimento,"  entitled  "La  Yivan- 
didre,"  which  was  played  at  Liverpool  and  at 
the  Qneen^s  theatre,  London.  The  same  year 
he  furnished  a  pantomime  for  the  Lyceum. 
Many  other  pieces  of  the  style  of  those  just 
named  followed,  and  in  1869  Mr.  Gilbert^s  first 
comedy,  "  An  Old  Score,"  was  played  at  the 
Gaiety.  But  he  was  first  brought  into  general 
notice  by  ''Ages  Ago,"  a  musical  legend,  the 
joint  work  of  himself  and  Frederick  Clay, 
which  was  given  at  the  Gallery  of  Illustration 
in  December,  1868.  "A  Sensation  Novel," 
by  Gilbert  and  T.  G.  Reed,  was  produced  at 
the  same  place.  "The  Princess,"  a  blank- 
verse  parody  upon  Tennyson's  poem,  followed 
"  An  Old  Score  "  at  the  Gaiety ;  and  in  No- 
vember, 1870,  came  "The  Palace  of  Truth," 
a  fairy  comedy  founded  on  a  story  by  Mme. 
de  Genlis,  at  .the  Haymarket.  Similar  pieces 
were  "  Pygmalion  and  Galatea,"  probably  his 
most  successful  work,  and  "The  Wicked 
World,"  which  had  long  runs  at  the  Hay- 
market,  beginning  respectively  in  December, 
1871,  and  January,  1873,  and  which  were 
followed  there  by  "Charity,"  a  four-act  play, 
in  January,  1874.  "  Broken  Hearts,''  another 
fairy  play,  but  of  a  more  serious  character 
than  the  others,  was  furnished  for  the  reopen- 
ing of  the  Court  theatre  in  1876,  and  is  pre- 
ferred by  its  author  to  all  his  other  works; 
but  its  reception  by  the  public  was  not  very 
favorable.  He  had  previously  furnished  the 
same  house  with  several  pieces,  among  them 
''Randall's  Thumb,"  "On  Guard,"  "Great 
Expectations,"  and  "  Creatures  of  Impulse ; " 
and  "Sweethearts,"  a  dramatic  contrast  in 
two  acts,  had  been  very  successful  at  the 
Prince  of  Wales's  theatre,  where  it  came  out 
in  November,  1874.  His  adaptation  of  Mrs. 
Edwards's  novel  "  Ought  We  to  Visit  Her  ?  " 
was  played  earlier  the  same  year  at  the  Royal- 
ty. In  1876  "  Tom  Cobb,"  a  farcical  comedy, 
was  rendered  at  the  St.  James's,  and  "  Dan'l 
Druce,"  a  drama,  at  the  Haymarket.  Two 
comic  operas  were  produced  the  same  year — 
*'  Trial  by  Jury,"  in  the  preparation  of  which 
Mr.  Gilbert  was  associated  with  Arthur  Sulli- 


van, and  "  Princess  Toto,"  the  joint  production 
of  Messrs.  Gilbert  and  Clay.  "Engaged,"  a 
farcical  comedy,  followed  "Dan'l  Druce"  at 
the  Haymarket.  "  The  Sorcerer  "  and  "  H.  M. 
S.  Pinafore,"  comic  operas,  the  joint  work  of 
Messrs.  Gilbert  and  Sullivan,  were  brought  out 
at  the  Op^ra  Comique ;  and  the  latter,  which 
was  first  played  in  May,  1878,  attained  extraor- 
dinary popularity  both  in  England  and  the 
United  States.  Less  successful  works  by  Mr. 
Gilbert  were  "On  Bail,"  and  "The  Spend- 
thrift," comedies  produced  respectively  at  the 
Criterion  in  1877  and  the  Olympic  in  1878, 
and  "  Gretchen,"  an  "  improved  "  version  ot 
"  Faust,"  which  had  a  brief  existence  in  the 
spring  of  1879  at  the  Olympic.  "  The  Spend- 
thrift "  was  rewritten  and  named  "  The  Ne'er- 
do-well,"  but  it  still  proved  a  failure.  "The 
Pirates  of  Penzance,"  another  comic  opera  by 
Gilbert  and  Sullivan,  was  produced  at  the 
Fifth  Avenue  theatre,  New  York,  under  their 
personal  superintendence,  on  Dec.  81,  1879, 
being  played  for  one  evening  in  a  Devonshire 
village  almost  simultaneously,  in  order  to  se- 
cure an  English  copyright.  "  Patience,"  a  com- 
ic opera  that  proved  almost  as  successful  as 
"  Pinafore,"  was  brought  out  in  1881,  and 
"lolanthe"  in  1882.  Several  of  Mr.  Gil- 
bert's dramatic  works  have  been  published  in 
a  volume  (1876),  and  his  "Bab  Ballads  "in 
two  series,  with  illustrations  by  himself. 

GILL,  Ednond,  an  English  landscape  painter, 
bom  in  London  in  1820.  After  studying  under 
his  father,  who  was  an  occasional  exhibitor  at 
the  Royal  academy,  he  settled  at  Ludlow,  in 
Shropshire.  His  works  include  "A  Storm 
Scene  at  St.  Gowan's ;  "  "  Fall  of  the  Dugwy- 
Bettws-y  Coed; "  "  Rhiadr Du,  North  Wales; " 
"  Fall  on  the  River  Clyde ;  "  "  Cora  Linn ; " 
"  The  Waters  dividing  from  the  Dry  Land ;  " 
and  "  Waterfall  on  the  River  Bellte." 

GLAIZE.  I.  Anguste  BartheteBy,  a  French 
painter,  born  at  Montpellier,  Dec.  15, 1807.  He 
was  a  pupil  of  Dev6ria.  His  principal  works 
are  "Quicksands"  (which  is  in  the  Luxem- 
bourg), "  The  Blind  Man  and  the  Paralytic," 
"  The  Cynic  and  the  Philanthropist,"  "  Christ 
and  the  Woman  taken  in  Adultery,"  "  The  In- 
sect," "  A  Spectacle  of  Human  Folly,"  "  Force," 
"  Salome,"  "The  Death  of  John  the  Baptist," 
and  "  Herodias,"  the  last  three  forming  a  tryp- 
tich.  n.  Pierre  Piiil  Lta,  a  French  painter, 
son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Paris  in  1842. 
He  studied  under  his  father  and  G6r6me,  and 
exhibited  his  first  picture,  "The  Treason  of 
Delilah,"  in  1859.  His  " Fanns  and  Nymphs" 
and  "  Hercules  between  Vice  and  Virtue  "  are 
in  the  museum  of  Montauban.    In  1875  the 

g>vernment  sent  him  to  Amsterdam  to  copy 
embrandt's  "Syndics."  Besides  some  re- 
markable portraits,  his  works  include  "Sam- 
son taken  by  the  Philistines,"  "  ^sop  at  the 
House  of  Xanthus,"  "Samson  breaking  the 
Cords,"  "  Christ  and  the  Ten  Lepers,"  "  Nights 
of  Penelope,"  "The  First  Duel,"  "Death  of 
St.  Louis,"  and  "  Fugitive  Athenians." 


COl!J"TENTS   OF  VOLUME  YII. 


PAOC 

KTMhAm 6 

Eridonce 5 

ETolation 10 

Evom 17 

Evreuz 17 

Ewald,  QecTg  Helnrich  August  von.  18 
Ewold,  Johannes.    See  Evud. 

Ewbank,  Thomas 18 

Ewell,  BIchard  Stoddard 19 

Ewlng.John 1» 

Ewlng,  Thomas 19 

Ewlng,  Thomas 20 

Exareh 20 

Excellency 20 

Excelmans.    Bee  Exelmans. 

Exchange 20 

Exchange,  Blfl  of 21 

Excise. 28 

Excommunication 24 

Excretion 25 

Execution 25 

Executor 27 

Exehnana,   Bemy  Joseph    Isidore, 

Count 27 

Exeter,  N.H 27 

Exeter,  Eng 27 

Exhaustion 28 

Exmouth 28 

Exmouth,  Edward  PeUew,  Viscount  28 

Exodus 29 

Exogens 80 

Exorcism 81 

Exosmose.    See  Endosmoee. 

Exostosis 81 

£xi>ansion 82 

Explosives 84 

Exponent 40 

Express 40 

Extradition 41 

Extreme  Unction 44 

Eyalet    See  ViUret 

Eyck,Van 44 

Eyck«  Hubert  van- 45 

Eyck,  Jan  ran 45 

Eyck,  Margaret  van 45 

Eye 45 

Eye  Stone 4S 

Eyiau 48 

Ezekiel 49 

Ezra 49 

Eaellno  da  Eomano 49 


F 

F. 50 

Faber,  Frederick  William 60 

Faber,  Oeorge  Stanley 51 

Fabius 51 

Fiibre,  Francois  Xavler  Pascal 62 

Fabre,  Jem 52 

Fabre  d'Bglantine,  Philippe  Fran- 
cois Nazaire 62 

Fabretti,  BafEaeUo 52 

Fabrlano 52 

Fabriano,  Qontile  da. 52 

Fabrictna,  Gains 62 


PAOS 

Fabridns,  Qeorg 68 

Fabriclus,  Oirolamo 68 

Fabricius,  Johann  Albot 58 

Fabrldus,  Johann  Guiatlan 68 

Fabyan,  Bobert 68 

Faceiolato,  Jaoopo M 

Factor 54 

Faed,  Thomas 56 

Faenza 66 

Foesule.    See  Flesole. 

Fagnani,  Joseph 66 

Fahlcrantz,  Earl  Johan 56 

Fahlun 57 

Fahrenheit,  Gabriel  Daniel 57 

Faidherbe.  Louis  L6on  C^sar 57 

FaiUon,  Michel  £tlenne 57 

FaiOy,  Pierre  Louis  Charlee  Achilla 

de 67 

Fair 57 

Fairbaim,  Sir  William 60 

Fairfiixco 60 

Fairfax,  Edward 61 

Fair&x,  Thomas,  Baron 61 

Fairlhx,  Thomaa,  sixth  Baron 61 

Fairfield  oo..  Conn 62 

Fairfield  oo.,  S.  C 62 

Fairfield  CO.,  Ohio. 62 

Fairfield 62 

Fairies 68 

Fair  Oaks,  Battle  oil     See  Chicka- 
hominy. 

Faithome,  WOliam  (two) 65 

Fakir 66 

Falaise 66 

Falashas 66 

Falcon 67 

Falcone,  Aniello 70 

Falconer,  Hugh 70 

Falconer,  Wilfiam 70 

Falconet,  ifitienne  Maurice 70 

Falconry 70 

Falerii 71 

Falemus  Ager 71 

FalierL  Marino.  Doge 71 

Falk,  Johann  Daniel 72 

Falkirk 72 

Falkland 72 

Falkland,  Lucius  Gaiy,  Viscount. ...  72 

FalkUnd  Islands 78 

Falkner,  Thomas 74 

Falling  Stars.    See  Meteors. 

Fallmerayer,  Philipp  Jakob 74 

Falloppio.  Qabrlelfo 74 

Faltoux.  Fr6d6ric  Alfi^d  Pierre,  Vis- 
count de 74 

Fallow  Deer 75 

Fall  Elver 75 

Falbco 76 

Falmouth 76 

False  Imprisonment 77 

False  Pretences. 77 

Falsen,  Knutsen  Magnus 77 

Falstor 78 

Famagosta 78 

Fan 78 

Fanariotos 79 

Fandango 79 

Faneuil,  Peter 79 


PAOB 

FanihnI,  Pietro 80 

Fannidre,   Francois    Augnsto    and 

Francois  Joseph 60 

Fannin  CO.,  6a 80 

Fannin  co.,  Texas 80 

Fannin,  James  W 80 

Fanning,  David 60 

Fano 81 

Fanshawe,  Sir  Bichard 61 

Fantee 81 

FkntL  Manfredo 82 

Faraday,  Michael 82 

Faradization b5 

Fareham 85 

Farel,  Guillaume 86 

Faria  y  Sousa,  Manoel  de 86 

Faribault  co 66 

Faribault 86 

Farinelli,  Gario 86 

Farmer,  Hugh 87 

Farmer,  John. 87 

Farmers  General 87 

Fame  Islands B7 

Famese,  fiunily  of 87 

Famese,  Pietro 67 

Famese,  Ottavio 67 

Famese,  Alessandro 87 

Famese,  Banudo  (two) 83 

Famese,  Odoardo 68 

Famese,  Francesco 88 

Famese,  Antonio 88 

Faraham,  Eliza  W 88 

Famham,  Thomas  Jelferaon 89 

Faro,  a  game 89 

Faro,  a  dty 89 

Farochon,  Jean Baptlsto  Eugene. ...  90 

Faroe  Isles 90 

Farquhar,  George 90 

Fanagut  David  Glascoe 90 

Farrar,  John 92 

Farrar,  Eliza  Botch 92 

Farren,  Eliza. 92 

Fars 93 

Farthingale 93 

Fast 92 

Fasti 98 

Fat    See  Adipose  Substances,  Ali- 
ment, and  Corpulence. 

Fata  Morgana 94 

Fates.    See  Parcsa. 

Fatlmltes. 94 

Fauche,  Hippolyto 94 

Faucher,  Leon 94 

Faulk  CO 96 

Fauns 95 

Fauntleroy,  Henry 95 

Fauquier  co 95 

Faure,  Jean  Baptlsto 95 

FaurieL  Claude  Charles. 95 

Faust,  Dr.  Johann 96 

Faust  Johann 96 

Faustin  I.    See  Soulouque. 

Faustina,  Annia  Galeria 97 

Faustina,  Annia. 97 

Fauveau,  F61icie  de 97 

Fauvelet,  Jean  Baptlsto 97 

Favara 97 

Favart,  Marie  Justine  Benoito 9T 


u 


CONTENTS 


PAGS 

Fayart,  Charles  Nicolas  Joseph  Jos- 

tin 98 

Fayart  Pierrette  Ignace 98 

Fayersham 98 

Fayignana 98 

Favoeltes 98 

Favras,  Thomas  Mahi,  Marquis  de.    98 

Fayre,  Jules  Claude  Gabriel. 98 

Fawcett,  Henry 99 

Fawkes,Guy 99 

Faxardo.  Diego  Baayedra  y 100 

F6y,  Andris 100 

Fay,  Theodore  Sedgwick 100 

Fayal 100 

Fayette  co.,  Pa 100 

Fayette  CO.,  West  Va 101 

Fayette  co.,  6a. 101 

Fayettoco.,  Ala 101 

Fayette  co.,  Texas 101 

Fayette  co.,  Tenn 101 

Fayette  co.,  Ky 101 

Fayette  co.,  Ohio 101 

Fayette  co.,  Ind 102 

Fayette  CO.,  Ill 102 

Fayette  co.,  Iowa 102 

Fayettevllle 102 

Fay  oom 1 02 

Fazy,  Joan  James 108 

Feather  Grass 108 

Feather  Klver 108 

Feathers 108 

February lOT 

F6camp 107 

Fechner,  Onstay  Theodor. 107 

Fechter,  Charles  Albert 107 

Fedchenko,  Alexei 107 

Federalists 108 

Fedor.    See  Feodor. 

Fee 108 

Feejee  Islands 109 

Fehmam.    See  Femem. 
Fehmgerichte.  See  Yehmic  Courts. 

Feith,  Rhynvis 118 

Feianitx 114 

FeJdklrch 114 

Feldspar 114 

Felegyh^ 115 

Felice,  Fortnnato  Bartolommeo. ...  115 
FoIloiaDa,  East  and  West   See  East 
Feliciana,  and  West  Feliciana. 

Felix,  Saint 116 

Felix.  Gelestln  Joseph 115 

Fellahs 116 

Fellatahs.    See  Foolahs. 

Fellenberg,  Philipp  Emanuel  yon . .  116 

Feller,  Francois  Xayier  de 117 

Fellowes,  Robert 117 

Fellows,  Sir  Charles 117 

Felo  de  9e 117 

Felony 118 

Felslng,  Jakob 118 

Felt 118 

Feltham,  Owen 119 

Felton,  Cornelius  Conway 119 

Feltro 119 

Femem 120 

Fencing 120 

F^nelon,  Bertrand  de  Salignac 122 

Fenelon.  Francis  de  SaUgnac  de  la 

Mothe 122 

F^nelon,  Francois  de  Salignac  de  la 

Mothe 124 

F^nelon,  Gabriel   Jacques   de  Sa- 
lignac  124 

Fenians 124 

Fennec 180 

Fennel 181 

Fenton,  Edward 181 

Fenton,  Sir  Geoflfrey 181 

Fenton,  El^ah 182 

Fentress  co 182 

Fenwick,  George 182 

Feodor,  Emperors 182 

Feodosia.    See  Kafb. 

Ferdinand  I.,  Germany 182 

Ferdinand  lu  Germany 188 

Ferdinand  III.,  Germany. 188 

Ferdinand  I.,  Austria 188 

Ferdinand  I^  Naples 188 

Ferdinand  II„  Naples 184 

Ferdinand  lU.    See  Ferdinand  V. 
of  Spain. 


Ferdinand  IV.,  Naples 

Ferdinand  II.,  Two  Sicilies. . . . 

Ferdinand  I.,  Spain 

Ferdinand  11^  Spain 

Ferdinand  III.,  dpaln 

Ferdinand  lY.,  Spain 

Ferdinand  Y.,  Spain 

Ferdinand  YI.,  Spain 

Ferdinand  Yll.,  Spain 

Ferdinand  III.,  Tuscany 

Ferdinand  lY.,  Tuscany. 

Ferdinand,  Augustus  Francis 

thony 

Ferentlno 


PAGS 

184 
84 
86 
86 
86 
85 
86 
87 
87 
88 
89 


An- 


Ferguson,  Adam 

Ferguson,  James 

Ferguson,  Robert 

Fergusson,  James. 

FergUBSon,  Sir  William 

Ferishtah,  Mohammed  Kasim 

Ferland,  Joan  Baptiste  Antoine. . . . 

Fermanagh 

Format  Pierre  de 

Fermentation 

Fermo 

Fermoy 

Fern,  Male. 


See  Male  Fern. 

Femandina 

Fernando  de  Noronha 

Fernando  Po 

Femey 

Femig,  FdUcit^  and  Th^ophile  de.. 

Femkom,  Anton  Dominik 

Ferns 

F^ron,  Firmin  Elol 

Ferozepoor 

Ferrand,  Antoine  Francois  Claude, 

Count 

Ferrara. 

Ferrari,  Gaudenzio 

Ferrari,  Giuseppe 

Ferrari,  Luigl 

Ferr^,  Th6ophile  Charles 

Ferrelra,  Antonio 

Ferret 

Ferrler,  James  Frederick 

Ferrier,  Susan  Edmondston 

Ferri^res 

Ferro 

Ferrol 

Ferrum.    See  Iron. 

Ferry 

Fersen,  Axel,  Count 

Fesca,  Friedrich  Ernst 

Fesca,  Alexander  Ernst 

Fescennine  Yerses 

Fesch,  Joseph,  Cardinal 

Fessenden,  Thomas  Green 

Fessenden,  William  Pitt 

Fessler,  Igtua  Aurelius 

Fessler,  Joseph 

Feth  All,  Shah 

Fetiales 

Fetiohism 

F6tis,  Francis  Joseph 

Fdtis,  l^ouard  Francois  Louto  .... 

Feuch^res,  Sophie  de,  Baroness 

Feudal  Svstem 

Feuerbaoh,  Paul  Johann  Anselm. . . 

Feuerbseh,  Lndwig  Andreas. 

Feoillants 

Feuillet  Ootaye 

F^yal,  Paul  Henri  Corentln 

Feyer 

Feyer  Bush 

Feyers  

Feyers,  Periodical 

Feyers,  Continued 

Feyers,  Eruptiye. 

Feydeau,  Ernst  Aimd 

Fey)o6  y  Montenegro,    Frandsco 

Benito  Jer6niQK> 

Fei 

Fezzan 

Fiard,  Jean  Baptiste 

Fibrine 

Flchto,  Johann  Gottlieb 

Fichte.  Inmaaauel  Hermann 

Fichteigebirge 

Ficino,  Marsilio 

Fick,  Adolf 

Fioquelmont,  Karl  Ludwlg,  Count. 


89 
89 
89 
89 
40 
40 
40 
40 
41 
41 
41 
41 
47 
47 

48 
48 
48 
49 
49 
49 
49 
Sfi 
62 

52 
62 
68 
68 
64 
64 
64 
64 
65 
65 
55 
56 
66 

C6 
66 
66 
66 
66 
56 
57 
57 
67 
68 
68 
68 
68 
69 
59 
69 
69 
62 
62 
68 
68 
68 
68 
64 
64 
64 
66 
70 
71 

71 
71 
72 
72 
72 
78 
74 
74 
75 
76 
75 


PAOB 

Fiction,  in  law 175 

Field,  Dayid  Dudley  (two). 176 

Field,  Stephen  Johnson. 176 

Field,  Cyrus  West 177 

Field,  Henry  Bfartyn 178 

Field,  John 178 

Fleldfltfe 178 

Fielding,  Copkty  Vandyke 179 

Fielding,  Henry 179 

Fielding,  Sarah 181 

Field  MarshaL    See  Marshal 
Field  Mouse.    See  Mouse. 

Fields,  James  Thomas 151 

Fieri  Fadas 181 

Fieschi,  iiunily  of ISI 

Fieschi,  Joseph  Marie 181 

Fiesco,  Gioyanni  Luigl 182 

Fiesole 1S2 

Fiesole.  Gioranni  AngeHco  da.    See 
Angellco. 

Fidy&,  Joseph 183 

Fifeshire IhS 

Fig 183 

Figeac. l!>4 

Figueras IbA 

Figneraa,  Estanislao. 164 

Flgueroa,  Francisco  da 1^4 

Flgueroa,  Cristoyal  Snares  de ISl 

Figuier,  Guillaume  Louis. IH 

Flguler,  Juliette  Bouscaret 184 

Fikngieri,  Gai^tano 181 

Filangieri,  Carlo 181 

Filbert    See  Hazel 

Filibuster 1F5 

FUlaOa,  Yincenxo  da 186 

FUlgree 185 

Fillmore  co.,  Minn 185 

Fillmore  CO.,  Neb 186 

Fillmore,  Mlllani 185 

Filter 1» 

Finback.    See  BorquaL 

Finch 190 

Fin^h,  Heneage ]98 

Finden,  W^illiam 194 

Finding. 194 

Finds 195 

Fingal's  Caye 199 

Flnlstdre ft^) 

Fink,  Friedrich  August  von £00 

Finland 20i> 

Finland,  Gulf  of. 2i4 

Flnlay,  Georgo 204 

Finlay,  John 2S4 

Finlayson,  George 204 

Finley,  James  Bradley £04 

Flnley,  Samuel 2i5 

Flnmark 205 

Finn,  Henry  J iW 

Finney,  Charles  G 205 

Finns 21 5 

Finsteraarhora SOT 

FiorelU,  Giuseppe 201 

Fiorentino,  Pier- Angelo 207 

Fir. »>7 

Firdusi.  Abul  Easlm  Mansour SU9 

Fire.    See  Flame,  Heat  and  Light 
Fire  Beetle.    See  Firefly. 

Fire  Engine SIO 

Fire  ExUngulsher 812 

Firefly 218 

Fire-Proofing 816 

Fireworks.    See  Pyrotechny. 

Firkin 215 

Firmament 216 

Firman 215 

Fiso 215 

Fisch,  George 216 

Fischart,  Jonann 816 

Fischer,  Ernst  Kuno  Berthold 216 

Fischer,  GotthelC 816 

Fischer  yon  Erlach,  Johann  Bern- 
hard  216 

Fischer  yon  Erlach,  Joseph  Ema- 
nuel   816 

Fish,  HamUton 216 

Fish  Crow.    See  Crow. 

Fish  Culture 217 

Fisher. «« 

Fisher,  Alyan 228 

Fisher,  George  Park 224 

Fisher,  John 824 

Fisheries 224 


CONTENTS 


••• 

HI 


P40B 

Plahes. 885 

FtohHawk Ul 

Elahkill 241 

Flak,  Wilbur 849 

Fistula 848 

Fitch,  Bbeneier 248 

Fitch,  John 848 

Fitchburjf 944 

Fitqrerald,  Edward,  Lord 840 

Fitm^eraM,  Pamela,  Lady 845 

Fitxherbert,  Sir  Anthony 245 

Fitiherbcrt,  Thomas 846 

Fitxherbert,  Maria 845 

Fftzroj,  Robert  Admiral 845 

FitzwilHam,    William    Wentworth 

Fitzwllliam,  EarL 846 

Fimne 246 

Fixture 846 

Flactus,  Matthias 847 

Flag,ai>IaDt 847 

Flag^,  a  banner 849 

Flagellants 852 

Flanr,  George  Whlttaig 258 

Flaffg,  Jand  Bradley 858 

Flahaut  de  la  BUIarderle,  Augusto 

Charles  Joseph,  Coont 268 

Flahaut  de  la  BUIarderle,  Adele  Fil- 

leul 258 

Flamborongh  Head 253 

Flame 258 

Flamel,  Nicolas 855 

Fbunen 256 

Flamingo 256 

Flaminion  Way 257 

Flamlninus.  lltns  Qulntlos 257 

Flamlnioa,  Gains 857 

Flammarion,  Gamille 857 

Flamsteed,  John 858 

Flanders 85d 

Flanders,  East. 259 

Flanders,  West 256 

Flandin,  Eugtoe  Napolton 259 

Flandrln,  Jean  Hippolyte 260 

Flaadrin,  Auguste 260 

Fkndrin,  Jean  Paul 260 

Flatbush 260 

Flatheads 260 

Flaubert,  Oustave 261 

Flavel,  John 2fl 

Flax 262 

Flaxman,  John 265 

Flea.    See  Epizoa. 

FlMibane 266 

Flechler,  Esprit 266 

Flecknoe.  Ulchard 266 

Fleetwood,  Charles. 266 

Fleetwood,  WiUiara 266 

Fleischer,  Heinrich  Leberecht 267 

Fleming  co 267 

Fleming.  John 267 

Flemish  Language  and  Literature..  267 

Flemming,  Paul 268 

Flensburg 268 

Fletcher,  Andrew 269 

Fletcher,  Giles 269 

Fletcher,  Phineas. 268 

Fletcher,  John.      Bee    Beaumont 

and  Fletcher. 

Fletcher,  John  William 269 

Fleums 260 

Fleniy,  Andr6  Hercule,  Cardinal  de.  270 

Fleuiy,  Claude,  Abb6 270 

Flicker.    See  Woodpecker. 

FUedner,  Theodor. 270 

Flinders,  Matthew 871 

FHnt 271 

Fllnt,acity 271 

Flin  t,  A  ustta  (two) 272 

Flint,  Timothy 272 

Flint  River 278 

Flintshire 278 

Floating  IsUnds 278 

Flodden  Field,  Battle  of. 274 

Flood,  llenry 274 

Ftera 274 

Florence 274 

Florence,  Council  of 277 

Flores,  one  of  the  Azores 273 

Floras,  Maby  Archipelago 27S 

Florlan,  Jean  Pierre  Claris  de 278 

Florian,  Saint 278 

Ftorida 279 


I  PAoa 

Florida  Bhiica,  Joa6  Moaino,  Count 

of 885 

Fk)ridaKeyi 886 

Florin 285 

FlorU,  Frans 2S5 

Florua,  Ludns  Amuens 885 

Flotow,  Friedrlch  yon 885 

Flotsam 286 

Flounder 886 

Flourens,  Marie  Jean  Pierre 2^ 

Flourens,  Gustave 287 

Floy,  James 88S 

Ftoyd  CO.,  Ya 888 

Floyd  CO.,  Ga 283 

Floyd  CO.,  Ky 288 

Floyd  CO.,  Ind 2S8 

Floyd  CO.,  Iowa 288 

Floyd,  John  Buchanan 288 

Floyd,  William 289 

FlQgel,GustayLebrecht 289 

Flugel,  Johann  Gottfried 289 

Fluorescence 289 

Fluorine 291 

Fluor  Spar 291 

Flushing,  N.  Y 892 

Flushing,  Holland 292 

Flute 298 

Fluvanna  co 898 

Flux 298 

Fluxions.    See  Calculus. 

Fly 298 

Flycatcher. 296 

Flying  Fish 296 

Flying  Lemur 898 

Flying  Squkrel 298 

Foerster,  Wilhelm. 299 

FcBtus.    Bee  Embryology. 

Fog 299 

Fogelbeig,  Bengt  Erhmd 800 

Fogaras 800 

Foggia 800 

Foix 801 

Folx,  Counts  of 801 

Foix,  Raymond  Roger,  Count  de..  801 
Foix,  Roger  Bernard  it.  Count  de.  801 
Foix,  Roger  Bernard  IlL  Count  de.  801 

Foix,  Gaston  II.  Count  de 801 

Foix,  Gaston  III.,  Count  de 801 

Foix.  Gaston  IT.,  Count  de 801 

Fokien 801 

Fokshani 801 

FoldrAr 801 

Foley,  John  Henry 808 

Foligno 802 

Folkestone 808 

Follen,  August 808 

FoUen,  Charies 802 

Follen,  Elia  Lee 808 

Fonblanque,  Albany  WiUiam 808 

Fonblanque,  John  Samuel  Martin. .  808 

FondduLacco 808 

Fond  du  Lac... 806 

Fonseca,    Eleonora    Plmentel    de, 

Marchioness , 808 

Fontaine,  Jean  de  la.    See  La  Fon- 
taine. 

Fontainebleau 804 

Fontana 804 

Fontanes,  Louis,  Marquis  de 806 

Fontanges,   Marie    ^g^llaue    de 

Scorsllle  de  Roussile,  Duchess  de.  805 
Fontarabia.    See  Fuenterrabia. 

Fontenay-le-Comte 805 

Fontenelle,  Bernard  le  Bovier 805 

Fontenoy 806 

Fontevrault,  Order  of 806 

Fonvlelle,  WilMd  de 806 

Foochow 806 

Food.     See  AHment,   Corpulence, 
and  Dietetics. 

Fool  807 

Foolahs 803 

Fool^  Feast  of 809 

Foot 809 

Foota 809 

FooU  Jallon 809 

Foote,  Andrew  Hull 810 

Foote,  Henry  Stuart 810 

Foote,  Samuel 810 

Foramintfeia 811 

Forbach 811 

ForbeSi  Dnncaa 811 


PAOC 

Forbes,  Edward 818 

Forbes,  James  David 818 

Forbes,  Sir  John 814 

Forcade,  Eugdne 814 

Force,  Peter 814 

ForoeUini,  Egidio 814 

Forchhammer,  Johann  Georg 814 

Forcible  Entry 814 

Ford  CO.,  Ill 816 

Ford  CO.,  Kan 816 

Ford,  John 816 

Ford,  Richard 816 

Fordham 815 

Fordyce,  David 816 

Foreclosure.    Bee  Mortgage. 

Forest  co 816 

Forest  Grove 816 

Forest!,  £.  Feliee 816 

Forey,  £lie  Fr6d6ric 816 

Forlhr 816 

Fortarshire 81T 

Forfeiture 817 

Foige 817 

Forgery 818 

Forget-me-not 819 

Fork 820 

Forkel,  Johann  Nikolaus 820 

Forli 821 

Forli,  Melooo  da 821 

Formes,  Karl 881 

Formic  Add 821 

Formosa 828 

Fomarina,  La 888 

Forney,  John  Weiss. 888 

Forrest;  Edwin 828 

Forskal,  Peter 828 

Fonte 824 

Forster,  Ernst  Joachim 884 

Furster,  Friedrich 884 

Forster,  George 824 

Forster,  Heinrich 824 

Forster,  Johann  Reinhold 884 

Forster,  Johann  Georg  Adam 885 

Forster,  John 826 

Forster,  William  Edward 825 

Forsyth  co.,  N.  C 825 

Forsyth  CO..  Ga 826 

Forsyth,  John 826 

Fort  Bend  co 826 

Fort  Dodge 826 

Fort  D(molson  and  Fort  Henry. . . .  826 
Fort  Duquesne.    See  Pittsburgh. 

Fort  Edward 827 

Fortescue,  Sir  John 827 

Fort  Gaines 827 

Fort  Ganry,  Manitoba.    SeeWinni- 

Fwth* 837 

Fortification 887 

Fort  Jackson.    See  New  Orieans. 

Fort  Madison 886 

Fort  Royal 886 

Fort  St  David 886 

Fort  Scott 886 

Fort  Smith 886 

Fort  Sumter.    See  Sumter,  Fort 

Fortuna 887 

Fortunate  Islands.  See  Canary  Isl- 
ands. 

Fortunatus 887 

Fortune,  Robert 887 

Fort  Wayne 88T 

Forum 888 

Forwarding  Merdiant 888 

Foscari,  Francesco,  Doge 840 

Foscolo,  Nicold  Ugo. 840 

Fossano 840 

Fossil 841 

Fossil  Footprints 841 

Fossombrone 848 

Foster  co 848 

Foster,  Birket 848 

Foster,  James 848 

Foster,  John 848 

Foster,  John  Wells 848 

Foster,  Randolph  8 844 

Foster,  Stephen  Collins 844 

Fotheringay 844 

Foucault  L6on 844 

Fouch^,  Joseph 844 

Fougdres 845 

FouTd.  Achilla 840 


IV 


CONTENTS 


PAGS 

Fonlis,  Robert 846 

Foandery.    Bee  Casttng. 

Foundling  Hospital 846 

Fountain  co 851 

Fonquds  Friedrich  Heinrich  Karl  de 

la  Motte.  Baron 851 

Fouquet,  Nlcolaa 851 

Fouquier-TinvlUe,  Antolne   Quen- 

tln 851 

Fourcroy,  Antoine  FranpoiSf  Count  851 
Four-Eyes     Bee  Anableps. 

Fourier,  Pierre 858 

Fourier,  Francis  Marie  Charies.. .  852 
Fourier,  Jean  Baptiste  Joseph,  Ba- 
ron   855 

Foumeyron,  Benoit 855 

Foumier,  £douard 856 

Fowler,  Orson  Sqoireu 856 

FoMTler,  Lorenzo  r^iles 856 

Fowler,  Lydia  Folger 856 

Fowling  Piece 856 

Fox 868 

Fox,  Charles  James 859 

Fox,  George 861 

Fox,  John 861 

Fox,  WUIlam  Johnson 862 

Foxes 862 

Foxglove.    See  Digitalis. 

Fox  Islands.   See  Alentian  Islands. 

Fox  River  (two; 868 

Foy,  Maximilien  B^bastlen 868 

Fraction 868 

Fracture 864 

Framiugham 865 

Franc 865 

Fran^als,  Antoine,  Count 865 

Franpais,  Francois  Lonia 866 

France 866 

France,  Isle  of.    Bee  Mauritius. 
France,  Language  and  litenture  of.  401 

France,  Wines  of 410 

Franche-Comt6 415 

Franchl,  Ausonlo 415 

Franda,  Francesco 415 

Francla,  Josd  Caspar  Rodriguez. ...  415 

Francis  I^  France 416 

Francis  II.,  France 418 

Francis  I.,  Germany 41U 

Francis  IL,  Germany 419 

Francis  Joseph,  Austria 421 

Francis  I.,  Two  Sicilies 421 

Francis  II.,  Two  Sicilies 421 

Franda,  Convers 422 

Francis,  John  Wakefield 422 

Francis,  Sir  Philip 422 

Francis  of  Assisi 428 

Francis  of  Paula 424 

Francis  de  Sales 424 

Franciscans 425 

Franck,  Adolphe 427 

Francke,  August  Hermann 427 

Francois,  Jean  Charles 427 

Franfois,  Charles  Bemy  JuIm 427 

Francolin 427 

Franeonia 428 

Franconia  Notch.  See  White  Moun- 
tains. 

Franeker 42S 

Frank,  Johann  Peter 428 

Frank,  Joseph 429 

Frankel,  Zocharias 429 

iSimkenhausen 429 

Frankenstein 429 

Frankfort 429 

Frankfort-on-tho-Maln 429 

Frankfort-on-the-Oder 481 

Frankincense. 481 

Frankl,  Ludwig  August 432 

Franklin  CO.,  Me 482 

Franklin  CO.,  Vt 432 

Franklin  co.,  Mass 4S2 

Franklin  CO.,  N.  Y 432 

Franklin  co.,  Pa. 483 

Franklin  CO.,  Va 438 

Franklin  co.,  N.  C. 488 

Franklin  co.,  Ga 438 

Franklin  co.,  Fla 483 

Franklin  co.,  Ala 483 

Franklin  co..  Miss 488 

Franklin  parish.  La 488 

Franklin  co..  Ark 484 

Franklin  co.,  Tenn 484 


PAGS 

FrankliD  CO.,  Kj 484 

Franklin  co.,  Ohio 434 

Franklin  CO.,  Ind 484 

Franklin  co.,  Ill 484 

Franklin  co.,  Iowa 484 

FrankHn  co..  Mo 484 

FhmkMn  co.,  Kansas 486 

Franklin  CO.,  Neb 486 

Franklln,Pa 486 

Franklin,  Tenn 485 

FrankHn,  La 486 

Franklin,  Ind 485 

FrankHn,  Bei^iamln 485 

Franklin,  Bhr  John 489 

Franklin,  Eleanor  Ann 441 

Franklin,  Lady  Jane 441 

Franklin,  WUIiam 441 

Franklin,  WiUiam  BueL 441 

FrankUnite 442 

Franks 442 

Franz,  Robert 448 

Frascati 448 

FraschinI,  Gaetano 448 

Fraser,  Alexander  Campbell 448 

Fraser,  Charles 448 

Fraser,  Simon.    See  Lovat,  Lord. 
Fraser  River.    Bee  British  Colum- 

bU. 
Fraternities.    Bee  Guild. 

Fraud 444 

Frauds.  Statute  of 445 

Frauenburg 447 

Frauenfeld 447 

Frauenstj&dt,  ChristLui  Martin  Ju- 
lius   447 

Fraunhofer,  Joseph  von 448 

Fraustadt 448 

FrayssinouB,  Denis  Lac 448 

Fredegonda 44S 

Fredericia.    Bee  Friderida. 

Frederick  co.,  Md 448 

Frederick  CO.,  Va 449 

Frederick 449 

Frederick  I.,  Baden 449 

Frederick  Y.,  Bohemia 449 

Frederick  VL,  Denmark 449 

Frederick  VII.,  Denmark 450 

Frederick  I.,  Germany 450 

Frederick  II.,  G<^^any 451 

Frederick  III.,  king  of  Germany. 
Bee  Louis  IV.,  the  Bavarian. 

Frederick  III..  Germany 452 

Frederick  William,  Elector  of  Hesse- 

Cossel 458 

Frederick  Francis  II.,  Grand  Duke 

of  Mecklenbnrg-Schwerin 458 

Frederick  William,  Elector  of  Bran- 
denburg   458 

Frederick  I..  Prussia 454 

Frederick  William  I.,  Prussia 454 

Frederick  II.,  Prussia 455 

Frederick  William  II.,  Prussia 458 

Frederick  William  III.,  Prussia. ...  450 

Frederick  William  IV.,  Prussia. ...  460 
Frederick  Charles  Nicholas,  Prince, 

Prussia. 461 

Frederick  William  Nicholas  Charles, 

Crown  Prince,  Prussia 462 

Frederick  III.,  Saxonv 462 

Frederick  Augnstus  I.,  Saxony 462 

Frederick  Augustus  II.,  Saxony.. .  4()8 

Frederick  I.,  WQrtemberg 468 

Fredericksburg 468 

Fredericksburg,  Battle  of 468 

Fredericton 466 

Frederiksborg 467 

Frederikshnld 467 

Frederikshamn 467 

Frederikstad 467 

Fredonla 467 

Freeborn  co 407 

Free  Church  of  Scotland 467 

Freedmen 469 

Freeman,  Edward  Augustus 470 

Freeman,  James 470 

Freemasonry 470 

Freeport 472 

Freesoilers 472 

Freestone  co 478 

Free  Thinkers 478 

Freetown  478 

Freewill  Baptists 478 


PAOS 

Freezing,  Artlfidal 474 

Freiberg 475 

Freiburg 475 

Freiburg,  Switzerland.  BeeFribonig. 

Freibuxg-nnterm-Furstenatein 4T6 

Freight    See  Shipping. 

FrdUgrath,  Ferdinand 476 

Freiaing 476 

Fr«ns 47e 

Frelinghnysen,  Frederick 476 

FreUnghuysen,  Theodore 476 

Frelinghnysen,  Frederick  Tlieodore  477 

Fr6mlet,  Emmanuel 477 

Fremont  co.,  Iowa 477 

Fremont  CO.,  Col 477 

Fremont 477 

Fremont  John  Charies 477 

Fr6my,  Edmond 4^ 

French  co 480 

French  Broad  River. 480 

French  Horn.    See  Horn. 

Freneau,  Philip 481 

FH^re,  Charies  Theodore 481 

Fr^re,  Pierre  £douard 4sl 

Frere,  John  Hookham 461 

Frefe,  Sir  Henry  Bartle  Edward. . .  481 

Fr6ret,  Nicolas 481 

Fr^ron,  £lie  Catherine 481 

Fr^ron,  Louis  Stanislas 482 

Fresco  Pahiting 483 

Fresenlus,  Karl  Remlgins «aSi  • 

Fresnel,  Angnstin  Jean 4b6 

Fresnillo 488 

Fresno  co 489 

Freund,  Wilhelm 4S8 

Freycinet,  Louis  Clando  Deeanlaes 
^Q ^^ 

Freytag,"Georg  WlJheim  ']Medridi.  489 

Freytag,  Gostav ii» 

Fribourg 490 

Friction 491 

Friday 491 

Friderida. 492 

Friedland,  Plrnssia 4V2 

Friedland,  Bohemia 49d 

Friedland,  Mecklenbuig-Strelitz....  4Vi 

Friedrich,  Johann 49S 

Friendly  Islands 492 

Friends 403 

Fries,  Ellas 498 

Fries,  Ernst 499 

Fries,  Jakob  Friedrich 499 

Friesland 499 

Frlesland.  East 499 

Frigate  Binl 499 

Frigga.    Bee  Odin. 

Fringe  Tree 500 

Frio  CO 500 

Frisians 500 

Frith,  Wailam  Powell 602 

Fritz,  Samuel 602 

FriuU 602 

Frobel.    Bee  IVoebel. 

Frobisher,  Sir  Martin C09 

FrobisherBay 603 

Froebel,  Friedrich 608 

Froebel,  Julius 602 

Frog 508 

Frolssart,  Jehan 607 

Frome 50S 

Fromentln,  Engtoe 508 

Fronde 503 

Frontenac  co 609 

Frontenac,  Loots  de  Boade,  Count 

de 509 

Frontier  co 510 

Frosinone 510 

Frossard,  Charles  Angnste 510 

Frost 510 

Frost,  William  Edward 511 

Frothingham,  Nathaniel  Langdon..  511 
Frothingham,  Octavius  Brooks....  511 

Frothingham,  Richard,  Jr 511 

Froude,  James  Anthony 51 1 

Froude,  Richard  Hurrell 512 

Fry,  Elizabeth 51i 

Fry,  William  Henry. 512 

Fr>'ken 612 

PryxeB,  Anders. 612 

Fuad  Paaha 612 

Fuca,  Strait  of MiJ 

Fuchs,  Johann  Nepomok  von 518 


r 


CONTENTS 


PACK 

pDebs,  Konrad  Hetnrfeh *518 

Fadis,  Leonbard  Ton. 518 

Fuchsia. 618 

Fuoos 614 

Fuel 516 

Fuentembla. 500 

Fueroe 620 

Fuerte 580 

FufEger,  Ikmlly  of 520 

Fu^^r,  Jobazmes 620 

Fugger,  Ulrlch. 620 

Fuggor,  G«oiv 520 

Fu^rer,  Jakob 520 

Fugger,  Saimond 520 

Fugger,  AntOD 520 

Fugitive 520 

Fugue 621 

FuBricb,  Joseph  tod 521 

Fulda : 621 

Fnlbam 521 

Fuller,  Andrew 521 

Fuller,  Maigaret    Bee  OaaoU,  Mar- 
garet Fuller. 

Fuller,  Blcbaid 682 

Fuller,  Tbomaa ^522 

Fuller's  Earth 528 

Fnllerton,   Lady  Geoigiana  Char- 
lotte   528 

FuUlng 528 

Fulmar 5ffi 

Fulminates.    See  Explosives. 

FulmlnlcAcid 624 

Fulton  00.,  N.  Y 624 

Fulton  CO.,  Pa 524 

Fulton  CO.,  6a 521 

Fulton  CO.,  Ark 524 

FtOtou  CO.,  Kr 524 

Fulton  CO.,  Ohio 624 

Fulton  CO.,  Ind 524 

Fulton  CO.,  IlL 524 

Fulton,  N.Y 525 

I'-ulton,  Mo 526 

Fulton,  Bobert 525 

Fulvla 526 

Fumblna.    See  Adamawa. 

Funchal 527 

Fundy,Bayof 527 

Funen 527 

Funeral  Rites.    See  BurlaL 

Fnnea,  Gregorio 528 

Funfklrchen 628 

Fungi 528 

Fungible 584 

Fur 584 

Fureedpoor. 511 

Furetidre,  Antolne 641 

Furies.    See  Eumenldea. 

Furlong 541 

Furnace 541 

Funicss,  William  Henry 545 

Furruckabad 545 

Furst,  Julius 545 

FQrst^Livius 545 

Furth 545 

Fuse,  Safety 545 

Fusel  Oil 546 

FuselL  John  Henry 546 

Fusibility 546 

Fusible  Metals.     See  AUoy,  and 
Bismuth. 

Fuslyama 647 

Fustic 547 

Futtehghur 547 

Futtehpoor *. 547 

Futtehpoor  Slkia 547 

Fyzabad 547 


0 548 

Gabelentz,  Hans  Conon  von  der. . . .  543 
Qabirol.    Bee  Solomon  ben  Gablrd. 

G«boon 648 

Gaborlau,  ifemile 549 

Gabourd,  Am6d6e 549 

Gabriel 549 

Gabriel  Channel 549 

Gabrielli,  Catarina 549 

Gabrielli,  Niool6,  Count 549 

Gachard,  Louis  Prosper 549 

Gad 650 


PAOI 

Qadar* 560 

Gaddi,Gaddo 5M 

Gaddl,Taddeo 560 

6addl,Angelo 550 

Gade,  Niels  WUhehn 560 

Gades.    See  Cadli. 

Gadfly 550 

Godsoenco 551 

Gadsden,  Christopher 551 

GadwaU 551 

Gael 562 

Gaeto 562 

G»tulia 652 

Gagarin,  fiunily  of 658 

Gagarin,  Matfei  Petrovitch 558 

Gagarin,  Alexander  Ivanovitch 508 

Gagarin,  Pavel  Pavlovitch 558 

Gagarin,  John 558 

Gage  00 558 

Gage,  Thomas 558 

Gail,  Jean  BaptUte 568 

Gail,  Edme  Sophie 553 

GaiUac 654 

Gaillard,  Gabriel  Henri 654 

Gaines,  Edmxmd  Pendleton 554 

Gaines,  Myra  Clark 554 

Gainsborough 556 

Gainsborough,  Thomas 555 

Galrdner,  William 555 

Galus 555 

Galactodendron.    See  Cow  Tree. 

Galactometer 556 

Galago.    See  Lemur. 

GalangaL 556 

Gal&pagoa 556 

Galashiels 557 

Galata.    See  Constantinople. 
Galatea.    See  Acis. 

Galatia 567 

Galatians,  Eplatle  to  the 557 

Galata 558 

Galaxy 558 

Galba,  Servins  Sulpldna,  Emperor.  560 

Galbanum 561 

Gale,  James 561 

Gale,  Theophilus 561 

Galeazn).    See  Sforza,  and  Ylaoontl. 

Galen,  Christoph  Bernhard  von 561 

Galen,  Claudius 562 

Galena,  an  ore 662 

Galena,  lU 568 

Galeopithecns.    See  Flying  Lemur. 
Galerlua,  Caius  Yalerius  Maximla- 

nua.  Emperor 568 

Gales,  Joseph  ^two) 568 

Galesbnrg 568 

GalesviUe 564 

Gaiicia 564 

Galicia,  Spain 565 

GalUeo 566 

Galilee,  Sea  ot    See  Gennesaret. 

Galileo  Galilei 566 

Gallmard,  Nicolas  Auguste 669 

Galln,  Pierre 569 

Galitzln.    SeeGalhtzln. 

Gall,  Saint 569 

Gall,  Franx  Joeeph 570 

Gallagher,  WllUam  D 670 

Gallait,  Louis 571 

Galland,  Antolne 571 

Gallas 5n 

Gallas,  Matthias  von.  Count 571 

Gallatin  CO.,  Ky 572 

Gallatin  CO.,  HI 572 

Gallatin  CO.,  Montana 572 

Gallatin.  Albert 572 

Gallaudet,  Thomas  Hopkins 574 

Gallaudet,  Thomas 574 

Galhudet,  Edward  Miner. 674 

GaU  Bladder. 674 

Galle,  Johann  Gottftied 575 

Galletti,  Johann  Geoig  August. . . .  575 

Galley 576 

Gallia  CO 577 

GalUoAdd 577 

Galilean  Church 578 

Gattienua,  Publlus  Ltdnina  Egna- 

tiua,  Emperor 579 

Gall  Insects.    See  Galls. 

G  alUnuIe 679 

GalHo,  Junius 580 

GaUipoli,  Turkey KO 


PAQX 

GalHpoIl,  Italy 581 

GalHpoUs 581 

GallUsounidre,  Boland  Michel  Bar- 

rin,  Marquis  de  la 661 

GaUitzln,  ftmily  of 581 

Gamtzln,  MikhaU  (two) 581 

Gallitrin,  VasUl 531 

GalUtzln,  Alexander 682 

GaUitzln,  Dhnltri  (two) 582 

Gallitzln,  Amalla 5S2 

Gallitzin,  Sergei b82 

GalUtzln,  Emanull 582 

GaUitzln,  Demetrius  Augustine. . . .  582 

GalUtzln,  Elizabeth 5S8 

Gallon 5b8 

Galloway,  Joseph 588 

Galls 563 

GaU  Stones.    See  CalcnIL 

Gallup,  Joseph  Adam 684 

Gait 5t»4 

Gah,  John 5s4 

Gait,  Sir  Alexander  TiUoch 585 

Galton,  Frauds 565 

GaluppI,  Baldassare 5S5 

Galuppi,  Pasquale 5s5 

Galvanl,  Alolsio  or  Luigl 585 

Galvanism 6h& 

Galvanized  Iron 601 

Galveston  CO 602 

Galveston 602 

Galvez,  Bernardo,  Count  do 608 

Galway  co 606 

Galway 604 

Gama,  Josd BaaiUo da. .' ,'.'...'. '. '. ...  604 

Gama,  Yasco  da. 604 

Gamaliel 6U5 

Gambetta,  Lten 605 

Gambia 606 

Gambia,  a  river 606 

Gambler. 606 

Gambler,  James,  Baron 606 

Gambir 607 

Gamboge 607 

Game  Laws 608 

Gaming 608 

GammeU,  WllUam 609 

Gando. 609 

Ganges 609 

GongUon 611 

Gangrene 612 

GaxOam 613 

Gannal,  Jean  Nicolas 612 

Gannet 618 

Gannett,  Ezrm  Stilos. 618 

Ganoids 618 

Gans.  Eduard 617 

Gansevoort,  Peter 617 

Ganymede C17 

Gap 611 

Garakonthie,  Daniel.  61t 

Garat,  Dominique  Joseph 617 

Garav,  JAnos 617 

Garcia,  Manuel  dePopuloYicente.  613 

Garda,  Manuel 618 

Garda.    See  MaUbran,  and  Ylardot. 

Gardlaso  de  la  Yega 618 

Gardlaso  do  la  Yega,  Sebastian 618 

Gardlaso  de  la  Yega,  the  Inca. 618 

Garcin  de  Tassy,  Joseph  Hdllodore.  619 

Gard 619 

Gard,  Pont  du.    See  Aqueduct,  vol. 

i.,  p.  618. 

Gaida,  Lake 619 

Gardaia 619 

Garden.    Bee  Horticulture. 

Garden,  Alexander  (two) 619 

Gardiner 620 

Gardiner,  James 620 

Gardiner,  Stephen 620 

Gardiner,  Sylvester. 020 

Gardiner,  John 620 

Gardiner,  John  Sylvester  John 621 

GardonL  Italo 621 

Gar  Fish 621 

Gargano.  Monte.    See  Apennines. 

Garibaldi,  Giuseppe 622 

Garibaldi,  MenottL 624 

Garibaldi,  Blcdottl 624 

Garland  eo.    See  Hot  Sinlngs. 

Gartic 624 

Gamean,  Fran^ds  Xavier 625 

Garnet 62S 


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BM 

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MO 
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Ml 

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6U 
US 
Ml 
M4 

MS 

M5 
MS 

MS 
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M« 

MS 

«M 
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i 

«51 

«l 

CM 

S 

i 

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658 

as 

G«fle 

8:£'£SSi:::::;:;:::::::: 

fltnniM^  Hanle.     See   BuU-Oa 

Gellort,  ChriiUu  FDrelileeon 

aomnndar,  0«a^ 

S=S:K::::::.:::::::::: 

OukellTEliBlwUi  Cii^horn 

Qupuln.  Adrien   EUoine  Plwn 

GupuiB,  A(Vn«  iit'laiiii  Oii 

OtDWHidty 

Oenon.  L»li8  of 

OenevliTB  de  BnbiiiC 

Otnl    See  Mftholon. 

OeiUL  FilkHW  Sleptule  Dnenrt 

aisi'feii;;;;;;;;;:;;;;;;; 

gSifS',^.'?^":.... 

Ganoi,  Tomiiuo  Hbtrto  fitton^ 

CUehlu 

OfDoiule.  Anulne  Eaging  dg 

0«ot«l,Anloiifo..7 

OjjJ^Bkh^J.^ 

G.«d^ud-B««MCh«l*.... 

g^SS^-ji;'— iii 

anurkut^FriHiiich: !!!!!!!!!!! 

HSi;^::::::::::;:::::::::::: 

S.^^:::::::::";;; 

Sim;;;;;::;;:;; 

Gnrga,  Stint 

«iy.  Mh1«  f>m(a1»  Si^c 

1                ™-D-0 

S:JSi.::::;::::::::::::::::::::: 

J^"« 

B17.    See  BDTOIl.  Like. 

aS:-E;i! 

Oenmb.  FetdlDud  de,  Bik» 

SSt'-*.-^.*.— ;: 

0«nid,  Adenne  lEiarlee.  Count.'. . . 
OJTwd,  Fnntolt  Pw*]  Sim«,  B*- 

Oho.    6m  EthlopU,  Luffu^  ui 

GBlfrird,  Fibre 

GArudmn - ';;* 

OertK«."'Bi.Jwb».' 

Gerdll,  HnclDtbe  HiEiimimd SJ 

Oeriy,  Ptetre  NlooiM 1.4 

OcrUoOQ,    SeaFalcea. 

Oerhinl.  Edoud. :» 

Gerlunlt,  CluriM  FrM6ric ::< 

Gerliinit,  PmI ;s> 

GtrloHilt,   Jeu    LonU   Tbi'Ddon 

oeriMh,6tto'™!. !!'.!'.*.!!;;!!'.;!  ji 

Germui  CaihoHa Tl^ 

GenoudcBvee  ADdLugnJi^q-...  '-ii 

Gcrmin  Oceu'.' *Bee  Nonb  S«.  ' 

OenuAoBllTer M 

GcmuDtowD ;ii 

GermBDua,  Btint I|.i 

GennAny.  l^^u^  ud  Utm- 

q»na«iy,'  WlnM  of.'. '.*.'.'.'.'. V.V.'.V.  in 

Gerok,  x^.^v^'^v^v.'^'.'.'.z'.  rs 

GerAme,  JeenLAon.... Ti 

GenJD* ni 

Gerrr,  Elbrldge. W 

Oersosi'jeu'ciiHil'er  lie.!'.'.' Til 

Genon  lieii  Jadtii HI 

Gennicker,  Filedrieli,.. I^ 

Qerrlnui.  Geois  OoltftM Hi 

GetmloiL  TiitSiicii  UeUuteb  Wll- 

Oeuer.'koiuid'niL'.! !!'.!!!'.'.!!!;  1T< 

GeBuer.  Bslomon Hi 

OeU,  P.  BenUmlDL    Bee  Onab. 
Gets m 

Getljiboi»  ,'.'.'.'!.','.'.'.'!.'.'.'!.' ^ 

GettyBbDiv.  BenleoC Ta 

Qeynere N 

OfrSrar,  Augort  Frtodrtcfc M 

Gludime* ■* 

Qhnn.    Bw  SdU^ 
OhudelL    BeeOudtii. 

Gbintt » 

GtuwuL    Bee  Almeh. 

Ghuepoor. J* 

Gbeel ■.■.'.■.■.'.■,■.■.'.■.■.'.'.'.'.'.".".',■.■,'.;;■,■;  j* 

ahennlHci,'tinUi>od*! ^ 

ObeiUli W 

GUbelUuee.    BeeGiwlpbluitaU- 

Oblbenl  Lormio * 

OWrbuidtio,  Doinenioo  d^ W 

Ohiub.    SeeGlieh. 

ObianI !* 

Gluu'Ciiuemr ^ 

Gibbon,  en  ape. j* 

Gibbon,  Edwinl S 

GlbboDi,  Grtnllnc " 

Gibbon*,  Orlenflo J 

GIbbt,  JoiliUi  Wlltard 3 

Gibbe,  Wolcolt jj 

Glbmn  CO.!  TeoD ¥ 

Glbwm  CO- Ind S 

G1b«iii,j3in * 

GlddbAJoatauBeed fi 

aw™?. S 

Glen i^iiilC. 

Glfeebtecht,     rriedritb     WUbtlo 

BsntamioTon ■  ■■ S 

GteedSTJohunn  Km!  Lodirtj J 

Gl«i»n ■^LLju 

GIBjri,  Belm  BeHni,  CmiJWi*-  g 

GUTLiBl.  Eobert  Bwitn. K 

Glffurd,  Buidlbrd  KobUuoB S 

GiObrd,  WlUun JJ 

Oignont  FMiota  &!«i« S 

Gtaooi,  Jem  frwotol" ;;;  g, 


00NTENT8 


PAoa 

OflA ti06 

Oilbert,  Sir  Hamphrey 806 

OUbert,  Sir  John 806 

Oilbertines 80T 

Gilbert  iBlandB. 807 

OUboA 807 

Oildas 807 

Olldemelater,  Otto 807 

GUdlng 807 

GQead 809 

Giles  00^  Va 809 

Giles  CO.,  Tenn 809 

Giles,  Henry 810 

Giles,  WUliam  Brand) 810 

GimUiin,  Oeoige 810 

Gillespie  00 810 

GiUespie,  WUllam  MitcbeU 810 

GilUes,  John 810 

OUUflower 811 

Gillmore,  Qnincy  Adams 81 1 

OUIott,  Joseph. 811 

Gilhray,  James 812 

Gilmui,  Chandler  Robbins 812 

Gilman,  John  Taylor 812 

GUman,  SamaeL 812 

Gilman,  CaroUne 812 

Gilmer  co.,  Va 81 2 

Gibner  co.,  Ga 818 

GUolo, 818 

GUpinco 818 

Gilpin,  Beinard 818 

Gin 818 


PAOS 

Olndely,  Anton 814 

Ginger 814 

Glngko 614 

Glngras  co 816 

Glnguen^,  Pierre  Lools. 815 

Ginsenfir 816 

Giobertl,  Giovanni  Antonio 816 

Gioberti,  Vlneenzo 816 

Glooondo,  Fra  Gioyanni 818 

Gioti 818 

Giojo,  Flavio.    Bee  Compass,  vol.  v., 

p.  186. 

Giordano,  Lnea 818 

Giorgione  (Giorgio  Barbarolli) 818 

Giotto 819 

GioTlo,  Paoto 819 

Giraffe 819 

Girnldas  Cambrensls.     See  Barry, 

Gerald. 

Girard,  Philippe  de 821 

Girard.  Stephen 821 

Girardin,  Emile  de 822 

Glrardln,  Delphlne  Gav 828 

Girardin,  Jean  Pierre  Louis. 828 

Glrardln,  Marc 824 

Ghrardon,  Francois 824 

Girand,   Charles   Joseph    Barth6- 

lemy 824 

Gh^enti 824 

Girodet-Trioson,  Anne  Lools 825 

Gironde 825 

Girondlsta 825 


FAOR 

Gislason,  Conrad 825 

Gisors 826 

Gltschin 826 

Glullo  Romano 826 

Glurgevo 826 

Giudid,  Paolo  Emiliani 826 

Giusti,  Giuseppe 826 

Giustinlani,  AgostinoPantaleone...  826 

Givet 827 

GlYors 827 

Glzeh 827 

Gizzard.     See  Comparative  Anat* 

omy.  vol  v.,  p.  181. 
GladaJ  Theory.    See  DQuvlnm,  and 

Glader. 

Glader 627 

Gladbach  (two) 681 

Gladiators 881 

Glodiolos bSl 

Gladstone,  William  Ewart 882 

Gladwin  co &»4 

Glagolltlc &;4 

Glalre,  Jean  Baptlste 834 

Glais-Bizoln,  Alexandre 884 

Glaisher,  James 884 

Glamorganshire 885 

Gland 835 

Glanders 886 

Glanvll,  Banolf  de 887 

Glanvill,  Joseph 887 

Glaras 887 

Glascock  00 888 


SUPPLEMENT  TO  VOLUME  VH. 


FaedfJobn 889 

Faed,  Thomas 8*39 

Falthftiil,  Emily 889 

Falk  Laws 889 

Faijeon,  Bez^Jamln  Leopold 841 

Farrar,  Frederick  William 841 

Fasting 842 

Fitch,  Ana. 846 

Fitsqgerald,  Percy  Hethrlngton 845 

Florida 846 

Forbes,  Archibald. 847 


Forests,  North  American 847 

Fortuny,  Mariano S-H 

Frands,  Joseph. 854 

Freydnet,  Charies  Lools  de  Saoloes 
de 8M 

Fumivall  Frederick  James 855 

FusionDlsk 856 

Gale,  William 856 

Garfield,  James  Abram 856 

Garret,  Edwaid 867 


Gay,  Sydney  Howard 867 

Gay,  Winckworth  Allan 857 

Gelkie,  Archibald 867 

Gelkie,  Cunninghun 868 

Georgia 858 

Germ  Theory  of  Disease 860 

Gerster,  Etelka. 864 

Gilbert,  William  Sch wenck 864 

Gill,£dmand 865 

GhUze,  Augnste  Barth^lemy 865 

Qhilze,  Pierre  Paul  L6on 865